Plant Organ: LEAVES DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEAF ARRANGEMENT

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GENERAL MORPHOANATOMY OF A LEAF Spiral
The leaf is a part of the plant that is in charge of Whorled
making food for the plant.
99% of the photosynthesis is done here.
Is known as the photosynthetic organ. FUNCTION OF LEAVES
Leaves are the solar energy and CO2 collectors
of plants.
PARTS OF LEAVES In some plants, leaves have become adapted for
Petiole - a thin stalk that connects the blade of specialized functions.
the leaf to the plant's stem.
Blade - a thin, flat part of the leaf that extends
off the end of the petiole. It is green as it EXTERNAL ANATOMY
contains chlorophyll which is necessary in Leaves possess a blade or lamina, an edge called
making the plant's food. the margin of the leaf, the veins (vascular
The blade contains veins which help bring in the bundles), a petiole, and two appendages at the
water necessary for photosynthesis and to base of the petiole called the stipules.
transport food out to all parts of the plant. The
xylem is responsible for water transportation DIFFERENT LEAF TYPES
and the phloem for food. Simple Leaf - undivided blade with a single
Cuticle - the outer surface of the leaf has a thin axillary bud at the base of its petiole.
waxy covering called the … this layer's primary Compound Leaf - blade divided into leaflets,
function is to prevent water loss within the leaf. leaflets lack an axillary bud but each compound
Epidermis - the epidermis also lines the lower leaf has a single bud at the base of its petiole
area of the leaf. Pinnately-Compound Leaves - leaflets in pairs
The vascular tissue - Xylem and Phloem. and attached along a central rachis; examples
Xylem and phloem are found within the veins of include ash, walnut, pecan, and rose.
the leaf. Palmately-Compound Leaves - leaflets attached
Mesophyll. The word mesophyll is Greek and at the same point at the end of the petiole;
means "middle" (meso) "leaf" (phyllon). examples of plants with this leaf type include
Mesophyll is where photosynthesis actually buckeye, horse chestnut, hemp or marijuana,
occurs. and shamrock.
Mesophyll can then be divided into two layers: Peltate Leaves - petioles that are attached to the
Palisade Layer – most chloroplasts are seen middle of the blade; examples include mayapple
Spongy Layer – air spaces Perfoliate Leaves - sessile leaves that surround
Stomata – site for gas exchange and are pierced by stems; examples include
Guard cells - specialized cells surround the yellow-wort and thoroughwort.
stomata and are shaped like two cupped hands.
SIMPLE LEAVES’ MARGIN STRUCTURE
LEAF INFORMATION Venation - arrangement of veins in a leaf
Leaves can be of many different shapes: Netted-Venation - one or a few prominent
Primarily, leaves are divided into simple - a midveins from which smaller minor veins
single leaf blade with a bud at the base of the branch into a meshed network; common to
leaf stem; or compound - a leaf with more than dicots and some nonflowering plants.
one blade. All blades are attached to a single Pinnately-Veined Leaves = main vein called
leaf stem. Where the leaf stem attaches to the midrib with secondary veins branching from it
twig there is a bud. (e.g., elm).
Palmately-Veined Leaves = veins radiate out of
DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPOUND LEAVES base of blade (e.g., maple).
Pinnate; Palmate; Doubly Compound
 Parallel Venation = characteristics of many Window Leaves - plant is buried in soil with
monocots (e.g., grasses, cereal grains); veins are transparent part exposed to light.  Being buried
parallel to one another. reduces loss of war in arid environments.
Dichotomous Venation = no midrib or large Flower Pot Leaves - structure to catch water and
veins; rather individual veins have a tendency to debris for nutrient collection - fairy-elephant's
fork evenly from the base of the the blade to the feet.
opposite margin, creating a fan-shaped leaf Cotyledons or “seed leaves”
(e.g., Gingko).  
FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES
SPECIALIZED OR MODIFIED LEAVES Photosynthesis - the primary function of leaves.
