Intro To Environment

INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT
Bachelor Level Course

Course Code: 1421
(3 Credit)
Department of Environmental Science

(Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences)
Allama Iqbal Open University

Islamabad
Course Team
Course Development Dr. Hina Fatimah

Coordinator / Principal Author Asst. Prof, Department of Environmental
Science, AIOU
Contributing Authors Prof. Dr. Abdulrauf Farooqi

Chairman, Department of Environmental
Science, AIOU
Dr. Zahidullah, Lecturer, Department of

Environmental Science, AIOU
Reviewers Dr. Saeed Ahmad Sheikh, Assistant

Professor, Department of Environmental
Science, Fatima Jinnah Women University,
Rawalpind
Editor Mr. Abdul Wadood

Ms. Humaira
Design
 Title Ms. Shabnam Irshaad
 Typesetting Mr. Muhammad Usman

Mr. Shahzad Akram
ii
Preface
On behalf of AIOU and the course team, I appreciate and welcome you to the
course “Introduction to Environment”. The word “environment” is usually
understood to mean the surrounding conditions that affect people and other
organisms. In broader definition, environment is everything that affects an
organism during its lifetime. Environmental science stands at the interface
between human and earth. It is an interdisciplinary as well as multidisciplinary
study that describes problems caused by human use of the natural world. It also
seeks remedies for these problems. Learning about this complex field of study
helps to understand three things. First, it is important to understand the natural
processes (both physical and biological) that operate in the world. Second, it is
important to appreciate the role that technology plays in our society and its
capacity to alter natural processes. Third, it helps to understand the complex
social processes that characterize human populations.
The different units of this course will lead you to an understanding of the
relationships between the physical and human components of the systems and
the Earth’s processes that change the surface of the earth.
Primarily the objectives of this course are to:

1. Give a clear understanding of the definition and scope of Environmental
Science.
2. Provide an understanding of earth’s spheres: atmosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and the Biosphere.
3. Acquaint students with ecological concepts and connections and energy
flow through material and energy flow in ecosystem.
4. Provide students an understanding of the biological diversity, man and
environment interaction and Pakistan’s environmental settings.
The field of Environmental Science is very broad and not many books are written
to introduce all the important aspects of the subject particularly to cover the
issues related to the developing or the south Asian countries. The study material
has therefore been developed using the best available resources in a simple
language, understandable figures and examples from Pakistan. This book also
includes individual introduction to each unit, suggests small research activities
and exercises to develop a better understanding of the topic and self assessment
questions at the end. I hope that you find the course useful, interesting and
stimulating.
Best Wishes
Prof. Dr. Abdulrauf Farooqi
Chairman Department of
Environmental Science
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Course Outline
Unit 1 Environment: An Introduction
1.1 Environment: Definitions, History, Scope and Importance

1.2 The World Response
1.3 Perceptions and Attitudinal Changes
Unit 2 Frame Work of Ecology
2.1 Levels of Organization in Nature

2.2 Structure of Ecosystem
2.3 Functions of Ecosystem (productivity and energy flow)
2.4 Types of Organism Interactions
Unit 3 Atmosphere
3.1 Atmosphere: Composition and Structure

3.2 Solar Radiations in the Atmosphere
3.3 Climate and Urban Microclimate
3.4 Climate Change and Global Warming
3.5 Seasons
Unit 4 Lithosphere
4.1 Earth: Structure and Composition

4.2 Geographic Organization of the Land
4.3 Earth Materials
4.4 Soil and its Properties
4.5 Soil Erosion and its Impact on Environment
Unit 5 Hydrosphere
5.1 Water: A Unique Solvent and a Vital Resource

5.2 Composition of Hydrosphere
5.3 Water Cycle
5.4 Human Impacts on Hydrological Cycle
5.5 Human Use of Water
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Unit 6 Biogeochemical Cycles
6.1 Nitrogen Cycle

6.2 Carbon Cycle
6.3 Phosphorus Cycle
6.4 Sulfur Cycle
Unit 7 Biological Diversity and Its Distribution
7.1 Understanding Biological Diversity

7.2 Biological Evolution
7.3 Levels in Diversity
7.3.1 Ecosystem Diversity
7.3.2 Species Diversity
7.3.3 Genetic Diversity
Unit 8 Man Environment Interaction
8.1 Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability

8.2 Effect of Human Activity on Environment
8.3 Implications for Human Society
Unit 9 Pakistan Environmental Setting
9.1 Location and Extent

9.2 Climate
9.3 Soil and Topography
9.4 Flora and Fauna
9.5 Human Settlement Pattern
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UNIT No. 1
Environment: An Introduction
Major Topics
1.1 Environment: Definitions, History, Scope and Importance
1.2 The World Response
1.3 Perceptions and Attitudinal Changes
Introduction1
Humans have always inhabited two worlds. One is the natural world of plants,
animals, soils, air, and water that preceded us by billions of years and of
which we the Homo sapiens (human beings) as a species are a part. The
other is the world of social institutions and artifacts that we create for
ourselves using science, technology, and political organization. Both worlds
are essential to our lives, but integrating them successfully causes continuing
tensions.
Where earlier people had limited ability to alter their surroundings, we now
with the advancement of science and technology have the power to extract
and consume resources. Further more we produce wastes and modify our
world in ways that threaten both our continued existence and that of many
organisms with which we share the planet. To ensure a sustainable future for
ourselves and future generations, we need to understand something about
how our world works, what we are doing to it, and what we can do to protect,
improve and sustain it. By sustainability we mean that meeting our needs
judiciously and sensibly, so that our future generations get the equal share of
resources that we have today.
This unit looks more closely at science as a systematic way of knowing,

environmental ethics, and other tools that help us analyze and understand the
world around us. We will also get an overview on the scope and importance
of environmental science as a discipline. An account on people’s perceptions
and attitudes towards environment and nature will also be included. After
reading this unit the students will be able to:
Objectives of the Unit
1. Define environmental science, ecology and its types.

2. Understand the scope and importance of environmental science
3. Comprehend the global response on environmental issues and the
need to bring about attitudinal changes.
1
Cunningham, Cunningham and Saigo (2005) Environmental Science a Global
th
Concern. 8 edition Mc. Graw Hill. pp 16
1
Section 1.1 Environment: Definition, Scope and Importance2,3,4
Environment (from the French ‘environner’ to encircle or surround) can be

defined as:
i. The circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group
of organisms, or
ii. The complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an individual or
community.
This involves three questions:
What is surrounded?
The answer is: living objects in general and human being in particular.
By what surrounded?
The physical attributes are the answer to this question, which become
environment. In fact, the concern of all education is the environment of
humans. However, human beings cannot exist or be understood in isolation
from the other forms of life and from plant life. Hence, environment refers to
the sum total of conditions, which surround point in space and time. The
scope of the term Environment has been widening by the passage of time. In
the primitive age, the environment consisted of only physical aspects of the
earth ‘land, air and water’ and biological communities. As the time passed on
man extended his environment through his social, economic and political
functions.
Where Surrounded?
It is in the nature that physical component of the earth, viz land, air, water
etc., support and affect life in the biosphere.
Definition of Environment: Another important definition of environment

states:
‘A person’s environment consists of the sum total of the stimulation
which he receives from his conception (birth) until his death.’
It can be concluded from the above definition that environment comprises of

various types of forces such as physical, intellectual, economic, political,
cultural, social, moral and emotional. Environment is the sum total of all the
external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature,
behavior, growth, development and maturation of living organisms.
2
Q.J. Shammi S.S. Purohit and A.K. Agrawal (2004) Environmental Sciences: A New
Approach. Agrobios (India)
3
th
Concern. 8 edition Mc. Graw Hill. pp 16-20
Singh, Y. K. (2006) Environmental Science. New Age Intl. publications pp 1-9.
4
2
History of Environmental Science and Education
Environmental Conservation, alleviation of poverty and sustainable development

has been high on the agenda of global meetings (UN Conference Stockholm,
1972; the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, 1992; New York, 1997 and
Johannesburg, 2002). The start of the environmental education made historical
mark with the start of the International Conference on Human Environment at
Stockholm in 1972 on global level and in Pakistan. Subsequently, the need for
environmental education was for the first time emphasized in 1979 in Belgrade.
The Tbilisi conference in the USSR in 1977 was the first major conference on the
theme of Environmental Education where following objectives were proposed:
1. To create environmental awareness
2. To disseminate knowledge and skills
3. To initiate new behavioral approach at individual/or groups levels towards
environment
4. To develop inter disciplinary view of environment as a dynamic system
and to emphasis its complexity
5. To help in promotion of environmentally sound development program
towards sustainable growth
6. To create an atmosphere of national, international understanding and
global cooperation in the areas of environmental priority
These objectives can be achieved firstly by bringing about positive attitudinal and
behavioral changes in teachers and students in respect of environmental
problems and conservation. Secondly, creating awareness about past, current
and expected situations of environmental considerations in pursuit of sustainable
environment. Thirdly, disseminating information and exchange knowledge and
experience gained in achieving the goals of sustainable development. Fourthly,
encouraging and developing critical thinking among students in dealing with real
world environmental challenges in general and of local origin in particular.
Environmental education will act as a spring board to strengthen the knowledge
on environment and have domino effect on accomplishing sustainable
development in Pakistan (Fig. 1.1) It will objectively inculcate positive attitude
towards environment to be seen as pro-development and will enhance
commitment towards basic human rights and find simple and appropriate
solutions based on scientific global / local knowledge.
Box 1.1 Domino’s Effect
The domino effect is a chain reaction that occurs when a

small change causes a similar change nearby, which then will
cause another similar change, and so on in linear sequence
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Pakistan’s Purview
One of the contributing factors to the growing poverty in Pakistan is

environmental degradation. Livelihoods of a considerable portion of country’s
population, especially those living in the rural areas, depend on goods and
services provided by natural resources in the rural areas, such as land, water,
forests, livestock, fisheries and minerals. Environmental issues including safe
drinking water scarcity, water pollution, deforestation, land degradation and loss
of biodiversity resulting in rapid depletion and degradation of these resources
thus having adverse impacts on livelihoods by causing declining yields, reducing
employment opportunities and incomes. Environmental degradation caused due
to pollution of air, water and land is also contributing to poverty by adversely
affecting the health of the poor and hence increasing the burden of disease
(Malik 2004).
Another adverse affect of environmental degradation is increased vulnerability to

disasters such as droughts, floods and landslides and to environment-related
conflicts as majority of the rural poor live in ecologically-fragile areas, while the
urban poor often live and work in environments with a high exposure to
environmental hazards. The drought incidence of 2000-2001, for instance,
resulted in elimination of livestock worth US$ 247 million in the first five months of
the year in Pakistan. According to 1995 estimates, air and water pollution and
land degradation cost US$ 2.2 billion or about 4 percent of GDP to Pakistan’s
economy. According to a conservative estimate environmental degradation cost
Pakistan at least 6 percent of GDP or about Rs. 365 billion (US $6.05 billion) per
year and all these costs fall disproportionately upon the poor (World Bank, 2006).
The most significant causes of environmental damage costs identified are (i)
Illness and premature mortality caused by air pollution almost 50% of the total
damage cost (ii) diarrhoeal diseases and typhoid due to inadequate water supply,
sanitation and hygiene about 30% of the total damage cost and (iii) reduced
agricultural productivity due to soil degradation about 20% of the total cost. Rapid
degradation of environment in Pakistan and the ensuring poverty can be
attributed to a number of key factors including the utter lack of environmental
awareness and education.
The commencement of environmental
Sustainable Development in
awareness in Pakistan took place in early
the context of Pakistan
1990s. Developing the National
demands justice in the use of
Conservation Strategy in 1992, initiating
resources by the present
educational programmes at university level
Scope of Environmental Science generations keeping in view
and formulating National Environmental
the needs of future
Policy in 2005 are the few examples;
generations.
however, implementing these initiatives
remain a challenge
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Scope of Environmental Science and Education5
NSTA (2008)6 pledged strong support for environmental education as a way

to instill environmental literacy. It should be a part of school curriculum
because student knowledge of environmental concepts establishes a
foundation for their future environmental friendly activities as citizens.
Only a few universities offered programs in the field of Environmental Science

