Dr. Cecille O.

Martinez
• Discuss the milestones of physical, cognitive, social and
emotional development in early and middle adulthood
• Compare and contrast the different theories of aging
• Describe the principles, theories related to aging
Early Adulthood (Ages 20–35)

 By the time a person reach early adulthood, their physical maturation is

complete, although their height and weight may increase slightly.
 In early adulthood, their physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle
strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning.
 Most professional athletes are at the top of their game during this stage, and
many women have children in the early-adulthood years.
 The beginning of early adulthood is sometimes considered its own phase,
emerging adulthood, but the developmental tasks that are the focus during
emerging adulthood persist throughout the early adulthood years.
 Developmental Tasks of Early Adulthood
Havighurst (1972) describes some of the developmental tasks of young adults. These include:
1. Achieving autonomy: trying to establish oneself as an independent person with a life of one’s own
2. Establishing identity: more firmly establishing likes, dislikes, preferences, and philosophies
3. Developing emotional stability: becoming more stable emotionally which is considered a sign of maturing
4. Establishing a career: deciding on and pursuing a career or at least an initial career direction and pursuing
an education
5. Finding intimacy: forming first close, long-term relationships
6. Becoming part of a group or community: young adults may, for the first time, become involved with various
groups in the community. They may begin voting or volunteering to be part of civic organizations (scouts,
church groups, etc.). This is especially true for those who participate in organizations as parents.
7. Establishing a residence and learning how to manage a household: learning how to budget and keep a
home maintained.
8. Becoming a parent and rearing children: learning how to manage a household with children.
9. Making marital or relationship adjustments and learning to parent.
 Physical Development in Early Adulthood
The Physiological Peak
 People in their twenties and thirties are considered young adults
 At the peak of their physiological development.
 Their body has completed its growth, though their brain is still developing
 Physically, they are in the “prime of their life” as their reproductive system, motor
ability, strength, and lung capacity are operating at their best.
 However, these systems will start a slow, gradual decline so that by the time they
reach their mid to late 30s, they will begin to notice signs of aging.
 This includes a decline in their immune system, response time, and in their ability to
recover quickly from physical exertion.
 For example, they ay have noticed that it takes them quite some time to stop panting
after running to class or taking the stairs.
 Getting out of shape is not an inevitable part of aging; it is probably due to the fact
that people have become less physically active and have experienced greater stress
The Physiological Peak
 The aging process, although not overt, begins during early adulthood.
 Around the age of 30, many changes begin to occur in different parts of
the body.
 For example, the lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, resulting in
changes in vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects).
 Sensitivity to sound decreases; this happens twice as quickly for men as for
women.
 Hair can start to thin and become gray around the age of 35, although this
may happen earlier for some individuals and later for others.
 The skin becomes drier, and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early
adulthood.
 The immune system becomes less adept at fighting off illness, and
reproductive capacity starts to decline.
 Middle Adulthood (Ages 35–64)
 During middle adulthood, the aging process becomes more apparent.
 Around the age of 60, the eyes lose their ability to adjust to objects
at varying distances, known as presbyopia.
 Most people between the ages of 35 and 60 will need some form of
corrective lenses for vision deficits.
 Middle-aged adults are also at higher risk than younger adults for
certain eye problems, such as glaucoma.
 Hearing also further declines: 14 percent of middle-aged Americans
have hearing problems.
 Skin continues to dry out and is prone to more wrinkling, particularly
on the sensitive face area.
 Age spots and blood vessels become more apparent as the skin
continues to dry and get thinner.
 The muscle-to-fat ratio for both men and women also changes
throughout middle adulthood, with an accumulation of fat in the
stomach area.
 Middle Adulthood (Ages 40–65)
 Women experience a gradual decline in fertility as they
approach the onset of menopause—the end of the menstrual
cycle—around 50 years old.
 This process involves hormonal changes and may last anywhere
from six months to five years.
 Because of the shifting hormone levels, women going through
menopause often experience a range of other symptoms, such
as anxiety, poor memory, inability to concentrate, depressive
mood, irritability, mood swings, and less interest in sexual
activity.
Cognitive Development in Adulthood
 Cognition changes over a person’s lifespan,
peaking at around age 35 and slowly declining
in later adulthood.
• Unlike a person’s physical abilities, which peak
in their mid-20s and then begin a slow decline,
their cognitive abilities remain relatively steady
throughout early and middle adulthood.
 Research has found that adults who engage in
mentally and physically stimulating activities
experience less cognitive decline in later adult
years and have a reduced incidence of mild
cognitive impairment and dementia (Hertzog,
Kramer, Wilson, & Lindenberger, 2009; Larson
et al., 2006; Podewils et al., 2005).
Beyond Piaget’s Theory
 According to Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the
establishment of formal operational thinking occurs during early
adolescence and continues through adulthood.
 Unlike earlier concrete thinking, this kind of thinking is characterized by
the ability to think in abstract ways, engage in deductive reasoning, and
create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts.
 Since Piaget’s theory, other developmental psychologists have suggested
a fifth stage of cognitive development, known as postformal operational
thinking (Basseches, 1984; Commons & Bresette, 2006; Sinnott, 1998).
 In postformal thinking, decisions are made based on situations and
circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop
principles that depend on contexts.
 This kind of thinking includes the ability to think in dialectics and
differentiates between the ways in which adults and adolescents can
cognitively handle emotionally charged situations.
Early Adulthood
 During early adulthood, cognition begins to stabilize, reaching a
peak around the age of 35.
 Early adulthood is a time of relativistic thinking, in which young
people begin to become aware of more than simplistic views of right
vs. wrong.
 They begin to look at ideas and concepts from multiple angles and
understand that a question can have more than one right (or wrong)
