Module 2

Gas Turbine Technology Martials and Manufacturing & Systems
Module - 2
MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING & SYSTEMS

Syllabus:
Materials and manufacturing:
Criteria for selection of materials. Heat ranges of metals, high temperature strength.
Surface finishing. Powder metallurgy. Use of composites and Ceramics. Super alloys for
Turbines.
Systems:
Fuel systems and components. Sensors and Controls. FADEC interface with engine.
Typical fuel system. Oil system components. Typical oil system. Starting systems.
Typical starting characteristics. Various gas turbine starters.
2.1 Gas Turbine materials / Criteria for selection of materials
 High-temperature, high-strength materials and unique methods of manufacture

have made the gas turbine engine a practical reality in a few decades.
 To a large measure, the performance of turbojet and turboprop engines depend on
the temperature at the inlet to the turbine.
 Increasing the turbine inlet temperature from the present limit (for most engines in
high production) of approximately 927 to 1370°C will result in a specific thrust
increase of approximately 130 percent, along with a corresponding decrease in
specific fuel consumption.
 For this reason, obviously, high cycle temperatures are desirable. Just as obvious is
the fact that not all materials can withstand the hostile operating conditions found
in parts of the gas turbine engine.
 Research in material technology is continuing to restructure molecules to conform
to whatever properties are deemed desirable.
 For example, titanium is being restructured to withstand high turbine inlet
temperatures, and ceramics are being made more flexible, which will increase their
usability in high-stress situations.
 It is predicted that molecular manipulation will soon result in more powerful and
safer engines.
Dept. of Aeronautical Engineering. SDIT, Mangaluru rajreddyhg@gmail.com 46

2.1.1 Commonly Used Terms
Some of the more commonly used terms and characteristics considered in the selection
of materials in the field of metallurgy and metalworking are listed below.
 Strength
o Creep strength—Defined as the ability of a metal to resist slow
deformation due to stress, but at a stress level less than that needed to reach
the yield point. Creep strength is usually stated in terms of time,
temperature, and load.
o Yield strength—This point is reached when the metal exhibits a permanent
set under load.
o Rupture strength—That point where the metal will break under a
Continual load applied for periods of 100 and 1000 h. Metals are usually
tested at several temperatures.
o Ultimate tensile strength—The load under which the metal will break in a
short time.
 Ductility—The ability of a metal to deform without breaking.
 Coefficient of expansion—A measure of how much a metal will expand or grow
with the application of heat.
 Thermal conductivity—The measure of the ability of a metal to transmit heat.
 Corrosion and oxidation resistance—An important factor that indicates how well
a metal can resist the corrosive effects of the hot exhaust stream.
 Melting point—The temperature at which the metal becomes a liquid.
 Critical temperature—As a metal is cooled, it passes through distinct temperature
points where its internal structure and physical properties are altered. The rate of
cooling will greatly influence the ultimate properties of the metal.
 Heat treatability—A measure of how the metal’s basic structure will vary under
an operation, or series of operations, involving heating and cooling of the metal
while it is in a solid state. Ferritic, austenitic, and martensitic steels all vary as to
their heat treatability. (All of these terms have to do with the physical and chemical
properties of metal)
 Thermal shock resistance—The ability of a metal to withstand extreme changes
in temperature in short periods of time.

 Hardness—An important characteristic in that it influences ease of manufacture

and therefore cost.
Metalworking terms listed here and discussed further in this chapter include the
following:
 Casting—A process whereby metal, in a molten state, solidifies in a mold.

 Forging—A process of plastic deformation under a pressure that may be slowly or
quickly applied.
 Electrochemical machining (ECM) - ECM is accomplished by controlled high-
speed deplating using a shaped tool (cathode), an electricity-conducting solution,
and the workpiece (anode).
 Machining—Any process whereby metal is formed by cutting, hot or cold rolling,
pinching, punching, grinding. or by means of laser beams.
 Extrusion—Metal is pushed through a die to form various cross-sectional shapes.
 Welding—A process of fusing two pieces of metal together by locally melting part
of the material through the use of arc welders, plasmas, lasers, or electron beams.
 Pressing—Metals are blended, pressed, sintered (a process of fusing powder
particles together through heat), and then coined out of the prealloyed powders.
 Protective finishes and surface treatments—These include plating by means of
electrical and chemical processes, by use of ceramic coatings, or by painting.
Surface treatments for increased wear may take the form of nitriding, cyaniding,
carburizing, diffusion coating, and flame plating.
 Shot peening—A plastic flow or stretching of a metal’s surface by a rain of round
metallic shot thrown at high velocity.
 Heat treatment—A process to impart specific physical properties to a metal alloy.
It includes normalizing, annealing, stress relieving, tempering, and hardening.
 Inspection—Strictly speaking, not a part of the metal working process, inspection
is nevertheless integrally associated with it. Inspection methods include magnetic
particle and dye penetrant inspection, x-ray inspection, dimensional and visual
inspection, and inspection by devices using sound, light, and air.
2.2 Heat Ranges of Metals

The operating conditions within a gas turbine engine vary considerably, and metals
differ in their ability to satisfactorily meet these conditions.

2.2.1 Aluminum Alloys
 Aluminum and its alloys are used in temperature ranges up to 2600 C.

 With low density and good strength- to-weight ratios, aluminum forgings and
castings are used extensively for centrifugal compressor wheels and housings, air
inlet sections, accessory sections, and the accessories themselves.
 Some newer aluminum alloys include aluminum lithium, which is about 10 percent
lighter than conventional aluminum and about 10 percent stiffer.
 Aluminum lithium presents a hazard in its molten form when moisture is present
and it costs more than conventional alloys, but it will last two to three times longer
because of its superior fatigue performance.
 Aluminum alloyed with iron and cerium will allow continued aluminum alloy use
up to 3440 C.
2.2.2 Titanium Alloys
 Titanium and its alloys are used for centrifugal-flow rotors, axial-flow compressor
wheels and blades, and other forged components in many large, high-performance
engines.
 Titanium combines high strength with low density and is suitable for applications
up to 5380 C.
 Newer titanium alloys include titanium aluminide, which is good for temperatures
to 8160 C.
 Titanium is alloyed with vanadium, aluminum, chromium, tin, zirconium, and
molybdenum to improve its manufacturability.
2.2.3 Steel Alloys
 This group includes high-chromium and high-nickel iron base alloys in addition to
low alloy steels.
 Because of their relatively low material cost, ease of fabrication, and good
mechanical properties, the low-alloy steels are commonly used for both rotating and
static engine components, such as compressor rotor blades wheels, spacers, Stator
vanes, and structural members.
 Low-alloy steels can be heat-treated and used in temperatures up to 5380 C.
 High nickel-chromium, iron-base alloys can be used up to 6770 C.