/ Engineering / Management etc, during 1980s or 90s. However, an
increasing trend can be observed with the onset of 21st century. Spread over
a decade or so, the Environmental Education and Awareness in Pakistan is
immature and recent. According to our estimate, the universities / institutes in
Pakistan presently produce about 300 experts annually in the field of
Environmental Science and Engineering7. Against the annual production of
300 experts, the analysis of the requirement suggests that about of 13, 000
experts in the field of Environmental Science are needed to fill the void in
Pakistan (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Number of Experts required in the field of Environmental Science
No. Category Number Experts Specific remarks

required
8
1. Schools 176286 8814 Calculated on the basis of 1 expert per 20
schools
9
2. Colleges 1000 1000 At least 1 expert per college
3. Universities 113 791 7 faculty members to initiate a department in the
university
10
4. Industry 2000 2000 High waste producing industries require at least
1 expert each for waste minimization and cleaner
production
5. Governmental 300 EPAs, District Environmental Officers (100),
organizations Agriculture and Livestock Departments and
and NGOs NGOs.
Total 12905
5
Farooqi, A., and H. Fatimah (2009) Historical Perspective of Environmental Education and its
rd
Objectives in Pakistan, 3 Intl. conference on Environmental Sustainable Development, aug
16-18, 2009, COMSATS, Abbottabad, Pakistan
6
NSTA (2008) National Science Teachers Association Online, Science Scope 1840 Wilson
Buld. Arlington, VA 22201-3000. USA February 2008, pp 6
7
Farooqi, A., H. Fatimah and ZahidUllah (2006) Scheme of Studies for 4-years BS in
Environmental Science at AIOU: 2-3
8
Source: Academy of Educational Planning and Management, Ministry of Education
9
A total of 461 Colleges are affiliated with Punjab University, Lahore only
10
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/manufacturing_industry/summary_report.pdf
5
6
Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and our
proper place in it. Environmental science is highly interdisciplinary and
multidisciplinary (see Figure 1.2); integrating natural sciences, social
sciences, and humanities in a broad, holistic study. It comprises of branches
of science like chemistry, physics, medicine, agriculture, public health,
sanitary engineering etc. It is the science of physical phenomena in the
environment. It studies the sources, reactions, transport, effect and fate of
physical and biological species in the air, water and soil and the effect of
human activity upon these. In contrast to more theoretical disciplines,
environmental science is mission-oriented. That is, it seeks new, valid,
contextual knowledge about the natural world and our impacts on it, but
obtaining this information creates a responsibility to get involved in trying to
do something about the problems we have created.
Biology
Physics Chemistry
Nature
Engineering
Mathematics
Forestry Environmental Ecology

Science
Literature Sociology
Technology Society
Religion Political
Science
History
Figure 1.2 The intersection of the natural, technological and the cultural
worlds encompasses our environment. Many disciplines contribute to
the environmental science and help us understand how our world
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intertwine as well as how our people role in them .
11
th
7
The difficulty is not to identify remedies. Remedies are now well understood.
The problem is to make them socially, economically, and politically
acceptable. Foresters know how to plant trees, but not how to establish
conditions under which villagers in developing countries can manage
plantations for themselves and also know to protect and preserve it.
Engineers know how to control pollution, but not how to persuade factories to
install the necessary equipment. City planners know how to build housing and
design safe drinking water systems, but not how to make them affordable for
the poorest members of society. The solutions to these problems increasingly
involve human social systems as well as natural science.
Criteria for environmental awareness (environmental literacy) includes:

awareness of natural and built environment; knowledge of natural systems
and ecological concepts; understanding of current environmental issues; and
the ability to critically analyze and develop a problem solving approach.
Activity 1.1
You have just read a term ‘built environment’ in the paragraph above.
Search the definition of this term and write down in the space below
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
The___
environment consists of four segments as under:
1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases,

surrounding the earth:
a. It sustains life on the earth.
b. It saves it from the hostile environment of outer space.
c. It absorbs most of the cosmic rays from outer space and a major
portion of the electromagnetic radiation from the sun.
d. It transmits only here ultraviolet, visible, near infrared radiation (300 to
2500 nm) and radio waves (0.14 to 40 m) while filtering out tissue-
damaging ultraviolet waves below about 300 nm. The atmosphere is
composed of nitrogen and oxygen, besides, argon, carbon dioxide,
and trace gases.
2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources

oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers,
and ground water.
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a. Nature 97% of the earth’s water supply is in the oceans,
b. About 2% of the water resources are locked in the polar icecaps and
glaciers.
c. Only about 1% is available as fresh surface water as rivers, lakes
streams, and ground water fit to be used for human consumption and
other uses.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists

of minerals occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals,
organic matter, air and water.
4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their

interactions with environment i.e. atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere.
Element of Environment
Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological

and cultural elements inter-related in various ways, individually as well as
collectively. These elements may be explained as under:
1. Physical elements: Physical elements are as space, landforms, water

bodies, climate soils, rocks and minerals. They determine the variable
character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations.
2. Biological elements: Biological elements such as plants, animals,

microorganisms and human beings constitute the biosphere.
3. Cultural elements: Cultural elements such as economic, social and

political elements are essentially manmade features, which make cultural
milieu.
Importance of Environmental Science
The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and
conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment. At
present a great number of environment issues, have grown in size and
complexity day by day, threatening the survival of mankind on earth. We
study about these issues besides and effective suggestions in the
Environment Studies. Environment studies have become significant for the
following reasons:
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1. Environment Issues being of International Importance: It has been
well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone
depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely
national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with
international efforts and cooperation.
2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development: Development in its

wake gave birth to urbanization, industrial growth, transportation systems,
agriculture and housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the
developed world. The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact
fully managed to move ‘dirty’ factories of South. When the West
developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the environmental impact of
its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable,
even if developing world follows that.
3. Explosively Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in

every seven persons in this planted lives in India. Evidently with 16 per
cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there
is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural
experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of
micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil
structure.
4. Need for an Alternative Solution: It is essential, especially for

developing countries to find alternative paths to an alternative goal. We
need a goal as under:
a. A goal, which ultimately is the true goal of development an
environmentally sound and sustainable development.
b. A goal common to all citizens of our earth.
c. A goal distant from the developing world in the manner it is from the
over-consuming wasteful societies of the “developed” world.
5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction: It is incumbent upon us to

save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities
constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of
development
6. Need for Wise Planning of Development: Resources withdrawal,

processing and use of the product have all to be synchronized with the
ecological cycles in any plan of development. Our actions should be
planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and
development.
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Need for Public Awareness
It is essential to make the public aware of the alarming consequences of the

Environmental Degradation, if not retorted restored and reformative measures
undertaken would result in the extinction of life. We are facing various
environmental challenges. It is essential to get the country acquainted with
these challenges so that their acts may be eco-friendly. Some of these
challenges are as under:
1. Growing Population: A population of over 160 millions is growing at

1.9912 percent every year. It puts considerable pressure on its natural
resources and reduces the gains of development. Hence, the greatest
challenge before us is to limit the population growth. Although population
control does automatically lead to development, yet the development
leads to a decrease in population growth rates. For this development of
the women is essential.
2. Poverty: The poverty and environmental degradation have a nexus

between them. The vast majority of our people are directly dependent on
the natural resources of the country for their basic needs of food, fuel
shelter and fodder. About 25% (40 million) of our people are still below
the poverty line. Environment degradation has adversely affected the poor
who depend upon the resources of their immediate surroundings. Thus,
the challenge of poverty and the challenge of environment degradation
are two facets of the same challenge. The population growth is essentially
a function of poverty. Because, to the very poor, every child is an earner
and helper and global concerns have little relevance for him.
3. Agricultural Growth: The people must be acquainted with the methods

to sustain and increase agricultural growth without damaging the
environment. High yielding varieties have caused soil salinity and damage
to physical structure of soil.
4. Need to Restore Groundwater Resources: It is essential of rationalizing

the use of groundwater. Factors like community wastes, industrial
effluents, chemical fertilizers and pesticides have polluted our surface
water and affected quality of the groundwater. It is essential to restore the
water quality of our rivers and other water bodies such as lakes. It so
finding our suitable strategies for consecration of water, provision of safe
drinking water and keeping water bodies clean which are difficult
challenges for the future generations and is the most essential.
12
CIA Fact Book Statistics (2008) Available on line www.cia.gov/libraray/publications/
the-world-factbook/print/pk.html
11
5. Development and Forests: Forests in Pakistan have been shrinking for
several centuries owing to pressures of agriculture and other uses. Vast
areas that were green once, stand today as wastelands. These areas are
to be brought back under vegetative cover. The tribal communities
inhabiting forests respect the trees and birds and animal that give them
sustenance. We must recognize the role of these people in restoring and
conserving forests. The modern knowledge and skills of the forest
department should be integrated with the traditional knowledge and
experience of the local communities. The strategies for the joint
management of forests should be evolved in a well planned way.
6. Degradation of Land:13 The major causes of land degradation in

