RL CIRCUIT:

Let us take a simple RL network subjected to external DC excitation as shown in

the figure. The circuit consists of a battery whose voltage is V in series with a
switch, a resistor R, and an inductor L. The switch is closed at t = 0.
The process of generating a magnetic field by means of an electric
current is called excitation.

When the switch is closed current tries to change in the inductor and hence a
voltage VL(t) is induced across the terminals of the Inductor in opposition to the
applied voltage. The rate of change of current decreases with time which allows
current to build up to it’s maximum value.

It is evident that the current i(t) is zero before t = 0 and we have to find out
current i(t) for time t >0. We will find i(t)for time t >0 by writing the appropriate
circuit equation and then solving it by separation of the variables and integration.
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the above circuit we get :

V = vR(t)+ vL(t)

i (t) = 0 for t <0

Using the standard relationships of Voltage and Current for the Resistors and
Inductors we can rewrite the above equations as

V = Ri + Ldi/dt for t >0

One direct method of solving such a differential equation consists of writing the
equation in such a way that the variables are separated, and then integrating each
side of the equation. The variables in the above equation are I and t. Thisequation
is multiplied by dt and arranged with the variables separated as
shown below:

Ri. dt + Ldi = V. dt

Ldi= (V – Ri)dt

Ldi / (V – Ri) = dt

Using d(u)/u = lnu

Next each side is integrated directly to get :

− (L/R ) ln(V− Ri) =t + k

Where k is the integration constant. In order to evaluate k, an initial condition

must be invoked. Prior to t = 0, i (t)is zero, and thus i (0−) = 0.
Since the current in an inductor cannot change by a finite amount in
zero time without being associated with an infinite voltage, we have i (0+) = 0.
Setting i = 0 at t = 0,in the above equation we obtain

− (L/R ) ln(V) = k

and, hence,

− L/R[ln(V− Ri) − ln V]= t

Rearranging we get

ln[ (V− Ri) /V] = − (R/L)t

Taking antilogarithm on both sides we get

(V–Ri)/V= e−Rt/L

From which we can see that

i(t) = (V/R)–(V/R)e−Rt/L for t >0

Thus, an expression for the response valid for all time t would be

i(t) = V/R [1− e−Rt/L ]

This is normally written as:

i(t) = V/R [1− e−t./τ ]

where ‘τ’ is called the time constant of the circuit and it’s unit is seconds.

The voltage across the resistance and the Inductor for t >0 can be written as :
vR(t) =i(t).R = V [1− e−t./τ ]

vL(t) = V −vR(t) = V −V [1− e−t./τ ] = V (e−t./τ)

A plot of the current i(t) and the voltages vR(t) & vL(t) is shown in the figure
below.

Fig: Transient current and voltages in the Series RL circuit.

At t = ‘τ’ the voltage across the inductor will be

vL(τ) = V (e−τ /τ) = V/e = 0.36788 V

and the voltage across the Resistor will be

vR(τ) = V [1− e−τ./τ ] = 0.63212 V

The plots of current i(t) and the voltage across the Resistor vR(t) are called
exponential growth curves and the voltage across the inductor vL(t) is called
exponential decay curve.
RC CIRCUIT:
A series RC circuit with external DC excitation V volts connected through a switch
is shown in the figure below. If the capacitor is not charged initially i.e. it’s voltage
is zero, then after the switch S is closed at time t=0, the capacitor voltage builds
up gradually and reaches it’s steady state value of V volts after a finite time. The
charging current will be maximum initially (since initially capacitor voltage is zero
and voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously) and then it will
gradually comedown as the capacitor voltage starts building up. The current and
the voltage during such charging periods are called Transient Current and
Transient Voltage.
 Fig: RC Circuit with external DC excitation

Applying KVL around the loop in the above circuit we can write

V = vR(t) + vC(t)

Using the standard relationships of voltage and current for an Ideal Capacitor we get

vC(t) = (1/C )∫ 𝒊(𝒕)𝒅𝒕

or

i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt]

and using this relation, vR(t) can be written as

vR(t) = Ri(t) = R. C.[dvC(t)/dt]

Using the above two expressions for vR(t) and vC(t)the above expression for V can be rewritten as :

V = R. C.[dvC(t)/dt] + vC(t)

Or finally

dvC(t)/dt + (1/RC). vC(t) = V/RC

The inverse coefficient of vC(t) is known as the time constant of the circuit τ and is given by τ = RC and
it’s units are seconds.
The above equation is a first order differential equation and can be solved by using the same method of
separation of variables as we adopted for the LC circuit.

