Chapter 4

Methodology And Modeling

4.1. Introduction:

To gain a new perspective on our thesis, we may want to examine the approaches and frameworks
we’ve been using. The success of a thesis is dependent on the quality of its models, much like how a golf
shot begins with a single swing. Using this as a starting point, we can get a sense of the overall structure
of the thesis. Each step of the process is explained in-depth in this chapter. The design of an antenna
sensor using 2D materials for a wearable electronics system will operate within the frequency range of
2-10 GHz and will utilize two patch antennas made of rGO and graphene. The design, procedure, and
manufacturing of patch antennas are thoroughly discussed.

4.2. Block Diagram and working principle :

Figure: Block Diagram

The antenna mainly based on three layers. Here in this design main component was graphene and rGO
for the patch material. In the ground build on copper material and for the lightweight, transparency and
flexibility in the substrate PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and another design textile material was
used. We did two designs for our two-patch material in one graphene was used and another one rGO
(reduce graphene oxide) was used. After then using waveguide ports, the input frequency of 2-10 GHz
was fed into the micro script patch antennas.

This antenna tested in free space that’s why here using deferent type of thickness and changing size and
changing material antenna performance observed and it was continued until best rest founded.

4.2.1. Patch antenna:

A patch antenna is a narrow band, wide beam antenna. It has two-dimensional physical geometry. The
simplest patch antenna uses a patch which is one-half wavelength long, so that the metal Surface acts as
a resonator similarly to the half wave dipole antennas. A patch antenna is usually fabricated by
mounting a shaped metal sheet on an insulating dielectric substrate such as a printed circuit board with
a continuous metal layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane.
There are two patch antenna,we used in our thesis. There are rGO and Graphene. rGO or reduced
graphene oxide, is a form of graphene that has been chemically treated to remove oxygen containing
functional groups from the graphene oxide. This process results in a material with enhanced electrical
conductivity and mechanical properties. A graphene based patch antenna is a type of antenna that uses
graphene as a material for its patch element.

 Antenna Gain:
The power gain of an antenna is a significant performance metric that combines the antenna’s
directivity and electrical efficiency. It represents the antenna’s ability to convert input power into
radio waves in a specific direction for a transmitting antenna, and it measures how well the antenna
convert radio waves arriving from a particular direction into electrical power for a receiving antenna.
The gain is usually expressed as a ratio of the power produced by the antenna to the power
produced by a hypothetical lossless isotropic antenna that is equally sensitive to signals from all
directions. The gain pattern or radiation pattern is a graph that shows the gain as a function of
direction. Gain is often measured decibels- isotropic (dBi), or alternatively in decibels relative to a
lossless half-wave dipole antenna (dBd), where the latter is equal to the former -2.15. The effective
area of an antenna is proportional to the power gain, while the effective length is proportional to
the square root of the gain. Reciprocity ensures that an antenna has the same gain when receiving
as it does when transmitting. Directive gain or directivity is another measured that assess the
antenna’s ability to receive signals from a specific direction while ignoring interfering signals from
another direction, and it doesn’t factor in the antenna’s electrical efficiency.

 Radiation pattern:

The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by the Radiation pattern of the antenna.
Radiation Patterns are diagrammatical representations of the distribution of radiated energy into
space, as a function of direction.

 Maxwell’s Equations

Maxwell’s Equations are a set of four vector-differential equations that govern all of
Electromagnetics. The four equations (written only in terms of E and H, the electric field and

The magnetic field), are given below.

ρν
∇∙𝚬= (Gauss’ Law) (4.1)
ε
∇ ∙ 𝚮 = 0 (Gauss’ Law for Magnetism) (4.2)
 ∂Η
∇ × 𝚬 = −𝜇 (Faraday’s Law) (4.3)
∂t
∂Ε
∇×𝚮=𝑱+𝜀 (Ampere’s Law) (4.4)
∂t

In Gauss’ law, is the volume electric charge density, J is the electric current density (in Amps/meter-
squared), is the permittivity and is the permeability.

 Bandwidth:

Bandwidth is another fundamental antenna parameter that defines the frequency range in which an
antenna can effectively transmit or receive energy. The desired bandwidth is often used to select an
appropriate Antenna, as some antennas have a limited frequency range. A wider bandwidth
indicates that an antenna can handle a broader range of frequencies, which is important for
transmitting or receiving various types of signals. The antenna’s physical characteristics, including its
size and shape, the materials used to construct it, and the electrical properties of the antenna such
as its impedance and resonant frequency, can all influence its bandwidth.

 Antenna Efficiency:

Antenna Efficiency is a measure of the effectiveness of an antenna in converting the power supplied
to it into radiated electromagnetic energy. It is typically evaluated by comparing the power fed to
the antenna with the strength of the radiated field in an anechoic chamber. An ideal antenna would
have an efficiency of 100%, which means it would transmit all the power it receives. However, in
practice, most antennas have an efficiency of around 50-60%, meaning they radiate only a portion of
the power supplied to them.