Pakistan include: poor irrigation and drainage practices, deforestation,
over-grazing, water scarcity, drought, migration and permanent
settlement, intensification of agriculture, flash flooding, population
pressures, and prevailing poverty.
More than 60 per cent of natural grazing areas of the country have
production levels lower than one third of their biological potential. More
than one-third of the country area has been classified as under risk of
desertification. Soil erosion implies loss or removal of surface soil
material through the action of moving water, wind or ice. About 13.05
million hectares of area is affected by water erosion and about 6.17
million hectares by wind erosion.
The fertility of soils is rapidly depleting. The data generated by public

and private organizations reflect the general agreement about the
deficiency of nitrogen in 100 per cent soils. In case of phosphorus, more
than 90 per cent soils are deficient. Potassium deficiency in soils, not a
soil fertility problem earlier, is increasing rapidly due to discriminate use of
only nitrogenous and phosphate fertilizers. Among micronutrients, field
scale deficiencies of economic significance prevail in case of zinc, boron,
and iron.
7. Reorientation of Institutions: The people should be roused to orient

institutions, attitudes and infrastructures, to suit conditions and needs
today. The change has to be brought in keeping in view our traditions for
resources use managements and education etc. Change should be
brought in education, in attitudes, in administrative procedures and in
institutions.
13
Zia ul Hasnain and Ashraf M. (2006) Land Degradation- a Threat to Agriculture,
The Daily DAWN, Pakistan
12
8. Reduction of Genetic Diversity: Proper measures to conserve genetic
diversity need to be taken. At present most wild genetic stocks have been
disappearing from nature. The protected areas network like sanctuaries,
national parks, biosphere reserves are isolating populations need to be
developed. Remedial steps are to be taken to check decreasing genetic
diversity.
9. Consequences of Urbanization:14 Over the next 25 years, the urban

population in Pakistan is likely to increase by 140%. This dramatic
increase in urban populations will add another 80 million to the urban
population in Pakistan, bringing the total urban population to a 130 million
people. Increased urbanization lead to a number of problems which
include among others:
a. Inadequate inferior and crowded housing
b. Poor public services in the departments such as fire and police
departments, water and sanitation, waste disposal, health and
education
c. Increased crime rates
d. Inadequate transport system
10. Air and Water Population: Majority of our industrial plants are using
outdated and population technologies and makeshift facilities devoid of
any provision of treating their wastes. A great number of cities and
industrial areas that have been identified as the worst in terms of air and
water pollution. Acts are enforced in the country, but their implemention is
not so easy. The reason is their implementation needs great resources,
technical expertise, political and social will. Again the people are to be
made aware of these rules. Their support is indispensable to implement
these rules.
Types of Environment
According to Kurt Lewin, environment is of three types which influence the

personality of an individual as under:
1. Physical Environment,
2. Social and Cultural Environment, and
3. Psychological Environment.
These may be explained as under:
14
Haider M. (2006) Urbanization Challenges in Pakistan – Developing Vision 2030,
School of Urban Planning & Department of Civil Engineering McGill University 815
Sherbrooke St. West, Suite 403 Montreal, Quebec, Canada
13
1. Physical Environment: Physical environment refers to geographical
climate and weather or physical conditions wherein an individual lives.
The human races are greatly influenced by the climate. Some examples
are as under:
a. In the cold countries i.e. European countries the people have fair
(lighter) complexions. Likewise, in Asian and African countries, that is,
in warmer countries people often have darker complexion.
b. The physique of an individual depends on climate conditions as the
individual tries to adjust in his physical environment.
c. The human working efficiency also depends on the climatic
conditions.
2. Social Environment: Social Environment includes an individual’s social,

economic and political condition wherein he lives. The moral, cultural and
emotional forces influence the life and nature of individual behavior.
3. Psychological Environment: Although physical and social environment

are common to the individual in a specific situation. Yet every individual
has his own psychological environment, in which he lives. Kurt Lewin has
used the term ‘life space’ for explaining psychological environment. The
psychological environment enables us to understand the personality of an
individual. Both the person and his goal form the psychological
environment. If a person is unable to overcome the barriers, he can either
get frustrated or compelled to change his goal for a new psychological
environment. By adopting this mechanism, the individual is helped in his
adjustment to the environment.
Structure of Environment
Environment is both physical and biological. It includes both living and non-
living components.
1. Physical Environment: The Physical Environment is classified into three

broad categories viz.
a. Solid,
b. Liquid
c. Gas
These represent the following spheres:

a. The lithosphere (solid earth)
b. The hydrosphere (water component) and
c. The atmosphere
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As such, the three basic of physical environment may be termed as under:
a. Lithospheric Environment
b. Hydrospheric Environment
c. Atmospheric Environment
The scientists have classified them into smaller units based on different
spatial scales, e.g. Mountain Environment, Glacier Environment, Plateau
Environment or Coastal Environment etc.
2. Biological Environment: The biological environment consists of:

a. Plants (flora)
b. Animals (fauna).
The biotic environment further is divided into floral environment and faunal
environment. All the organisms work to form their social groups and
organizations at several levels. You will be studying the organizational levels
in the next unit. Thus, the social environment is formed. In this social
environment the organisms work to derive matter from the physical
environment for their sustenance and development. This process gives birth
to economic environment. Man claims to be most skilled and civilized of all
the organisms. This is the reason why his social organization is most
systematic. The three aspects of man, e.g. physical, social and economic,
function in the biotic environment as under:
1. The Physical Man: The ‘Physical Man’ is one organism of the

populations or biological community. He is in need of basic elements of
the physical environment like habitat (space), air, water and food.
Besides, like other biological populations, he releases wastes into the
ecosystem.
2. The Social Man: The ‘Social Man’ performs the following functions:
a. Establishing social institutions,
b. Forming social organizations,
c. Formulating laws, principles and policies,
d. Taking steps to safeguard his existence, interest and social welfare.
3. The Economic Man: The economic man derives and utilizes resources
from the physical and biotic environment with his skills and technologies.
The economic function makes the man an environment / geomorphic
process as he transports matter and energy from one component of the
ecosystem to the other. There may be any following two situations:
a. His exploitative functions may be in harmony with the natural
environment. Such functions do not necessarily involve change in the
working of the ecosystem.
15
b. These functions may exceed the critical limit. Consequently, the
equilibrium of the environment / ecosystem is disturbed and a great
number of environment and ecological problems crop up. These are
detrimental to whole population of human species in a given
ecosystem.
We have finally arrived at the point from where we had begun. Recall the
concept of sustainable development that we have discussed in the beginning
of this section.
‘ . . . By sustainability we mean that meeting our needs
judiciously and sensibly so that our future generations get the
equal share of resources that we have today.’
Self Assessment Questions

1. Define environment.
2. What is the importance of environment science?
3. How would you differentiate between physical environment and
biological environment?
4. Why environmental science is thought as multi disciplinary?
Section 1.2 The World Response
Increased opportunities to travel, as well as greatly expanded international

communications, now enables us to know about daily events in places
unknown to our parents and grandparents. Marshall McLuhan in 1900s
announced our world as a global village. As in a village, we are all
interconnected in various ways. Events that occur on the other side of the
globe have profound and immediate effects on our lives.
We all share a common environment at a global scale. As our attention shifts

from questions of preserving particular landscapes or preventing pollution of a
specific watershed or air shed, we begin to worry about the life support
systems of the whole planet for instance, we are changing planetary weather
system and atmospheric chemistry, reducing the natural variety of organisms
(biodiversity) and degrading ecosystems in ways that could have devastating
effects, both on humans and on all other life forms. Protecting our
environment has become more of an international issue rather than a
localized regional concern and it will take international cooperation to bring
about many necessary changes.
16
1.3 Perceptions and Attitudinal changes15,16
Our beliefs about our proper roles in the world are deeply conditioned by our
ethical perspective.
Box 1.2 People’s Attitude towards Environment

What do people do about their ecology depends on what they think
about themselves in relation to the things around them. . . .
Lynn White, Jr.-Historian (1907-1987)
In this section we will discuss various perceptions prevailing among people
regarding environment and how do these bring about attitudinal changes.
In the light of today’s environmental crises, many secular and religious

scholars have begin to look into underlying philosophical causes for man’s
rapacious attitude towards his environment. This research involves a look at
root philosophies affecting the human out look and interaction with the world
and the responsibility that religion shares in creating the attitudes that have
led to the violation and damage of nature that has occurred in part few
centuries and seems to be accelerating in our times.
Throughout history, many cultures have regarded humans as particularly

important. Secular humanists claim that we are unique because of our
intelligence, fore-sight and creativity. According to this view, achievements in
art, music, science and other areas give humans special rights and values,
Religious humans believe that we have a unique place in creation according
to God’s (Allah’s) plan. Some people regard the special attributes of humans
as justification for our domination of nature.
In an influential and debatable paper entitled, ‘The historic roots of our

ecological crises’, Lynn White (1967) described a biblical verse that states,
‘Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue
it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the
fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon
the earth’ (Genesis 1:28).
15
Man and Ecology: An Islamic Perspective available on http://www.islamfrominside.com
16
Science, Religion and Development: Some Initial Considerations Prepared by the Institute
for Studies in Global Prosperity available online from http://www.globalprosperity.org
17
Lynn claimed that religion itself has given an opportunity to the mankind to
use and exploit nature. Though many people agree with this analysis, others
argue that this passage has been translated and interpreted inaccurately. It is
actually intended to teach us to love and nurture creation rather than
dominate and exploit it.
Islam provides an essential insight into man’s position and nature in this
universe. Quran clearly verifies that although man is a creation of God, he is
superior to the rest of Allah’s creation.
‘Where thy Lord said unto the angels: Lo! I am about to create
a mortal out of mire, And when I have fashioned him and
breathed into him of My Spirit, then fall down before him
prostrate‘ (Qur’an). Ch. 38-Vrs. 71-73).
Another aspect that separates him from the rest of creation is his acceptance
of the trust offered by Allah.
We did offer the trust to the heavens and the earth and the
mountains, but they refuse to undertake it, being afraid there
of. But man under took it... (Qur’an Ch.33 Vr.72)
In a matter of trust and trusteeship, the giver of the trust is giving a

responsibility to the trustee. In other words the guardian of the trust has a
high degree of freedom and accompanying responsibility in the use (or
misuse) of the given trust. The trustee is expected to fulfill the trust in the
manner that the giver of the trust would expect of him. Thus the man has the
freedom to do what he wills with the power entrusted in him. However, after
having taken the responsibility man had to show that he was indeed worthy of
keeping it. If he forgets about the responsibility of the trust and instead takes
full and destructive advantage of the power conferred upon him he could be
blamed of being unjust.
In the Islamic world view the relationship of man with nature should be like
that of a just ruler with his subjects. Misuse and abuse of his power would
shift him from being a leader to a tyrant.
‘The right of your subjects through authority is that you should

know that they have been made subjects through their
weakness and your strength. Hence it is incumbent on you to
act with justice toward them and to be like a compassionate
father toward them. . . (Zain-ul-Abideen, The Psalms of Islam,
London. Muhammadi Trust 1988: 286)’
18
The views according to which humans are more important and play a leading
role in the nature are termed as anthropocentric or human centered.
Many tribal or indigenous people, both hunters and gatherers, as well as

traditional agricultural societies have a strong sense of stewardship or
responsibility to manage and care for a particular place. As custodian of
resources, they see their proper role as working together with human and
non-human forces to sustain life. Humility and reverence are essential in this
world view, where humans are seen as partners in natural processes rather
than masters - not outside of nature but part of it.
Many environmentalists criticize both stewardship and dominion as being too

anthropocentric. They favor, instead, the biocentric approach, which claims
that all living organism have fundamental values and rights regardless of
whether they are useful to us. For many biocentrists, biodiversity is the
highest ethical value in nature and species and population are the basic units
of biodiversity. Some animal rights advocates claim that each individual
organism is of value. They point out that the individual lives, reproduces and
experiences pleasure or pain, not the group.
In contrast, ecologists view large scale ecological processes such as