Multiplying the above equation

dvC(t)/dt + (1/RC). vC(t) = V/RC

both sides by ‘dt’ and rearranging the terms so as to separate the variables vC(t) and t we get:

dvC(t)+ (1/RC). vC(t) . dt = (V/RC).dt

dvC(t) = [(V/RC)−(1/RC). vC(t)]. dt

dvC(t) / [(V/RC)−(1/RC). vC(t)] = dt

R. C . dvC(t) / [(V−vC(t)] = dt

Now integrating both sides w.r.t their variables i.e. ‘vC(t)’ on the LHS and ‘t’ on the RHS we get

−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t+ k
where ‘k‘is the constant of integration. In order to evaluate k, an initial condition must be invoked. Prior
to t = 0, vC(t)is zero, and thus vC(t)(0−) = 0. Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change by a finite
amount in zero time, we have vC(t)(0+) = 0. Setting vC(t)= 0 att = 0, in the above equation we obtain:

−RC ln [V] = k

and substituting this value of

k = −RC ln [V]

in the above simplified equation

−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t+ k

we get :

−RC ln [V − vC(t)] = t−RC ln [V]

i.e. −RC ln [V − vC(t)] + RC ln [V] = t

i.e. −RC [ln {V − vC(t)}− ln (V)]= t

i.e. [ln {V − vC(t)}] − ln [V]} = −t/RC

i.e. ln [{V − vC(t)}/(V)] = −t/RC

Taking anti logarithm we get

[{V − vC(t)}/(V)] = e −t/RC

i.e vC(t) = V(1− e −t/RC )

which is the voltage across the capacitor as a function of time .

The voltage across the Resistor is given by :

vR(t) = V−vC(t) = V−V(1 − e −t/RC ) = V.e −t/RC

And the current through the circuit is given by:

i(t) = C.[dvC(t)/dt] = (CV/CR )e −t/RC=(V/R )e −t/RC

Or the othe other way:

i(t) = vR(t) /R = ( V.e −t/RC ) /R = (V/R )e −t/RC

In terms of the time constant τ the expressions for vC(t) , vR(t)

and i(t) are given by :
vC(t) = V(1 − e −t/RC )

vR(t) = V.e −t/RC

i(t) = (V/R )e −t/RC

The plots of current i(t) and the voltages across the resistor vR(t) and capacitor vC(t) are shown in the
figure below.

Fig : Transient current and voltages in RC circuit with DC excitation.

At t = ‘τ’ the voltage across the capacitor will be:

vC(τ) = V [1− e−τ/τ ] = 0.63212 V

the voltage across the Resistor will be:

vR(τ) = V (e−τ /τ) = V/e = 0.36788 V

and the current through the circuit will be:

i(τ) = (V/R) (e−τ /τ) = V/R. e = 0.36788 (V/R)

Thus it can be seen that after one time constant the charging current has decayed to approximately
36.8% of it’s value at t=0 . At t= 5 τ charging current will be

i(5τ) = (V/R) (e−5τ /τ) = V/R. e5 = 0.0067(V/R)

This value is very small compared to the maximum value of (V/R) at t=0 .
Thus it can be assumed that the capacitor is fully charged after 5 time constants.
The following similarities may be noted between the equations for the transients in the LC and RC
circuits:
 The transient voltage across the Inductor in a LC circuit and the transient current in the RC
circuit have the same form k.(e−t /τ)

 The transient current in a LC circuit and the transient voltage across the capacitor in the RC
circuit have the same form k.(1−e−t /τ)
But the main difference between the RC and RL circuits is the effect of resistance on the duration of the
transients.

 In a RL circuit a large resistance shortens the transient since the time constant τ =L/R
Becomes small.

