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NATSCI 1: General Biology
2. Hypothesis Testing

Biology as a Science ➢ also known as Scientific Method

DEFINITION OF BIOLOGY THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Biology ➢ first defined and documented

by England’s Sir
➢ is the study of living Francis Bacon (1561–
organisms and their 1626) who set up
interactions with one inductive methods
another and their for scientific inquiry
environments. ➢ applied to almost all
➢ is the science that studies life fields of study as a
and living things, including the logical, rational
laws that govern the events of problem-solving
life. method
➢ is the accumulated knowledge ➢ principles and procedures for
about all living things and the the systematic pursuit of
principles and laws that govern knowledge involving the
life. recognition and formulation of a
problem, the collection of data
Biologists through observation and
experiment, and the formulation
➢ someone and testing of hypotheses
specialize in biology (Merriam-Webster dictionary)
➢ may study
anything from the Steps in the Scientific
microscopic or Method
submicroscopic view of a cell to 1ST STEP: OBSERVATION
ecosystems and the whole living
planet ➢ is the accurate
visual noting of an
SCIENTIFIC APPROACHES event or an object

1. Discovery-Based Science – the 2ND STEP: IDENTIFY THE

collection and analysis of data PROBLEM (to be solved)
without the need for a
preconceived hypothesis. The ➢ ask proper and
information gained may lead to testable questions
the formation of new starting with ‘what’ or
hypotheses and, in the long run, ‘how’
3rd STEP: FORMULATE HYPOTHESIS a. Experimental Variable – or
the Independent Variable;
➢ tentative generalization to the factor you want to test.
problem (an educated guess) b. Responding Variable – or the
➢ is a suggested explanation that Dependent Variable; the
can be tested factor you measure.
➢ has the format “If . . . then . . . .” c. Controlled Variable – any
factors that you want to
* A valid hypothesis must be testable remain the same between
and should also be falsifiable, the treatments in your
meaning that it can be disproven by experiment.
experimental results.
5TH STEP: ANALYZE THE DATA
4TH STEP: TEST THE HYPOTHESIS
(EXPERIMENTATION) ➢ apply statistical analyses to the
gathered data to determine if
➢ requires the control and experimental
a set of groups are likely to be different
procedures from each other because of the
designed to variable/s that is/are different
provide data between the groups.
that answers the
identified problem 6TH STEP: MAKE A CONCLUSION
truthfully and accurately
➢ requires experimental condition ➢ a conclusion is a judgement
and control procedures reached by reasoning
➢ accept or reject the hypothesis
o One set of experiments is
done on the control group, 7TH STEP: COMMUNICATE THE RESULT
while another set is
conducted on the ➢ the process by which you will
experimental group which is now present the results of your
given the manipulation that is study.
hypothesized about. In an
ideal experiment, the control
and experimental groups HISTORY OF BIOLOGY
differ by only one factor or
variable.
Ancient Period
✓ A variable is any part of
the experiment that can The study of life is as old as
vary or change during humankind, dating back to ancient
the experiment. peoples who observed and
wondered about the characteristics
of animals and plants around their
Three kinds of variables are
limited sphere of environment.
especially important to consider
when designing experiments:
 Natural Science Achievements of ignoring the
Ancient Greeks authority of
Galen.
Founded the
Hippocrates
460- first medical Marcello
“Father of Described
370 school, located Malpighi
Modern the
B.C. on the Greek “Father of 1628
Medicine” metamorpho
island of Cos. Modern -
sis (body
Pathology and 1694
change) of
Developed the Physiopatholog
the silkworm.
first organized y”
study of natural
Aristotle 382- history; was a Demonstrate
“Father of 322 keen observer, d the path of
Biology” B.C. writer, and the blood in
illustrator of the human
plants and body.
animals. 1578
William Harvey - 1st to
1667 correctly
Specialized in describe the
the organized blood
380-
study of plants; circulation on
Theophrastus 287
is called the human body
B.C.
"ancient father
of botany."
1635 Discovered
Robert Hooke - and named
Became the 1703 "cells" in cork.
A.D.
unchallenged
Galen 130-
authority on
200
anatomy. Anton van
1632 Was the first
Leeuwenhoek
- person to see
“Father of
Renaissance to Modern Ages 1723 living cells.
Microbiology”
After the Dark Ages (A.D. 200 to
1200), a depressed period in which Devised the
there was little or no inquiry about system of
nature and life, the 14th century binomial
ushered in the revival of scientific 1707 nomenclatur
thought and inquiry. Carolus
- e, that is, the
Linnaeus
Discoveries in Biology Between the 1778 genus/specie
16th and 19th Centuries s naming of
plants and
animals.
1514 Studied the
Andreas
- human body
Vesalius
1564 by dissection,
 Founded the Evolution Origins and
1769 relationships
study of
George Cuvier - among living
comparative
1832 species
anatomy.