 The use of steel may decrease because of the increasing use of the aluminum and
titanium alloys mentioned above.
2.2.4 Nickel-Base Alloys
 The nickel-base alloys constitute some of the best metals for use between 6490 C
and 9820 C.
 Most contain little or no iron.
 They develop their high-temperature strength by age hardening and are
characterized by long-time creep-rupture strength and high ultimate and yield
strength combined with good ductility.
 Many of these materials, originally developed for turbine bucket applications, are
also being used in turbine wheels, shafts, spacers, and other parts.
2.2.5 Cobalt-Base Alloys
 Cobalt-base alloys form another important group of high temperature, high-

strength, and high-corrosion-resistance metals.
 The cobalt-base alloys constitute some of the best metals for use between 9000 C
and 10500 C.
 Again, as a group, they contain little or no iron.
 These alloys are used in afterburners, turbine vanes and blades, and other parts of
the engine subjected to very high temperatures.
 Their use is somewhat restricted due to cost and the limitation imposed because of
cobalt's status as a critical material.
2.3 Chemical Elements Used in Alloys
 The percentages of the various elements used partially determines the physical and
chemical characteristics of the alloy and its suitability to a particular application.
 Three characteristics that must be considered are
o High-temperature strength
o Resistance to oxidation and corrosion
o Resistance to thermal shock
2.3.1 High-Temperature Strength

 The most highly stressed parts of the gas turbine engine are the turbine blades and
disks. Centrifugal forces tending to break the disk vary as the square of the speed.
 For example, the centrifugal force on a disk rotating at 20,000 rpm will be four
times that at 10,000 rpm. Blades weighing only 6.2 grams may exert loads of over
1814 kg at maximum rpm.
 The blades must also resist the high bending loads applied by the moving gas stream
to produce the thousands of horsepower needed to drive the compressor.
 There is also a severe temperature gradient (difference) between the central portion
of the disk and its periphery of several hundred degrees centigrade.
 Many metals that would be quite satisfactory at room temperatures will lose much
of their strength at the elevated temperatures encountered in the engine's hot section.
 The ultimate tensile strength of a metal at one temperature is not necessarily
indicative of its ultimate tensile strength at a higher temperature.
 The Creep strength, which is closely associated with ultimate tensile strength, is
probably one of the most important considerations in the selection of a suitable
metal for turbine blades.
 Engine vibration and fatigue resistance will also have some influence on the
selection and useful life of both disks and blades.
 Although many materials will withstand the high temperature encountered in the
modem gas turbine engine (for example, carbon, columbium, molybdenum,
rhenium, tantalum, and tungsten, all have melting points above 22000 C, the ability
to withstand high temperatures while maintaining a reasonable tensile strength is
not the only consideration.
 Such factors as critical temperature, rupture strength, thermal conductivity,
coefficient of expansion, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, corrosion
resistance, workability, and cost must all taken into account when selecting any
particular metal.
2.3.2 Resistance to Oxidation and Corrosion
 Corrosion and oxidation are results of electrical and chemical reactions with other
materials.
 The hot exhaust gas stream encountered in the engine Speeds up this reaction. While
all metals will corrode or oxidize, the degree of oxidation is determined by the base
alloy and the properties of the oxide coating formed.

 If the oxide coating is porous or has a coefficient of expansion different from that
of the base metal, the base metal will be continually exposed to the oxidizing
atmosphere.
 One solution to the problem of oxidation at elevated temperatures has been the
development and use of ceramic coatings.
 One product called Solaramic coating, manufactured by Solar, a division of
International Harvester Company located in San Diego, California, is a ready-to-
use ceramic slurry that can be thinned with water and applied to a part by spraying,
brushing, or dipping.
 After drying, the Solaramic material will change to a white powder, which in turn
is transformed to a ceramic coating when baked at 5100 C.
 Ceramic-coated afterburner liners and combustion chambers are in use today.
 The ceramic coating has two basic functions
o Sealing the base metal surface against corrosion, oxidation, and
carbonization
o Insulating the base metal against high temperatures
 These coatings are not without disadvantages, in that they are more susceptible to
thermal shock, they must have the same coefficient of expansion as the base metal,
they are brittle, and they have low tensile strength, which, Of course, restricts their
use in the engine.
 Some work that shows promise is being done with various metal-ceramic
combinations called Cermets or Ceramels.
 Ceramic materials being used include aluminum, beryllium, thorium, and zirconium
oxides, to name a few.
2.3.3 Thermal Shock Resistance
 Many materials otherwise quite suitable must be rejected because of their poor
thermal shock characteristics.
 Several engine failures have been attributed to thermal shock on the turbine disk.
 Ceramic coatings in particular are vulnerable to this form of stress.
 Improved fuel controls, starting techniques, and engine design have lessened this
problem.

2.4 Convective, Film, and Impingement Cooling
 The effort to achieve higher turbine inlet temperatures, and therefore higher thermal
efficiencies, has been approached from two directions.
 The first has been the development and use of high-temperature materials, both
metals and ceramics.
 The second avenue of approach has been to cool the highly stressed turbine
components.
 One method of cooling the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades on gas turbine
engines is to pass compressor bleed air through the hollow blades to cool them by
convective heat transfer.
 A newer procedure called film cooling also uses compressor bleed air, which is
made to flow along the outside surface of both vanes and blades, thus forming an
insulating blanket of cooler air between the metal and the hot gas stream. The layer
of air also reduces temperature gradients and thermal stress.

 Advanced manufacturing techniques such as shaped-tube electrolytic machining

(STEM) and Electro-Stream (trademark of General Electric) drilling have made the
production of the necessary small holes in the superhard turbine material possible.
 Some engines also use the air bled from the compressor to cool the front and rear
face of the turbine disks.
2.5 Transpiration Cooling
 Transpiration cooling is a novel and efficient method of allowing the turbine blades
and other parts within the hot section to operate at much higher turbine inlet
temperatures.
 In this type of cooled blade the air passes through thousands of holes in a porous
airfoil made from a sintered wire mesh material.
 Since the sintered wire mesh is not strong enough by itself, an internal strut is
provided as the main structural support carrying all airfoil and centrifugal loads.
 Fabrication techniques involve rolling layers of woven wire mesh and then sintering
these layers to form a porous metal sheet, which is then rolled into an airfoil shape.
 Porous materials, for example, Poroloy made by the Bendix Corporation, have been
tested for use in combustion chambers and for afterburner liners.
 A similar material called —Rigimesh has also been used in rocket engines to help
keep the fuel nozzles cool.
 Many manufacturers are experimenting with other types of porous materials for use
in blades in an attempt to obtain higher turbine inlet temperatures.
2.6 Ceramics
 Experiments are being performed using ceramic materials in many of the engine's
hot section parts, such as the combustor, nozzle diaphragm, turbine blades, and
turbine disks.
 Materials being looked at are hot-pressed and/or bonded silicon nitride or silicon
carbide, with some materials being reinforced with carbon or silicon carbide fibers.
 Glass ceramics reinforced with fiber also show promise for use in gas turbine
engines.
 Advances in material development and new cooling techniques have allowed
modem engines to be designed that have operating turbine inlet temperatures of

13710 C and higher, with a resulting 100 percent increase in specific weight (thrust-
to-weight ratio) and with a lower specific fuel consumption in comparison with
previous engines.
2.7 Composite Materials
 Relatively new types of materials called composites are coming to the foreground
for use in both airframes and engines.
 In these products, graphite, glass or boron filaments are embedded in an epoxy-resin
matrix or base substance.
 Other types of filaments and matrices such as reinforcing materials of continuous
silicon carbide, boron carbide, and graphite embedded in a ductile matrix of
aluminum or titanium alloys are called metal matrix composites (MMC) and are
being tried to meet the demands of higher temperature ardor stress.
 The chief advantage of the composite material is its favorable strength-to-weight
ratio, which can lead to the lightening of many structural parts. For example, a
lighter fan blade will allow a lighter fan disk, which will in turn permit a lightening
of other parts all the way down the line.
 Composite materials may be used in conjunction with other load-bearing materials
to provide a support function.
 Typical of this type of structure are fan blades made with a steel spar and base and
with an airfoil composite shell.
 In an attempt to reduce deformation and failure of large fan blades, the General
Electric Company is experimenting with blades made of graphite epoxy material
with a nickel leading edge.
 These fan blades may prove to be much more durable than those made from
titanium, and they also suffer little deformation after impact.
 Closely associated with the future use of composite materials is the development of
new manufacturing techniques to produce these materials.
2.8 Manufacturing Techniques
 The variety of manufacturing techniques is large and depends on a number of

factors, such as the material from which the part is made, the duties the part must
perform, and the cost of the process.