 Decibel:

The dB (decibel) scale is commonly used to measure the difference or ratio between two signal
levels. This is particularly useful for describing how system devices affect signal strength, such as
when a cable causes a 6 dB signal loss or an amplifier provides a 15 dB gain. Because signal strengths
vary logarithmically rather than linearly, the dB scale allows for easy calculation of gains and losses
using whole numbers. By using this logarithmic scale, the dB measurement provides a simple way to
express large-scale variations in signals.
  Directivity:

The directivity of an antenna is a ratio that represents how much more intense the radiation is in a
specific direction compared to the average intensity radiated in all directions. For non-uniform
sources, the directivity is the ratio of its radiation intensity in a particular direction to that of an
U 4 πU
isotropic source. D= =
U 0 Prad
The direction of maximum radiation intensity is usually assumed if no direction is specified. This
maximum directivity can be calculated by dividing the maximum radiation intensity by the radiation
intensity of an isotropic source. Directivity only describes the directional characteristics of an
antenna and is determined solely by its pattern.

Umax 4 πUmax
Dmax = =
U0 Prad

4.2.2. Isolation:

In the design of PATCH antenna metamaterial-based isolation is used to separation the patches to
Reduce mutual coupling. Antenna to antenna isolation is calculation of how compactly coupled
Antennas are. Usually, antenna isolation is calculated for antennas on the same product – that is, the
Isolation between a smartphone GPS and Wi-Fi antenna, for instance. The method of measuring
Isolation is typically done by connecting both antennas to a Vector Network Analyzer, and Measuring
S12 (the transmission coefficient). Antenna to antenna isolation can increased by:

 Increasing the physical separation between the antennas by use metamaterial isolator.
 Reducing the correlation coefficient between the antenna’s radiation patterns – that is, have

The antenna’s peak radiation in different or opposite directions Antenna to antenna Isolation is a
measure of how tightly coupled antennas are. Typically, antenna isolation is Measured for antennas on
the same product – that is, the isolation between a smartphone GPS and Wi-Fi antenna, for instance.
When specified in this manner, the isolation should Be as large as possible.

4.2.3. CST MWS software:

The CST software has developed the designe that utilizes the CST studio suite®️, a powerful software
package for analysing and optimising electromagnetic components and systems. The software contains
electromagnetic field solvers for a range of applications and allows for hybrid simulations of whole
systems. CST studio suite ®️ is widely used in the engineering industry, providing significant advantages
such as shorter development cycles and cost reduction. The software enables virtual prototyping,
allowing engineers to optimise device performance, identify potential compliance issues, and reduce the
number of physical prototypes required. This approach minimizes the risk of test failures And recalls and
enables early detection and mitigation of issues in the design process.
4.3. Modeling:

4.3.1. Design

Figure :Design “A”

Figure : Design “B”

For the design A frequency range from 2 GHz to 10 GHz and design B the frequency range from 2
GHz to 12 GHz. The dimension of the design antenna for the design A and B for the ground
thickness is 0.2mm substrate thickness 1.2mm and patch material thickness is 0.2 mm. In room
temperature graphene material work very wide range of filed. 50 Ohm feedline of width is used
to provide power to the antennas. rGO (reduced graphene oxide) is a form of graphene that is
 produced by reducing graphene oxide. In the figure 1 we can see the suggested design antenna
view in different position.

4.3.2. Graphene:

Graphene is a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal pattern, bonded together with
strong sigma bonds through sp2 hybridization. It exhibits various unique properties such as high surface
area, excellent mobility of electric charge, remarkable flexibility and strength and superior thermal
conductivity. These distinctive characteristics have made graphene a focus of scientific research, and its
achievements have resulted in several practical applications. Graphene derivatives have also expanded
its versatility by combining with other useful materials. Graphene and it’s derivatives have been
employed in a range of process such as desalination, capacity deionization in super capacitors and fuel
cells. Previous research has shown that graphene derivatives can be integrated with carbon nanotubes,
polymers, organic frameworks, inorganic nano structures, and organic crystals. The resulting
membranes process high durability, smooth, non-toxic surfaces, and strong mechanical properties.

4.3.3. rGO:

rGO stands for reduce graphene oxide. Reduce graphene oxide that has undergone a reduction process
to remove the oxygen functional groups and restore some of the electrical conductivity and other
properties of pure graphene. rGO can be produced by various methods including chemical reduction,
thermal reduction and electrochemical reduction. rGO has numerous applications in various field
including electronics energy storage, catalysis, sensing and biomedical engineering among others. It’s
unique electrical, thermal and mechanical properties make it an attractive material for many
applications. Additionally, rGO can be easily functionalized with various molecules which allows for
tailoring its properties for specific applications.

4.4. Summary:

This chapter includes brief examples of the methods used in our thesis. We have discussed the block
diagram approach as a technique. To design and simulate our thesis, we utilized CST 2018 Professional
software. We have thoroughly analyzed and explained each component of our thesis.