Devised the Ecology Environmental

word biology relationships
by putting among plants and
together two animals
1744 Greek words:
Jean Baptiste
- bios,
Lamarck
1829 meaning
THE LIVING AND THE NON-LIVING
"life," and
THINGS
logus,
meaning
"study."
Living things

➢ are alive and are made of cells

MAJOR FIELDS OF BIOLOGY ➢ perform life functions

LIFE FUNCTIONS THAT CHARACTERIZE

LIVING THINGS
Branch Area of Study
✓ the totality of biochemical
and biophysical activities
Botany Plants and their life that maintain life in all living
cycles systems

Zoology Animals and their A. Nutrition – sum total of the

life histories activities through which a living
organism obtains food
Anatomy Body structure (nutrients) useful for fuel and for
visible to the naked growth
eye B. Transport – involves the
absorption of materials by living
things, including the movement
Physiology Functions of body and distribution of materials
organs and systems within the body of organism
C. Respiration – consists of
Embryology Embryo breathing (inhaling and
development in exhaling) and cellular
plants and animals respiration (energy is released
from nutrient molecules)
D. Excretion – removes waste
Genetics Inheritance and
products from the body
variations in living
E. Synthesis – involves the
organisms
biochemical processes by
 which small molecules are built ii. catabolism – from a Greek
into larger ones word meaning ‘to tear down’
F. regulation – includes all
processes that control and ✓ metabolic process in the
coordinate the many activities body that break apart
of a ling thing large molecules, thereby
G. growth – describes the increase releasing energy
of cell size and increase of cell
numbers resulting to growth of B. Homeostasis – a concept
the body developed by Claude Bernard, a
H. reproduction – the process by French physiologist, in the
which new individuals are 19th century which means “staying
produced by parent organisms the same”

Non-living things ✓ the body maintains the ‘steady

state’ of its life functions in an
➢ do not possess life almost unchanging internal
environment thereby the body
Characteristics of Non-Living Things can adapt to external
environmental changes
A. They are lifeless. They are not
made up of cells C. Adaption – a trait that aids the
B. They do have a definite and survival of an individual or a species
certain size of their own. in a given environment. It may be:
C. They “grow” by accretion. It
occurs through adding i. structural characteristics (i.e.
materials externally. hump of a camel)
D. They do not die. They are ii. behavioral characteristic (i.e.
immortal. mating call of a bull frog)
E. They do not respond to iii. physiological characteristic
stimuli. (i.e. controlling some inner
workings of tissue cells)

