C 2003)

Motivation and Emotion, Vol. 27, No. 3, September 2003 (°

Congruence of Life Goals and Implicit Motives as

Predictors of Life Satisfaction: Cross-Cultural
Implications of a Study of Zambian Male
Adolescents1
Jan Hofer2,3 and Athanasios Chasiotis2

This paper examines the relationship between implicit motives, explicit life goals,
and life satisfaction in a Zambian sample of male adolescents. A questionnaire as-
sessing life goals (K. Pöhlmann & J. C. Brunstein, 1997), the Satisfaction With Life
Scale (E. Diener, R. A. Emmons, R. J. Larsen, & S. Griffin, 1985), and a TAT-type
picture-story-test were administered to 120 Gwembe Tonga adolescents in Zambia.
The stories were coded according to a scoring system developed by D. G. Winter
(1991). Based on motives associated with the domains achievement and affiliation-
intimacy, the results revealed that congruence between implicit motives and self-
attributed goals is associated with an enhanced satisfaction with life. This pattern
does not appear to hold true for motives associated with the domain of power.
KEY WORDS: life goals; implicit motives; motive-goal congruence; life satisfaction; adolescence;
Zambia.

The idea that the pursuit of one’s conscious goals is associated with emotional well-
being is well established (e.g., Brunstein, 1993; Diener, 1984; Emmons, 1996).
A number of studies, however, indicate that congruence between an individual’s
implicit motives and goals is associated with a greater subjective well-being (e.g.,

1 This study was supported by the Dr Alfred Vinzl Foundation, Germany, and the University of Zambia,
Lusaka, Zambia. We thank Lisa Aspinwall and the anonymous reviewers for their helpful and detailed
comments. Finally, we greatly appreciate the editorial and statistical comments provided by Bradford
Andrews and Bernd Runde, respectively.
2 Cross-Cultural Life-Span Psychology Research Group, Department of Human Sciences, University
of Osnabrück, Osnabrück, Germany.
3 Address all correspondence to Jan Hofer, Cross-Cultural Life-Span Psychology Research Group,
Department of Human Sciences, University of Osnabrück, Seminarstr. 20, D-49069 Osnabrück,
Germany; e-mail: jan.hofer@uos.de.

251

0146-7239/03/0900-0251/0 °
C 2003 Plenum Publishing Corporation
252 Hofer and Chasiotis

Brunstein, Schultheiss, & Grässmann, 1998). This paper examines the relationship
between conscious long-term goals, implicit social motives, and an individuals’
satisfaction with life in a non-Western cultural context. Most of the research on
personal goals and implicit motives, and how they correlate has been based on
the evaluation of European American samples in Western cultural settings. To
assess the universal validity of psychological theories and assumptions developed
in Western cultures, it is necessary to study their applicability to non-Western
cultures (Greenfield, 1997; van de Vijver & Leung, 1997). From a comparative
cross-cultural perspective, this Zambian study is especially significant because
there has been very little research on African societies.

THE IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MOTIVATIONAL SYSTEMS

Research on human motivation provides a substantial body of knowledge

supporting the assumption that there are two separate motivational systems that
are relatively independent of one another (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger,
1989). The implicit system of motives is shaped by emotional experiences in early,
prelingual childhood. In contrast, the cognitive system of self-attributed motives
including conscious goals and values is more dependent on the representational
capacities acquired during the development of language-mediated cognitive struc-
tures (e.g., self-concept; cf. Weinberger & McClelland, 1990). In other words, the
development of explicit personal goals is temporally distinct from the develop-
ment of implicit motives. Furthermore, Brunstein, Maier, and Schultheiss (1999;
see also Brandtstädter, 1998) suggest that one’s explicit long-term goals do not be-
gin to emerge until the onset of adolescence. Like other explicit motives, long-term
goals are defined as conscious entities (Emmons & Kaiser, 1996) that are best as-
sessed with direct first-hand questionnaires because people are aware of, or better
able to consciously reflect on their motivations, attributions, and attentional pro-
cesses (Biernat, 1989; McClelland et al., 1989). By comparison, implicit motives
are nonconscious and, therefore, introspectively less accessible (Biernat, 1989).
Accordingly, implicit motives are best measured by fantasy-based methods. One
method that has been routinely used to evaluate implicit motives (e.g., Atkinson
& Litwin, 1960; McAdams & Vaillant, 1982; McClelland & Pilon, 1983; Winter,
1973) is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Murray (1943).
By the 1950s deCharms, Morrison, Reitman, and McClelland (1955) had ar-
gued that future research efforts should distinguish implicit from self-attributed
motives because they are not developmentally related and seem to be linked to
different behaviors. According to McClelland (1980), implicit motives have long-
term effects on “operant,” spontaneous behavioral trends over time (McAdams
& Vaillant, 1982; McClelland & Pilon, 1983). In contrast, self-attributed motives
elicit specific responses to particular situations in which people cognitively decide
on a course of action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1970; Patten & White, 1977). The ability
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 253