Cotyledons - embryonic or "seed" leaves. First They convert carbon dioxide, water, and UV
leaves produced by a germinating seed, often light into glucose through the process of
contain a store of food (obtained from the photosynthesis.
endosperm) to help the seedling become Transpiration
established. Transpiration - the removal of excess water
Tendrils - blade of leaves or leaflets are reduced from the plants into the atmosphere. This occurs
in size, allows plant to cling to other objects by the opening of stomata present in the leaves.
(e.g., sweet pea and garden peas. Guttation – the removal of excess water from
Shade Leaves - thinner, fewer hairs, larger to the xylem at the edges of the leaves when the
compensate for less light; often found in plants stomata are closed is known as guttation.
living in shaded areas. Storage - Leaves are a site of photosynthesis.
Drought-Resistant Leaves - thick, sunken Therefore, they store water and nutrients. The
stomata, often reduced in size succulent and thick leaves particularly adapt to
In American cacti and African euphorbs, leaves water storage.
are often reduced such that they serve as spine Defense - Some leaves are modified into spines
to discourage herbivory and reduce water loss; to protect them from being damaged or eaten by
stems serve as the primary organ of animals. For eg., Opuntia.
photosynthesis.
In pine trees, the leaves are adapted to living in
WHAT IS PHOTOSYNTHESIS?
a dry environment too. Water is locked up as ice
Cornelis Bernardus van Niel (also known as
during significant portions of the year and
Kees van Niel) was a Dutch-American
therefore not available to the plant; pine leaves
microbiologist.
possess sunken stomata, thick cuticles, needle-
He introduced the study of general
like leaves, and a hypodermis, which is an extra
microbiology to the United States and made key
cells just underneath the epidermis.
discoveries explaining the chemistry of
Prickles and Thorns - epidermal outgrowths on
photosynthesis.
stems and leaves (e.g., holly, rose, and
The process of photosynthesis is a chemical
raspberries; Hypodermic trichomes on stinging
reaction. It is the most important chemical
nettles.
reaction on our planet.
Storage Leaves - succulent leaves retain water
Photosynthesis is the process by which the
in large vacuoles.
energy of sunlight is converted into the energy
Reproductive Leaves - (e.g., Kalanchöe
of glucose
plantlets arise on margins of leaves.
Insect-Trapping Leaves - For example: pitcher
plants, sundews venus flytraps, and
bladderworts have modified leaves for capturing
insects; All these plants live under nutrient-poor
conditions and digest insect bodies to obtain
nitrogen and other essential nutrients.
Bracts - petal-like leaves.
 • Organisms that use light energy from the • Cellular Respiration:
sun to produce food—autotrophs • Cellular respiration is the process by
Ex: plants and some microorganisms which the energy of glucose is released in
(some bacteria and protists) the cell to be used for life processes
• Organisms that CANNOT use the sun’s (movement, breathing, blood circulation,
energy to make food—heterotrophs etc…)
Ex: animals and most microorganisms • Respiration occurs in ALL cells and can
take place either with or without oxygen
DESCRIBE PHTOSYNTHESIS present.
- The process of changing light energy to
chemical energy
- Energy stored as sugar Describe Cellular Respiration
- Occurs in plants and some algae The breakdown of glucose molecules to release
- Plants need light energy, CO2, and H2O energy
- Takes place in the chloroplasts, using Turns glucose into ATP
chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants Takes place in all living things
- Chlorophyll is the pigment inside the Is a step-by-step process
chloroplast that absorbs light for
photosynthesis TRANSPIRATION
Transpiration is the evaporation of water from
WHAT HAPPENS DURING PHOTOSYNTHESIS the aerial parts of plants.
Plants capture light energy and use that energy Of all the water plant absorbs, over 95-99% is
to make glucose transpired to the air as water vapor.
Sunlight provides the energy needed by
chlorophyll to change molecules of carbon From where water is transpired?
dioxide and water into glucose Aerial parts of whole young plant
Oxygen is also released in this reaction Lenticels (lenticular transpiration) 0.1%
Carbon dioxide enters the leaf through holes Cutin (cuticular transpiration) 3%~10%
called stomata Stomatum (stomatal transpiration) ~ 90%
CO2 combines with the stored energy in the
chloroplasts through a chemical reaction to What is most likely leaving through the stomata
make glucose of the leaf picture here?