BASIC CONCEPTS OF BIOLOGY ➢ it permits the survival of species

in environments that sometimes
seem forbidding.
A. Metabolism – all of the chemical
activities in the body that produce
or use energy
Styles of Life & Basic
Chemistry
i. anabolism – from the Greek
word meaning ‘to build up’ Life obtains energy in a few different
ways:
✓ building process whereby
small molecules are 1. phototrophy - from sunlight
combined into larger 2. lithotrophy - from chemical
molecules, thereby using reactions with inorganic matter
energy 3. organotrophy - from breaking
organic molecules into
 inorganic molecules, typically C. Elements - any substance that
carbon dioxide and water cannot be decomposed into
simpler substances by ordinary
To make its body, living beings chemical processes
obtain building blocks either by: D. Periodic Table - a table in which
the chemical elements are
1. autotrophy - from the arranged in order of increasing
assimilation of carbon dioxide atomic number
2. heterotrophy - from other living E. Chemical Bonds - hold
beings molecules together and create
temporary connections that are
These ways combine in six lifestyles. essential to life
i. ionic bond - bonds formed
1. photoautotrophy between ions with opposite
2. litoautotrophy charges
3. organoautotrophy ii. covalent bond - the
4. photoheterotrophy interatomic linkage that
5. litoheterotrophy results from the sharing of an
6. organoheterotrophy electron pair between two
atoms
Example are the photoautotrophs in iii. hydrogen bond - an
which most plants exhibit the life electrostatic attraction
style. ). Carnivorous plants (like between a hydrogen atom in
sundew, Drosera or the Venus one polar molecule (as of
flycatcher, Dionaea) are all water) and a small
photoautotrophs. They “eat” electronegative atom (as of
animals in order to obtain nitrogen oxygen, nitrogen, or fluorine)
and phosphorus, so the dead in usually another molecule
bodies serve not as food but as a of the same or a different
fertilizer. Note that plants are polar substance
also organoheterotrophs like F. Valence - the property of an
animals because in addition to element that determines the
photosynthesis, all plant cells can number of other atoms with
respire. which an atom of the element
can combine
To understand life of plants, a basic G. Molecules - two or more atoms
knowledge of chemistry is needed. connected by chemical bonds,
This includes knowledge of atoms, which form the smallest unit of a
the basic unit of an element. substance that retains the
composition and properties of
Components: protons (+1, positively
that substance
charged), neutrons (no charge) and
H. Molecular Weight - sum of the
electrons (-1, negatively charged)
atomic masses of all atoms in a
A. Atomic Weight - total weight of molecule
an atom
For example, it is essential to know
B. Isotopes - members of a family
that protons have a charge of +1,
of an element that all have the
neutrons have no charge, and
same number of protons but
electrons have a charge of –1. The
different numbers of neutrons
atomic weight is equal to the weight of any matter (of molecular
of protons and neutrons. Isotopes structure) always contains
have the same number of protons 6.02214078 × 1023
but different number of neutrons; molecules (Avogadro’s number).
some isotopes are unstable
(radioactive). The density of a dissolved substance
is the concentration. If in 1 liter of
One of the most outstanding distilled water, 58 grams of salt are
molecules is water. Theoretically, diluted, we have 1M (one molar)
water should boil at much lower concentration of salt.
temperature, but it boils at 100◦C just Concentration will not change if we
because of the hydrogen bonds take any amount of this liquid
sealing water molecules. These (spoon, drop, or half liter).
bonds arise because a water
molecule is polar: hydrogens are Depending on the concentration of
slightly positively charged, and protons in a substance, a solution
oxygen is slightly negatively can be very acidic. The acidity of a
charged. solution can be determined via pH.
For example, if the concentration of
Hydrogen bonds protons is 0.1 M (1×10–1, which 0.1
between water grams of protons in 1 liter of water),
molecules, δ this is an extremely acidic solution.
shows the partial The pH of it is just 1 (the negative
charge. logarithm, or negative degree of ten
of protons concentration). Another
example is distilled water. The
Another important concept related concentration of protons there
to water is acidity. If in a solution of equals 1 × 10–7 M, and therefore pH
water, the molecule takes out of distilled water is 7. Distilled water is
proton (H+ ), it is an acid. One much less acidic because water