 As a result, basic parts of the engine are produced by several casting and forging
processes, literally dozens of machine operations, and fabrication procedures using
a variety of metal-joining methods.
2.8.1 Casting
 Several engine parts are cast in aluminum, magnesium, steel, or exotic alloys.
 These parts include intake and compressor housings, accessory cases, and blading,
to name a few.
 Casting methods differ and include the following:
o Sand casting
o Spin casting
o Single-crystal casting
o Lost-wax or investment casting
o Resin-shell mold casting
o Slip casting
o Mercasting
 Sand casting uses a wood or metal pattern around which a clay-free sand has been
packed to form the mold. The mold is then split, the pattern removed, the mold
reassembled, and any cores that are necessary added. Molten metal at a precise
temperature is poured into the mold and allowed to cool. The mold is removed and
various heat treatments may be performed to obtain the desired physical
characteristics.

 The casting may be spun while being poured. Spin casting (centrifugal casting)
results in a denser, more sound casting. Spinning is normally performed on small
ring sections. Cooling of the metal radially inward results in fewer stresses. Other
casting techniques result in greater tensile strength by causing the normally random
grain structure of the casting to become oriented in me direction like the grain of
wood.
 An even newer method of turbine blade casting, which not only causes higher
strength but allows higher turbine inlet temperatures and increased thermal fatigue
and corrosion resistance, is called single-crystal casting. In both directional
solidification and single-crystal casting, the metal is poured into a heated ceramic
mold that is water cooled on the bottom. The part of the molten metal touching the
water- cooled end begins to solidify first and forms the type of grain Structure.
However, the directional solidification is not allowed to proceed the entire length
of the mold in the production of a Single-crystal airfoil. The helical grain selector
or pigtail, which is designed into the mold next to the cooled end, permits only one
grain to successfully pass through to the top. That grain then propagates through the
rest of the metal, integrating it into a single crystal, thus eliminating the weakening
effect of the boundaries between the metal grains.

 The investment casting process involves the use of heat-disposable wax or plastic
patterns surrounded with a refractory material to form a monolithic mold. Patterns
are removed from the mold in ovens, and molten metal is poured into the hot mold.
Sometimes this pouring is done in a vacuum furnace. After cooling, the mold
material is quite fragile and easily removed from the castings. Because the finished
product duplicates the pattern exactly, the production of patterns is a critical factor.
They are made by injecting molten wax or plastic into metal dies. The finished
castings have an exceptionally smooth surface finish and require very little further
machining. Incidentally, this process is not new. It was used by the ancient Greeks
and Egyptians to cast lightweight statues, intricate bowls, and pitchers, and is used
today to make complex jewelry.

 Resin-shell mold casting is a high production method similar to investment casting

except that the tolerances are not held as closely. In many ways it rivals sand casting
in economy.
 Slip casting borrowed from the ceramics industry, is used to form super-heat-
resistant materials. Often it is the only way certain materials can be shaped. Metal
ceramics, silicon nitride, and refractory metals cast this way can be used in
temperatures over 12000 C.
 The Mercast process is a precision-casting technique. It is essentially the same kind

of method as the lost-wax precision-investment process, except that frozen mercury
is used as a pattern instead of wax. Liquid mercury is poured into a master mold,
where it is frozen at temperatures below - 400 C. Then it is removed and coated with
a cold refractory slurry to a thickness of 1/8 in [3.175 mm] or more. The refractory
shell is dried at low temperature; then the shell and mercury are brought room
temperature, and the mercury is melted out. The refractory shell is fired to give it
strength and then is used as the mold for a usual casting process. Complicated parts

can be made by use of the Mercast process, and very close tolerances and excellent
surface finish can be obtained. The cost, however, is higher than that of some other
methods.
2.8.2 Forging
 Disks, drive shafts, rings, gears, vanes, blades, and numerous other parts of the gas
turbine engine are manufactured by forging.
 This process allows the development of a grain structure and results a fine-grain,
more ductile, strong, dense product.
 Forging can be accomplished by rapid hammering or slow pressing. The choice of
technique depends mainly on the resistance of metal to rapid deformation.
 The workpiece is generally heated to improve plasticity and reduce forging forces
and will often pass through several different dies before the final shape is obtained.
 All ductile materials can be forged, but their forgeability varies considerably. At the
forging temperature, forgeability generally depends on the melting point, ductility,
yield strength, crystallographic structure, and recovery from forging stresses,
surface reactivity, die friction, and cost.
 Some parts are rolled or swaged, which essentially simulates the forging process.
By using this method, a well-defined grain structure is established, which increases
tensile strength considerably.
 Prior to forging some turbine blades, the end of the forging blank (usually a rod) is
upset by heating, or the shank is swaged to develop natural "flow lines" in the root
and shank section of the blade.
2.8.3 Powdered Metallurgy
 The increasing demands for higher temperature materials and the rising costs of
alloying elements such as cobalt have led to the development of new kinds of
forging or pressing techniques using a powder metallurgy process.
 Several variations of the basic method can be used and generally involve forming a
metal powder under heat and pressure, a process called hot isostatic pressing (HIP),
followed by sintering or further forging using very hot dies.
 When heated dies are used, the thermal gradient between the workpiece and the die
is reduced, eliminating the thick envelope that would normally have to be machined
away.

 The entire technique results in a part much closer to the final shape and large savings
in costs and materials.
 The use of HIPing is being further investigated as a method of repairing and
rejuvenating engine turbine blades.
 The microstructure of the used turbine components is restored by the simultaneous
applications of heat and pressure (approximately 12050 C and 28,000 psi,
respectively) followed by rapid cooling.
 This process also restores mechanical properties, eliminates creep rupture and metal
fatigue, and heals voids and porosity in castings and forgings.

2.8.4 Machining
 In addition to the hammers, presses, and other tools mentioned above, the inventory
of machinery for manufacturing gas turbine parts includes all of the common
varieties, such as lathes, mills, broaches, grinders, shapers and planers, polishers
and buffers, drills, saws, shears, filers, threaders, contour machines of all kinds, and
a host of other devices to cut and form metal.
 Many of these devices use a numerical tape control or other automatic Control
devices to reduce human error and produce a more uniform, less expensive product.
 Some nontraditional machining techniques for removing metal from super hard and
super tough alloys and from other materials whose complex shapes preclude
machining with conventional metal-cutting tools include
o chemical milling,
o electrochemical machining (ECM),
o electric discharge machining (EOM),
o electron-beam machining, and
o laser- beam machining.
 Other nonconventional machining includes everything from using a high-pressure
jet of water that may contain an abrasive to ultrasonic machining.
 Chemical milling involves the removal of metal by dissolving it in a suitable
chemical. Those areas that are not to be dissolved away are masked with nonreactive
materials. The process can be used on most metals, including aluminum,
magnesium, titanium, steels, and superalloys for surface sculpturing. Both sides of
the workpiece can be chemically milled simultaneously, In addition, the process can
be used to machine very thin sheets.
 ECM is basically a chemical deplating process in which metal, removed from a
positively charged workpiece using high-amperage—low-voltage dc, is flushed
away by a highly pressurized electrolyte before it can plate out on the cathode tool.
The cathode tool is made to produce the desired shape in the workpiece, and both
must be electrically conductive. The work proceeds while the cathode and
workpiece are both submerged in an electrolyte such as sodium chloride.
 A variation and extension of electrochemical machining is electrostream drilling.
In this process a negatively charged electrolyte, usually an acid, drills holes in a

workpiece that has been positively charged, Holes as small as 0.005 in [0.127 mm]
in diameter and 0.5 in [12.7 mm] deep in super alloys can be drilled in this manner.
 In EDM, high voltages are used to produce a high electrical potential between two
conductive surfaces, the work piece and electrode tool, both of which are immersed
in dielectric fluid. Material is removed from both the electrode and the workpiece
by a series of very short electric discharges or sparks between the two and is swept

away by the dielectric fluid. More material is removed from the workpiece than
from the tool by proper selection of the two materials. This process can be used to
shape complex parts to close tolerances from refractory metals and alloys that were
formerly impossible to machine. The use of electric discharge machining is limited
in that it is slower than electrochemical machining, tool replacement can become
expensive, and the surface of the workpiece is damaged as a result of the sparks. On
the other hand, the EDM process is less expensive than the ECM process.
 Electron-beam and laser-beam machining are being used experimentally and may
find future use in the production of gas turbines and other aerospace components.
2.8.5 Fabrication
 Welding is used extensively to fabricate and repair many engine parts.

