Air, Atmospheric Pressure and

Winds

Mohd. Akram
Assistant Professor and Programme Coordinator
Department of Geography and Natural Resource Management
School of Earth and Environmental Science (SoEES)
Uttarakhand Open University, Haldwani (Nainital)
Uttarakhand, India
 Introduction
• Air is the mixture of many gases.
• pure air has no colour, odour, taste. Even it feels
when it moves. It can be compressed. It has some
weight which can be felt on the earth’s surface as
pressure.
• Adiabatic lapse rate: when air physically rises, its
temperature drops. This is called adiabatic lapse
rate. It has two types:
• Dry adiabatic lapse rate: tropical desert regions,
@5.50 F/1000/.
• Wet adiabatic lapse rate: water bodies of lower
latitudes, @2.5 F/1000/ .
 Main laws
Coriolis force and Coriolis effect:
• The effect of the Coriolis force is an apparent deflection of
the path of an object that moves within a rotating
coordinate system. The object does not actually deviate
from its path, but it appears to do so because of the motion
of the coordinate system.
• On the Earth, an object that moves along a north-south
path or longitudinal line, will undergo apparent deflection
to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere.
• Reason of the Coriolis effect are first- the anti-clockwise
rotation of the earth and second- the tangential velocity of
a point on the Earth is a function of latitude (the velocity is
essentially zero at the poles and it attains a maximum value
at the Equator).
 Coriolis deflection
Ferrel’s law:
The Ferrel's law states
that wind is deflected to
the right hand side in the
Northern Hemisphere and
to left hand side in the
Southern Hemisphere, due
to the effect of Coriolis
force to air masses.
Buys Ballot’s Law:
this law states that in the northern hemisphere, if
you stand with your back to the wind (back to the
direction where the winds is blowing), your left
hand will indicate the area of low pressure and in
the southern hemisphere, situation is reversed.
 Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ)

• The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a

belt of low air pressure which circles the Earth
generally near the equator where the trade winds
of the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern
Hemispheres meet each other.
• ITCZ is attributed by the convective activity
(convection of winds) which generates often
vigorous thunderstorms over large areas in tropical
regions.
 Air Pressure
• Air is composed of gas particles which collide with each
other (on movement) and generate pressure which is exerted
on earth’s surface.
• Like other physical matter, air has weight which is felt on the
surface of the earth as pressure.
• Air and air pressure are invisible elements which influences
other elements in specific ways.
• Like other things, it changes horizontally and vertically
though we feel vertical changes more.
• On the surface, air pressure is balanced in and around human
body.
• Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude. Over higher
altitudes, outer air pressure comes down and air pressure in
the human body is more than outer atmosphere. Problems:
blood from noses.
 Air Pressure:
• Controller of weather and climate: clouds, precipitation,
winds, storms, turbulence etc. are controlled by air pressure;
• Supporter of life;
• There is no comfortable life without air pressure;
• Instrument: Barometer: (1) Mercurial barometer (2) Fortin’s
Barometer (3) Aneroid barometer.
• Represented by: Barograph.
• Unit: M.B. (Millibar).
• 1 MB= 1000 dynes/cm2 .
• The International Standard (IS) pressure unit is pascal (a
force of one Newton/meter2);
• In practical, atmospheric pressure is expressed in
kelopascals (kPa);
• Mean sea-level pressure is 1013.25 mb or 101.325 kPa
 Pressure Gradient
• Rate and direction of change in air pressure between two
places of same altitude.
• Main reason of movement of air.
• Isobars: Imaginary lines connecting the places having equal
air pressure.
 Change in Air Pressure and Weather
• World’s highest air pressure (1075.2 m.b.) was
recorded in January 14, 1983 at Erkutask in Serbia;
• World’s lowest air pressure (877 m.b.) was
recorded to the west of Mariana island in the eye of
a cyclone;
• Generally, high air pressure represents clear
weather whereas, low air pressure represents
humid weather.
• Weather of a place depends more on the air
pressure of adjacent areas than the air pressure of
its own.
 Relationship Between Temperature and
Pressure
• Air pressure and temperature are closely related;
• Generally, Temperature↑Air Pressure↓ and
Temperature↓Air Pressure↑
• Horizontally, on moving from Equator to Poles,
temperature decreases and pressure increases;
• Vertically, temperature and pressure both decreases
with altitudes/heights.
• Air pressure lapse rate: on moving from sea-level to
altitudes or upwards in the atmosphere, air pressure
decreases.
• Pressure lapse rate= 100mb/1000m.
 Atmospheric Pressure Change
(A) Daily/Diurnal Air Pressure Change: daily change in air
pressure.
• Measured two times a day;
• According to Humboldt, daily air pressure is so regular that
time can be predicted with the help of readings of barometer.
• Continents experience maximum air pressure change during
the days and minimum during nights.
• Oceanic or costal areas experience daily air pressure change
during nights;
• Areas (at the seas level) in Tropical zones witness maximum
daily air pressure change;
• Changes in air pressure decreases from equator to poles
(B) Non-periodic Diurnal Pressure Variation: In
temperate zone, in cyclonic and anticyclone conditions.
(C) Annual Change in Air Pressure:
• Maximum in tropical zones.
• Minimum in equatorial zone.
• Mid-latitude and Polar regions witness uneven annual
air pressure change even on the places situated on the
same latitudes.
• H.P. on continents during winters.
• L.P. on oceans during summers.
Horizontal Distribution of Air Pressure
Pressure Belts
Seasonal Change in Pressure Belts
 Transfer of Pressure Belts
(1) Equatorial low pressure belt: maximum shifting belt (shift
between Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn).
• In Southern Hemisphere, between 70 to 100., due to water
bodies (oceans) in the southern hemisphere;
• In Northern Hemisphere, upto 200 (Northern Africa) and
crosses tropic of cancer (Asia) due to land-deserts.
(2) sub-tropical High Pressure Belt: shifts less.
• Between latitudes of 300-350 to 400-450 (in both
hemisphere)
(3) Sub-polar low pressure belt: between 600-650 to 650-700
latitudes.
(4) Polar high pressure belt: No shifting at all. This belt
contracts and expends with the apparent Northern and
Southern movement of the sun.
 Impacts of atmospheric pressure
1. Wind;
2. Cyclones and anti-cyclones;
3. Walker circulation;
4. Jet streams;
5. Tri-cellular longitudinal circulation.
 Winds
Wind: when air makes movement from area of high pressure to area of low
pressure, it is called wind. In other words, moving air is called wind.