example of this would be molecules dissociate rarely.
hydrochloric acid (HCl) which When two or more carbon atoms
dissociates into H+ and Cl– . If the are connected, they form a carbon
molecule takes out OH– (hydroxide skeleton. All organic molecules are
ion), this is a base. An example of made of some organic skeleton.
this would be sodium hydroxide Apart from C, elements participate
(NaOH) which dissociates into Na+ in organic molecules (biogenic
and hydroxide ion. elements) are H, O, N, P, and S.
To plan chemical reactions properly, These six elements make four types
we need to know about molar of biomolecules:
mass and molar
concentration. Molar mass is a gram 1. lipids—hydrophobic organic
equivalent of molecular weight. This molecules which do not
means that (for example) the easily dissolve in water
molecular weight of salt (NaCl) 2. carbohydrates or sugars,
could be estimated as 23 + 35, such as glucose (raisins
which equals 58 units. contain lots of glucose) and
Consequently, one mole of salt is fructose (honey); by
approximately 58 grams. One mole
 definition, carbohydrates general formula of this class of
have multiple –OH group, organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.
there are also polymeric
carbohydrates Classification of Carbohydrates
(polysaccharides) like The carbohydrates are further
cellulose and starch classified into simple and complex
3. amino acids (components of which is mainly based on their
proteins) which always chemical structure and degree of
contain N, C, O and H polymerization.
4. nucleotides combined from
carbon cycle with nitrogen A. Simple Carbohydrates –
(heterocycle), sugar, and Monosaccharides,
phosphoric acid; polymeric Disaccharides,
nucleotides are nucleic acids Oligosaccharides
such as DNA and RNA.
Simple carbohydrates have one or
two sugar molecules. In simple
carbohydrates, molecules are
Carbohydrates
digested and converted quickly
resulting in a rise in the blood sugar
levels. They are abundantly found in
Carbohydrates are macronutrients milk products, beer, fruits, refined
and are one of the three main ways sugars, candies, etc. These
by which our body obtains its carbohydrates are called empty
energy. They are called calories, as they do not possess
carbohydrates as they fiber, vitamins and minerals.
comprise carbon, hydrogen and ox
ygen at their chemical level. Plants, being producers, synthesize
Carbohydrates are essential glucose (C6H12O6) using raw
nutrients which include sugars, fibers materials like carbon dioxide and
and starches. They are found in water in the presence of sunlight.
grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk This process of photosynthesis
and other dairy products. They are converts solar energy to chemical
the basic food groups which play an energy. Consumers feed on plants
important role in a healthy life. and harvest energy stored in the
bonds of the compounds
The food containing carbohydrates synthesized by plants.
are converted into glucose or blood
sugar during the process of digestion 1. Monosaccharides
by the digestive system.
Glucose is an example of a
Our body utilizes this sugar as a carbohydrate monomer or
source of energy for the cells, organs monosaccharide. Other examples
and tissues. The extra amount of of monosaccharides include
energy or sugar is stored in our mannose, galactose, fructose,
muscles and liver for further etc. The structural organization of
requirement. The term monosaccharides is as follows:
‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a
French term ‘hydrate de carbone‘ Monosaccharides may be further
meaning ‘hydrate of carbon‘. The classified depending on the number
of carbon atoms:
 i. Trioses (C3H6O3): These have homopolymers – made up of only
three carbon atoms per glucose units.
molecule. Example:
Glyceraldehyde 1. Starch is composed of two
ii. Tetroses (C4H6O4): These components- amylose and
monosaccharides have four amylopectin. Amylose forms the
carbon atoms per molecule. linear chain and amylopectin is
Example: Erythrose. a much-branched chain.
iii. Similarly, we have- 2. Glycogen is called animal
iv. Pentoses, starch. It has a structure similar to
v. Hexoses, and starch, but has more extensive
vi. Heptoses branching.
3. Cellulose is a structural
2. Disaccharides carbohydrate and is the main
Two monosaccharides combine to structural component of the
form a disaccharide. Examples of plant cell wall. It is a fibrous
carbohydrates having two polysaccharide with high tensile
monomers include- Sucrose, strength. In contrast to starch
Lactose, Maltose, etc. and glycogen, cellulose forms a
linear polymer.
3. Oligosaccharides