 Fabricated sheet steel is used for combustion chambers, exhaust ducts, compressor
casings, thrust reversers, sound suppressors, etc.
 Common methods include resistance and inert-gas (usually argon) welding.
Uncommon methods utilize plasmas and lasers (Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation).
 Electric-resistance welding is used to make spot, stitch (overlapping spots), and
continuous-seam welds.
 Inert-gas welding employs a nonconsumable electrode (tungsten-thorium alloy)
surrounded by some inert gas such as argon or helium. The gas prevents an adverse
reaction with the oxygen present in the normal atmosphere.
 The inert gas can be applied in the immediate area of the arc or, in the case of
production runs, the workpiece and/or the entire welding machine can be enclosed
in a thin plastic balloon, sometimes as large as a room, entire plastic bubble is filled
with and supported by the inert gas.
 After welding, many parts must stress-relieved, where temperature or working loads
are not large, brazing or silver soldering may be used to join such parts as fittings
and tube assemblies.
 Electron-beam welding is showing great promise as a method of fabricating parts
from heretofore difficult-to-weld or unweldable materials. Electron-beam welding
uses a stream of focused electrons traveling at speeds approaching 60 percent the
speed of light, Even though the mass of electrons that form the beam is small, they
are traveling-at such speeds that they contain a great amount of kinetic energy.

When the beam strikes the workpiece, the kinetic energy is transformed into heat
energy. The welding usually takes place in a vacuum, although non- vacuum
techniques can be used. Deep, narrow welds with a very narrow heat-affected zone
in the base metal, the ability to weld materials as thin as 0.00025 in (0.00635 mm)
and as thick as 4 in (101.6 mm) of stainless steel, and the ability to weld many
different types of materials make this welding process a valuable one in the gas
turbine manufacturing area.
 Another new welding method is called friction or inertia welding. In this process
the parts are joined through the friction generated when they are rubbed together
Strictly speaking, the joint is not a weld. It is more closely related to forming by hot
forging, and the "welded" joint is actually bonded in a solid state, resulting in a
quality joint of great strength.
2.8.6 Finishing (Surface finishing)
The basic material, the properties desired in the finished product, and the kind of
protection desired will determine the type of surface and internal treatment received. The
variety is considerable and includes the following:
 Chemical Treatment
o Chrome pickling is the most commonly used of all chemical treatments of
magnesium.

o The part is dipped in a solution of sodium dichromate, nitric acid and water.
 Electrochemical Treatment
o Anodizing is a common surface treatment for aluminum alloys whereby the
surface aluminum is oxidized to an adherent film of aluminum oxide.
 Painting
o A thin, preservative, resin-varnish coating is used to protect internal steel,
aluminum, and magnesium parts.
o The characteristic color of this shiny, transparent coating is usually green or
blue-green.
o A graphite powder may be mixed with the varnish to act as an antigalling
agent.
o Gray, black, or aluminum enamel (or epoxy paint) is also used extensively
as a protective finish.
 Shot Peening
o This procedure can increase the life of a part many times.
o It is essentially a plastic flow or stretching of a metal's surface by a rain of
round metallic shot thrown at high velocity by either mechanical or
pneumatic means.
o The 0.005 to 0.035 in [0.127 to 0.889 mm] stretched layer is placed in a state
of compression with the stress concentration uniformly distributed over the
entire surface.
o Glass beads are sometimes used as the shot for cleaning purposes.
 Plating
o A great number of plating materials and procedures are used.
o Plating materials involving the use of chemical or electrochemical solutions
include cadmium, chromium, silver, nickel, tin, and others.
o The exact procedure is determined by the plating and base metal,
Aluminizing is another plating method whereby pure molten aluminum is
sprayed onto the aluminum alloy base material to form a protective coating
against oxidation and corrosion.
o The Coating Service Of Union Carbide Corporation has developed and is
producing machines for applying extremely wear-resistant and other
specialized coatings to gas turbine parts, tools, and other machines.

o The different coatings are applied by either of two methods—the detonation

gun (D-gun) or the plasma gun.
o In the D-gun, measured quantities of oxygen, acetylene, and Suspended
particles of the coating material are fed into the chamber of the gun. Four
times a second a spark ignites the mixture and creates a detonation that hurls
the coating particles, heated to a plastic State by the 33160 C temperature in
the gun, out of the barrel at a speed of 2500 ft/s [762 m/s]. The part to be
plated is kept below 1490 C by auxiliary cooling streams. The high-level
sound of 150 dB necessitates housing the gun in a double-walled, sound-
insulated construction. Operation is controlled from outside this enclosure.
o The plasma gun or torch produces and controls a high-velocity, inert-gas

stream that can be maintained at temperatures above 110000 C. Unlike the
D-gun process, no combustion takes place. The high-temperature plasma is
formed by ionizing argon gas in the extreme heat of an electric arc. Gas
molecule absorb heat energy from the arc, split into atoms, and the further
decompose into electrically charged particle, without decomposition, any
known material. When the molten particles, which are introduced in
powdered form, strike the part being coated, a permanent welded bond is
formed. While the D-gun is a patented Union Carbide machine, other
manufacturers make and distribute a variety of plasma plating and cutting
devices.

 Heat Treatments
o All the following procedures alter the mechanical properties of steel to suit
the end use;
o Normalizing - The steel is heated to a temperature above the critical range
and allowed to cool slowly. Normalizing promotes uniformity Of Structure
and alters mechanical properties.
o Annealing—Consists of heating to a point at or near the critical range, then
cooling at a predetermined rate. It is used to develop softness, improve
machinability, reduce Stress, improve or restore ductility, and modify other
properties.
o Stress relieving—The metal is heated throughout to a point below the
critical range and slowly cooled. 'The object of this treatment is to restore
elastic properties or reduce stresses that may have teen induced by
machining, cold working, or welding.
o Hardening—involves heating the metal to a temperature above the critical
range and then quenching. The cooling rate will determine hardness.
o Tempering—The steel is usually too brittle for use after quenching.
Tempering restores some of the ductility and toughness of steel at the
sacrifice of hardness or strength. The process is accomplished by heating
the hardened steel to a specific point below the critical temperature.