evolution, adoption and biogeochemical cycle (you will be studying all these
processes in the coming units) as the most important aspect of nature. This
view is termed as ecocentric as it considers ecological processes as whole
more important rather than its individual parts. If you kill individual organisms,
you deny it a few months or years of life but if you eliminate an entire species
or a whole landscape, you have destroyed something that took millions of
years to create. Such a destruction that took millions of years to establish is
known as irreversible damage. In the broadest ecocentric view, nature
doesn’t seem to care about individuals. Vastly more off-springs are born than
can ever survive. Even species come and go. What seem to have longevity in
nature are processes like evolution and photosynthesis.
Box 1.3 Evolution Defined
In biology, evolution is the change in the genetic material of a
population of organisms from one generation to the next.
Though the changes produced in any one generation are
small, differences accumulate with each generation and can,
over time, cause substantial changes in the organisms. This
process can culminate in the emergence of new species.
19
Box 1.4 Photosynthesis Defined
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants trap energy from

sunlight to produce sugar, in presence of green pigment
chlorophyll. The sugar is converted to ATP through respiration, the
“fuel” used by all living things.
Usually, the photosynthetic process use water, releases the oxygen
absolutely necessary for us to stay alive and manufacture food for us
In simpler terms, photosynthesis is the process by which plants

manufacture food. Solar energy (light energy) is trapped by the plants
in presence of chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water into
sugar and oxygen. Chlorophyll is the green pigment found in the
cellular structure of leaves known as chloroplasts. It is because of this
chlorophyll, that the plants appear green to us.
We can write the overall reaction of this process as:
6H2O + 6CO2 C6H12O6 + 6O2
Most of us don’t speak chemicalese, so the above chemical equation

translates as:
“Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon dioxide

produce one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen”
Activity 1.2
You have just read some interesting facts regarding

photosynthesis. The pigment chlorophyll gives green
color to the plants. Name any two plants that have a
color other than green. Which pigments exists in such
plants?
Many feminists believe that none of these philosophies is sufficient to solve
environmental problems or to tell us how it ought to behave as moral agents.
They argue that all these philosophies come out of a patriarchal system
based on domination and duality that assign importance to some individuals
but not others. Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which
attempts to unite environmentalism and feminism.
20
Box 1.5 Environmentalism vs. Feminism
Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and social movement
centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of
the natural environment.
Feminism is a moral philosophy and a social movement
concerned with gender inequalities and women rights.
Ecofeminists argue that relationship exists between the ‘oppression of

women’ and the ‘degradation of nature’. They claim that the social mentality
that leads to domination and oppression of women is directly connected to the
social mentality that leads to the abuse of the environment. The advocates
emphasize the importance of inter relationship between human, non-humans
(e.g. animals and insects), and the earth. They believe in developing a
network of multiple understandings, care-giving and complex personal
relationships rather than isolate egos. Ecofeminists reject domination,
exploitation and mistreatment of women, children, minorities, and nature.
They reject all ‘isms’ of domination: racism, speciesism, sexism, classism,
and other characteristics of social inequality.
1. What is chlorophyll? Explain its role in photosynthesis.

2. Explain what you understand by the term irreversible damage to the
environment.
3. What is the difference between biocentric and ecocentric approaches?
4. Define Ecofeminism?
21
Answers to Self Assessment Questions
Section 1.1
1. Environment (from the French ‘environner’ to encircle or surround) can

be defined as:
i. The circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or
group of organisms, or
ii. The complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an
individual or community.
2. Environmental science is the systematic study of our environment and
our proper place in it.
3. It is essential to make the public aware of the alarming consequences
of the Environmental Degradation, if not retorted restored and
reformative measures undertaken would result in the extinction of life.
4. Physical Environment: Physical environment refers to geographical
climate and weather or physical conditions wherein an individual lives
whereas, the biological environment consists of: Plants (flora) and
Animals (fauna).
5. Environmental science is highly interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary;
integrating natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities in a
broad, holistic study. It comprises of branches of science like
chemistry, physics, medicine, agriculture, public health, sanitary
engineering etc
Section 1.3
1. Chlorophyll is the green pigment present in green plants that helps the
plant trap light and carry out photosynthesis to produce
carbohydrates.
2. If you eliminate an entire species or a whole landscape, you have
destroyed something that took millions of years to create. Such a
destruction that took millions of years to establish is known as
irreversible damage.
3. The ecologists view large scale ecological processes such as
evolution, adoption and biogeochemical cycle as the most important
aspect of nature. This view is termed as ecocentric whereas, the
biologists think the living beings as the centre of all the processes on
earth, this is biocentrism.
4. Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which attempts to
unite environmentalism and feminism
22
UNIT No. 2
Frame Work of Ecology
Major Topics
2.1 Levels of organization in nature
2.2 Structure of Ecosystem
2.3 Functions of Ecosystem (productivity and energy flow)
2.4 Types of organism Interactions
Introduction17,18
This unit is the essence of your course and the information given will build
your foundation for further studies. In the previous unit regarding definition,
scope and importance of environment, you have already come across the
concept that ecology is an inseparable part of environmental studies. In
common usage, "environmental science" and "ecology" are often used
interchangeably, but technically, ecology refers only to the study of organisms
and their interactions with each other and their environment. Ecology
therefore could be considered a subset of environmental science. In practice,
there is considerable overlap between the work of ecologists and other
environmental scientists.
Ecosystem is the functional unit of ecology and through a simplest definition:
‘Ecosystem is a set of components (living
and non living) interacting with each other.’
No single organism, species or a population can produce food at its own and
completely recycle it into own metabolic products. The sun being the ultimate
source of energy initiates the process of food production. Several interacting
populations regulate the flow of energy and complete the chemical cycles.
The smallest unit for such setup is known as an ecosystem. Life can sustain
as earth as a part of ecosystem and not as individual organisms or
populations. As for example, green plants can make complex organic
compounds using inorganic components as carbon dioxide and water but
green plants cannot degrade the complex compounds back to its simple
inorganic form. Here comes the role of micro organisms like bacteria and
fungi that do not produce food like green plants but obtain their nutrition by
dead and decaying tissues. A system works only when all the partners
contribute and perform their functions.
17
Environmental Scince (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_science
18 nd
Rana (2005) Essentials of Ecology and Environmental Science 2 ed. Prentice
Hall, India pp 11
23
This unit is all about the similar facts. You will not only study the components
of the ecosystem but will also learn that how there components work and
interact with each other. The objectives of this unit therefore are:
1. To identify the types and components of ecosystems.

2. To learns the productivity of an ecosystem and formation of food
chains and food webs
3. Flow of energy through an ecosystem.
4. To understand the interactions among the living and the non living
components of the ecosystem.
Section 2.1 Level of Organization in Nature19,20,21

Ecology is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of organisms
and their interactions with their environment. The environment of an organism
includes all external factors, including abiotic ones such as climate and
geology, and biotic factors, including members of the same species
(conspecifics) and other species that share a habitat.
If the general life science of biology is viewed as a hierarchy of levels of
organization, starting at the simplest level, atoms are organized into
molecules, which are organized into cells. Cells are organized into tissues,
tissues into organs, organs into body systems, and body systems into
individual multicellular organisms. A group of individuals of the same species
is a population. Populations of different species interact to form communities.
A community and it abiotic environment are an ecosystem, while all
communities of organisms on Earth comprise the biosphere.
Ecologists study the highest levels of biological organization: individual
organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, and the biosphere. The
main levels of organization in nature with reference to ecology are therefore
five:
1. Individual: Individual is any living being. Individuals act with the
environmental abiotic factors, which limit their distribution.
2. Population: A group of individuals of a given species that live in a specific
geographic area.
19
Begon, M; Townsend, C. R., Harper, J. L. (2006). Ecology: From Individuals to
Ecosystems.
20
(4th ed.). Blackwell
Campbell, Neil A.; Brad Williamson; Robin J. Heyden (2006). Biology: Exploring
Life. Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall
21
Nahle, N. (1997) Ecology by Biology cabinet Organization. Available online from:
http://biocab.org/Ecology_1.html
24
3. Community: All the living beings distributed into a particular geographical
area. A community includes organisms of different species.
4. Ecosystem: The term refers to all the abiotic factors (physical and
chemical constituents) and all the communities that established in a
specific area.
5. Biosphere: It is the whole portion of Earth colonized by living beings.
Biosphere is the sum of all the ecosystems established on Earth.
Biosphere
Figure 2.1 Levels of organization in nature starting

right from atomic level up to the biosphere
Adopted from: Raven and Berg (2005) Ecosystems and
th
Energy: In Environment, 5 edition, John Wiley and Sons
A brief discussion of each has been given to further clarify your concept for
these levels.
1. Organism / Individual
In biology, an organism is any living system (such as animal, plant, fungus,