Carbohydrates formed by the

Proteins
condensation of 2-9 monomers are
called oligosaccharides. By this
convention, trioses, pentoses,
hexoses are all oligosaccharides. Proteins are another class of
indispensable biomolecules, which
Complex Carbohydrates make up around 50% of the cellular
(Polysaccharides) dry weight. Proteins are polymers
of amino acids arranged in the form
Complex carbohydrates have two of polypeptide chains. The structure
or more sugar molecules, hence of proteins is classified as primary,
they are referred to as starchy foods. secondary, tertiary and quaternary
In complex carbohydrates, in some cases. These structures are
molecules are digested and based on the level of complexity of
converted slowly compared to the folding of a polypeptide chain.
simple carbohydrates. They are Proteins play both structural and
abundantly found in lentils, beans, dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein
peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, that allows movement by
whole-grain bread, cereals, etc. contraction of muscles. Most
Polysaccharides are complex enzymes are proteinaceous in
carbohydrates formed by the nature.
polymerization of a large number of
monomers. Examples of
polysaccharides include starch, Nucleic Acids
glycogen, cellulose, etc. which
exhibit extensive branching and are
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic
material found in the cell that carries
Cytology
all the hereditary information from
parents to progeny. There are two
types of nucleic acids namely, CELL
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main
function of nucleic acid is the The cell is the structural and fundamental
transfer of genetic information and unit of life. It is also the smallest and the
synthesis of proteins by processes most basic biological unit of living
organisms. It is also the basic unit of
known as translation and
reproduction. On the basis of the cellular
transcription. The monomeric unit of
organization, cells are further classified as
nucleic acids is known as nucleotide eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Plant cells and
and is composed of a nitrogenous animal cells fall under the eukaryotic
base, pentose sugar, and category.
phosphate. The nucleotides are
linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester ROBERT HOOKE
bond. The nitrogen base attached
➢ Father of cytology
to the pentose sugar makes the ➢ improved the design of the existing
nucleotide distinct. There are 4 compound microscope
major nitrogenous bases found in ➢ Wrote a book ‘Micrographia’
DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine. In RNA, thymine is MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN and
replaced by uracil. The DNA THEODORE SCHWANN
structure is described as a double-
➢ German scientists
helix or double-helical structure ➢ studied cells of animals and plants
which is formed by hydrogen respectively
bonding between the bases of two ➢ identified key differences between
antiparallel polynucleotide chains. the two cell types and put forth the
Overall, the DNA idea that cells were the fundamental
structure looks similar to a twisted units of both plants and animals
ladder. ➢ proposed classical cell theory
RUDOLF VIRCHOW
Lipids ➢ stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells
come from cells)