The sugar is moved through tubes in the leaf to Water (H2O)
the roots, stems and fruits of the plants What is this process called?
Some of the sugar is used right away by the Stomatal Transpiration
plant for energy; some is stored as starch; and
some is built into plant tissue IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION
What process involves using CO2 and H2O
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? releasing O2 as a waste product?
We cannot make our own food (glucose, Photosynthesis
energy), we must get our food from plants. What is the plant using this process to make?
Plants are the first step in the food chain. Carbohydrates-glucose
The oxygen released during photosynthesis is If the plant needs water for photosynthesis, why
necessary for all living things. is water coming out of the stoma?

WHAT IS CELLULAR RESPIRATION? FUNCTIONS OF STOMATA

The release of chemical energy for use by cells. These stomata (leaf openings) naturally allow
Once the energy that was in sunlight is changed water to evaporate out.
into chemical energy by photosynthesis, an Why would the plant close stomata with guard
organism has to transform the chemical energy cells?
into a form that can be used by the organism. Prevent excess water loss through transpiration.
This process is cellular respiration. (conserve water)
So what is the point of having stomata? 1. LIGHT
Allows gas exchange for photosynthesis Stomata of most plant open in the day and close
at night, while CAM plants are just the opposite.
How do the guard cells react to the availability Stomata opening are sensitive to red light and
of water? blue light, and blue light is more effective, it
Dry – guard cells CLOSE stimulates opening by a blue-light receptor:
lots of H2O – guard cells OPEN zeaxanthin.
Stomata open in response to light, including
• Guard cells: cells that open and close the blue and red light. Red light induces stomatal
stoma opening via photosynthesis in the mesophyll
• Stomata: openings in leaf’s surface; and guard cell chloroplasts. In contrast, blue
when open: light as a signal induces stomatal opening.
• GAS EXCHANGE: Allows CO2 in & O2
out of leaf 2. TEMPERATURE
• TRANSPIRATION Stomatal aperture increases with Temp, within
20- 30℃ (the optimal).
Guard Cell Properties and Their Relationship The opening of stomata with increasing
with Stomatal Control temperature was apparently independent of the
Thickness of CW varies in the ventral and stomatal response regulated by atmospheric
dorsal part of the guard cells. humidity.
Contains chloroplast and can perform light
reaction. (not dark reaction for the lack of key 3. CO2
enzymes) Low CO2 conc. promotes stomatal opening,
Structurally isolated from epidermal cells for while high CO2 conc. inhibits stomatal opening
the lack of plasmodesmata (water and ions through its acidification of the guard cell thus
transmit only through cellular pathway, thus inhibits PM hyperpolarization.
helps to build up water gradient) If carbon dioxide concentrations inside the leaf
Little volume, little amount of water absorption start to fall, the plant will open its stomata so
or loss controls stomatal aperture. that more CO2 can enter.
4. WATER CONTENT
Mechanism of Stomatal Opening Stomata open when the leaf contain enough
----K+ Absorption Theory water. When there is a water shortage, they
H+-ATPase in PM is light activated close.
Its function is out-pumping H+ Stomatal responses to humidity, soil moisture
Inward rectifier K+ channel is voltage and other factors that influence plant water
dependent; PM hyperpolarization activates the status are critical drivers of photosynthesis,
channel and carry K+ inward productivity, water yield, ecohydrology and
Cl- is transported through Cl- /H+ symport or climate forcing, yet we still lack a thorough
Cl-/OH-antiport mechanistic understanding of these responses.
When the stomatum is opening, the [K+] rises
to 0.5M, anions rise to 0.2-0.5M, the osmotic 5. PLANT HORMONES
potential drops 2MPa, thus bring water in. CTK promotes opening
ABA inhibits
FACTORS INFLUENCING STOMATAL It was able to integrate environmental and
APERTURE endogenous signals in order to control the
Light stomatal aperture and thereby the gas exchange.