30 km Rossby waves
11-12 km Jet Streams
1-2 km Anti-trade
600 m Friction layer
10 m wind’s speed is measured at this level Beaufort level
1m Meteorological Stream
0m Surface

Anemometer: The speed of that wind can be measured using a tool called
an anemometer. An anemometer looks like a weather vane, but instead
of measuring which direction the wind is blowing with pointers, it has
four cups so that it can more accurately measure wind speed.
Anemometer
 Types of wind

Antitriptic winds Geostrophic wind

Friction wind Gradient wind
• As per directions, there are 16 types of wind
 Winds

Primary/permanent Secondary/regional Local winds

/Planetary winds seasonal 1. Anabatic
1. Trade winds monsoonal winds 2. Katabatic
2. Westerlies 3. Sea breeze
3. Polar winds 4. Land breeze
Primary winds
Regional winds: Monsoon winds
Land Breeze and Sea Breeze
World Local Winds
 Cyclones
• Cyclones are the low pressure areas;
• The cyclone is the trough of air where winds converge from
region of high pressure (outer part/periphery) to area of low
pressure (inner side);
• Isobars cross each other at an acute angle due to Coriolis
effect.
• Types: (1) Tropical cyclones (2) Temperate or Extra-tropical
cyclones.
 Tropical Cyclone
The cyclones which are developed between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn are known as Tropical Cyclones. These cyclones are very fierce
and powerful hence cause disaster like conditions in their paths.
Direction of movement:
(1) Axial/rotational movement- anti-clock wise in the Northern Hemisphere
and clock-wise in the Southern Hemisphere.
(2) Revolutionary movement: East to West direction.
Cyclone Amphan
Areas of tropical cyclones
Formation of tropical cyclone
 Types of tropical cyclones

Tropical Hurricane or Tornado

Disturbances Typhoons
Tropical depression
Characteristics of tropical cyclones
• High temperature and low pressure are maximum in the centres;
• High pressure gradient;
• Winds rises swiftly @ upto 120-200 km/h;
• Clear sky at the front and cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are
found at rear/reverse side.
• Torrential rainfall occurs rear/reverse side.
• Calm zone at the centre;
• Eye of cyclone is characterised by high temperature and low
humidity.
• Water cyclones are more powerful due to the presence of latent
heat;
• Developed over tropical oceans.
• Diameter ranges between 80-300 km.
Impact of tropical cyclones
 Temperate/Extra-tropical Cyclones
• The cyclones which are developed in mid-latitudes (between 350 to
600 latitudes) are known as Temperate/Extra-tropical Cyclones.
• These cyclones are evolved when warm (the Westerly) and cold (the
Polar winds) winds meet and a front between them is created.
• They are called trough or depression as their shapes are circular and
oval.
• Front: the sloping boundary surface between different air masses is
called a front.
• When two air masses with different temperature and moisture
properties meet, they do not mix easily. Hence, they maintain a
boundary surface of discontinuity for some time as the warmer
(westerly winds) and less dense air is forced to get lifted over the
colder mass (along the front).
Area of Origin
Origin of temperate cyclones
Stages of development temperate cyclones

(1) First stage-stationary front:

(2) Second stage-Polar front:
(3) Third stage-Frontogenesis:
(4) Fourth stage:
(5) Fifth stage:
(6) Sixth stage- Frontolisis: Occluded front
 Characteristics of temperate cyclones
• Temperature is high (~100C) in southern part and low
temperature (~50C) in northern, north-eastern and north-
western parts of the cyclone;
• Temperature is found less than average in summer and more
than average in winters;
• Isobars run from north, north-east to south-west direction (in
Northern Hemisphere);
• Speed: 32 km/h (20 miles/h) in Summers and 48 km/h (30
miles/h) during Winters.;
• Direction: west to east;
• Anti-clockwise in Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in
Southern Hemisphere;
• Shifting: between 350 to 650 latitudes in both hemispheres;
Impacts and area of temperate cyclones
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