Unit 1

INTRODUCTION TO
CONTINUOUS TIME SIGNALS
AND SYSTEMS
What is signal?
◦ A signal is a physical quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable, by which information can be
conveyed.
◦ A signal is a source of information generally a physical quantity
which varies with respect to time, space, temperature like any
independent variable.
◦ Examples of signals include as temperature over time or space,
sound (speech, music, etc.) over time, images over space, etc.
◦ A signal carries information and contains energy.
 Signal classifications

Continuous and Discrete Signal

Periodic and Non-periodic Signal

Even and Odd Signal

Deterministic and Random Signal

Energy and Power Signal

Analog and Digital Signal

Continuous and
Discrete Signal
Continuous Time Signal
◦ If the independent variable (t) is continuous, then
the corresponding signal is continuous time signal.

Discrete Time Signal

◦ If the independent variable (t) takes on only discrete
values, for Example t = ±1, ±2, ±3, ...
Periodic and Non-
periodic Signal
Periodic Signal
◦ If the transformed signal is same as x(t+nT), then the signal
is periodic. where T is fundamental period (the smallest
period) of signal x(t). i.e.
x(t)= x(t+nT)

Non-periodic Signal
◦ If the transformed signal is not same as x(t+nT), then the
signal is periodic. where T Is fundamental period (the
smallest period) of signal x(t). i.e.
x(t) ≠ x(t+nT)
Even and Odd
Signal
Even Signal
◦ A signal is referred to as an even if it is identical to its
time-reversed counterparts; Even signals are
symmetric around vertical axis,
x(t) = x(-t)

Odd Signal
◦ A signal is odd if x(t) = -x(-t). An odd signal must be 0
at t=0, in other words odd signal passes the origin.
Odd signals are symmetric about origin.
Deterministic and
Random Signal
Deterministic Signal
◦ A deterministic signal about which there is no
uncertainty with respect to its value at any time.
◦ Therefore ,a deterministic signal can be defined as
completely specified function of time

Random Signal
◦ Random Signal is defined as a signal above which
there is no uncertainty before its actual occurrence.
Energy and Power Signal
Energy Signal Power Signal
◦ An energy signal has a finite energy. In ◦ The power signal is not limited in time.
other words, energy signals have It always exists from beginning to end
values only in the limited time duration. and it never ends.
◦ For example, a signal having only one ◦ For example, sine wave in infinite
square pulse is energy signal. length is power signal. Since the
energy of a power signal is infinite, it
◦ A signal that decays exponentially has
has no meaning to us.
finite energy, so, it is also an energy
signal. The power of an energy signal is ◦ Thus, we use power (energy per given
0, because of dividing finite energy by time) for power signal, because the
infinite time (or length). power of power signal is finite,
0<E<∞ 0 < P < ∞.
Analog and
Digital Signal
Analog Signal
◦ Analog waves are smooth and
continuous.

Digital Signal
◦ Digital signals must have a finite set of
possible values. Digital waves are
stepping, square, and discrete.
 Basic Standard Test Signals

Delta Or
Unit Step Unit Ramp
Unit Impulse
Signal Signal
Function
Unit Step Signal
Discrete time unit step signal Continuous time unit step signal

◦ A discrete time unit step signal is ◦ A continuous type unit step signal is
denoted by u(n). its value is unity (1) denoted by u(t). mathematically it
for all positive values of n. that means can be expressed as,
its value is one for n = 0. While for other
u(t)= 1 for t = 0
values of n, its value is zero.
u(t) = 0 for t < 0
u(n)= 1 for n = 0
u(n)= 0 for n < 0
◦ In the form of sequence it can written
as, u(n) = {1,1,1,1,….}
Unit Ramp Signal
Discrete time unit Ramp signal Continuous time unit Ramp signal

◦ A discrete time unit ramp signal is denoted ◦ A continuous time ramp type signal is
by r(n). its value increases linearly with denoted by r(t). mathematically it is
sample number n. mathematically it is expressed as,
defined as,
r(t) = 1 for t = 0
r(n)= n for n = 0
r(t) = 0 for t < 0
r(n) = 0 for n < 0
◦ From above equation, the value of signal
◦ From above equation, the value of signal at a time is equal to the time at that instant.
at an interval is equal to the number of for example; for one second signal has
interval at that instant. for example; for first amplitude 1, for two second it has
interval signal has amplitude 1, for second it amplitude 2, for third it is 3, and so on.
has amplitude 2, for third it is 3, and so on.
Delta Or Unit Impulse Function
Discrete time unit Impulse signal Continuous time unit Impulse signal