or micro-organism). In at least some form, all organisms are capable of
response to stimuli, reproduction, growth and development. An organism may
either be unicellular (single-celled) or be composed of, as in humans, many
25
billions of cells grouped into specialized tissues and organs. The term
multicellular (many-celled) describes any organism made up of more than
one cell. All organisms are classified by the science of Taxonomy into taxa
classes. Taxa are ranked groups of organisms in hierarchical order:
Kingdom Phylum Class
Genus Family Order
2. Population
The term population has its origin from the Latin word populous meaning
people. In ecology, a population may be defined as a group of organisms of
the same species occupying a particular space. Thus we may speak of the
Chiltan markhor population found in Hazarganji-Chiltan National Park
(Baluchistan) or the human population of Lahore or the human population of
Pakistan. The population thus comprises of a group of similar individual
organisms that can interbreed.
The basic characteristic of a population is its size or density. The size of
population is generally expressed as number of individuals in a population,
whereas, population density is defined as number of individuals per unit area
of environment. The population size or density is affected by four primary
population factors that are:
a. Natality: Population increases because of Natality. Natality is a
broader term covering the production of new individuals by birth,
hatching, germination or fission. The natality rate may be expressed
as the number of organisms born per female per unit time. In human
population, the natality rate is equivalent to the ‘birth rate’
b. Mortality: Mortality means the rate of death of individuals in a
population. It is a negative factor for population growth.
c. Emigration: Emigration is the act of leaving one's native country,
habitat or region to settle in another place. This is generally regarded
as adaptive behavior that regulates the population on a particular site
and prevents over exploitation of the habitat.
d. It is of course pressure population that forces the individuals to leave
the region and get dispersed. Under normal conditions adult animals
especially among the higher vertebrates are well established on their
territories and the youngs are forced to seek homes elsewhere.
However, continuous emigrations are rare and when they occur result
in depopulation. Equilibrium is achieved in such circumstances by
enhancing the reproductive ability as well as by decreased mortality.
e. Immigration: Immigration leads to a rise in population causing
overpopulation. This may lead to an increase beyond the carrying
26
capacity. These immigrations result in increased mortality of the
individuals or decreased reproductive capacity. Both emigration and
immigration are initiated by weather and other abiotic and biotic
environmental factors.
3. Community
A community is an assemblage of populations of living organisms in a
particular area or habitat. Community is a larger unit than population and it
achieves many characteristics that are not found in its constituents i.e.
organisms and populations. Communities may have a wide range of sizes,
ranging from a small patch of land or water body to extensive forest. Minor
communities are greatly influenced by input from neighboring communities
while major communities are more independent and self-sufficient. Like a
population a community has some specific characteristics, these are as
follows:
Species Diversity: various species of plants and animals live in a community
and exhibits species richness or species diversity. The study of species
diversity is an essential component of community study.
Growth Form and Structure: the type of community is described by major
categories of growth forms e.g. herbs, shrubs, trees etc.
Dominance: Among several species present in community, a few has a major
controlling role by virtue of their size, abundance (number), or activities.
These are called dominant species.
Trophic Structure: Who eats whom? The feeding relation of the species in the
community will determine the flow of energy and materials from plant to
herbivores animals (plant eating animals e.g. goat, sheep, caterpillar) to
carnivore animals (flesh eating animals e.g. snakes, owls, jackals, tigers etc.)
Study of community is an interesting, comprehensive but complicated subject
in itself. Since it is beyond the scope of our study it will not be discussed here
in detail. However, communities are studies quantitatively in terms of
frequency, density, abundance etc. as well as qualitatively in terms of
phenology (life cycle of plant), sociability (tendency of living individually or in
groups), vitality (pattern of reproduction), life form (growth form).
4. Ecosystem
Ecosystem has been defined as the basic functional unit of ecology. Various
communities that interact among themselves and with the surrounding
physical environment together compose the ecosystem. Ecosystems differ
greatly in their composition – in the number and kind of species in the kinds
and proportions of abiotic components, and in the degree in variation in time
and space. Thus the term ecosystem can be applied to the areas on the earth
27
that differ greatly in size from a smallest pond to a large forest or ocean. The
structure and function of ecosystem will be discussed in detail in the next
section – section 2.2
5. Biosphere22,23
The biosphere is a core concept within Biology and Ecology, where it serves
as the highest level of biological organization. The biosphere is the global
sum of all ecosystems. It can also be called the zone of life on Earth. It is the
biological component of earth systems, which also include the atmosphere
(detailed in Unit 3) lithosphere (described in Unit 4) and hydrosphere (Unit 5).
The biosphere includes all living organisms on earth, together with the dead
organic matter produced by them.
The biosphere interacts with and exchanges matter and energy with the other
spheres, helping to drive the global biogeochemical cycling of carbon,
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other elements (Detailed in Unit 6). From an
ecological point of view, the biosphere is the "global ecosystem", comprising
the totality of biodiversity on earth (described in Unit 7) and performing all
manner of biological functions, including photosynthesis, respiration,
decomposition, nitrogen fixation.
The biosphere has evolved since the first single-celled organisms originated
3.5 billion years ago under atmospheric conditions resembling those of our
neighboring planets Mars and Venus, which have atmospheres composed
primarily of carbon dioxide. Billions of years of primary production by plants
through photosynthesis released oxygen from this carbon dioxide, eventually
producing the oxygen-rich atmosphere we know today. Free oxygen both for
breathing (O2, respiration) and stratospheric ozone (O3 that protects us from
harmful UV radiation) has made life possible on earth.
1. What is the difference between a population and a community in
ecological context?
2. Enlist the levels of organization that exist in nature?
3. Name some of the parameters used to study a community.
4. Biosphere is linked to other spheres of the earth. Enlist them.
5. When was biosphere evolved?
22
23
Biosphere Available online from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosphere
Ellis, Erle (Lead Author); Leszek A. Bledzki (Topic Editor). 2009. "Biosphere." In:
Encyclopedia of Earth. Eds. Cutler J. Cleveland (Washington, D.C.: Environmental
Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment). [First
published in the Encyclopedia of Earth June 21, 2008; Last revised January 8, 2009;
Retrieved July 27, 2009]. <http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biosphere>
28
Section 2.2 Structure of Ecosystem24
Any ecological unit that includes all the organisms (i.e., the
communities in a given area) which interact among
themselves and with the physical environment, so that a flow
of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic
diversity and material cycle (i.e. exchange of materials) within
the system is known as ecological system or ecosystem.
Thus a complete ecosystem must exhibit following characters:

1. Living organism
2. Physical environment
3. Flow of energy
4. Cycling of materials
There exist nutritional relationships (or food links) amongst the living
organisms of such a system. Keeping this in view, the earth can be
considered as a giant ecosystem where abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living)
components are constantly acting and reacting upon each other bringing forth
structural and functional changes in it. This vast ecosystem — the biosphere
is however, difficult to handle and, thus, for the sake of convenience, we
generally study nature by making its artificial subdivisions into units of smaller
ecosystems such as terrestrial (forest, desert, grassland); aquatic (fresh
water, marine); and man-made (cropland, cities) etc.
An ecosystem may, thus be as small as a single log, a pond, a cropland, or

as large an ocean, desert or forest. Though these unit ecosystems are
separated from each other with time and space, but functionally they all are
linked with each other, forming an integrated whole.
The term ecosystem was proposed by A. G. Tansley in 1935. There are many
other parallel terms or synonyms for the ecosystem which have been
proposed by various ecologists, e.g., biocoenonsis (Karl Mobius, 1877),
microcosm (S.A. Forbes, 1887), holocoen (Friederichs, 1930), biosystem
(Thienemann, 1939), geoblocoenosis (Sukhachev, 1944), bioenert body
(Vernadsky, 1944) and ecosom, etc.
In recent years, ecological studies of ecosystems undertake besides

structure, the similarities and differences in food and energy relationships
among living components of ecosystem. This is called bioenergetic
approach of modern ecology
24
Verma and Agarwal (2006) Ecosystem: structure and th
Function, In: Cell Biology,
Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology 14 Edition. Chand (S.) & Co Ltd
,India; Reprint Edn. 2006 edition: Ecology 137 - 153
29
Kinds of Ecosystem
An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, temporary or permanent and large

or tiny. Thus, ecosystems of the biosphere fall into the following categories:
1. Natural ecosystems: These types of ecosystems operate by themselves
without any major interference by man. Based upon the particular kind of
habitat, these are further classified as:
i. Terrestrial ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, deserts, etc.
ii. Aquatic ecosystems which may be further distinguished as follows:
a) Fresh water ecosystems: These may be Lotic (running water as
spring, brook, stream or river) or Lentic (standing water as lake,
pond, pool, ditch, swamp, etc.).
b) Marine ecosystems: These include salt water bodies which may
be deep bodies as an ocean or shallow ones as a sea or estuary.
Activity 2.1
You must have heard the terms ‘Ocean’ and ‘Sea’. However,
Estuary might be a new term for you. Consult your dictionary
to find out what an estuary is? Give an example.
2. Artificial ecosystems: These are also called man-made or man-

engineered ecosystems. These are maintained artificially by man where,
by addition of energy and planned manipulations, natural balance is
disturbed regularly, e.g., croplands such as sugarcane, maize, wheat, rice-
fields; orchards, gardens, villages, cities, dams, aquarium and manned
spaceship.
3. Micro ecosystems: Natural ecosystems are usually large in size. In them

numerous factors operate at one time leading to great complexity. As a
result, it becomes usually difficult to study them with the normal scientific
methods. Thus, to reduce the number of factors and to work in a system
with a discrete boundary, ecologists are trying to produce micro-
ecosystems as models in the laboratory, which can be replicated and
manipulated at will.
Structure of Ecosystem
The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the species of

organisms that are present, including information on their life histories,
populations and distribution in space. It is a guide to who’s who in the
ecosystem. It also includes descriptive information on the non-living (physical)
features of environment, including the amount and distribution of nutrients. An
ecosystem typically has two major components:
30
1. Abiotic or Non-living Components
Abiotic component of the ecosystem comprises three sorts of components:
a Climatic condition and physical factors of the given region includes air,
water, soil, temperature, light (i.e., its duration and intensity), moisture
(relative humidity), pH, etc.
b Inorganic substances such as water, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), sulfur (S),
phosphorus (P) and so on, all of which are involved in cycling of materials
in the ecosystem (Biogeochemical Cycles will be studied in detail in unit
no. 6). The amount of these inorganic substances, present at any given
time in an ecosystem, is designated as the standing state or standing
quality.
c Organic substances such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, humus, etc.,
present either in the biomass or in the environment.
2. Biotic or Living Components
In an ecosystem, the living organisms are distinguished on the basis of their

nutritional relationships, which are discussed as follows:
a Autotrophic component: Autotrophic (auto = self; trophic = nourishing)
component of ecosystem includes the producers which convert solar
energy into chemical energy that becomes locked in complex organic
substances such as carbohydrate, lipid, protein, etc. (Recall the concept
of photosynthesis given to you in unit no. 1 – Box 1.3) with the help of
simple inorganic substances such as water and carbon dioxide.
Autotrophs fall into following two groups:
 Photoautotroph: which contain green photosynthetic pigment
chlorophyll to trap the solar or light energy of sun, e.g., trees, grasses,
algae, and photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue green
algae).
 Chemoautotroph: these use energy generated in oxidation - reduction
process, but their significance in the ecosystem as producers is
minimal, e.g. microorganisms such as Beggiatoa, sulfur bacteria, etc.
(It is important to note that during the study of ecosystem when
the term autotrophs or autotrophy is used, generally
photoautotrophy is meant).
b Heterotrophic component: In the heterotrophic (hetero = other; trophic =
nourishing) organisms predominate the activities of utilization,
rearrangement and decomposition of complex organic materials.
31
Heterotrophic organisms are also called consumers, as they consume
the matter built up by the producers (autotrophs). The consumers are of
following two main types:
 Macroconsumers: These are also called phagotrophs (phago = to

eat) and include mainly animals which consume other organisms or
chunks of organic matter. Depending on their food habits, consumers
may either be herbivores (plant eaters) or carnivores (flesh eaters).
Herbivores live on living plants and are also known as primary
consumers e.g., insects, zooplanktons (protozoa, jelly fish, worms
etc.) and higher animals (deer, cattle, elephant, etc.). Secondary and
Tertiary consumers are carnivores or omnivores, e.g., insects such
as dragon flies; spiders and large animals such as tiger, lion, leopard,
wolf, etc.
Activity 2.2
Omnivores may be a new term for you. Consult a dictionary
to find out what omnivores are? Give a few examples.
 Microconsumers: These are also called decomposers, reducers,

saprotrophs, or scavengers. Microconsumers include microorganisms
such as bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Microconsumers
breakdown complex organic compounds of dead or living organisms,
absorb some of the decomposition or breakdown products and
release inorganic nutrients in the environment, making them available
again to autotrophs or producers. The decaying dead organic matter is
also known as organic detritus (Latin word deterere means to wear
away).
Example of Ecosystem
A pond as a whole serves as a good example of an aquatic and freshwater