to consciously generate goals independent of emotionally driven preferences in-

creases the individual’s capacity to adapt to dynamic sociocultural environments,
critical life events, and developmental tasks associated with particular stages in
life. Both systems of motivation are effective in generating behavior and directing
it toward the pursuit of specific goals (e.g., Cantor, 1994; McClelland, 1987).
The existence of two orthogonal systems of human motivation is also sup-
ported by empirically founded multicoding theories of information processing
(e.g., Bucci, 1985; Epstein, 1994; Reber, 1993). For example, Epstein (1994)
differentiates between a rational system and an emotionally driven experiential
system. Similarly, Bucci’s psychoanalytic theory (Bucci, 1997) distinguishes be-
tween verbal and nonverbal modes of information processing. She assumes that
neither mode is superior and that an individual’s effective adjustment requires the
integration of both systems. Schultheiss (2001) suggests that implicit motives and
explicit goals relate to different kinds of information processing. Implicit motives
are considered to be part of the experiential system that is primarily driven by
an individual’s emotional needs. In contrast, explicit goals are associated with the
verbal-symbolic system that has evolved to represent the needs of the social group.
When studying human motivation, it is necessary to consider both systems
to better understand individual behavior and action (Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986;
Winter, 1996). Results from French and Lesser (1964; McClelland, 1981) indicate
that explicit motives (e.g., values, goals, and interests) have to be considered to
identify the behavioral correlates of implicit motives. On the one hand, studies
dealing with the relationship of implicit and explicit motives in European American
samples have generally found that implicit (operant) and explicit (respondent)
measures of the same motivational disposition are not significantly correlated with
one another (e.g., King, 1995; McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953).
On the other hand, Emmons and McAdams (1991) found that idiographic, self-
generated strivings did relate to corresponding implicit motives measured by the
TAT. When self-attributed motivation is measured idiographically, that is, in a way
that gives participants more freedom to identify their conscious concerns, it may
reveal a link between implicit and self-attributed motives.

GOALS, MOTIVES, AND SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING

Striving for personal goals assigns meaning, structure, and direction to an

individual’s life (Bühler & Massarik, 1968; Klinger, 1977). There is significant
evidence that personal involvement in the pursuit of important goals and progress
toward highly valued goals are positively related to one’s subjective well-being
and mental health (e.g., Emmons, 1996; Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996). There
is, however, also considerable evidence documenting the link between the emer-
gence of negative mood states and the inability to successfully pursue significant
goals (e.g., Klinger, 1977; Martin & Tesser, 1989). Furthermore, explicit goals and
254 Hofer and Chasiotis

implicit motives are not always compatible. Individuals may pursue goals that do
not have corresponding implicit motives. Also, the realization of a particular ex-
plicit goal may be at odds with the satisfaction of an implicit motive. A strong com-
mitment to explicit personal goals that overrides one’s nonconscious motivational
orientation may inhibit the satisfaction of implicit motives and ultimately result in
emotional distress (Winter, 1996). Brunstein et al. (1999) suggest that if congru-
ence between an individual’s implicit motives and conscious goals is achieved, it
will occur during the course of individual development; this is not something that
is preprogrammed ontogenetically. Recent research by Brunstein and colleagues
on German study subjects (Brunstein, Lautenschlager, Nawroth, Pöhlmann, &
Schultheiss, 1995; Brunstein et al., 1998; see also Zalewska & Brandtstädter,
2001) shows that a correspondence between implicit and explicit motivational
systems is correlated with an increase in one’s emotional well-being. Brunstein,
Schultheiss, and Maier (1999), therefore, submit that positive well-being is most
successfully achieved by individuals pursuing personal goals that become aligned
with the satisfaction of implicit motives.

LIFE SATISFACTION: A COMPONENT OF SUBJECTIVE

WELL-BEING

Previous research efforts have identified three components of subjective well-

being: positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction (Diener, Emmons,
Larsen, & Griffin, 1985; Emmons & Diener, 1985). Positive and negative affects
are components based on emotions (i.e., how a person usually feels; Zalewska
& Brandtstädter, 2001), whereas life satisfaction is a component based on cog-
nitive judgments (how a person perceives the pursuit or achievement of personal
needs and aspirations). With these distinctions in mind, well-being can be eval-
uated by asking individuals about their life in general, or by asking them about
their satisfaction with particular aspects such as their family or job. From a general
perspective, subjective well-being has often been shown to correlate with variables
such as education and age (Diener, Suh, & Oishi, 1997). Evidence suggests that
life satisfaction as a part of subjective well-being is likely to reflect the fulfillment
of personal values and goals, and is involved in the search for meaningfulness
in one’s life (Diener et al., 1997). Accordingly, Emmons (1986) demonstrated a
positive relationship between a person’s satisfaction with life, and the importance
and successful pursuit of personal strivings. In line with these findings, we suggest
that congruence between life goals and implicit motives is not only related to emo-
tional well-being, but is also associated with the cognitive-judgmental component
of subjective well-being.
In summary, on the basis of previous research, we propose that the life goals
of our study subjects (respondent measurements) may be weakly correlated with
the implicit motives (operant measurements) associated with a given motivational
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 255