Lipids are organic substances that

are insoluble in water, soluble in Cell theory
organic solvents, are related to fatty
acids and are utilized by the living
cell. They include fats, waxes, sterols, States that:
fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or
triglycerides, phospholipids, etc. ➢ that the cell is the basic unit of living
Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and systems;
nucleic acids, lipids are not ➢ that all organisms consist of at least
polymeric molecules. Lipids play a one cell;
great role in the cellular structure ➢ that cells in multicellular organisms
and are the chief source of energy. are often specialized;
 ➢ that all cells come from previous cells Examples of Prokaryotes: Bacteria and
archaea are the two types of prokaryotes.
EUKARYOTE
Categories of cells
• A cell that contains an
organized nucleus and other
PROKARYOTE membrane-bound organelles
• Unicellular and multicellular
A cell that does not have a nucleus or other
organisms (fungi, protists,
membrane-bound organelles such as:
plants, and animals)
i. Mitochondria
Cell Wall
ii. Endoplasmic reticulum
iii. Golgi bodies A rigid outer boundary of a plant cell which
iv. Lysosomes surround the cell membrane/plasma
membrane. Composed of cellulose held in
unicellular organism (of domains bacteria place by gluey carbohydrates called pectins.
and archea) The cellulose in the cell wall are
synthesized by cytoplasm
The key structures present in a prokaryote cell
Cell Membrane
Prokaryotic Cell Features
The cell membrane of an animal cell is a
i. Nucleoid: A central region of the cell lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. The
that contains its DNA. structural organization of the cell
ii. Ribosome: Ribosomes are membrane permits selective permeability.
responsible for protein synthesis. Not all substances will be able to enter the
iii. Cell wall: The cell wall provides cell. Small non-polar molecules may pass
structure and protection from the through with relative ease. However, polar
outside environment. Most bacteria molecules cannot and as such would
have a rigid cell wall made from require transporters such as membrane
carbohydrates and proteins called proteins. The cell membrane is the only
peptidoglycans. structure that surrounds an animal cell. In
iv. Cell membrane: Every prokaryote spite of the lack of a cell wall, the cell
has a cell membrane, also known as membrane of the animal cell contains
the plasma membrane, that separates cholesterol that provides structural
the cell from the outside integrity and support. Furthermore, the
environment. presence of cholesterol and the lack of cell
v. Capsule: Some bacteria have a layer walls in animal cells make them fluid rather
of carbohydrates that surrounds the than rigid, and therefore, render them the
cell wall called the capsule. The capability of movement.
capsule helps the bacterium attach to
surfaces. Nucleus
vi. Fimbriae: Fimbriae are thin, hair- It is an organelle that contains several other
like structures that help with cellular sub-organelles, such as nucleolus,
attachment. nucleosomes, and chromatins. It also
vii. Pili: Pili are rod-shaped structures contains DNA and other genetic materials.
involved in multiple roles, including
attachment and DNA transfer. Nuclear Membrane
viii. Flagella: Flagella are thin, tail-like
structures that assist in movement. It is a double-membrane structure that
surrounds the nucleus. It is also referred to
as the nuclear envelope.
Nucleolus Ribosome
An area inside the nucleus of a cell that is They are small organelles made up of RNA-
made up of RNA and proteins and is where rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are the
ribosomes are made. sites of protein synthesis.
Centrosome Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
It is a small organelle found near the The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an
nucleus, which has a thick center with interconnected network of flattened sacs or
radiating tubules. The centrosomes are tubules. The ER that is studded with
where microtubules are produced. ribosomes is called rough ER; those
without are called smooth ER. Rough ER is
Centrioles involved in protein synthesis, whereas
smooth ER, is in lipid synthesis.
Centrioles are organelles with a 9+2
microtubular configuration. They are self- Vacuole
replicating and help in organizing cell
division. They are present in animal cells A membrane-bound organelle present
only. inside a cell involved in maintaining shape
and storing water, food, wastes, etc.
Lysosome
Nucleopore
They are round organelles surrounded by a
membrane and comprising digestive They are tiny holes present in the nuclear
enzymes which help in digestion, excretion membrane which are involved in the
and in the cell renewal process. movement of nucleic acids and proteins
across the nuclear membrane.
Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
A jelly-like material which contains all the
cell organelles, enclosed within the cell The cytoskeleton is the internal framework
membrane. The substance found within the of the animal cell. The different types of
cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear cytoskeleton are actin filaments,
membrane is called the nucleoplasm. intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
Their fundamental role is for controlling
Golgi Apparatus cell shape, maintaining intracellular
organization, and for cell movement.
An organelle that is comprised of stacks
of cisternae is called the Golgi apparatus. Cilia and Flagella
The Golgi apparatus is involved in the
packaging and secretion of biomolecules, Some animal cells have specialized
e.g. proteins, glycosylation, and lipid structures, such as flagella and cilia,
transport. The collective term for all the involved in locomotion. Flagella are long,
Golgi apparatus within the cell is called the slender, whip-like extensions that enable
Golgi complex. cells to move by propulsion. Aside from
movement, certain flagella are used for
Mitochondrion sensation and signal transduction (e.g. in
rod photoreceptor cells of the eye, olfactory
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles
receptor neurons of the nose, and
with a double membrane. They are the
kinocilium in the cochlea of the ear). Cilia
powerhouse of a cell as they play an
essential role in releasing energy. They have are hair-like projections on the surface of
certain cells. The epithelial cells of the lungs
their own genetic material (called DNA).
are an example of an animal cell with cilia.
Chloroplast
Animal Cell Types
Chloroplasts are plant cell organelles that
convert light energy into relatively stable
chemical energy via the photosynthetic
Animals are multicellular organisms, and as
process. By doing so, they sustain life on
such, their body is comprised of several
Earth.
cells (about trillions of cells). A group of
Prokaryotic vs Animal cell vs plant cell cells performing a specific function is called
