Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo

College of Medical Laboratory Science

PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Important Measurements and Notations TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

CHAPTER OUTLINE Standardization is a continual problem in the

I. Important Measurements Philippines because it is barely practiced in
IA. Standardization laboratories.
IB. SI Units Considering that we have about 4,000 clinical
IC. Prefixes Used in the SI Units laboratories in the PH, more often than not, they use
different machines to analyze results.
II. Significant Figures
IIA. Rules of Significant Figures
IIB. Examples of Significant Figures National External Quality Assurance
System
III. Scientific Notations
They give out samples or standards to
laboratories. Reference laboratories will
IMPORTANT MEASUREMENTS
then verify whether the results come out
STANDARDIZATION is the process of having similar from NEQAS.
people agree that a certain something is
acceptable.
For agreement that certain units are universal.
SYSTEM INTERNATIONAL UNITS

It is a set of units that describe a physical

quantity. The SI unit is also referred to as
Why is it important? the metric system.
1. To be able to agree on how to report Some countries, however, still do not adapt to the SI
our results, measure analytes, and units. Instead, they use imperial units (e.g., inches,
communicate the results. yards, feet, etc.), that might be a bit difficult to
convert with each other.
2. To avoid misinterpretation of the
results from reference values that Physical
Name of Unit Abbreviation
are not standardized. Quantity
3. To ensure that the results released mass Kilogram kg
length Meter m
of clinical laboratories, despite the time Second s/sec
lack of standardization, are in the temperature Kelvin K
reference range. amount of
Mole mol
substance
electric current Ampere A
luminous Candela cd
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Important Measurements and Notations TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

intensity femto f 10-15 1 * 10-15

* These base units are widely accepted by the * μ is pronounced as mew.
scientific community.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
Why is Kelvin used as the SI unit for
temperature? These are numbers that communicate
mathematical value and pertains to the
1. While Celsius and Fahrenheit are accuracy of a measurement.
used for generalization, Kelvin is a
more appropriate SI unit for
temperature in research studies. RULES OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
2. Kelvin is measured at base zero;
absolute lowest. Unlike Celsius and 1. Non-zero digits are significant.
Fahrenheit, 0° is simply another 127
point in the scale and will have
negative values. 2. Zeroes in between significant digits
3. Kelvin is considered as a ratio, while are significant.
Celsius and Fahrenheit are known as 204
intervals.
3. Trailing zeroes are only significant if
at the decimal portion.
PREFIXES USED IN THE METRIC SYSTEM 0.71000
Prefixes are used to scale up or down a 4. Leading zeroes are found at the
physical quantity. beginning and are insignificant. They
Prefix Abbreviation Meaning Example are pertained to as placeholders.
giga G 109 1 * 109
mega M 106 1 * 106 0.0006
kilo k 103 1 * 103
base unit
deci d 10-1 0.1
centi c 10-2 0.01
milli m 10-3 0.001
micro μ 10-6 1 * 10-6
nano n 10-9 1 * 10-9 Examples:
pico p 10-12 1 * 10-12
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Important Measurements and Notations TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

200 150,000,000 = 1.50 x 108

This example only has one significant figure, * number of movements
because there is no decimal point after the 2. For numbers with a decimal, move
trailing zeroes. This is an issue of notation the decimal from its place and in
and shows only the estimated value. Such between two real numbers.
zeroes are known as placeholders.
0.00008951 = 8.95 x 10-5
2500.
Numbers more than 0 will have a positive exponent
This indicates that the measured value is and numbers less than 0 will have a negative
accurate and precise since there is a exponent.
presence of a decimal point.
1785269
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION TO EXPANDED FORM
There are seven significant figures since
1. Move the decimal place according to
they are all real numbers.
the exponent in the scientific
notation.
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 5.6 x 104 = 5600
Scientific notation Is a way of expressing For scientific notations with positive
numbers that are too large or too small to exponents, the decimal point is moved to
be conveniently written in decimal form. the right.
9.71 x 10-5 = 0.0000971

WRITING SCIENTIFIC NOTATIONS For scientific notations with negative

exponents, the decimal point is moved to
N.nn x 10E the left.
coefficient base exponent

1. For whole numbers, simply move

the decimal from the last digit and in
between two real numbers.
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Laboratory Mathematics and Analytical Approach TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

CHAPTER OUTLINE TYPES OF CONCENTRATIONS

I. Laboratory Mathematics
IA. Molarity Typically, molarity and percent
IB. Molality concentrations are commonly used in the
IC. Normality clinical laboratory.
ID. Percent Concentrations
IE. Dilution
MOLARITY
II. Analytical Approach to Laboratory
Mathematics It is defined as the moles of solute per liter
of solution.
LABORATORY MATHEMATICS moles of solute
M=
liters of solution
LABORATORY mathematics plays a vital role
in ensuring accuracy in the results of tests Be very particular of the units used. Before starting
any computations, convert the necessary units first.
and that the methods done are of good
quality.