domain. It is also assumed that the importance of their goals will positively relate
to their perceived satisfaction with life. Furthermore, we expect that individuals
with congruence between their explicit life goals and implicit motives will report
higher levels of life satisfaction. Individuals pursuing goals with corresponding
implicit motives will be able to satisfy implicit needs more easily. Variables such
as age and education will also be considered since research has shown that they
are related to an individual’s satisfaction with life.

METHOD

Sample

Cultural Background

The present data are part of a study examining the developmental processes re-
sulting from conflict between social and cultural changes affecting ethnic Gwembe
Tonga adolescents in Zambia during their transition to adulthood (Hofer, 2000).
The Tonga represent approximately 15% of Zambia’s total population (Central
Statistical Office, 1996), and they consist of three distinct groups: the Plateau, the
Gwembe, and the Ila (Bantu Botatwe—the three people; Colson, 1996). The work
of E. Colson and colleagues (e.g., Colson, 1960, 1971; Colson &
Scudder, 1981, 1988; Scudder & Colson, 1980) has provided considerable detail
about Tonga history and culture in Zambia. For the Gwembe Tonga, traditional
rituals and orientations still play a prominent role in life particularly among the
older people (Luig, 1997). They still believe in a close ideological link to the
world of their ancestors. Collectivistic cultural orientations, such as a strong sense
of community (see Colson, 1971), continue to uphold traditional social structures
by reinforcing an enduring bond between the individual and community (Erdheim,
1994). Community-based solidarity is expressed by an emphasis on the rituals of
fellowship and unity associated with the Gwembe Tonga cult of the ancestors.
Also, conjointly organized ceremonies, like rain petitions, strengthen an individ-
ual’s ties to the community. Above all, a strong feeling of community affiliation
is maintained by the importance placed on one’s kinship ties and clan member-
ship. Despite the social and cultural changes in Zambia that affect the life of local
communities, Gwembe Tonga adolescents still appear to embrace the traditional
cultural orientations (e.g., significance of kinship ties) and values taught by their
parents and other older members of the society (Hofer, 2000).

Participants

The total study sample consisted of 301 male adolescents recruited in lo-
cal schools and with the help of local contacts. Adequate information on the
256 Hofer and Chasiotis

self-attributed motives (life goals; N = 250) and level of life satisfaction (N =

295) was provided by most of the study participants. The results presented here,
however, are based only on the data collected from the 120 participants who also
took a TAT-type picture-story test to measure their implicit motives. Although 144
adolescents originally took the TAT, 24 of them did not provide sufficient informa-
tion for the analysis. The stories of 5 adolescents could not be translated because
they used multiple languages to transcribe their stories; the stories of 18 adoles-
cents were not of sufficient length for the TAT (30 words per story; Smith, Feld,
& Franz, 1992); finally, 1 adolescent was excluded because there was insufficient
data on his life goals.
The study participants ranged in age from 12 to 21 years at the time these data
were collected (M = 16.62; SD = 1.65). Most of them (N = 108; 90%) ranged
between 14 and 18 years. Many study participants (N = 105) lived in the rural
Sinazongwe district (an area traditionally settled by the Gwembe Tonga). A small
minority (N = 15) resided in the Zambian capital city of Lusaka. Among the study
participants, 43 attended a secondary school (35.8%; high level of education) and
77 attended a primary or basic school (64.2%; low level of education).

Measurements

Explicit Life Goals

To collect data on the explicit motives (life goals) of the Zambian adoles-
cents, participants completed the life-goal questionnaire GOALS (Pöhlmann &
Brunstein, 1997). GOALS was administered to the Zambian study participants in
a bilingual format (English and Chitonga) to prevent difficulties with questionnaire
comprehension. Zambian colleagues who are ethnic Tongas did the translations
and retranslations of the questionnaires.
GOALS consists of 24 items that evaluate life goals relating to six categories
including intimacy (e.g., have a close relationship), affiliation (e.g., spend a lot
of time with other people), altruism (e.g., act unselfishly), power (e.g., have a
high social status), achievement (e.g., improve my education continuously), and
variation (e.g., live a life of adventure). Life goals are regarded as higher order
phenomena because they embody one’s perceptual orientation of his or her life at
a relatively abstract level.
The items pertaining to life goals were evaluated according to a 5-point rating
scale designed to determine the importance of a goal (1 = not important to 5 =
very important).4 The importance of a goal is estimated according to its relevance
to an individual’s long-term, or lifetime orientation.