◦ A discrete time unit impulse function is ◦ A continuous time delta function is

denoted by d(n). Its amplitude is 1 at denoted by d(t). mathematically it is
n=0 and for all other values of n; its expressed as follows:
amplitude is zero.
d(t)=1 for t=0
d(n)= 1 for n=0
d(t)=0 for t≠0
Time Shifting of Signals
◦ Time Shifting is simply shifting the signal in time. When we add a constant to the time,
we obtain the advanced signal, & when we decrease the time, we get the delayed
signal.
Time Scaling of Signals
◦ Time Scaling is compressing or dilating the signal.
◦ Time Inversion is simply flipping the signal about the y-axis.
Time Inversion of Signals
 Linear And Non-Linear System

Causal And Non-Causal System

System Time –Invariant and Time –Variant

Classifications system

Stable and Unstable System

Static And Dynamic System

What is System?
◦ A system is a mathematical model of a physical process that
relates the input (or excitation) signal to the output (or response)
signal.

◦ A set of element or function block which are connected and

produce an output in response to an input signal.

◦ The response or output of the system depends upon transfer

function of the system.
Linear And Non-Linear System
◦ A Linear system is a system if superposition theorem applies to that system.
◦ Consider the two system as defined as follows:
Y1(t)= f{x1(t)}
Y2(t)= f{x2(t)}
◦ Then for the linear system:
f{a1 x1(t)+a2 x2(t)} =a1y1(t) + a2y2(t)
◦ Here a1 and a2 are constants.

◦ A Non-Linear system is a system superposition theorem does not apply to that system.
Causal And Non-Causal System
Causal System
◦ A system is said to be causal if its output at any time depends upon present and past
inputs only i:e. y(to)=f{x(t);t<=to}

Non-Causal System
◦ A system is said to be non-Causal if its output depends upon future inputs also. Such
system are not physically realizable.
Time –Invariant and Time –
Variant system
◦ A system is called time invariant if the time shifts in the input signal results in
corresponding time shift in the output.
◦ Let Y(t) = f{x(t)} : y(t) response for x(t)If x(t) is delayed by time t1 then o/p y(t) will also
delayed by the same time i:e
f{x(t-t1)}=y(t-t1)

◦ The time variant system do not satisfy the above relation. The time variant is also called
fixed system.
Stable and Unstable System
◦ Stable System: Considering any bounded input signal of a system, and if the output
signal of the system to such a signal is also bounded, then the system is called
bounded-input-bounded-output (BIBO) stable.

◦ Unstable System: If the output signal does not show this property, the system is unstable
Static And Dynamic System
Static System
◦ A system is said to be static if its output depends upon present input only.
◦ For example v(t)=i(t)R.

Dynamic System
1 +∞
◦ Also 𝑣 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ,
𝐶

◦ Thus the voltage across the capacitor depends upon present as well as past values.
◦ Such systems are called Dynamic system.
ANALOGOUS
SYSTEM
Theory and Numerical Problems
What is analogous system?
◦ The concept of an analogous system is very useful in practice
since one type of system may be easier to handle experimentally
than other.
◦ If response of one physical system to a given excitation is
determined, the response of all other systems which can be
described by the same set of equations are known for the same
excitation function.
◦ Systems remain analogous as long as their differential equations
or transfer functions are of identical form.
◦ The electrical system may be analogous to any other kind of
system.
Electrical System
◦ Apply KVL in Series RLC Circuit

◦ Consider parallel RLC circuit and apply KCL

Mechanical System
◦ We know the equation of mechanical system
◦ For Translational system

◦ For rotational system

Linear Mechanical Element
Force –Voltage Analogy
Force-Current Analogy
Torque-Voltage (T-V) Analogy
Torque-Current (T-I) Analogy
Modeling of Mechanical
And Electromechanical
Systems
◦ There are two types of mechanical

systems based on the type of motion.

1. Translational mechanical systems

2. Rotational mechanical systems

Modeling of Translational
Mechanical Systems
◦ Translational mechanical systems move along a straight line. These systems
mainly consist of three basic elements. Those are mass, spring and Damper or
damper.

◦ If a force is applied to a translational mechanical system, then it is opposed by

opposing forces due to mass, elasticity and friction of the system.

◦ Since the applied force and the opposing forces are in opposite directions, the
algebraic sum of the forces acting on the system is zero.

◦ Let us now see the force opposed by these three elements individually.
Mass
◦ Mass is the property of a body, which stores kinetic energy.
If a force is applied on a body having mass M, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to mass.
◦ This opposing force is proportional to the acceleration of
the body. Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.

◦ F is the applied force

◦ Fm is the opposing force due to mass
◦ M is mass
◦ a is acceleration
◦ x is displacement
Spring
◦ Spring is an element, which stores potential energy.
◦ If a force is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by
an opposing force due to elasticity of spring.
◦ This opposing force is proportional to the displacement
of the spring. Assume mass and friction are negligible.