MOLALITY
Why is it important? It is the moles of solute in a solution per
1. The concentration of reagents is an kilogram of solvent.
important factor in the accuracy of moles of solute
test results. m=
kilograms of solvent
2. Not only is it significant in clinical
chemistry, but in other sections of It is concerned with the solvent and not the solution
itself.
the laboratory as well.
Histopathology requires the use of fixatives.

Fixatives is a chemical substance used to preserve NORMALITY

biological materials prior to microscopy or other
examinations. Formaldehyde, ethanol, acetic acid, The number of gram or mole equivalents of
are some examples of this. solute per liter of solution.
Concentration of reagents is also important in GEW
N=
molecular pathology for DNA testing. liters of solution
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Laboratory Mathematics and Analytical Approach TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

or simply adding more solvent to the solution,

such as water.
N=molarity x GEW
Gram Equivalent Weights C 1 V 1=C 2 V 2

It is the amount of substance in a certain

chemical that is replaceable. (H or OH) C1 = initial C2 = final
moles concentration concentration
GEW = V1 = initial volume V2 = final volume
valence electrons

PERCENT CONCENTRATIONS
Example Problems:
This is one of the most common equations
in the laboratory. These are concentrations
expressed in percent, relating the amount 1. Find the molarity of a 1.2L solution if
of solute to the total amount of solution. 325g of copper sulfate (159.6g/mol)
is added.
w mass of solute
= x 100
v volume of solvent Given:
- 1.2L solution
w mass of solute - 325g of copper sulfate (159.6g/mol)
= x 100
w mass of solvent Formula:
moles of solute
M=
v volume of solute liters of solution
= x 100
v volume of solvent Solution:
grams of solute
mol=
DILUTION molecular weight
325 g of CuSO 4
This is the process of reducing the mol=
159.6 g /mol
concentration of a solute in a solution by
mol=2.04 moles
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Laboratory Mathematics and Analytical Approach TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

2.04 moles 3. What would the final volume be if a

M=
1.2 L 1.5L of 55% solution is diluted to
M =1.69 M 25%?
Given:

2. Find the molality of a 4.2L solution - V1 = 1.5L

made with 298g of copper sulfate - C1 = 55% solution
(159.6g/mol) was dissolved in 1.8kg - C2 = 25%
of solvent. Formula:
Given: C 1V 1
V 2=
C2
- 4.2L solution
- 298g of copper sulfate (159.6g/mol) Solution:
- 1.8kg of solvent
(55 %)( 1.5 L)
V 2=
Formula: 25 %
moles of solute V 2=3.3 L
m=
kilograms of solvent
Solution:
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
grams of solute
mol= 1. Identify and define the problem.
molecular weight
2. Design the experimental procedure.
298 g of CuSO 4 2.1 Formulate a hypothesis.
mol=
159.6 g /mol 3. Conduct an experiment and gather
mol=1.86 moles data.
4. Analyze the experimental data.
4.1 Record the results.
1.86 moles 4.2 Form conclusions.
m=
1.8 kg 5. Propose a solution to the problem.
m=1.04 m
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Laboratory Mathematics and Analytical Approach TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

CHAPTER OUTLINE 5 x 5 = 52
I. Dimensional Analysis
cm x cm = cm2
IA. How to Perform Dimensional
Analysis It makes computations a lot simpler and more
streamlined.
II. Definition of Terms
IIA. Atomic Mass
IIB. Molecular Weight
STEPS TO PERFORM DIMENSIONAL
IIC. Mole
IID. Molar Mass ANALYSIS

Step 1:
III. Chemical Formulas and the Mole
Concept Identify the known and the units of the new
IIIA. Equations’ Flowchart quantity to be determined.

IV. Chemical Equations Write an equation where the given quantity

IVA. Conventions in Writing Chemical is on the left and the desired quantity is on
Equations the right.
IVB. Balancing Chemical Equations
given quantity = desired quantity
V. Chemical Equations and the Mole Step 2:
Concept
Multiply the given quantity by one or more
VI. Reactants conversion factors.

VII. Percent Yield The original units are canceled, leaving only
the desired units.

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 1km = 1000m

DIMENSIONAL analysis is a general Step 3:

problem-solving method in which the units Perform the mathematical operations
associated with numbers are used as a indicated by the conversion factor setup.
guide in setting up calculations.