4 Data on the attainability of (1 = very difficult to attain to 5 = very easy to attain) and the success in
realizing a goal (1 = not successful to 5 = very successful) are not reported in this paper.
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 257

Theoretically, three of the goal categories (intimacy, affiliation, and altruism)

form a more encompassing group referred to as the field of Communion. The other
three goals (achievement, power, and variation) form a group referred to as the field
of Agency. Communion is defined as the group of community-oriented human
endeavors that primarily focus on acquiring or maintaining social relations. In
contrast, efficacy-oriented life goals (agency) primarily emphasize the individual’s
striving to have an effect (“to be effective”) or have an impact on his or her material
and social environment (Pöhlmann & Brunstein, 1997; see also White, 1959). The
analyses of explicit and implicit motives, and their association with life satisfaction
will only involve the life goal categories of achievement, intimacy, and power
because they compare most directly to the implicit motives n Achievement, n
Affiliation, and n Power, respectively.

Life Satisfaction

The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS; Diener et al., 1985) is composed of
five items used to measure one’s global satisfaction with life. Each item is rated on
a 7-point scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree). The results of the five
items are summed to produce an overall score. The SWLS reflects the cognitive
components of one’s satisfaction with life and is well suited for use with different
age groups (Myers & Diener, 1995). The scale has been widely applied to measure
the life satisfaction of adolescents (e.g., Neto, 1993, 2001; Phinney & Ong, 2002).
It was administered to the Zambian study participants in a bilingual format.

Implicit Motives

A total of 30 pictures were used to pretest the implicit motives of 63 Zambian

adolescents (De Ridder, 1961; Kornadt & Voigt, 1970; Lee, 1953; Smith, 1992).
Accordingly, five picture cues that formed a proper and balanced picture set (e.g.,
stimulus pull of the picture cues) were selected for collecting data on the motives of
achievement, power, and affiliation-intimacy (Hofer & Chasiotis, 2002). The five
pictures were shown to each study participant in the following order: ship captain,
an architect at a desk, a couple by a river, women in a lab, and trapeze artists
(pictures taken from Smith, 1992). The TAT was administered in a group setting
in which the first author and a Zambian coworker instructed the study participants
according to the guidelines set forth by Smith et al. (1992); group size ranged
from 4 to 38 individuals (M = 29.13; SD = 12.89). Picture cues were presented
for 30 s after which the participants were given 5 min to compose a story for each
picture. Primary school students were given an extra minute to write their stories to
compensate for their generally lower level of penmanship. Most of the adolescents
(N = 93) composed their TAT stories in English; however, 21 of them composed
in Chitonga, and 6 of them used both English and Chitonga.
258 Hofer and Chasiotis

According to a scoring system developed by Winter (1991), the content of the

stories composed by the study participants was coded for the achievement motive
(n Achievement), the power motive (n Power), and the affiliation-intimacy motive
(n Affiliation-Intimacy) that they reflected. The achievement motive is defined as
enhancing one’s performance or surpassing standards of excellence (McClelland,
1987). Winter (1991) suggests that standards of excellence are usually expressed
in one’s written use of adjectives or descriptions that positively evaluate their
performance and/or successful realization of goals. Other indicators of n Achieve-
ment are the admission of successful competition with, or victory over others,
descriptions of unique accomplishments, and the acknowledgment of a fear of
failure.
The power motive is defined as one’s desire to influence or have an absolute
affect on the behavior or emotions of other people (Winter, 1973). This motive
is coded for responses indicating the impact, control, or influence that a person
or social institution has on another person, group, or the world at large (e.g.,
the forceful determination of behavior, the provisioning of advice, or impressive
displays; see Winter, 1991).
Winter’s system (Winter, 1991) combines n Affiliation and n Intimacy into a
single image category because of the theoretical and empirical overlap exhibited
by these constructs. In the following text, the short-term n Affiliation will be
used to refer to the implicit affiliation-intimacy motive. This combined motive
represents both a concern for warm, close relations with others, and a concern
for establishing, maintaining, or restoring a positive affective relationship with
another person or group of people (Heyns, Veroff, & Atkinson, 1958; McAdams,
1992). It is coded for any responses indicating the establishment, maintenance, or
restoration of friendly relationships expressed by positive feelings toward others,
regret about the disruption of a relationship, activities of affiliation, or friendly
nurturing acts.
Two trained assistants independently coded each of the stories. They achieved
percentage agreements of 85% or better in their responses to training material
prescored by experts (Winter, 1991). For the Zambian data, the interrater re-
liability was .83 for n Achievement, .89 for n Power, and .94 for n
Affiliation. Scoring disagreements were resolved by discussions between the pri-
mary author and each assistant to determine the subject’s final
score.
Among the study sample, the number of words for the five picture-cue stories
ranged from 151 to 715 (M = 256.68; SD = 91.60). The scores for the strength
of the three motives are expressed as motive images per 1,000 words because of
significant correlations between protocol length and the number of motive images,
r = .51 for n Achievement, r = .49 for n Affiliation, and r = .61 for n Power
(Winter, 1991). The size of the group during data collection had no effect on the
strength of the three implicit motives.
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 259

RESULTS

The results are discussed in three sections. The first section will review the
appropriateness of the six life goal categories (six-factor model) and the measure-
ments of Zambian adolescent life satisfaction. The second section summarizes
the general statistics and correlations between the explicit and implicit motives.
The final section will present the linear regression analyses used to explore the
core issue of this paper, the relationship of motive congruence and one’s level of
satisfaction with life.