2.9 Fuel system’s Sensors and Controls

Depending on the type of engine and the performance expected of it, fuel and engine
controls range in complexity from simple valves to automatic computing devices
containing hundreds of intricate and highly machined parts.
Types of controls:
Modern fuel engine controls can be divided into three basic groups -
 Hydromechanical fuel control

 Hybrid fuel control
 Electronic fuel control
The above systems senses the following engine variables based on pilot’s demands.
 Compressor-inlet temperature
 Compressor-discharge pressure
 Burner pressure
 RPM
 Turbine temperature
The electronic controls, especially the full authority digital electronic control
(FADEC), which may be part of sophisticated engine electronic control (EEC) system, will
sense many more operating parameters.
Electronic systems may also use fiber optics instead of wire to provide immunity
from electromagnetic (EM) effect.
Fiber optic systems are safer (no fire hazard), have fever components, and require
less maintenance.
Many controls in use today are of the hydromechanical type, although there is a
definite trend toward the electronic control of the engine, especially in the larger transport
and military aircrafts.
Hydromechanical fuel controls are complex devices composed of speed governors,

servo systems and feedback loops, valves, metering systems, and various sensing
mechanisms.

The electronic fuel controls contain Thermocouples, amplifiers, relays, electrical

servo systems, switches, solid state devices, solenoids, and variety of sensors.
2.10 Hydromechanical fuel controls

Hydromechanical Fuel Control Components:
 Metering valve – To regulate fuel flow to engine (valve orifice/pressure drop)

 Fuel pump – To pressurize the fuel
 Shutoff valve - To stop fuel flow
 Relief valve - To protect the control when the shutoff valve is closed.
 Acceleration limiter – fuel flow increased but only to the limit temperature.
The amount of fuel required to run the engine at rated RPM varies with the inlet air
condition. For example, it requires less fuel to run the engine on a hot day than on a cold
day. So for the fine refinement, a speed governor, is added to simple fuel control.
Modern fuel controls will incorporate the following things:
 Servo system to boost weak input signals and thus make the control more sensitive.
 Devices to prevent undershooting and overshooting by returning the metering valve
to its desired position before the governor alone can do this job.
 Auxiliary functions, such as inlet guide vanes positioning and nozzle, afterburner
and thrust reverser signals.
2.11 Engine Electronic Control (EEC)/Full authority Digital

Electronic Control (FADEC)
FADEC is primarily an interface between the engine and aircraft. It affects the engine in
the following manner.
 Efficiency of engine is improved by controlling the following: Variable stator

vanes, Nacelle cooling and engine oil cooling.
 Basic engine control functions are enhanced, such as the following: Starting, idle,
Acceleration, Deceleration, Stability and thrust control.
 Engine is protected by limiting: critical speeds and pressures, thrust and Over boost.
 Operational reliability of engine is improved by using: A two channel control and
an automatic fault diagnostic system.

 Engine maintenance made easier by incorporation for systems for: engine

monitoring, Self-testing and fault isolation.
 Interface between the flight deck and engine is improved through: automatic engine
pressure ratio control, limit protection.
FADEC Interface with Engine:
Inputs to the FADEC from engine are as follows:
Fig: FADEC Interface with Engine
 N2 rpm and Power, comes from the FADEC alternator and is used for limiting,
scheduling system and setting engine speeds.
 N1 rpm, which comes from FADEC transducer (Transform pneumatic signals to
electrical signals) and is used for limiting and scheduling the system.
 Compressor exit temperature (Tt3), comes from the diffuser case, used to calculate
starting fuel flow.
 Exhaust gas temperature (Tt4.95), comes from the exhaust case, used for indication
 Fuel temperature (Tfuel), comes from the fuel pump, used to schedule the fuel heat
management system.
 Oil temperature (Toil), comes from the main gearbox, used to schedule the fuel heat
management system and oil cooling system.

 Inlet total temperature (Tt2), comes from the inlet cowl, used to calculate fuel flow
and rotor speed.
 Inlet total pressure (Pt2), comes from the inlet cowl, used to calculate EPR (engine
pressure ratio).
 Exhaust gas pressure (P4.95), comes from exhaust case, and is also used to calculate
EPR.
 The EEC programming plug is used to determine the engine thrust rating and EPR
correction.
 Burner pressure (Pb), comes from diffuser case, used for surge detection.
 Ambient pressure (Pamb), comes from the inlet cowl, used to validate altitude and
inlet total pressure.
FADEC Interface with aircraft:
Inputs to the FADEC come from the following:
 The power levers. Two analog signals come from each power-lever resolver. (The
resolver is an electromechanical device to measure angular movement.)
 The air-data computers (ADC) in the form of: Total pressure, Pressure altitude and
Total air temperature.

 The flight control computer for adjusting the engine pressure ratio (EPR) for all
three engines as a part of the engine thrust trim system (ETTS). The ETTS logic
starts when the engine pressure ratio (EPR) on any two engines is above 1.2. There
are two modes of ETTS operation: In the master mode, a high EPR and the low
EPR engines are adjusted to the middle EPR engine. In the target mode, a target
EPR from the flight management system (FMS) is used to set all three engines.
 Seven discrete (electrical signals) inputs: Pt2/Tt2 probe heat, Fire, Alternate mode,
External reset (fuel control switch), Bump rate selector, Maintenance (data
retrieval), Engine location identification.
 Two sources of 28 VDC power (DC bus and ground test power)
Outputs from the FADEC are as follows:
 Engine pressure ratio (EPR)

 Low speed spool (N1). There is a backup N1 speed output from channel B.
 Exhaust gas temperature ( EGT)
 High speed spool (N2)
 Flap/slat position and weight on wheels status is also sent to the FADEC. The flight
control computer (FCC) acts as a backup for the air-data computer (ADC).
2.12 Typical Fuel System

The CJ610 consists of the following engine mounted components:
 Fuel pump
 Fuel control
 Overspeed governor
 Fuel oil cooler
 Fuel pressurizing valve
 Fuel manifolds
 Fuel manifold drain valve
 Fuel nozzles (with integral flow divider)
 Actuator assembly
 Bleed valves
 Fuel flowmeter (airframe furnished equipment
Fuel pump:
The fuel pump comprises a single element, positive displacement pump, centrifugal
boost pump, filter, and bypass circuit with a pressure-relief valve. The pump supplies fuel
to the fuel control and is mounted on and driven by the accessory gearbox.
Fuel Control:
The fuel control is mounted on and driven by the fuel pump. The control
incorporates a hydromechanical computers section and fuel-regulating section to operate
the control servos. Parameters of engine speed, power-lever setting, compressor inlet
temperature, and compressor discharge pressure are used in the computer section to
schedule the operation of the fuel-metering valve and the VG servo valve. The fuel-
regulating section meters fuel to the engine under all operating conditions.
Overspeed Governor:
The isochronous overspeed governor is mounted on and driven by the accessory

gearbox. Fuel is supplied to the governor bypass section from the fuel control and to the
governing section from the fuel pump. Overspeed governing is controlled by bypassing the
fuel, when it is in excess of engine maximum limiting speed requirements, to the fuel pump
inlet port.