ecosystem. In fact, it represents a self-sufficient and self-regulating system. It
has following components:
A Abiotic Component: The chief non-living or abiotic substances are heat,
light, pH value of water, and the basic inorganic and organic compounds,
such as water itself, carbon dioxide gas, oxygen gas, calcium, nitrogen,
phosphates, amino acids, humic acid, etc. Inorganic salts occur in the
form of phosphates, nitrates and chlorides of sodium, potassium and
calcium. Some proportion of nutrients exists in solution state but most of
them are present as stored in particulate matter as well as in living
organisms.
32
B Biotic Component: It includes various organisms which are classified into
the following types:
1. Producers: These are green plants and photosynthetic bacteria. The
producers fix radiant energy of sun and with the help of minerals
derived from water and mud; they manufacture complex organic
substances as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Producers of pond
are of following includes:
a Macrophytes: mainly the rooted large-sized plants which comprise
three types of hydrophytes: (i) partly or completely submerged (ii)
floating and (iii) emergent aquatic plants. The common plants are
Trapa, Typha, Eleocharis, Sagittaria, Hydrilla, Marsilea, etc.
Besides these plants, some free floating forms also occur in the
pond ecosystem, e.g., Azolla, Salvinia, Lemna, etc. In addition to
Macrophytes, Phytoplankton exists.
b Phytoplankton: These are microscopic, floating or suspended lower
plants (algae) that are distributed throughout the water, but mainly
in the photic zone. Examples include: Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Volvox,
Diatoms, Anabaena, Oscillatoria, Chlamydomonas, etc.
2. Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on
the organic food manufactured by producers - the green plants.
Macroconsumers are of following three types:
a Herbivores (Primary consumers): These animals feed directly on
living plants (producers) or plant remains. They may be large or
minute in size and are of following two types: Benthos: Which are
the bottom dwelling forms such as fish, insect larvae, beetles,
mites, molluscs etc. and Zooplanktons which feed chiefly on
phytoplankton and are chiefly the rotifers as Brachionus,
Asplanchna, Lecane, etc., Besides these small-sized herbivores,
some mammals such as cow, buffaloes, etc., also visit the pond
casually and feed on marginal rooted macrophytes. Some birds
also regularly visit the pond to feed on some hydrophytes.
b Carnivore order-I (Secondary consumers).These carnivores feed
on the herbivores and include chiefly insects, fish and amphibians
(frog). Most insects are water beetles which feed on zooplankton,
some insects are the nymphs of dragonflies which feed upon
aquatic insects.
c Carnivore order-II (Tertiary consumers) These are some large fish
as game fish that feed on the smaller fish and, thus, become the
tertiary (top) consumers.
33
3. Decomposers: They absorb only a fraction of the decomposed organic
matter. They bring about the decomposition of dead organic matter of both
producers (plants) as well as consumers (animals) to simple forms.
Decomposers help in returning of mineral elements again to the medium
of the pond and in running biogeochemical cycles. Decomposers of pond
ecosystem include chiefly bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi.
Producers
(rooted plants)
Producers (phytoplankton)
Primary Consumers
Tirtiary
Consumers
Secondary
Consumers
Dissloved
chemicals
Sediment Decomposers
Figure 2.1 A Fresh Water Ecosystem

Adopted from Science Clarified (2008) Available online from: http://www.scienceclarified.com
1. What are the characteristics of a complete ecosystem?

2. Name the kinds of ecosystem that you have studies
3. Enlist the physical factors that make up the abiotic component of the
ecosystem
4. Define autotrophs
5. What is the role of decomposers in an ecosystem?
34
Section 2.3 Function of an Ecosystem25
When we consider the function of an ecosystem, we must describe the flow of
energy and the cycling of nutrients. That is, we are interested in things like
how much sunlight is trapped by plants in a year, how much plant material is
eaten by herbivores, and how many herbivores are eaten by carnivores.
Thus, the producers, the green plants, fix radiant energy and with the help of
minerals (such as C, H, 0, N, P. Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, etc.) taken from the soil or
aerial environment they build up complex organic matter (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins, nucleic acids, etc.). Some ecologists prefer to refer to the green
plants as converters, since in their view, the most popular and prevalent term
‘producer’ from energy view point is somewhat misleading. Their view point
is that green plants produce carbohydrates and not energy and since they
convert radiant energy into chemical form, they must be better called
converters.
The two ecological processes of energy flow and mineral cycling involving
interaction between the physico-chemical environment and the biotic
communities may be considered the ‘heart’ of ecosystem dynamics.
Box 2.1 Important to Note

In an ecosystem, energy flows in non-cyclic manner
(unidirectional) from sun to the decomposers via producers
and macroconsumers (herbivores and carnivores), whereas
the minerals keep on moving in a cyclic manner.
Productivity of Ecosystem
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production, i.e., the

amount of organic matter accumulated in any unit time. It is of following types
1. Primary productivity: It is defined as the rate at which radiant energy is

stored by photosynthetic activity of producers. Primary productivity is of
following types:
a Gross primary productivity: It refers to the total rate of photosynthesis
including the organic matter used up in respiration during the
measurement period. GPP depends on the chlorophyll content. The
rate of primary productivity is estimated in terms of either chlorophyll
content as chl/g dry weight per unit area or photosynthetic number, i.e.,
amount of CO2, fixed per gram chl/hour.
25
Verma and Agarwal (2006) Ecosystem: structure and Function, In: Cell Biology,
th
Genetics, Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology 14 Edition. Chand (S.) & Co Ltd
,India; Reprint Edn. 2006 edition: Ecology 137 - 153
35
b Net primary productivity: It is the rate of storage of organic matter in
plant tissues during the measurement period.
Primary production is measured by following methods — harvest method,

oxygen measurement method (or light or dark method), oxygen diurnal
curve method, carbon dioxide measurement method (enclosure method),
the aerodynamic method, the pH method, radioisotope method,
chlorophyll estimation method (see Lash, 1993).
2. Secondary productivity: It is the rate of energy storage at consumer

levels i.e. herbivores, carnivores and decomposers. Consumers tend to
utilize already produced food materials in their respiration and also convert
the food matter to different tissues by an overall process. So, secondary
productivity is not divided into ‘gross’ and ‘net’ amounts. Due to this fact
some ecologists such as Odum (1971), prefer to use the term
assimilation rather than production at this level. Secondary productivity,
in fact, remains mobile i.e., keeps on moving from one organism to
another.
3. Net productivity: It is the rate of storage of organic matter not used by

the heterotrophs or consumers, i.e., equivalent to net primary production
minus consumption by the heterotrophs during the unit period as a season
or year, etc.
Food Chains in Ecosystems
In an ecosystem one can observe the transfer or flow of energy from one
trophic level to other.
A trophic level can be defined as the number of links by which it is separated

from the producer, or as the position of the organism in the food chain. The
patterns of eating and being eaten forms a linear chain called food chain,
which can always be traced back to the producers.
Primary producers trap radiant energy of sun and convert it to chemical

energy of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
When a herbivore animal eats a plant, these organic compounds are
oxidized, the energy liberated is just equal to the amount of energy used in
synthesizing the substances (This supports the first law of thermodynamics
which states that energy can neither be created not destroyed however it may
change its form.). However, the 100% energy is not transferred form one
trophic level to another rather some of the energy is released as heat and is
not useful energy. If this herbivore animal, in turn, is eaten by another one,
further transfer of energy takes place from a herbivore to carnivore and again
36
some energy is released as heat i.e. a further decrease in useful energy
occurs. The second animal (carnivore) oxidizes the organic substances of the
first (herbivore) to release energy that is used to synthesize its own cellular
constituents.
Such transfer of energy from organism to organism sustains the ecosystem

and when energy is transferred from individual to individual in a particular
community, as in a pond or a lake or a river, we come across the food chains.
The number of steps in a food chain is always restricted to four or five, since
the energy available decreases with each step. For example, in a typical food
chain of a river, a diatom may be eaten by a copepod which is eaten by a
small fish, which in turn is eaten by a large fish that may be finally eaten by a
human being.
One may ask - why is the number of trophic levels in a food chain limited?
In a simple food chain, out of 1000 calories of energy reaching to a plant only
10 calories (1%) are stored by the plant. The remaining calories of energy
(99%) are lost to the environment or for plant’s own maintenance. Of the 10
calories which are available to the herbivore, 9 calories (99%) are lost at its
level and only 1 calorie is passed down to the carnivore. Thus, at each trophic
level in a food chain, a large portion of energy is used for its own
maintenance and ultimately lost as heat.
Owl
(Consumer)
Flower
(Producer)
Snake
(Consumer)
Caterpillar
(Consumer)
Frog
(Consumer)
Figure 2.2 Food Chain
Concept: Ecokids avaiable online from:
http://www.ecokids.ca/pub/index.cfm
37
Consequently, organisms in each trophic level pass on less and less energy
than they receive. This tends to limit the number of steps or trophic levels to
four or five. The longer the food chain, the less is the energy available to the
final member. In nature, basically two types of food chains are recognized—
grazing food chain and detritus food chain.
1. Grazing food chain: This type of food chain starts from the living green
plants goes to grazing herbivores and on to the carnivores. Ecosystems
with such type of food chain are directly dependent on incoming solar
radiation. Thus, this type of food chain depends on autotrophic energy
capture and the movement of this energy to herbivores. Most of the
ecosystems in nature follow this type of food chain. These chains are very
significant from energy standpoint.
2. Detritus food chain: The organic wastes and dead matter derived from
the grazing food chain are generally termed detritus. The energy
contained in this detritus in not lost to the ecosystem as a whole; rather it
serves as the source of energy for a group of organisms the detritivores.
The detritus food chain represents an exceedingly important component in
the energy flow of an ecosystem. Indeed in some ecosystems,
considerably more energy flows through the detritus food chain than
through the grazing food chain. The organisms of the detritus food chain
are many and include algae, bacteria, slime molds, actinomycetes, fungi,
Protozoa, insects, mites, Crustacean, centipedes, mollusks, rotifers,
worms, nematodes and some vertebrates. Some species are highly
specific in their food requirements and some can eat almost anything.
Many Protozoa, for instance, need certain specific organic acids, vitamins,
and other nutrients; on the other hand, the guts of small Collembola (a
group of tiny soil insects) have been reported to decay a wide range of
organic material for example plant material, fungal fragments, spores, fly
pupae as well as other Collembola. In contrast to the grazing food chain,
in which energy storage is entirely within the tissues of living organisms,
energy storage for the detritus food chain may be largely external to the
organisms, and in the detritus itself.
Significance of food chain
The food chain studies help understand the feeding relationships and the
interaction between organisms in any ecosystem. They also help us to
appreciate the energy flow mechanism and matter circulation in ecosystem,
and understand the movement of toxic substances in the ecosystem and the
problem of biological magnification (e.g. DDT).
38
Activity 2.3
DDT (Dichloro-Dophenyl-Trichloromethane) is one of the best

known synthetic pesticides. The Swiss chemist Paul Werman was
awarded Nobel Prize (1932) for his discovery of the high efficiency
of DDT against many insects including the malaria causing
mosquitoes. However, the chemicals was strictly banned in USA
(1973) and subsequently in most parts of the world
Discuss the reasons behind the ban of this product and the harms
caused by it. Internet can be a good resource to seek useful
information
Food web: In nature simple food chains occur rarely. The same organism
may operate in the ecosystem at more than one trophic level, i.e., it may
derive its food from more than one source. Even the same organism may be
eaten by several organisms of a higher trophic level or an organism may feed
upon several different organisms of a lower trophic level. Usually the kind of
food changes with the age of the organism and the food availability. Thus, in
a given ecosystem various food chains are linked together and intersect each
other to form a complex network called food web.
A Simple
Food Web
Figure 2.3 Various food chains are linked together and intersect
each other to form a complex network called food web.
39
Ecological Pyramid
Secondary
Carnivores
In the successive steps of grazing food
chain - photosynthetic autotrophs,
herbivorous heterotrophs, carnivores
heterotrophs, decay bacteria - the number
Primary
and mass of the organisms in each step is Carnivores
limited by the amount of energy available.
Since some energy is lost as heat, in each
transformation the steps become
progressively smaller near the top. This Herbivores
relationship is sometimes called “ecological
pyramid”. The ecological pyramids
represent the trophic structure and also
trophic function of the ecosystem. In many Producers
ecological pyramids, the producer form the
base and the successive trophic levels
make up the apex.
Fig 2.4 Ecological Pyramid
Energy Flow in Ecosystems