Measurement of Life Goals and Life Satisfaction in the Zambian Sample

Life Goals

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS 4.01 (Arbuckle, 1999) was
conducted to examine whether the six life goal categories that have been suc-
cessfully used to analyze a sample of German students (Hofer, 2000) were also
appropriate for evaluating the Zambian adolescent sample. This test used data on
the importance of life goals obtained from 250 of the Zambian adolescents. Ac-
cording to Campbell, Gillaspy, and Thompson (1995), the appropriateness of a
model should be evaluated from the perspective of multiple fit statistics.
The results of the CFA shown in Table I indicate that the six-factor model
is a good fit for the Zambian data set. The ratio χ 2 /degrees of freedom does not
approach the critical value (≥2). Both the CFI (Comparative Fit Index) and the
NFI (Normed Fit Index) are close to 1.00 and the RMSEA (Root Mean Square
Error of Approximation) falls below .05. Finally, the ECVI (Expected Cross Vali-
dation Index) and the AIC (Akaikens Information Criterion) of the default model
lie below their corresponding parameters for the saturated model. The factor load-
ings for the goal categories of achievement, intimacy, and power are shown in
Table II.5
For the sample directly relevant to this study (N = 120), the internal consis-
tency (Cronbach’s alpha) of the goal categories used in further analyses is .60 for
achievement and .41 for intimacy. The item exert influence used to evaluate the
life goal category of power was dropped from the analysis to improve the internal
consistency of the measure. Accordingly, Cronbach’s alpha for this category was
increased to .44.6
5 The factor loadings for the three goal categories which are not used in further analyses range from
.24 to .47 for Affiliation, .10 to .54 for Altruism, and .06 to .46 for Variation.
6 Repeated analyses with data gained from subgroups within the sample (e.g., from secondary school
students, adolescents 16 years and older) showed similar results indicating that neither one’s level of
education nor age influences reliability.
260 Hofer and Chasiotis

Table I. Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Fit Indices of Six-Factor Model for Zambian Data on
Life Goals (N = 250)
χ 2 ( p-level) df χ 2 /df CFI, NFI RMSEA AIC (saturated) ECVI (saturated)

361.06 (.00) 237 1.52 .99, .97 .04 535.06 (648.00) 2.14 (2.60)

Despite the moderate to low internal consistency of the evaluation scales, the
measurements exhibit satisfying retest reliabilities. Prior to collecting the main data
for this study, the GOALS questionnaire was administered to 35 adolescents. Five
months later it was administered once again to the same adolescents to evaluate
the reliability of their responses. The results showed a temporal stability of .72
for achievement goals, .63 for intimacy goals, and .81 ( p < .01) for power goals
(three-item scale).

Satisfaction With Life

The SWLS was administered to 295 male adolescents (Table III). One item
in the questionnaire (so far I have gotten the important things I want in life) was
not used in the subsequent analyses because discussion with Zambian colleagues
concerning the translation and retranslation of the Chitonga version revealed that
its focus on material aspects was too explicit. Considering the relatively moderate
economic and financial status of most study participants (e.g., subsistence farming)
and their commentary during discussions about life satisfaction, it was clear that
many individuals switched their basis of evaluation when rating the fourth item
of the SWLS. In these cases, participants often focused narrowly on the material
deficiencies in their lives.
Factor analysis was used to analyze the remaining four items of the question-
naire on satisfaction with life. The application of principle component

Table II. Factor Loadings of the Goal Categories Achievement, Intimacy, and Power (N = 250)
Item Achievement Intimacy Power

Continuously improve myself .613

Develop my skills .442
Broaden my horizons .437
Improve my education continuously .412
Have trusting relationships with other people .469
Receive affection and love .435
Give affection and love .352
Have a close relationship .326
Have prestigious positions .537
Have a high social status .407
Gain public recognition .356
Be able to exert influence .285
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 261

Table III. Satisfaction With Life: Factor Loadings for the Zambian Adolescent
Sample (N = 295)
Item Factor loading

The conditions of my life are excellent .829

I am satisfied with my life .735
In most ways my life is close to my ideal .508
If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing .222
Percentage of variance explained 38.37
(principle component analysis)

Note. Item excluded from factor analysis: so far I have gotten the important things
I want in life.

analysis produced one factor (eigen value > 1) that accounted for 38.37% of the
variance.
Following Diener et al. (1985), this factor is referred to as global life satis-
faction. Within the sample of 120 adolescents specifically relevant to this study,
the alpha value of the factor is .57 after the most ambiguous item (if I could live
my life over, I would change almost nothing) was dropped to enhance the internal
consistency of the scale. Consequently, the three-item scale was used in further
analyses of life satisfaction. Similar to the data on the importance of life goals,
the measurements of life satisfaction (N = 35) demonstrate reasonable temporal
reliability. Responses on this topic showed a correlation of .66 ( p < .01) over a
5-month period.