a tissue. Animal cells in a tissue may be held
Presen Presen through cell junctions, e.g. tight junctions,
Cell Present in t in t in gap junctions, and desmosomes. There are
Component Prokaryote? Anima Plant numerous types of animal cells, each
l Cell? Cell? designed to serve specific functions. The
Yes, most common types of animal cells are:
primarily in
Cell wall No Yes A. Skin Cells
peptidoglyca
n Skin cells are cells that make up the
skin or epithelial tissue. e.g.
Cell/Plasma
Membrane
Yes Yes Yes Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel
cells and Langerhans cells
Nucleus No Yes Yes B. Muscle Cells
Muscle cells (also called myocytes) are
Nucleolus No Yes Yes
cells that make up muscular tissue. e.g.
Ribosome Yes Yes Yes Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon
cells, Cardiac muscle cells
Mitochondri C. Blood Cells
No Yes Yes
a
They are the red blood
Peroxisomes No Yes Yes cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells
(leukocytes) and platelets.
Vesicles and D. Nerve Cells
No Yes Yes
vacuoles
Nerve cells (also called neurons) are
Centrosome No Yes No cells of nervous tissue.
E. Fat Cells
Lysosome No Yes Yes/no
Fat cells (also called adipocytes) are
Endoplasmic cells of the adipose tissue.
No Yes Yes
reticulum F. Sex Cells
Sex cells are cells involved in sexual
Golgi
apparatus
No Yes Yes reproduction. In males, the sperm cell
is the mature and functional sex cell. In
Cytoskeleto
Yes Yes Yes
females, the egg cell is the sex cell. The
n sex cells are the only haploid cells.
Chloroplast No No Yes G. Somatic Cells
H. The rest of the animal cells are diploid
No and are referred to as somatic cells.
(excep
t for The Molecular Composition of Cells
Flagella Some Some some
plant Cells are composed of water, inorganic ions,
sperm
cell)
and carbon-containing (organic)
molecules. Water is the most abundant
Cilia Some Some No molecule in cells, accounting for 70% or
more of total cell mass. Consequently, the
interactions between water and the other
constituents of cells are of central The food containing carbohydrates
importance in biological chemistry. are converted into glucose or blood
sugar during the process of digestion
The inorganic ions of the cell, including
sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium by the digestive system.
(Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), phosphate (HPO42- Our body utilizes this sugar as a
), chloride (Cl-), and bicarbonate (HCO3-),
source of energy for the cells, organs
constitute 1% or less of the cell mass. These
ions are involved in a number of aspects of and tissues. The extra amount of
cell metabolism, and thus play critical roles energy or sugar is stored in our
in cell function. muscles and liver for further
requirement. The term
It is, however, the organic molecules that ‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a
are the unique constituents of cells. Most of French term ‘hydrate de carbone‘
these organic compounds belong to one of meaning ‘hydrate of carbon‘. The
four classes of molecules: general formula of this class of
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic
organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.
acids. Proteins, nucleic acids, and most
carbohydrates (the polysaccharides) are Classification of Carbohydrates
macromolecules formed by the joining
(polymerization) of hundreds or thousands The carbohydrates are further
of low-molecular-weight precursors: amino classified into simple and complex
acids, nucleotides, and simple sugars, which is mainly based on their
respectively. Such macromolecules chemical structure and degree of
constitute 80 to 90% of the dry weight of polymerization.
most cells. Lipids are the other major
constituent of cells. The remainder of the B. Simple Carbohydrates –
cell mass is composed of a variety of small Monosaccharides,
organic molecules, including Disaccharides,
macromolecular precursors. The basic
Oligosaccharides
chemistry of cells can thus be understood in
terms of the structures and functions of Simple carbohydrates have one or
four major classes of organic molecules. two sugar molecules. In simple
carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted quickly
Carbohydrates resulting in a rise in the blood sugar
levels. They are abundantly found in
milk products, beer, fruits, refined
Carbohydrates are macronutrients sugars, candies, etc. These
and are one of the three main ways carbohydrates are called empty
by which our body obtains its calories, as they do not possess
energy. They are called fiber, vitamins and minerals.
carbohydrates as they
comprise carbon, hydrogen and ox Plants, being producers, synthesize
ygen at their chemical level. glucose (C6H12O6) using raw
Carbohydrates are essential materials like carbon dioxide and
nutrients which include sugars, fibers water in the presence of sunlight.
and starches. They are found in This process of photosynthesis
grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk converts solar energy to chemical
and other dairy products. They are energy. Consumers feed on plants
the basic food groups which play an and harvest energy stored in the
important role in a healthy life.
bonds of the compounds In complex carbohydrates,
synthesized by plants. molecules are digested and
converted slowly compared to
1. Monosaccharides simple carbohydrates. They are
Glucose is an example of a abundantly found in lentils, beans,
carbohydrate monomer or peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn,
monosaccharide. Other examples whole-grain bread, cereals, etc.
of monosaccharides include Polysaccharides are complex
mannose, galactose, fructose, carbohydrates formed by the
etc. The structural organization of polymerization of a large number of
monosaccharides is as follows: monomers. Examples of
Monosaccharides may be further polysaccharides include starch,
classified depending on the number glycogen, cellulose, etc. which
of carbon atoms: exhibit extensive branching and are
homopolymers – made up of only
vii. Trioses (C3H6O3): These have glucose units.
three carbon atoms per
molecule. Example: 4. Starch is composed of two
Glyceraldehyde components- amylose and
viii. Tetroses (C4H6O4): These amylopectin. Amylose forms the
monosaccharides have four linear chain and amylopectin is
carbon atoms per molecule. a much-branched chain.
Example: Erythrose. 5. Glycogen is called animal
ix. Similarly, we have- starch. It has a structure similar to
x. Pentoses, starch, but has more extensive
xi. Hexoses, and branching.
xii. Heptoses 6. Cellulose is a structural
carbohydrate and is the main
2. Disaccharides structural component of the
Two monosaccharides combine to plant cell wall. It is a fibrous
form a disaccharide. Examples of polysaccharide with high tensile
carbohydrates having two strength. In contrast to starch
monomers include- Sucrose, and glycogen, cellulose forms a
Lactose, Maltose, etc. linear polymer.