1. Concept of energy: Energy is the capacity to do work. Biological
activities require consumption of energy which ultimately comes from the
sun. Radiant energy of sun (or solar energy) is transformed into chemical
energy by the process of photosynthesis—this is stored in plant tissues
and then transformed into mechanical and heat form of energy during
metabolic activities. In the biological world, the energy flows from the sun
to plants and then to all heterotrophic organisms, such as
microorganisms, animals and man in the following manner.
Heat Heat
Producers Consumers
Inorganic
Nutrient Decomposers
Pool
Heat
Fig 2.5 Energy flow in an ecosystem is unidirectional
40
2. Unit of energy: The unit of measurement of energy is erg; the work done
in lifting 1 gram of weight to a height of 1 cm against the force of gravity is
equal to 981 ergs. One crore ergs (107 ergs) is equal to one Joule. All
forms of energy can be completely converted into heat energy. For a
better and uniform expression in ecology, therefore, energy is measured
not in terms of ergs but joules or units of heat measurement. Heat is
measured in calories. One calorie is equal to the heat energy required to
raise the temperature of 1 gram of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C, and one
calorie is equal to 4.2 joules or 4.2 x 107 ergs. Now, there is a trend of
expressing energy in ecological literature in terms of kilojoules.
3. Ecological energetics: Ecological energetics includes energy

transformation which occurs within ecosystems. In ecological energetics,
we consider (i) quantity of energy reaching an ecosystem per unit of area
(say a square meter) per unit of time (say one hour, day or year); (ii)
quantity of energy trapped by green plants and converted to a chemical
form (photosynthesis) and (iii) the quantity and path of energy flow from
green plants to organisms of different trophic levels over a period of time
in a known area (i.e., energy flow from producers to consumers).
The energy used for all plant life processes is derived from solar
radiations. While most radiations are lost in space, those ranging from
300 mµ to 10 mµ and above 1 cm (radio waves) enter the earth’s outer
atmosphere. The energy reaching the earth’s surface consists mainly of
visible light (390—760 mµ) and infrared component. On a clear day
radiant energy reaching the earth’s surface is about 10% UV, 45% visible
and 45% infra-red. Green plants absorb strongly the blue and red light.
Increasing Energy
Increasing Wavelength
0.0001µm 10 µm 1000µm 0.01cm 0.01cm 1.0m
Gamma X-rays UV Infra red Radio

rays rays rays Waves
Figure 2.6 Visible Spectrum. We percieve electromagnetic energy

having wavelengths in the range 400-700 µm (nm) as visible light.
41
Box 2.2Visible Light
Visible light is the portion of light that is visible to human

eye. A typical human eye will respond to wavelengths
from about 380 to 750 mµ. Before 380 mµ are the ultra
violet waves and beyond 760 are the infra red or the
heat waves. Visible light can produce colors. Have you
ever observed a rainbow after rain? Can you identify the
colors in it?
More than 50% of the sunlight reaching the earth’s atmosphere is

reflected back (by clouds and Gust), while a lesser portion (approximately
45% reaches the earth’s surface). You will be studying the earth’s solar
budget in detail in the next unit.
4. Law of energy transformation: Energy transformation in ecosystems

can also be explained in relation to the laws of thermodynamics, which
are usefully applied to closed systems. The first law of thermodynamics is
the law of conservation of energy, which says that
‘Energy may be transformed from one form into another but, is neither
created nor destroyed.’
If an increase or decrease occurs while transfer of energy from one level

to another, energy is either released or absorbed. If the energy is
released the process is known as an exothermal process, however if
energy is absorbed the process is known as an endothermic process.
We have studied earlier that energy transfer form one trophic level to
another is never 100% efficient and some part of energy is released as
heat. The energy transfer from one level to another can be balanced as:
Energy level one = Energy level two +
Energy consumed for self maintenance +
Heat released to the atmosphere.
5. Assimilated energy and respiration energy: Regardless of an

organism’s source of food, what it digests and absorbs is referred to as
assimilated energy, which supports maintenance, builds tissues, or is
excreted in unusable metabolic byproducts. The energy used to fulfill
metabolic needs, most of which is lost as heat, is known as respired
energy. Assimilated energy retained by the individual organism is
available for consumption by herbivores, carnivores, and detritivores.
42
6. Maintenance cost of secondary producers: In general, 55 to 75% of
the assimilated energy is spent on maintenance of secondary producers.
Temperature, moisture conditions of the habitat and the type of species
determine the maintenance cost. The drier and hotter the habitat, the
higher is the maintenance cost, irrespective of species. The maintenance
cost varies seasonally and is three times more in summer than in winter.
Further, not all food can be fully assimilated; hair, feathers, insect
exoskeletons, cartilage and bone in animal foods, and cellulose and lignin
in plant foods resist digestion by most animals. These materials are
egested by defecation. The egested wastes have been relatively altered
chemically during their passage through an organism and have been
mechanically broken up into fragments by chewing and by contractions of
the stomach and intestines, which it more readily usable by detritus
feeders.
1. In an ecosystem, energy flows in ______________ from sun to the

decomposers via producers and consumers, whereas the minerals
keep on moving in a _____________.
2. The total rate of photosynthesis including the organic matter used up
in respiration is called _____________________
3. The patterns of eating and being eaten forms a linear chain called
________.
4. The organic wastes and dead matter derived from the grazing food
chain are generally termed _______________.
5. In a given ecosystem various food chains are linked together and
intersect each other to form a complex network called ____________.
6. The energy used to fulfill metabolic needs, most of which is lost as
heat, is known as ______________________ energy.
43
Section 2.4 Species Interaction26
Organisms do not exist alone in nature but in a matrix of other organisms of

many species. Many species in an area will be unaffected with the presence
or absence of one another (this is often termed as neutralism), but in some
cases two or more species will interact. The evidence for such interactions is
quite direct: population of one species is different in the absence and in the
presence of the second species.
Interspecific Interactions
The interactions between species may have positive or negative results.

Following six general types of interactions have been described.
A. Positive Interactions
1. Mutualism
2. Commensalism
B. Negative Interactions
1. Parasitism
2. Predation
3. Amensalism
4. Competition
A. Positive Interactions
In case of positive interactions, populations help one another and either one
or both the species are benefited. This benefit may be regarding the food,
shelter, substratum or transport. Further, such an association may be
continuous or transitory, obligate or facultative and the two partners may be in
close contact (i.e., their tissues remain intermixed with each other) or one of
them may live within a specific area of the other or attached to its surface.
Moreover, for the positive interactions, how does one determine that what is
the benefit to the species? Individuals that participate in the interaction should
have a higher relative fitness than those that do not participate. At the
population level, the growth rate of a population containing interacting
individuals should be higher than that of a population lacking such individuals.
Positive interactions may be of the following types:
1. Mutualism: Mutualism is an obligatory positive interspecific interaction

that is strongly beneficial to both species. In this case, both of the species
derive benefit and there exists a close and often permanent and
26
Verma and Agarwal (2006) Biotic Environmental Factors In: Cell Biology, Genetics,
th
Molecular Biology, Evolution and Ecology 14 Edition. Chand (S.) & Co Ltd ,India;
Reprint Edn. 2006 edition: Ecology 79-93
44
obligatory contact which is more or less essential for survival of each, in
mutualism, two populations enter into some sort of physiological
exchange and resulted in co-evolution of both species.
Some common examples of mutualistic association are the following
a. Pollination by animals: Certain insects

such as bees, moths, butterflies etc.,
and birds derive food from the nectar,
pollen or other plant products, and in
return bring about cross pollination. To
ensure the success of this function,
various structural adaptations have
occurred in both plants and animals, Fig 2.7 Bees suck the nectar
leading to co-evolution. of the flowers and pollinate
them
b. Dispersal of fruits and seeds: Birds and mammals are of great
importance as agents of plant distribution. Seeds, fruits, even entire
plants become attached to feathers or fur or ingested seeds are eaten
and eliminated unharmed with the faeces.
How are fruits and seeds dispersed?
By animals By wind Self Dispersal
Winged
Hitch hikers seeds
stick to the
Berries Poppy seeds
bodies of eaten up & Parachutes
animals & dispersal
dropped e.g. dandelion
humans mechanism
Fig 2.8 Mechanisms for Dispersal of Fruits and Seeds

Concept: Bebbington, A. (2007) Field Studies Council. Available online:
http://www.field-studies-council.org/breathingplaces/food_for_us.htm
c. Lichens: This is a close association of a fungus and algae where

contact is permanent as well as obligatory. The fungus makes
available the moisture and minerals to the algae, which prepare food
45
by photosynthesis. In nature, neither of the two can grow alone
independently. Lichens tend to grow abundantly on bare rock
surfaces.
d. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation: Here a bacterium Rhizobium forms

nodules in the roots of leguminous plants and lives symbiotically with
the host. Bacteria get a protective space to live in and derive prepared
food from the roots of higher plants and in return fix gaseous nitrogen
in to nitrates, making it available to the plants. The leguminous plants
use this nitrogen in the protein synthesis. Nitrogen cycle will be
discussed in detail in Unit 6, ‘Biogeochemical Cycles’. For immediate
reference see figure 6.2.
e. Mycorrhizae. In mycorrhizal
associations, tree roots
become infested with fungal
hyphae. The fungi derive
their food from the tree roots
and in return their hyphae
supply water and minerals
that they absorb from the soil
much like the root hairs of
trees. Mycorrhizae may be
on the surface of roots
(ectotrophic) or inside
Fig 2.9 Mycorrhizae
between the cells of the roots
supply water and
(endotrophic). Ectotrophic minerals to the tree
Mycorrhizae are common in and derive their food
nature on pines, oaks, and from the tree roots
beech and endotrophic ones
occur in red maple and are
common in roots and other
tissues of many orchids.
2. Commensalism: Commensalism defines the co-action in which two or

more species are associated and one species at least, derives benefit
from the association, while the other associates are neither benefited nor
harmed. Some common examples of commensalism are the following
a. Lianas. These plants are common in tropical rain forests where light at
ground level is scarce because of the dense growth of vegetation.
Lianas are vascular (woody) plants rooted in the ground but which
climb up with the support of other trees and reach almost to the top of
46
the forest canopy. The woody stem of lianas is closely attached to the
supporting tree but it is not involved with it in any nutritional
relationship. Thus, with much economy of mechanical tissues, lianas
are able to get better light.
b. Epiphytes. Epiphytes are the plants growing on other plants. They use
other plants only as support and not for water or food supply.
Epiphytes differ from the lianas in that they are not rooted into the soil.
They may grow on trees, shrubs or larger submerged plants. They
grow either on the trunks or leaves. Certain common examples of
epiphytes are orchids, bromeliads27 (see figure 2.8), hanging
“mosses”, and Alectoria. Epiphytes are most common in tropical rain
forests. They derive their supply of moisture and nutrient from the
frequent rains and debris accumulated in bark crevices. Dust is also a
source of the nutrients. Roots of epiphytes often store water in a
special tissue, called velamen.
Commensalism may also be internal. For example, many harmless