 Where as in a RC circuit a large resistance prolongs the transient since the time constant τ = RC
becomes large.
Discharge transients:
Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows
both charging and discharging the capacitor. When the switch is position 1 the capacitor gets
charged to the applied voltage V. When the switch is brought to position 2, the current
discharges from the positive terminal of the capacitor to the negative terminal through the
resistor R as shown in the figure (b). The circuit in position 2 is also called source free circuit
since there is no any applied voltage.
 Fig: RC circuit (a) During Charging (b) During Discharging

The current i1 flow is in opposite direction as compared to the flow of the original charging
current i. This process is called the discharging of the capacitor.
The decaying voltage and the current are called the discharge transients. The resistor ,during
the discharge will oppose the flow of current with the polarity of voltage as shown. Since there
is no any external voltage source, the algebraic sum of the voltages across the Resistance and
the capacitor will be zero (applying KVL) .The resulting loop equation during the discharge can
be written as;

vR(t)+vC(t) = 0
or
vR(t) = - vC(t)

We know that
vR(t) = R.i(t) = R. C.dvC(t) /dt.

Substituting this in the first loop equation we get

R. C.dvC(t)/dt + vC(t) = 0

The solution for this equation is given by

vC(t) = Ke-t/τ

where K is a constant decided by the initial conditions and τ =RC is the time constant of the RC
circuit.

The value of K is found out by invoking the initial condition

vC(t) = V @ t = 0

Then we get
K=V

and hence

vC(t) = Ve-t/τ ; vR(t) = -Ve-t/τ and i(t) = vR(t)/R = (-V/R)e-t/τ

The plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Capacitor are shown in the figure below.

Fig: Plot of Discharge transients in RC circuit

Decay transients:
Consider the circuit shown in the figure below where the switch allows both
growing and decaying of current through the inductance . When the switch is position 1 the
current through the Inductance builds up to the steady state value of V/R. When the switch is
brought to position 2, the current decays gradually from V/R to zero. The circuit in position 2 is
also called a source free circuit since there is no any applied voltage.
 Fig: Decay Transient in RL circuit

The current flow during decay is in the same direction as compared to the flow of the original
growing /build up current. The decaying voltage across the Resistor and the current are called
the decay transients. Since there is no any external voltage source, the algebraic sum of the
voltages across the Resistance and the Inductor will be zero (applying KVL). The resulting loop
equation during the discharge can be written as

vR(t)+vL(t) = R.i(t) + L.di(t)/dt = 0

and

vR(t) = - vL(t)

The solution for this equation is given by i(t) = Ke-t/τ where K is a constant decided by the
initial conditions and τ =L/R is the time constant of the RL circuit.
The value of the constant K is found out by invoking the initial condition i(t) = V/R @t = 0
Then we get K = V/R and hence

i(t) = (V/R) . e-t/τ ; vR(t) = R.i(t)= Ve-t/τ and vL(t) = - Ve-t/τ

The plots of the voltages across the Resistor and the Inductor and the decaying current through
the circuit are shown in the figure below.
Fig: Plot of Decay transients in RL circuit
Transient Response of RLC Circuit:
Consider a Transient Response of RLC Circuit consisting of resistance,
inductance and capacitance as shown in Fig. 12.11.

The capacitor and inductor are initially uncharged, and are in series with a
resistor. When switch S is closed at t = 0, we can determine the complete
solution for the current. Application of Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the Transient
Response of RLC Circuit results in the following differential equation.

By differentiating the above equation, we have

The above equation is a second order linear differential equation, with only
complementary function. The, particular solution for the above equation is
zero. Characteristic equation for the above differential equation is

Let m = d/dt

m2 i + R/L (mi) +(1/LC)i= 0

(m2 + R/L m +1/LC) i = 0

(m2 + R/L m +1/LC) = 0 but i is not equal to zero

Solving for the values of m using quadratic formula:

a=1

b = R/L

c = 1/LC

Solve for m1 and m2:

(i) when   which means there are two real roots and
relates to the case when the circuit is said to be over-damped.

Roots of m are real and unequal numbers.

m1 and m2 can be solve from the equation below:

General solution:

i = k1 e(m1)t + k2 e(m2)t
(ii) when   which means there are two complex roots
(as root( -1) is imaginary) and relates to the case when the circuit
is said to be under-damped.

Roots of m are complex conjugate.

General solution:

i = e αt (k1 cos ßt + k2 sin ßt)

(iii) when  which means that the two roots of the
equation are equal (i.e. there is only one root) and relates to the
case when the circuit is said to be critically damped.

Roots of m are real and equal numbers.

m = -(R/2L)

General solution:

i = e mt(k1+ k2(t))