◦ F is the applied force

◦ Fk is the opposing force due to elasticity of spring
◦ K is spring constant
◦ x is displacement
Damper
◦ f a force is applied on Damper B, then it is
opposed by an opposing force due to friction of
the
◦ This opposing force is proportional to the velocity
of the body. Assume mass and elasticity are
negligible.

◦ Fb is the opposing force due to friction of Damper

◦ B is the frictional coefficient
◦ v is velocity
◦ x is displacement
Modeling of Rotational
Mechanical Systems
◦ Modeling of Rotational Mechanical Systems Rotational mechanical systems
move about a fixed axis. These systems mainly consist of three basic elements.
Those are moment of inertia, torsional spring and dashpot.

◦ If a torque is applied to a rotational mechanical system, then it is opposed by

opposing torques due to moment of inertia, elasticity and friction of the system.
Since the applied torque and the opposing torques are in opposite directions,
the algebraic sum of torques acting on the system is zero.

◦ Let us now see the torque opposed by these three elements individually.
Moment of Inertia
◦ In translational mechanical system, mass stores kinetic
energy.
◦ Similarly, in rotational mechanical system, moment of
inertia stores kinetic energy.
◦ If a torque is applied on a body having moment of
inertia J, then it is opposed by an opposing torque due
to the moment of inertia. This opposing torque is
proportional to angular acceleration of the body
◦ Assume elasticity and friction are negligible.
◦ T is the applied torque
◦ θ is angular displacement
Rotational Damper
◦ If a torque is applied on dashpot B, then it is opposed
by an opposing torque due to the rotational friction of
the damper.
◦ This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
velocity of the body.
◦ Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are
negligible
◦ Tb is the opposing torque due to the rotational friction
of the dashpot.
◦ B is the rotational friction coefficient.
◦ ω is the angular velocity.
◦ θ is the angular displacement
Torsional Spring
◦ If a torque is applied on spring K, then it is opposed by
an opposing torque due to the elasticity of the spring.
◦ This opposing torque is proportional to the angular
displacement of the body.
◦ Assume the moment of inertia and elasticity are
negligible
◦ Tk is the opposing torque due to elasticity of torsional
spring
◦ K is the torsional spring constant.
◦ θ is the angular displacement
Modeling Of Electromechanical
System
◦ The purpose of Electro-Mechanical Modeling is to model and simulate an
electro-mechanical system, such that its physical parameters can be
examined before the actual system is built.

◦ Parameter estimation and physical realization of the overall system is the major
design objective of Electro-Mechanical modeling

◦ Theory driven mathematical model can be used or applied to other system to

judge the performance of the joint system as a whole.

◦ This is a well known & proven technique for designing large control system for
industrial as well as academic multi-disciplinary complex system.
PROBLEMS ON
ANALOGOUS
SYSTEM
Analogous Quantities in
Mechanical & Electrical System
Translational Rotational RLC Series RLC Parallel

Force, F Torque, T Voltage, V Current, I

Velocity, v Angular Current, I Voltage, V

Velocity, ω
Displacement, Angular Charge, q Flux Linkage, Ф
x Displacement, θ
Mass, M Moment of Inductance, L Capacitance
Inertia, J C
Damping Rot. Damping Resistance, R Conductance
Coefficient, B Coefficient, B G=1/R
Spring Rot. Spring Reciprocal of Reciprocal of
Coefficient, K Coefficient, K Capacitance, Inductance,
1/C 1/L
D’Alembert’s Principle
◦ “For any body, the algebraic sum of externally applied forces and
the forces resisting motion in any given direction is zero.”
◦ In a translational mechanical system subjected to an external
force F as shown in the fig we can write the equilibrium equation
by D’Alembert’s principle as
𝐹 + 𝐹𝑀 + 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝑘 = 0

ⅆ2 𝑥
◦ Inertial force 𝐹𝑀 = −𝑀 ⋅ ⅆ𝑡 2
ⅆ𝑥
◦ Damping force 𝐹𝐷 = 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑡
◦ Spring Force 𝐹𝑘 = −𝑘𝑥
ⅆ2 𝑥 ⅆ𝑥
◦ Final equation 𝑀 ⋅ + 𝐵 ⋅ ⅆ𝑡 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹
ⅆ𝑡 2
Example 1
Find the electrical analog of the mechanical system shown
in the below figure.
Example 2
Draw the electrical analogous circuit of the mechanical
system in below figure.
Assignment
Q1. Draw the electrical analog of the mechanical
system of below figure by F-I analogy.

Q2. Draw the electrical analog by F-V and F-I analogy

of the mechanical system in below figure.