Temperature Factors that influence transpiration
CO2
Water content Transpiration from the leaf depends on two
Plant hormone major factors:
1. Difference in water vapor gradient
2. Diffusional resistance
 • The driving force of transpiration is the COMMON PARTS OF A FLOWER
“vapor pressure gradient.” This is the PETAL – The parts of a flower that are often
difference in vapor pressure between the conspicuously colored.
internal spaces in the leaf and the SEPAL - The outer parts of the flower (often
atmosphere around the leaf green and leaf-like) that enclose a developing
• Diffusional resistance comprises stomatal bud.
resistance and boundary layer resistance RECEPTACLE - The part of a flower stalk
where the parts of the flower are attached.
PEDUNCLE - The stalk of a flower.
Transpiration Rate=Driving Force/Resistance
CALYX – Term for all sepals (collective)
= water vapor inside the leaf - water vapor of the
COROLLA – Term for all petals (collective)
air/stomatal resistance + boundary layer resistance
PERIANTH – Combination of calyx and corolla
• Calyx (collective sepals)
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS THAT
Caducous
AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANPIRATION
- The sepals fall off as soon as the flower
Light
opens, so it looks like the flower doesn't
Plants transpire more rapidly in the light than in
have any sepals.
the dark. This is largely because light stimulates
Deciduous
the opening of the stomata. Light also speeds up
- Sepals fall after pollination.
transpiration by warming the leaf.
Persistent
Temperature
- If sepals don’t fall and remain attached to
Plants transpire more rapidly at higher
fruit
temperatures because water evaporates more
• Stamens
rapidly as the temperature rises.
Stamens are the male part of the flower
Humidity
Filament- The stalk of a stamen of a flower,
When the surrounding air is dry, diffusion of
supporting the anther.
water out of the leaf goes on more rapidly.
Anther- The part of the stamen where pollen is
Wind
produced.
When a breeze is present, the humid air is
Pollens - A mass of microspores in a seed plant
carried away and replaced by drier air.
appearing usually as a fine dust. Each pollen
Soil water
grain is a minute body, of varying shape and
A plant cannot continue to transpire rapidly if
structure, formed in the male structures of seed-
its water loss is not made up by replacement
bearing plants and transported by various means
from the soil. When absorption of water by the
(wind, water, insects, etc.) to the female
roots fails to keep up with the rate of
structures, where fertilization occurs.
transpiration, loss of turgor occurs, and the
• Variation of Androecium
stomata close. This immediately reduces the rate
of transpiration. If the loss of turgor extends to
the rest of the leaf and stem, the plant wilts.

Plant Organ: FLOWERS

Flowers are everywhere and it makes our
environment more aesthetic!
— Shannon Mullen
“Even the tiniest of flowers can have the toughest
roots.”
— Laurie Jean Sennott
“Every flower must grow through dirt.”
— Ken Petti
“Every flower bloom in its own time”
flowers”
 1. United by the filaments into one group INCOMPLETE FLOWERS - when one of the
usually forming a tube around the four whorl is missing
gynoecium. UNISEXUAL FLOWER - androecium or
2. United by their filaments so as to form two gynoecium any one of them are present
groups. BIXESUAL FLOWER - both male and female
3. Having four stamens disposed in pairs of are present
unequal length MONOECIOUS PLANT - both male and
4. Having six stamens four of which are longer female plant are present on the same plant
than the others DIOECIOUS PLANT - when male and female
5. United by the anthers into three or more flowers are present on a separate plant
groups
6. Having stamens so united FLOWERS’ SYMMETRY
• Pistil Actinomorphic/ Radial/ Regular- when the
Pistil are the female part of the flower flower is divided by any vertical plane into
Carpel - One of the leaf-like, seed-bearing equal halves
structures that constitute the innermost whorl of Zygomorphic/ Bilateral- when the flower is
a flower. divided into two equal halves only by vertical
Stigma - The part of the pistil where pollen plane
germinates. Asymmetrical/ Irregular- when the flower
Style – This is the name for the stalk of the cannot be divided into equal halves from any
pistil. When pollen reaches the stigma, it begins plane
to grow a tube through the style called a pollen flowers
tube, which will eventually reach the ovary.