General Statistics and Correlations Between Explicit and Implicit Motives

Table IV presents descriptive data on implicit motives, life goals, and satis-
faction with life (N = 120). The scores on life goals and two of the scores on
implicit motives (n Achievement and n Power) were skewed and, therefore, vio-
lated the normal-distribution requirement for correlation and regression analysis.

Table IV. Descriptive Statistics of Implicit

Motives, Life Goals, and Satisfaction With
Life (N = 120)
Measurement M SD

n Achievement 4.17 5.34

n Affiliation 6.76 5.83
n Power 6.08 6.26
Achievement goals 4.26 0.69
Intimacy goals 4.06 0.63
Power goals 3.56 0.91
Satisfaction with life 3.78 1.44
262 Hofer and Chasiotis

Accordingly, we normalized the scores (square root transformation and squaring,

respectively).7
Correlations between one’s implicit motives (TAT) and the importance of life
goals (GOALS) were computed to examine the relationship between the two inde-
pendent measures of a particular motivational domain. Correlations were applied
with z-transformed variables (Aiken & West, 1991). As predicted, the results show
that the independent measures of a motivational domain do not correlate signif-
icantly. Only self-attributed achievement goals show a tendency for correlating
significantly with n Achievement (r = 0.17, p < .06).

Life Satisfaction and Motive Congruence

Linear regression analyses (method: simultaneous) were used to examine

whether congruence between a particular implicit motive and its explicit motiva-
tional counterpart is significantly associated with an individuals’ greater satisfac-
tion with life. Following the hierarchical analyses recommended by Aiken and
West (1991), we converted both the predictor and dependent variables to z-scores.
A separate analysis was computed for each motivational domain (achievement
goals and n Achievement; intimacy goals and n Affiliation; power goals and n
Power). In addition to the importance of a goal category and the strength of its
implicit counterpart, the age and level of education of each participant were in-
corporated to form a set of first-order predictors (Block 1) since previous studies
have shown that age and level of education relate significantly to an individuals’
life satisfaction (Diener et al., 1997). The influences of the life goal and implicit
motive interaction coefficients (higher order terms: e.g., achievement goals × n
Achievement) on life satisfaction were tested after controlling for the underlying
variables (Block 2).
The results of these analyses are shown in Table V. As shown in the results for
Block 1, the age of a participant was not related to his perceived life satisfaction.
The variable pertaining to school educational level (βs = −.23 to −.27, p < .01),
however, accounted for a significant portion of the variance in the three regression
analyses computed for an individuals’ satisfaction with life, such that a lower level
of education was significantly associated with a greater level of life satisfaction.
Furthermore, no significant correlations between life satisfaction and the strength
of implicit motives were obtained. In contrast, one’s satisfaction with life tended
to be significantly associated with a greater importance attributed to the goals of
achievement, power, and intimacy (βs = .15–.17, p < .10).
Significant associations between motive congruence and life satisfaction were
obtained for two of the three motivational domains. For the domain of achievement
motivation, additional variance in life satisfaction was explained by the interaction
7 Results from analyses with raw data show no substantial differences from the findings reported in this
paper.
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 263

Table V. Life satisfaction: Influence of Motives, Motive Congruence, Age, and Level of Education
Linear Regressions (Method: Simultaneous; N = 120)
Outcome: Life satisfaction
Motivational domain Block Predictor variables β Adjusted R 2 F-value

Achievement 1 Age −.05 .08∗∗∗ 3.68

Level of education −.26∗∗∗
n Achievement .12
Achievement goals .17∗
2 n Achievement × Achievement goals .22∗∗ .12∗∗∗ 4.22
Affiliation 1 Age −.00 .05∗∗ 2.71
Level of education −.27∗∗∗
n Affiliation .02
Intimacy goals .15∗
2 n Affiliation × Intimacy goals .18∗∗ .08∗∗ 3.02
Power 1 Age .00 .07∗ 3.28
Level of education −.23∗∗∗
n Power .11
Power goals .16∗
2 n Power × Power goals .00 .06∗∗ 2.61
∗ p < .10.
∗∗ p < .05.
∗∗∗ p < .01.

coefficient (Block 2) Achievement goals × n Achievement (R 2 change = .04).