Fuel Oil Cooler:
The oil cooler is used to reduce the temperature of the oil by transmitting heat from
the oil to another fluid.
Fuel Pressurizing Valve:
Pressurizing valve is mounted on the fuel-oil cooler and connects to the fuel
manifolds, manifold drain valve, and fuel pump interstage reference pressure line. During
starting, boost pressure and spring force close the pressurizing valve to prevent low-
pressure fuel flow to the fuel nozzles and to allow the fuel control to build up sufficient
pressure to operate the servos and VG actuators. The control pressure then opens the
pressurizing valve and closes the manifold drain valve. Fuel is then distributed to the fuel
nozzles at sufficient pressure for satisfactory atomization.
Fuel Manifolds:
Two fuel manifold tubes are located around the mainframe casing. Each manifold
tube connects to six fuel nozzles. Fuel is supplied from the pressurizing valve, through the
manifold tubes, to the fuel nozzles.
Fuel Manifold Drain Valve:
The fuel manifold drain valve drains the fuel manifolds at engine shutdown to
prevent residual fuel from dribbling out the fuel nozzles, thus creating a fire hazard. It also
prevents the formation of gum and carbon deposits in the manifold and nozzles The valve
consists of a piston, which is spring-loaded, to open the manifold drain passage at shutdown
and a fuel filter with a bypass valve that opens if thee filter becomes clogged. During engine
operation, the pressurizing valve actuates to close the manifold drain passageof the valve
and admit fuel to the fuel manifolds.
Fuel Nozzles:
Twelve fuel nozzles, mounted on the main frame, spray atomized fuel into the
combustion chamber. The fuel nozzle incorporates a flow divider a primary and secondary
flow passage; and an air-shrouded, spin-chamber-type orifice. During starting, low-
pressure fuel in the primary passage sprays a mixture adequate for ignition, As the engine
accelerates, increased fuel pressure opens the flow divider and additional fuel flows into
the secondary passage to the spin chamber where it merges with the primary passage fuel
flow. The air shroud sweeps air across the nozzle orifice to prevent carbon formation.

Actuator Assembly (VG):
Two variable-geometry actuators, mounted on the compressor casing, position the

inlet guide vanes and interstage bleed valves. They are linear travel, piston-type actuators
hydraulically actuated high-pressure fuel from a servo valve in the fuel control. The
actuator piston rods are connected to bell cranks that position the inlet guide vanes and
interstage bleed valves. A feedback cable is connected from the bellcrank assembly to the
fuel control and supplies the fuel-control servo valve with a position signal.
Bleed valves:
Two bleed valves are mounted on each side of the compressor stator casing. During
transient engine speeds, the valves bleed air from the third, fourth, and fifth stages of the
compressor according to a bleed schedule, which is a function of compressor speed and
inlet air temperature, prescribed by the fuel control. The valves are actuated by the fuel
control and two VG actuators through a bellcrank-linkage arrangement. A Fuel
synchronizing cable synchronizes the bleed-valve positions and, in case of malfunction in
either VG actuator, transmits the motion of the functioning VG actuator to the other.
2.13 Typical Oil System and its Components
Fig: The General Electric CJ610 oil system

The oil-system component used on gas turbines are as follows:
 Oil Tank(s)
 Pressure pump(s)
 Scavenger pumps
 Filters
 Oil coolers
 Relief valves
 Pressure and temperature gages
 Temperature regulating valves
 Oil jet nozzles
 Fitting, valves and plumbing
 Seals
Oil Tanks:
Tanks can be either an airframe-supplied or engine-manufacturer supplied unit.

Usually constructed of welded sheet aluminum or steel, the tank provides a storage place
for the oil and in most engines is pressurized to ensure a constant supply of oil to the
pressure pump. It can contain a venting system, a deaerator to separate entrained air from
the oil, an oil level transmitter and/or dipstick, a rigid or flexible oil pickup, coarse mesh
screens, and various oil and air inlets and outlets.
Pressure Pumps:
Both the gear- and gerotor-type pumps are used in the lubricating system of the
turbine engine. The gear-type pump consists of a driving and driven gear. The rotation of
the pump, which is driven from the engine accessory section, causes the oil to pass around
the outside of the gears in pockets formed by the gear teeth and the pump casing. The
pressure developed is proportional to engine rpm up to the time the relief valve opens, after
which any further increase in engine speed will not result in an oil-pressure increase.
Scavenger Pumps:
Scavenger pumps are similar to the pressure pumps but are of much larger total
capacity. An engine is generally provided with several scavenger pumps to drain oil from
various parts of the engine. Often one or more of the scavenger elements are incorporated
in the same housing as the pressure pump. Different capacities can be provided for each

system, despite the common driving shaft speed, by varying the diameter or thickness of
the gears to vary the volume of the tooth chamber. A vane-type pump may sometimes be
used.
Filters:
The three basic types of oil filters for the jet engine are the cartridge, screen, and
screen-disk types. The cartridge filter must be replaced periodically, while the other two
can be cleaned and reused. In the screen-disk filter, there are a series of circular screen-type
filters, with each filter being composed of two layers of mesh to form a chamber between
the mesh layers. The filters are mounted on a common tube and arranged in a manner to
provide a space between each circular element, Lube oil passes through the circular mesh
elements and into the chamber between the two layers mesh. This chamber is ported to the
center of a common tube that directs oil out of the filter.
Oil Coolers:
The oil cooler is used to reduce the temperature of the oil by transmitting heat from
the oil to another fluid. The fluid is usually fuel, although air-oil coolers have been used.
Since the fuel flow through the cooler is much greater than the oil flow, the fuel is able to
absorb a considerable amount of heat from the oil, thus reducing the size of the cooler
greatly as well as the weight. Thermostatic or pressure-sensitive valves control the
temperature of the oil by determining whether the oil shall pass through or bypass the
cooler.
Breathers and Pressurizing Systems:
In many modern engines internal oil leakage is kept to a minimum by pressurizing

the bearing sump areas with air that is bled off the compressor The airflow into the sumps
minimizes oil leakage across the seals in the reverse direction.
Seals:
Dynamic (running) seals used in gas turbine engines can basically be divided into
two groups:
1. Rubbing or contact seals: Two varieties are face and circumferential types and are
constructed of metals, carbon, elastomers, and rubbers, or combinations of these materials.
2. Non rubbing labyrinth or clearance seals

In both cases the type of seal and the material used is determined mainly by the
range of pressures, temperatures, and speeds over which the seal must operate; the
requirements of a reasonable service life; the media to be sealed; and the amount of leakage
that can be tolerated.
Bearings:
The efficiency, reliability, and, to a lesser extent, the cost of a gas turbine depends
on the number and type of bearings used to support all of the major and minor rotating parts
in this type of powerplant.
There are two basic types of bearings used in gas turbine engines: the ball bearing
and the roller bearing. However, within these two basic designs are hundreds of variations.
Nonconventional bearings made out of plastic or materials such as silicon nitride are also
now being used or are contemplated for future engines. The main rotating component of a
gas turbine, the compressor/turbine assembly, must be supported both axially and radially.
When the direction of a load is at right angles to the shaft, it is called a radial load, and
when it is parallel to the shaft, it is called a thrust or axial load. Radial loads are due to rpm
changes and aircraft maneuvering, while axial loads result from thrust loads (forward and
rearward) from the compressor and turbine. A ball bearing will limit or support both radial
and axial loads, while a roller bearing will limit or support only radial loads. Since there is
always engine growth because of temperature changes in the engine, one bearing
supporting the compressor must always be a ball bearing to absorb both radial and axial
loads, while the other must always be a roller bearing to allow axial movement due to
changing dimensions in the engine. This is also true for the turbine rotor in larger engines.
Bearings require special storage, cleaning, handling, and installation. These

procedures should be adequately covered in the maintenance and overhaul manuals for the
engine.
2.14 Starting System

The purpose of any starter system is to accelerate the engine to the point where the
turbine is producing enough power to continue the engine’s acceleration. This point is
called the Self-accelerating speed.