Example Problem:
Examples:
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

It is the sum of the atomic weights for the

atoms in a molecule.
1. How many cm are there in 18.9m?
Example:
Step 1:
C2H6
18.9m = ____ cm
C: 2 x 12 = 24
Step 2:
H: 6 x 1 = 6
1m = 0.01cm
MW = 30.0 amu
0.01 cm
18.9 m=
1m
0.01 cm MOLE
18.9 m=
1m
It is the SI unit of the amount of substance
Step 3:
that contains the same number of entities
0.01 cm as there are atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-
18.9 m=
1m 12.
6.02x1023 objects/particles
¿ 1890 cm Avogadro’s number

1 mole = 6.02x1023

DEFINITION OF TERMS

ATOMIC MASS MOLAR MASS

The mass of atoms of elements expressed in It is the mass, in grams, of a substance that
atomic mass units (amu). is numerically equal to the substance
formula mass.

MOLECULAR WEIGHT
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

Example Problem: CHEMICAL FORMULAS AND THE MOLE

CONCEPT

1. Calculate the molar mass of a 0.30 This shows that chemical formulas can be
mole sample of acetaminophen. interpreted in two ways.

Given: N2O4

- 0.30 moles 1 2
The formula The formula
- C8H9O2N
contains two atoms contains two moles
Solution: of N and four of N and four
atoms of O in one moles of O in one
C: 12 x 8 = 96 molecule. mole.
H: 1 x 9 = 9
When it is necessary to know the number of moles
O: 16 x 2 = 32
of a particular element within a compound, the
N: 14 x 1 = 14 subscript of the element’s symbol becomes part of
the conversion factor.
MW = 151 amu

N2O4
151 g acetaminophen
0.30 moles= 2moles of nitrogen
1mole of acetaminophen N: or
1 mole of N 204
151 g acetaminophen 1 mole of N 2O 4
0.30 moles=
1mole of acetaminophen 2moles of nitrogen
( 0.30 ) ( 151 g )=45.3 g
molar mass=45.3 g 4 moles of oxygen 1mole of N 2 O 4
O: or
1 mole of N 204 4 moles of oxygen

Example Problem:
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

1. How many moles of carbon atoms,

hydrogen atoms, and oxygen atoms
are present in 1.2 mole of C3H6O3?
FLOWCHART FOR CALCULATIONS
Given:
Given Formula Desired
- 1.2 mole of C3H6O3 use
particles of moles of
Avogadro’s
Solution: substance substance
number
For carbon atoms grams of use molar moles of
substance mass substance
3 moles of C moles of
1.2 moles= use chemical
moles of element
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3 formula
compound within a
subscripts
3 moles of C compound
1.2 moles=
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3
¿ 3.6 moles of C CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

For hydrogen atoms A chemical equation is a written statement

that uses chemical symbols and formulas to
6 moles of H
1.2 moles= describe the changes that occur in a
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3
chemical reaction.
6 moles of H
1.2 moles=
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3
¿ 7.2 moles of H CONVENTIONS IN WRITING CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
For oxygen atoms
3 moles of O 1. Reactants are always written on the
1.2 moles= left side of the equation, while
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3
products are always written on the
3 moles of O right side of the equation.
1.2 moles=
1 mole of C 3 H 6 O3
CaS + H2O  CaO + H2S
¿ 3.6 moles of O
reactants products
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

2. Reactants and products are 2FeI2 + 3Cl2  2FeCl3 + I2

separated by an arrow pointing
3. Pick a third element to balance (if
towards the products.
necessary).
CaS + H2O  CaO + H2S
2FeI2 + 3Cl2  2FeCl3 + 2I2
3. Plus signs are used to separate
different reactants or products.
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS AND THE MOLE
CaS + H2O  CaO + H2S
CONCEPT

Coefficients in a balanced chemical

BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS equation can be interpreted in two ways.
A balanced chemical equation has the same N2 + 3H2  2NH3
number of atoms of each element involved
1 2
in the reaction on each side of the equation.
One molecule of N2 One mole of N2
Unbalanced chemical equations are brought reacts with 3 reacts with 3 moles
into balance by adding coefficients. molecules of H2, to of H2, to produce 2
produce 2 moles of NH3.
4NH3 + 3O2  2N2 + 6H2O molecules of NH3.
A coefficient is a number placed to the left of a
chemical formula in a chemical equation.

1. Start with the compound that REACTANTS

contains the greatest number of
atoms and element that has the LIMITING REACTANT
greatest number of atoms.
Reactant in a chemical reaction that limits
FeI2 + Cl2  FeCl3 + I2 the amount of product that can be formed.
FeI2 + 3Cl2  2FeCl3 + I2
2. As the second element to balance, To get the limiting reactants…
one whose amount is already set on
1. Convert the reactants from grams to
one side of the equation by a
moles.
previously determined coefficient.
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

2. Relate moles of reactant A to

reactant B.
actual yield
3. Relate moles of reactant B to percent yield= x 100
theoretical yield
reactant A.
EXCESS REACTANT

This reactant remains when the limiting

reactant is completely consumed.