3. Oligosaccharides
Proteins
Carbohydrates formed by the
condensation of 2-9 monomers are
called oligosaccharides. By this
convention, trioses, pentoses, Proteins are another class of
hexoses are all oligosaccharides. indispensable biomolecules, which
make up around 50% of the cellular
Complex Carbohydrates dry weight. Proteins are polymers
(Polysaccharides) of amino acids arranged in the form
of polypeptide chains. The structure
Complex carbohydrates have two of proteins is classified as primary,
or more sugar molecules, hence secondary, tertiary and quaternary
they are referred to as starchy foods. in some cases. These structures are
based on the level of complexity of
the folding of a polypeptide chain. Lipids
Proteins play both structural and
dynamic roles. Myosin is the protein
that allows movement by Lipids are organic substances that
contraction of muscles. Most are insoluble in water, soluble in
enzymes are proteinaceous in organic solvents, are related to fatty
nature. acids and are utilized by the living
cell. They include fats, waxes, sterols,
fat-soluble vitamins, mono-, di- or
Nucleic Acids triglycerides, phospholipids, etc.
Unlike carbohydrates, proteins, and
nucleic acids, lipids are not
Nucleic acids refer to the genetic polymeric molecules. Lipids play a
material found in the cell that carries great role in the cellular structure
all the hereditary information from and are the chief source of energy.
parents to progeny. There are two
types of nucleic acids namely,
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main
function of nucleic acid is the
transfer of genetic information and
synthesis of proteins by processes
known as translation and
transcription. The monomeric unit of
nucleic acids is known as nucleotide
and is composed of a nitrogenous
base, pentose sugar, and
phosphate. The nucleotides are
linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester
bond. The nitrogen base attached
to the pentose sugar makes the
nucleotide distinct. There are 4
major nitrogenous bases found in
DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine,
and thymine. In RNA, thymine is
replaced by uracil. The DNA
structure is described as a double-
helix or double-helical structure
which is formed by hydrogen
bonding between the bases of two
antiparallel polynucleotide chains.
Overall, the DNA
structure looks similar to a twisted
ladder.