Following the procedure recommended by Aiken and West (1991), Fig. 1 graphs
the significant interaction results for the motivational domain of achievement. To
clarify the nature of the interaction, we calculated life satisfaction scores at values

Fig. 1. Level of life satisfaction and its relationship to the association of achievement
goals and n Achievement.
264 Hofer and Chasiotis

Fig. 2. Level of life satisfaction and its relationship to the association of intimacy goals and
n Affiliation.

one standard deviation below the mean, the mean, and one standard deviation above
the mean for predictor variables in the significant interaction term. As shown in
Fig. 1, individuals who placed great importance on achievement goals in addition to
having a strong implicit achievement orientation reported higher perceived levels
of satisfaction with life.
Similarly, for the domain of affiliation motivation, additional variance in
life satisfaction was explained by the interaction coefficient (Block 2) Intimacy
goals × n Affiliation (R 2 change = .03). Figure 2 illustrates the relationship
between life goals and implicit motives, and an individual’s satisfaction with life
for the motivational domain of affiliation. Individuals who showed high scores
(one standard deviation above mean) for intimacy goals and implicit n Affiliation
reported a greater satisfaction with life than those who scored low for both motives,
or those who showed a pronounced negative relationship between their explicit and
implicit motivations.
For the domain of power motivation, a significant relationship between motive
congruence and life satisfaction were not obtained.

DISCUSSION

Motives and Life Satisfaction

The preceding analyses of the Zambian adolescent sample revealed some

results similar to those from previous research on the motivation and subjective
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 265

well-being of European American study participants. The lack of significant corre-

lations between implicit motives and life goals is consistent with Western samples
that show self-report questionnaire measures of motive strength are only minimally
correlated with TAT measures (operant measures; e.g., Brunstein et al., 1999; King,
1995). Only a weak correlation between the measurements of achievement motiva-
tion (the importance of achievement goals and implicit n Achievement) is reflected
by our sample (see also Spangler, 1992).
Considering subjective well-being and goals, Emmons (1986; see also Cantor
& Sanderson, 1999; Zalewska & Brandtstädter, 2001) notes that a strong commit-
ment to personal strivings relates to the meaningfulness of, and level of satisfaction
with, one’s life (McGregor & Little, 1998). Our findings support this notion be-
cause among the Zambian adolescents, the importance of life goals was associated
with greater reports of satisfaction with life.
Cantor and Blanton (1996) argue that an individuals’ commitment to goals
may be influenced by their implicit motives. Going beyond this argument,
Brunstein et al. (1999) postulate that the pursuit of goals based on an implicit mo-
tive contributes to the fulfilment of needs. They showed that in European samples
congruence between explicit and implicit motives is associated with greater levels
of emotional well-being. In the Zambian sample, our study shows that motive-goal
congruence in the domains of achievement and affiliation are significantly related
to greater levels of satisfaction with life.
High evaluations of intimacy-oriented and achievement-oriented life goals are
associated with greater life satisfaction if they occur in tandem with a strong im-
plicit need for affiliation and achievement, respectively. However, our model does
not support causal conclusions about the relationship between life satisfaction and
motives. Brunstein (2001) found that participants who reported a high level of emo-
tional well-being preferentially commit themselves to goals consistent with their
dominant implicit motives. Therefore, participants who are significantly satisfied
with their lives may place greater importance on motive-congruent goals.
On the one hand, our findings contribute support to the notion that the rela-
tionship between motive-goal congruence and subjective well-being identified in
Western samples may be a human universal. Sheldon and Elliot (1999) argue that
goals can be important vehicles for satisfying psychological needs; congruence
between goals and psychological needs is expected to enhance one’s attainment of
such goals and subjective well-being. Individuals may perceive motive-congruent
personal goals to be self-generated, fully integrated strivings that promote the sat-
isfaction of needs (Ryan, Deci, & Grolnick, 1995). On the other hand, our findings
show that besides being related to emotional well-being, motive-goal congruence
is also associated with the judgmental component of subjective well-being. Future
studies, therefore, could consider measuring all three components of subjective
well-being (e.g., positive affect, negative affect, and life satisfaction; Diener et al.,
1985). This strategy may provide a more meaningful understanding of the rela-
tionship between motive-goal congruence and subjective well-being.
266 Hofer and Chasiotis