Ovary - The enlarged basal portion of the pistil INTERNODAL ELONGATION
where ovules are produced. ANTHOPHORE – internode between the calyx
Ovule - The plant structure that develops into a and corolla; internode between the corolla and
seed when fertilized. androecium
• Types of Carpel GYNOPHORE - internode between corolla and
1. APOCARPOUS - having distinct carpels gynoecium; when androphore and gynophore
that are not joined together. both conditions are found in the same flower.
2. SYNCARPOUS - having the carpels of the CARPOPHORE- elongation of thalamus
gynoecium united in a compound ovary beyond carpels
3. MONOCARPOUS - having a single carpel
4. HYPANTHIUM - an enlargement of the GYNOPHORE - is the stalk of certain flowers
floral receptacle bearing on its rim the which supports the gynoecium elevating it
stamens, petals, and sepals above the branching points of other floral parts.
• Position of ovary ANDROGYNOPHORE - a stalk bearing both
Hypogynous - sepals, petals and stamens are the androecium and the gynoecium of a flower
inserted below the ovary. above the level of insertion of the perianth.
Perigynous - having a concave or flat receptacle ANTHOPHORE – a stalk like extension of the
with the gynoecium and other floral parts at the receptacle on which the pistil and corolla are
same/higher level borne internode between the corolla and
Epigynous - having the receptacle enclosing and androecium
fused with the gynoecium so that the other floral ANDROPHORE - an extension of the
parts arise above it receptacle carrying the androecium and the
flowers gynoecium
CARPOPHORE- an elongated axis that raises
TYPES OF FLOWERS the stem of the pistil above the stamens.
COMPLETE FLOWER - when calyx, corolla, flowers
androecium (male part), and gynoecium (female
part) are present INFLORESENCE
 Bracts – a modified leaf or scale, typically Verticil – (or Whorl) -The flowers are borne in a
small, with a flower or flower cluster in its axil. tight circle at each node
Involucre – one or more whorls of bracts Panicle - A panicle is a branched raceme in
situated below and close to a flower, flower which each branch has more than one flower,
cluster, or fruit Thyrse - the main axis grows indeterminately,
Involucel– a secondary involucre and the subaxes (branches) have determinate
Spathe – a large sheathing bract enclosing the growth.
flower cluster of certain plants, especially the Glomerule - cymose inflorescence in the form
spadix of arums and palms of a ball-like cluster of flowers.
Petaloid bract – conspicuously large white Cymes - flat-topped inflorescence in which the
bracts forming a whorl surrounding the cluster central flowers open first, followed by the
of small flowers in the centre, exactly look like peripheral flowers
a whorl of petals.
Glumes– each of two membranous bracts
surrounding the spikelet of a grass (forming the
husk of a cereal grain) or one surrounding the
florets of a sedge.

• Solitary - just one flower on the peduncle

• Inflorescence – may be defined as a
cluster of flowers

TYPES OF INFLORESCENCES
Catkin – elongated cluster of single-sex flowers
bearing scaly bracts and usually lacking petals.
Spadix – a floral spike with a fleshy or
succulent axis usually enclosed in a spathe.
(sheathing bract enclosing the flower cluster of
certain plants)
Raceme – a flower cluster with the separate
flowers attached by short equal stalks at equal
distances along a central stem.
Umbel – a flower cluster in which stalks of
nearly equal length spring from a common
center and form a flat or curved surface
Compound umbel- inflorescence in which all
the pedicels arise at the apex of an axis. It is
commonly compound, usually umbrella-shaped
Spike– an unbranched, indeterminate
inflorescence, similar to a raceme, but bearing
sessile flowers (sessile flowers are attached
directly, without stalks).
Head – a compact mass of flowers at the top of
a stem, especially a capitulum.
Corymb– a raceme in which the pedicels of the
lower flowers are longer than those of the upper
flowers so that the inflorescence has a flat-
topped appearance overall
Spiklet - describes the typical arrangement of
the flowers of grasses, sedges and some other
Monocots. Each spikelet has one or more florets