PERCENT YIELD

It is the comparison of the amount obtained

to the amount predicted.

Theoretical and Actual Yield

Actual yield is the amount one produces
and measures.
Theoretical yield is the amount of product
that can be produced based on calculation.
It is the amount of product possible as calculated
through the stoichiometry problem.
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Dimensional Analysis & Stoichiometry TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

CHAPTER OUTLINE Analytical chemists typically operate at the extreme

I. Introduction to Analytical Chemistry edges of analysis, extending and improving the
IA. Analytical Chemistry as a Profession ability to make meaningful measurements on smaller
or complex samples, on shorter time scales, and on
species present at lower concentrations.
II. The Analytical Perspective

III. Purpose of Analytical Chemistry

THE ANALYTICAL PERSPECTIVE
IV. Quantitative and Qualitative
IVA. Quantitative Test and Analysis
IVB. Qualitative Test and Analysis

V. Common Analytical Problems

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

ANALYTICAL chemistry is often described as

the area of chemistry responsible for
characterizing the composition of matter,
both qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative refers to what is present and quantitative
Is there a plan for
means how much is present. What is the analytical
validating the
problem?
experimental method?
What type of
How were the samples
information is needed
A more appropriate description of analytical collected?
to solve the problem?
chemistry is… Is there evidence that
steps 2, 3, and 4 of the
“… it is the science of inventing and applying How will the solution to
analytical approach are
this problem be used?
the concepts, principles, and strategies for repeated more than
measuring the characteristics of chemical once?
What criteria were
systems and species.” considered in designing
Was there a successful
conclusion to the
the experimental
problem?
procedure?
Were there any potential interferences that had to
be eliminated? If so, how were they treated?
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

An analysis involves several steps and PURPOSE OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

operations which depend on:
Analytical chemistry serves the needs in
1. The problem many fields:
2. The expertise of the researcher
3. The availability of equipment
Analysts should be involved in every step. In medicine…
It is the basis for clinical laboratory
tests that helps physicians diagnose
disease and chart progress of the
patient’s recovery.
In the industry…
It provides means of testing raw
materials and assuring the quality of
finished products whose chemical
composition is critical.
In the environment…
The techniques of analytical
chemistry can be used to evaluate
the environmental quality for
suspected contamination.
In food and nutrition…
The nutritional value of different
variety of food are often calculated
from its chemical analysis.

… and more.
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE TESTS

QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE Selective Reactions

ANALYSIS ANALYSIS
It is a test that can occur with other
refers to what refers to how much substances but exhibits a degree of
preference for the substances of interest.
QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

Reveals the identity of the elements and Specific Reactions

compounds in a sample.
A test that occurs only with the substance
of interest.
How are qualitative tests performed?
1. Through selective chemical reactions Selectivity Strategies
or with the use of instrumentation.
 Formation of white precipitate
when adding a solution of silver Sample preparation: Target analyte
nitrate in diluted nitric acid extraction; (functional
indicates the presence of precipitation groups)
halides.
2. Some chemical reactions produce Chromatography
Instrumentation
specific colors to indicate the (separates sample
(selected detectors)
constituents)
presence of the sample of interest.
 Infrared spectra will produce
fingerprints of organic
compounds or their functional
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
group.
Indicates the amount of each substance in a
sample and measures the exact amount of
substance of interest.
Say that a sample is analyze for all its constituents.
The substance measured is called analyte and the
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

Analytical Chemistry: An Introduction TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid

process of measuring analytes is called 3. Fundamental Analysis – its purpose

determination. is to improve an analytical method’s
QUANTITATIVE TESTS capabilities.

Phases

 Fast Screening Phase: rapid test that

indicates the presence or absence of
the sample of interest.
 Identification Phase
 Quantification Phase

Techniques
Immunoassays Mas-Spectrometry
Gas Liquid
Chromatography Chromatography

COMMON ANALYTICAL PROBLEMS

Many problems in analytical chemistry

begin with the need to identify what is
present in a sample.

1. Quantitative Analysis – it is the

determination of how much of a
constituent species is present in a
sample.
2. Characterization Analysis – this is an
evaluation of a sample’s chemical or
physical properties.
 Our Lady of Fatima University – Antipolo
College of Medical Laboratory Science
AY ’22 – ’23

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 111 LECTURE PROFESSOR: Jeremy de Leon

TRANSES BY: Alexandra Mae Maipid