Characteristics (the choice of starting system depends on several factors):
 Length of starting cycle:

For military equipment, starting time may be of primary importance. In addition,
the speed with which the starter can accelerate the engine to idle speed will
influence not only peak exhaust gas temperatures, but also the length of time the
engine spends at these high starting temperatures. Unlike the reciprocating engine
starter, the gas turbine starter must continue to accelerate the engine even after
"light-off." Slower than normal accelerations or starters that "drop out" too soon
may cause "hot" or "hung" starts. A hung start is a situation where the engine
accelerates to some intermediate rpm below idle and stays there. Hot starts are, of
course, what the name implies: a start where turbine or exhaust gas temperature
limits are exceeded.
 Availability of starting power:
Even small gas turbine engines require large amounts of either electric or pressure
energy. Large engines require correspondingly more. Some starting systems are
completely self-contained, while others require power from external sources. Many
airplanes carry their own energy source in the form of a self-contained, small
auxiliary gas turbine engine that produces electric and/or pressure energy. Power
may also be taken from a running engine in multiengine installations. In such a
situation, one engine might be started using a starter requiring no external source of
power, such as a solid propellant, or fuel-air combustion starter. The other engine(s)
can then be started in turn with power taken from the running engine. Starting power
requirements for gas turbine engines differ from those of engines. In the
reciprocating engine, the peak load to the starter is applied in the first moments of
starter engagement, but because of the increasing compressor aerodynamic load,
the load on the turbine starter is actually increasing during engine acceleration prior
to light-off.
 Design features:
Included in this area are such things as specific weight (pounds of starter weight per
foot pound of torque produced), simplicity, reliability, cost, and maintainability.

The following is a list of various forms of gas turbine starters:
 Electric motor starter

 Electric motor generator (starter generator
 Pneumatic or air turbine starter
 Cartridge or solid propellant starter
 Fuel-air combustion starter
 Gas turbine starter (jet fuel starter
 Hydraulic motor starter
 Liquid monopropellant starter
 Air-impingement starter
 Hand –crank starter
Electric Motor Starter:
Electric motor starters are 28-V, series-wound electric motors, designed to provide
high starting torque. Their use is limited to starting smaller engines because of the very
large current drain (over 1000 A for some models) and because they are relatively heavy
for the amount of torque they produce. The starter includes an automatic jaw-meshing
mechanism, a set of reduction gears, and a clutch. The straight electric motor starter as a
means for starting gas turbine engines has generally given way to the starter-generator in
order to save weight and simplify accessory gear arrangements.
Electric Motor-Generator (Starter-Generator):
Most small gas turbine engines, such as the General Electric CJ610, Pratt &
Whitney JT12 and PT6, Allison T63, Teledyne CAE J69, and the AlliedSignal Lycoming
T53, use a starter-generator. This system has the advantage of being lighter than a separate
starter and generator a common armature is and it requires no engaging or reduction gear
mechanism. The engine accessory section also requires one less gear.
Air Turbine Starter:
Models of the air turbine starter are installed in the Boeing 720, 747, Kc135, and
B52: McDonnell Douglas DC-8, D and DC-10; Lockheed Electra; General Dynamics F-
111; and others. Its, primary advantage is its light weight (about 20 to 25 lb) 9 to 11 to ratio
when compared with the electric motor starter and starter-generator. The principal
disadvantage is it requires a supply of high-volume airflow of approximately 40 lb/min [18

kg/min] at a pressure of about 50 psi 1345 kPa]. Sources include compressed air from an
auxiliary gas turbine engine carried on board the aircraft or maintained as a part of the
airport facilities, compressed air bled from the other running engine(s), or compressed air
from an air storage system. Very often one engine of a multiengine military airplane will
equipped with a cartridge, fuel-air combustion, or gas turbine starter, having self-start
capabilities. Air bled from the running engine can then be supplied to the air turbine starters
installed on the other engines. This starter and other types may be supplied with a quick-
attach-detach (QAD) coupling, v band, or keyhole-type pad that attaches to a mounting
flange, which, in turn, is designed for direct attachment to a standard engine accessory
drive.
Fig: Sources of air for starting. (a)(b)(c) Simplified schematics showing several air sources.
The air turbine starter converts energy from compressed air to shaft power. To start
the system, an air valve is opened by the "start" switch, after which the operation of the
valve and starter is automatic. The same switch is used as a "stop" switch in emergencies.
As air enters the starter inlet, the radial- or axial flow starter turbine wheel assembly rotates.
The reduction gears contained within the starter convert the high speed and low torque of
the turbine wheel to a relatively low-speed and high-output torque.

Cartridge or Solid-Propellant Starter:
Originally, cartridge or solid-propellant starters were constructed to operate solely

by means of high-pressure, high-temperature gas generated by the burning of a solid-
propellant charge. Changes in the cartridge-type starter have added the additional capability
of starting with compressed air from an external source. A charge, about the size of a two-
pound coffee can, is inserted in the breech and ignited electrically. The relatively slow-
burning propellant produces gases at approximately 2000 F 1927oC) and 1200 psi (8274
kPa] to turn the starter for about 15 s.
Fuel-Air Combustion Starter:
The fuel-air combustion starter is essentially a small gas turbine engine, minus its
compressor. It is completely self-contained, as is the cartridge starter system, but unlike the
preceding system, requires no additional components to function. All fuel, air, and electric
power needed for operation are carried on board the aircraft.
In addition to the turbine, the system consists of an air storage bottle, fuel storage
bottle, and a combustion chamber, together with the necessary ignition and control
components. During flight, an engine-driven compressor maintains 3000 lb (20,685 kPa]
of air pressure in an airborne bottle. This pressure permits engine starts without the
necessity of recharging the air system from an external source. The usual high-pressure
bottle will provide enough air for two rest without recharging. Provision is also made to
connect an external 600 psi (4137-kPa) air supply. In either case, the starter receives a
reduced air pressure of 350 psi (2413kPa).
Gas Turbine Starter:

The gas turbine starter is another completely self-sufficient starting system.

Relatively high power output is available for a comparatively low weight. The starter is
actually a small, free power turbine engine, complete with a gas-generator section
containing a centrifugal compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine to drive the
compressor. It also contains its own fuel control, starter, lubrication pump and system, and
ignition system. The gases flowing through the gas-generator section drive the free turbine,
which, in turn, drives the main engine through a reduction gear and clutch mechanism to
automatically engage and disengage the starter's free power turbine from the engine. The
starter is itself started by using a small electric motor, compressed air, or hydraulic ower
from the aircraft system.
Hydraulic Starters:
Hydraulic starting systems fall into two categories:
1. Energy limited
2. Power limited
The energy-limited system uses a highly pressurized accumulator and a large, positive-
displacement motor. Examples of other starting systems that are also energy-limited are the
electric motor, when supplied from a battery, and the cartridge starter. The energy-limited
system is designed to complete the start in as short a time as possible in order to minimize
the amount of stored energy required. The accumulator system is best suited to small
engines up to 150 hp [112 kW).

A power limited system uses an auxiliary power unit (sometimes a small gas turbine
engine, which is itself started by an energy limited system) to drive a pump that supplies
the correct amount of flow and pressure to variable-displacement hydraulic starter motor.
The variable-displacement motor permits high torque to be applied without exceeding the
power limits of the main engine at starter cutoff speed.
Liquid Monopropellant Starter:
In this system a charge of liquid monopropellant (a monopropellant fuel is one that

requires no separate air supply to sustain combustion) is decomposed to produce the high
energy gas needed for turbine operation. Monopropellants that can be used include highly
concentrated hydrogen peroxide, isopropyl nitrate, and hydrazine. All are difficult materials
to handle.
Air Impingement Starter:
In many ways the air-impingement starter system is the simplest of all starter types,
consisting essentially of nothing more than a duct. An air supply from either a running
engine or a ground power unit is directed through a check valve onto the turbine blades
(most commonly) or the centrifugal compressor. Engines using this starting system are the
Fairchild J44, on which the air is fed to the compressor, and some models of the General
Electric J85 and J79. In the latter two engines, air is directed onto the rear or middle turbine
wheel stages. Obviously, the advantage of this system is manifested in its extreme
simplicity and light weight. It is best suited to smaller engines because of the high-volume
air supply necessary for larger engines.