answer.
 The need for specialization results in pragmatic thinking—using
logic to solve real-world problems while accepting contradiction,
imperfection, and other issues.
 Finally, young adults develop a sort of expertise in either education
or career, which further enhances problem-solving skills and the
capacity for creativity.
Middle Adulthood
 Two forms of intelligence—crystallized and fluid—are the main focus of
middle adulthood.
 The crystallized intelligence is dependent upon accumulated knowledge
and experience—it is the information, skills, and strategies we have
gathered throughout a person’s lifetime.
 This kind of intelligence tends to hold steady as the person age—in fact, it
may even improve.
 For example, adults show relatively stable to increasing scores on
intelligence tests until their mid-30s to mid-50s (Bayley & Oden, 1955).
 Fluid intelligence, on the other hand, is more dependent on basic
information-processing skills and starts to decline even prior to middle
adulthood.
 Cognitive processing speed slows down during this stage of life, as does
the ability to solve problems and divide attention.
However, practical problem-solving skills tend to increase.
 These skills are necessary to solve real-world problems and figure out how
to best achieve a desired goal.
 Social and Emotional Aspects of Adulthood
Relationships in Adulthood
 Positive relationships with significant others in a person’s adult years have been found to
contribute to a state of well-being (Ryff & Singer, 2009).
 Most adults identify themselves through their relationships with family—particularly with
spouses, children, and parents (Markus et al., 2004).
 While raising children can be stressful, especially when they are young, research suggests
that parents reap the rewards down the road, as adult children tend to have a positive
effect on parental well-being (Umberson, Pudrovska, & Reczek, 2010).
 Having stable intimate relationships has also been found to contribute to well-being
throughout adulthood (Vaillant, 2002).
 A lack of positive and meaningful relationships during adulthood can result in what Erikson
termed the crisis of intimacy vs. isolation in his theory of psychosocial development.
 In young adulthood (i.e., 20s and early 30s), people tend to be concerned with forming
meaningful relationships; young and middle-aged adults are subject to loneliness if they
are unable to form meaningful relationships with family, friends, or community.
Crises of Adulthood
 Both early and middle adulthood come with particular challenges; these challenges are at
times referred to as “quarter-life crises” and ” mid-life crises,” respectively.
 A quarter-life crisis typically occurs between the ages of 25 and 30. It often revolves around
the challenges that arise from young adults newly living life on their own and feeling
overwhelmed with new responsibilities; it can also happen after the birth of a child or if a
person graduates from college and cannot find a job in their chosen field. In this stage of life,
young people may worry about their future, wonder if they’ve made poor choices, or wonder
what life might hold for them now.
 The main triggers for a mid-life crisis include problems with work, trouble in a marriage,
children growing up and leaving the home, or the aging or death of a person’s parents.
 This is likely to occur during Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation, a time when
people think about the contribution they are making to the world.
 Generativity involves finding one’s life’s work and contributing to the development of others
through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children; those who do not
master this task may experience a feeling of stagnation.
Crises of Adulthood
 Individuals having a mid-life crisis may experience some of the following:
• a search for an undefined dream or goal;
• a deep sense of regret for goals not accomplished;
• a fear of humiliation among more successful colleagues;
• a desire to achieve a feeling of youthfulness;
• a need to spend more time alone or with certain peers.
 Some who experience a quarter- or mid-life crisis struggle with how to cope
and may engage in harmful behaviors, such as abuse of alcohol or drugs or
excessive spending of money.
 Others may experiment with different aspects of their personality, explore new
hobbies, or otherwise seek out change in their lives.
 Erikson’s stage of generativity vs. stagnation revolves around a person’s sense of
their contribution to the world.
 Generativity is about making life productive and creative so that it matters to others,
especially those in the next generation.
 According to Erikson, a person who is self-centered and unable or unwilling to help
society move forward develops a feeling of stagnation—a dissatisfaction with the
relative lack of productivity.
 The central tasks during middle adulthood can include:
 expressing love through more than sexual contacts,
 maintaining healthy life patterns,
 helping growing and grown children to be responsible adults,
 relinquishing a central role in the lives of grown children,
 creating a comfortable home, being proud of one’s accomplishments,
 taking care of aging parents,
 adjusting to the physical changes of middle age, and
 using leisure time creatively.
Levinger’s Model of Relationships
 One of the most influential models of relationship development was proposed by
psychologist George Levinger.
 This model was formulated to describe heterosexual, adult romantic relationships,
but it has been applied to other kinds of interpersonal relationships since then.
 According to the model, the natural development of a relationship follows five
stages:
1. Acquaintance and Acquaintanceship: Becoming acquainted depends on previous
relationships, physical proximity, first impressions, and a variety of other factors. If
two people begin to like each other, continued interactions may lead to the next
stage, but acquaintance can continue indefinitely. Another example is association.
2. Buildup: During this stage, people begin to trust and care about each other. The
need for intimacy, compatibility, and such filtering agents as common background
and goals will influence whether or not interaction continues.
3. Continuation: This stage follows a mutual commitment to strong
and close long-term friendships, romantic relationship, or even
marriage. It is generally a long, relatively stable period. Nevertheless,
continued growth and development will occur during this time.
Mutual trust is important for sustaining the relationship.
4. Deterioration: Not all relationships deteriorate, but those that do
tend to show signs of trouble. Boredom, resentment, and
dissatisfaction may occur. Individuals may communicate less and
avoid self-disclosure. Loss of trust and betrayals may take place as
the downward spiral continues, eventually ending the relationship.
Alternately, the participants may find some way to resolve the
problems and reestablish trust.
5. Termination: The final stage marks the end of the relationship,
either by breakup, death, or spatial separation and severing all
existing ties of either friendship or romantic love.
Theories of Aging on Next PPT Lecture