An association of motive congruence and enhanced satisfaction with life

was not verified for the domain of power motivation. It may be possible that
the emphasis in this goal category did not represent a conscious counterpart of n
Power for Zambian adolescents. It primarily emphasized life goals associated with
an individual’s status-oriented strivings. Zambian adolescents may be too young
to place a serious concern on issues relating to status and power. In Gwembe
Tonga communities, the social status of males is closely linked to marriage and
fatherhood; these events normally do not occur until one reaches his late twenties.
Accordingly, the majority of Zambian adolescent interviewees rarely spoke of their
own social status. Instead, they usually portrayed themselves as undifferentiated
dependents of their ascending familial relatives. It was also apparent that status-
oriented goals were significantly less important to them than other life goals (Hofer,
2000). Such a tendency has also been reported for young adults in Western cultural
settings. Emmons (1991) has documented that undergraduates in the United States
reported having relatively few strivings related to power. Consistent with this
finding, Veroff, Reuman, and Feld (1984) have reported that power motivation
often does not peak earlier than middle adulthood.
Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) may provide another expla-
nation for the apparent lack of correlation between motive-goal congruence in
the power domain and life satisfaction. Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser, and Deci (1996)
have suggested that some goals serve intrinsic needs, whereas other goals such as
those related to status and power are extrinsic in nature. The authors maintain that
the degree to which individuals fulfill needs and maximize their subjective well-
being depends strongly on the pursuit of intrinsic goals (see also Veenhoven, 1991).
In this view, status-oriented goals are usually found to be less intrinsically satis-
fying. Sheldon and Elliot (2000) emphasize that it is important to understand how
life goals vary and how they affect an individual’s subjective well-being differently
(see also Oishi, Diener, Suh, & Lucas, 1999).

Education and Life Satisfaction

Although the age of the participants did not appear to influence life satisfac-
tion, one’s level of education related significantly to perceptions of life satisfaction.
Contrary to other studies (Diener et al., 1997), relatively well-educated Zambian
adolescents reported lower levels of life satisfaction. Hofer (2000) has suggested
that students who are exposed to Western values in the formal educational system
for extended lengths of time may commit themselves to goals and life plans that are
difficult to attain in their socioeconomic environment. Consequent frustration may
promote the expression of generally lower levels of life satisfaction. Our results
suggest, therefore, that social characteristics like one’s level of education should
not be neglected in future research.
Motive Congruence and Life Satisfaction 267

Limitations and Future Perspectives

The limitations of this study must be considered even though it has sub-
stantiated the validity of some conclusions about personal motivation based on
non-Western data. Among these limitations, the low to moderate internal consis-
tency of goal categories is worth mentioning. Even if the category achievement
reaches an acceptable alpha value of .6 (Nunually, 1978), the coefficients for the
goal categories intimacy and power are low despite their apparent face validity
(life satisfaction lies in the vicinity of .6). However, the retest as a straightforward
measure of the performance of an instrument tends to support the validity of our
results. According to Zalewska and Brandtstädter (2001), low internal consistency
coefficients may indicate that the components of a construct represent its diffe-
rent facets although each of them may be similar in psychological meaning and
statistical relationships. Therefore, low internal consistency may reflect the use of
domains based on multiple constructs, not unreliable results. In addition, different
items may serve as alternative, not simultaneous expressions of a striving.
Another thing to consider is that multiple models can be adequately fit to
the structure of a data set when interpreting the findings using confirmatory factor
analysis (Biddle & Marlin, 1987). Consequently, selecting a model with good fit
does not necessarily mean that it is the optimal model for that data. Research con-
ducted in non-Western cultures has revealed that Asian and African populations
demonstrate a motivation toward socially oriented achievement (e.g., Earley, 1994;
Kagan & Knight, 1981; Maehr & Nicholls, 1980). Socially oriented aspirations of
achievement are ultimately based on an endeavor to embrace the expectations and
needs of persons or groups significant to a particular actor. Hofer (in press) has
reported evidence that achievement-oriented strivings seem to be closely linked
with the relatedness-oriented strivings of Zambian individuals. Cultural orienta-
tions (e.g., prevalent values and socially reinforced normative behaviors) have a
strong impact on an individuals’ development (Keller, 2000; Markus & Kitayama,
1991; Veroff, 1983). Cantor (1994) argues that one’s goals are directly influenced
by one’s culture. Therefore, one should aim to develop meaningful construct cat-
egories for non-Western samples that have satisfying internal consistency coeffi-
cients (e.g., the emic approach; see Berry, 1989; van de Vijver & Leung, 1997).
Future studies on human motivation should also acknowledge that the content and
function of life goals may change over the life course (Lowenthal, 1971).
Investigation of the factors underlying the interplay of implicit and explicit
motives has only just begun. Miron and McClelland (1979) have already sug-
gested that systematic experience based on self-observation may permit one to
align both types of motives (see also Bucci, 1985, 1997; Schultheiss & Brunstein,
1999). Brunstein (2001; see also Kuhl, 2001) recently pointed to the importance
of dispositions of action control in research on the relationship between implicit
and explicit motives. In this context, the approach by Isen (2003) emphasizing the
268 Hofer and Chasiotis

close linkage between affect and cognitive and motivational processes seems to be
a promising direction for future research.
We suggest that subsequent studies along these lines should have a cross-
cultural emphasis because most research on implicit motivation, life goals, and the
relationship between these motivational systems has been based only on
European American data. Although efforts conducted in a cross-cultural context
usually face a number of additional methodological problems (van de Vijver, 2000;
see also Hofer & Chasiotis, 2002), they can generate results that broaden our un-
derstanding of human motivation, and help to evaluate the universal applicability
of psychological theories, models, and assumptions.

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