Hand-Crank Starter:
The hand-crank method of starting gas turbine engines is, of course, limited to very
small units, on the order of 50 to 100 hp [37 to 75 kW). As the name implies, starting is
accomplished by turning a hand crank, which, through a series of gears, turns the engine to
the self-sustaining rpm. Hand-crank to engine-shaft speed ratios are on the order of 100:1.
Previous exam questions:

1. (15AE62 – June/July 2018)
a. Illustrate the different manufacturing techniques used for engine parts. (8M)
b. Write in detail about heat ranges of metals for aero engine application.(8M)
c. Describe FADEC interface with aero engine with suitable sketches. (8M)
d. Write a short note on: (8M)
i. Typical oil system of a gas turbine engine.
ii. Starting system of a aero engine.
2. (10AE74 – June/July 2018)

a. What are the criteria of section of material for compressor blades and which material
is used? (10M)
b. What are the part played by powder metallurgy in making turbine engine parts? (10M)
c. What is FADEC? Explain. (10M)
d. What are the different types of starters used in airplane to start the gas turbine engines?
Explain each of them. (10M)
3. (10AE74 – April 2018)

a. Explain in detail any five surface finishing processes. (10M)
b. Explain any five methods of casting. (10M)
c. With a neat sketch, draw a typical fuel system write function of its components. (10M)
d. Explain about air turbine starter, with a neat sketch. (6M)
d. Write advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine starters. (4M)
4. (10AE74 - Dec. 2017/Jan. 2018)

a. What are the characteristics that must be considered in selection of any metal used in
gas turbine engine? (10M)
b. Explain powder metallurgy technique in manufacturing of gas turbine
components.(5M)
c. Explain the different types of surface treatment that is used in gas turbine
materials.(5M)

d. What do you mean by FADEC? How FADEC does interacts with aircraft and FADEC
interacts with engine? Explain. (10M)
e. Explain starting system of gas turbine engine. Write the various (any 2) starter used
for this purpose. (5M)
f. What are the components required for a typical fuel system? (5M)
5. (10AE74 - Dec. 2016/Jan. 2017)

a. What are the characteristics, that must be considered in the selection of materials in
the gas turbine engine and briefly explain it. (6M)
b. List and explain the six methods of casting. (10M)
c. Briefly explain the heat ranges of: (4M)
(i) Nickel base alloys (ii) Cobalt base alloys
d. Explain the general electric CJ610 lubricating oil system with sketch. (10M)
e. Draw and explain typical starting characteristics of starting system. (5M)
f. Explain about air turbine starter with sketch. (5M)
6. (10AE74 - Dec. 2015/Jan. 2016)

a. Briefly explain the heat range of the following alloy: (10M)
(i) Aluminum alloys; (ii) Titanium alloys; (iii) Steel alloys;
(iv) Nickel based alloys; (v) Cobalt based alloys.
b. Explain briefly about manufacturing processes used for gas turbine component. (10M)
c. Name different types of fuel controls and explain. (10M)
d. Explain briefly about fuel system components. (10M)
7. (10AE74 - Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)

a. Briefly explain some commonly used terms and characterization considered in the
selection of materials in the gas turbine engine of aircraft. (10M)
b. Write a short notes on use of composites and ceramics in different parts of aircraft
engine as well as in airframes. (10M)
c. Explain the interface of FADEC on an aircraft jet engine. (10M)
d. List the various gas turbine starters and explain any one starter. (10M)
8. (10AE74 - Dec. 2013/Jan. 2014)

a. Briefly explain the heat range of any 3 following alloy: (6M)
(i) Aluminum alloys; (ii) Titanium alloys; (iii) Steel alloys;
(iv) Nickel based alloys; (v) Cobalt based alloys.
b. Describe the concept of high temperature strength requirement for materials selected
for a gas turbine engine. (6M)
c. What are the various techniques available for the manufacturing of gas turbine engine
components? Explain the methods of casting used to manufacture engine parts. (8M)
d. Explain the interface of FADEC on an aircraft jet engine. (10M)

e. What are the various components of a typical aircraft engine oil system and explain
their working? (10M)
9. (6AE74 – December 2012)

a. List six methods of casting. Give a short description of each method and it advantages
and disadvantages. (10M)
b. List 5 alloys that are used in the construction of the gas turbine engine. Describe the
properties of each the makes desirable for use in specific locations in the engine. (10M)
c. Describe FADEC interface with engine. (10M)
d. Explain the general electric CJ610 fuel system with simple schematic. (10M)
10. (6AE74 – December 2011)

a. What are characteristics to be considered in selection of materials gas turbines.(12M)
b. What are the metal cutting operations are used in production of gas turbines? Write
briefly. (8M)
c. Write briefly the different types of controls used in fuel system. (6M)
d. Explain the starting system of a gas turbine. Write the various starters used for this
purpose. (8M)
e. Write the oil system of a gas turbine with component details. (6M)
11. (6AE74 – Jun/July 2011)

a. What are major components of a typical gas turbine engine and materials used? (12M)
b. What are heat ranges of metals for aero engine application? (8M)
c. What are the components of typical fuel system? (12M)
d. What is FADEC and how does it affect the engine operation? (8M)
12. (6AE74 – December 2010)

a. Explain the various manufacturing techniques used for engine parts. (20M)
b. What are various components of a fuel system? (10M)
c. What is FADEC? Explain its interface with the engine. (10M)
13. (6AE74 – Dec.09/Jan.10)

a. What are the characteristics that must be considered in the selection of any metal for
use in the gas turbine engines? Discuss. (10M)
b. List the surface finish processes and explain any three processes. (10M)
c. What is FADEC and how it affects the engine? (15M)
d. What are the components required for a typical fuel system? (5M)

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Gas Turbine Technology Martials and Manufacturing & Systems

MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING & SYSTEMS

2.1 Gas Turbine materials / Criteria for selection of materials

 High-temperature, high-strength materials and unique methods of manufacture

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2.1.1 Commonly Used Terms

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 Hardness—An important characteristic in that it influences ease of manufacture

 Casting—A process whereby metal, in a molten state, solidifies in a mold.

2.2 Heat Ranges of Metals

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2.2.1 Aluminum Alloys

 Aluminum and its alloys are used in temperature ranges up to 2600 C.

2.2.2 Titanium Alloys

2.2.3 Steel Alloys

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2.2.4 Nickel-Base Alloys

2.2.5 Cobalt-Base Alloys

 Cobalt-base alloys form another important group of high temperature, high-

2.3 Chemical Elements Used in Alloys

2.3.1 High-Temperature Strength

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2.3.2 Resistance to Oxidation and Corrosion

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2.3.3 Thermal Shock Resistance

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2.4 Convective, Film, and Impingement Cooling

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 Advanced manufacturing techniques such as shaped-tube electrolytic machining

2.5 Transpiration Cooling

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2.7 Composite Materials

2.8 Manufacturing Techniques

 The variety of manufacturing techniques is large and depends on a number of

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 Resin-shell mold casting is a high production method similar to investment casting

 The Mercast process is a precision-casting technique. It is essentially the same kind

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2.8.3 Powdered Metallurgy

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 Welding is used extensively to fabricate and repair many engine parts.

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2.8.6 Finishing (Surface finishing)

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o The different coatings are applied by either of two methods—the detonation

o The plasma gun or torch produces and controls a high-velocity, inert-gas

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2.9 Fuel system’s Sensors and Controls

 Hydromechanical fuel control

Hydromechanical fuel controls are complex devices composed of speed governors,

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