protozoans occur in the intestinal tract of mammals, including man. Some
microorganisms such as bacterium Escherichia coli (commonly known as
E. coli) are found in human colon. The pitcher of the pitcher plant28 (figure
2.9) provides a breeding site or home for certain species of midge flies,
mosquitoes, and tree toads. Many kinds of microorganisms and animals
(such as small crabs, shrimps, etc.) live in the canal system of sponges.
Fig 2.10 Bromeliads – largest Fig 2.11 Nepenthes – a

epiphyte found in Costa Rica carnivore plant of South Asia
27
Epiphytes (2006) Available online from: http://fireflyforest.net/firefly/2006/07/21/
epiphytes/
28
Photograph Courtesy: Maureen Gilmar (2006) http://www.moplants.com/">Mo
Plants.com </a> Gallery
47
The nest of one species often furnishes shelter and protection for other
species as well. Ant nests may contain guest species of various other
insects; some birds place their nests close to wasps, bees or ants for the
protection offered by these insects. Woodchuck burrows are used also by
rabbits, skunks and raccoons especially in winter.
B. Negative Interactions
In case of negative interactions, one or both species are harmed in any way
during their life period. The negative interactions include the following three
broad categories
3. Parasitism: Parasitism is a relation between two individuals wherein one

individual called parasite receives benefit at the expense of other
individual called host. Parasitism is mainly a food co-action, but the
parasite derives shelter and protection from the host as well. A parasite
usually lives on a host which is larger in body size than it. Further, a
parasite does not kill its host, at least not until the parasite has completed
its reproductive cycle. However, a host may die due to some secondary
infection or suffer from stunted growth, weakness, or sterility. The balance
between parasite and host is upset if the host produces antibodies or
other substances which hinder normal development of the parasite. In
general the parasite derives benefit from the relation while the host suffers
harm.
Classification of parasites: Parasites exhibit a tremendous diversity in

ways and adaptations to exploit their hosts. The parasites may be viral
parasites (e.g., plant and animal viruses), microbial parasites (e.g.,
bacteria, protozoa, fungi, etc.), phytoparasites (e.g. plant parasites) and
zooparasites (e.g. animal parasites such as nematodes, arthropodes,
etc.). They may occur on the outside of the host - ectoparasites or live
within the body of the host - endoparasites. The endoparasites usually
live in the alimentary tract, body cavities, various organs or blood. Further,
endoparasites rely on various means of transport from one host to another
so that their survival, range of distribution, and life cycle are unaffected.
For the endoparasite, the interior of its host is its microenvironment, while
the outside environment is the macroenvironment.
Animals may also be parasitic to plants. Nematodes infest the roots of

plants. Wasps form galls on plants such as oaks, hickories, willows, roses,
goldenrods, and asters. A variety of insects are parasites, the larvae of
which are leaf miners, wood borers, cambium feeders, and fruit eaters.
48
Lastly, parasites may be permanent parasites or temporary parasites.
Mosquitoes and bugs that suck the blood of their hosts are temporary
parasites. Permanent parasites, however, spend their life completely on
other organisms. The common examples of permanent parasites are —
Plasmodium, Entamoeba histolytica, and other protozoan pathogens,
nematodes, arthropods, etc.
Adult nematodes
in the digestive
tract of sheep lay
their eggs
Eggs pass onto
pasture in manure
Infective larvae
are ingested by
grazing sheep
Eggs hatch and larvae
develop
Figure 2.12 Endoparasites in sheep

Source: Virginia Cooperative Extension.
(http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/sheep/410-027/410-027.html)
Parasitic adaptations: While studying parasitism as a biotic factor

influencing the life and activities of parasites and hosts we often
encounter manifold adaptations, both offensive and defensive, being
developed by the host, as well as by the parasite. An endoparasite
entering a host often meets with the antibodies produced by the host for
self defense. The ectoparasites, and endoparasites have following
parasitic adaptations:
a. Most ectoparasites develop some clinging organs such as hooks,

suckers, etc., to get attached with the body of their hosts. They also
develop special piercing and sucking organs to suck the blood of
animals or sap of plants.
49
b. Most endoparasites exhibit anaerobic respiration (respiration that
takes place in the absence of oxygen). Some endoparasites, such as
tapeworm, have become so adapted to the host that they no longer
require a digestive system. They simply absorb their food directly
through their body wall. Further, parasites that live within the bodies of
animals possess cuticles to develop cysts resistant to the digestive
enzymes of the host.
c. High reproduction rate: Many parasites pass their entire existence in a

single host; others require one, two, even three intermediate hosts. It
is of ecological significance that both primary and intermediate hosts
of a parasite occur in the same habitat or community. Even then the
hazards to successful passage from one host to another are so great
and mortality so high that enormous quantities of offspring are
produced to ensure that at least a few individuals will complete the
cycle.
d. Parasites are transferred from one host to another by active

locomotion of the parasite itself; by ingestion, as one animal sucks the
blood of or eats another; by ingestion as an animal takes in eggs,
spores, or encysted stages of the parasite along with its food or
drinking water; as a result of bodily contact between hosts. For
example, the bacteria that cause tularemia in man are carried from
rabbit to rabbit by ticks. Man contacts the disease when he handles
infected rabbits but the incidence of infection is greatly reduced in the
autumn when cold weather forces the ticks (i.e., the carriers of
bacteria) to leave the rabbits and go into hibernation.
Effects of parasites on the host – disease: Parasites may not cause

immediate mortality but they cause damage to body structures. Because
of these parasitically caused anatomical damages, the finely adjusted
balance of different vital processes of host’s body become disturbed and
host is .said to be diseased. There are number of causes of diseases.
Some of the common parasitic agents of disease and consequent
mortality of animals are following:
a. Viruses are the potent agents of several disastrous diseases of plants

and animals including man. For instance, some viruses are the agents
of hoof and mouth disease in deer, spotted fever in rabbit, etc.
b. Bacteria may produce localized inflammatory changes in tissue, enter

the blood stream, or produce powerful poisons known as toxins. They
50
cause a variety of diseases, tuberculosis among birds and mammals
is well known.
c. Protozoan parasites are especially important in the alimentary tract

and in the blood. Leucocytozoon is a common blood parasite of
waterfowl and game birds.
d. Worm parasites, such as tapeworms and nematodes may wander

through the host’s body doing mechanical injury as well as destroying
and consuming tissues.
e. External parasites such as ticks, fleas, lice, mites, and flies do not
commonly produce serious mortality by themselves, but they are often
carriers, transmitting protozoa, bacteria and viruses from one animal
to another.
f. Nutritional deficiency in vitamins or minerals, or improper balance

among carbohydrates, proteins, and fats may produce malformations,
lack of vigor, or even death.
g. Food poisoning occurs when certain food become contaminated with

the toxins released by the bacteria.
Activity 2.4
Parasitism is the form of relationship in which the

smaller organisms live in, or on, or with and at the
expense of the larger animal or plant. The parasite
obtains food, shelter and transport from the host,
whereas, the host is adversely affected.
Considering any two major crops found in Pakistan,

wheat, cotton, sugar cane etc. identify the parasites and
the way they harm the host in each case
4. Predation: Predation occurs when members of one species eat those of

another species. Often, but not always, this involves the killing of the prey.
Most of the predatory organisms are animals, but there are some plants
(carnivores) also. Four types of predation have been recognized:
Herbivores are animals that prey on green plants or their seeds or fruits;
often the plants eaten are not killed but may be damaged. Typical
predation occurs when carnivores prey on herbivores or on other
carnivores. Insect parasitism is another form of predation in which the
insect parasite lays eggs on or near the host insect, which is subsequently
51
killed and eaten. Finally, cannibalism is a special form of predation in
which the predator and prey are from the same species.
Predation is an important ecological process from three points of view.
a. One effect of predation on a population may be to restrict distribution

or reduce abundance. If the affected animal is a pest, predation
appears useful. If it is a valuable resource, the predation seems
undesirable.
b. Second, along with competition, predation is the second major

process which affects community structure.
c. Third, predation is a major selective force and many adaptations we

see in organisms, such as warning colouration, have their explanation
in predator-prey coevolution (Evolutionary changes in two or more
interacting species are called coevolution.)
Predation in animals: A predator animal tends to be larger than its prey.

The main components of predation are predator and prey. A successful
predator has the following characteristics:
a. The hunting ability of a predator remains well developed.
b. By their hunting activities predators can be regarded as specialized

or generalized. Specialized predators are those adapted to hunt only
a few species. For example, Peale’s falcon shows a marked
preference for ducks and pheasants. Deer exhibits a pronounced
preference for certain species of grass. Generalized predators not so
restricted in diet, adjust to other food sources. The horned owl has a
large range of collective prey available. Foxes can shift to vegetable
and carrion (dead animal) diet, if the conditions require.
c. Though a predator may have strong preference for a particular prey, it

can turn in the time of relative scarcity to an alternate more abundant
species that provides more profitable hunting. For example, if rodents
are more abundant than rabbits and quail, foxes and hawks will
concentrate on them instead of game animals.
d. Habitat preferences or overlapping territories can bring predator and

prey into close contact, increasing prey risks.
e. Age, size, and strength of prey influence the direction that predation
takes. Predators select food on the basis of size. Mountain lions, for
example, avoid attacking large healthy elk, which they cannot
52
successfully handle, and concentrate instead on deer and young or
feeble elk.
f. Predators hunt only when it is necessary for them to procure food.
Like the predators, the prey has its certain defensive specializations. The
prey risk is determined by density of prey population, availability of food
and protective cover, movement, activity, habits, size, age, strength and
escape reactions of prey. Besides these striking morphological features,
prey often develops the following two anti-predator defense strategies
aposematic colouration and group living.
a. Aposematic colouration: Many animals have evolved distastefulness

as a means of predator defense. Toxins may be synthesized by the
prey species. Many of these toxic prey species feature bright colours,
termed aposematic.
b. Group living: Group living is normally not advantageous for the

individuals. Then why do birds form flocks and ungulates (Urial, Ibex
etc.) go about in herds? There are three main advantages a prey
organism can obtain by living in a group. First, early detection of
predators may be facilitated if many eyes are looking. Second, if the
preys are not too much smaller than the predator, several of them
acting together may be able to stop the predator from attacking. Third,
if the predator is still able to attack a group, it must select one
individual in the group to capture. By fleeing in confusion, the prey
may confuse the predator, which may not be able to concentrate on
any one individual. Alternatively, by being in the centre of a group, an
individual may reduce its chances of being eaten.
Predation in plants: A number of highly specialized plants such as

Nepenthes, Utricularia, Drosera, Dionaea, Darlingronia, Sarracenia, etc.
are dependent for part of their nitrogen requirements upon small animals
such as insects. These insectivorous plants have some specialized
structures and mechanisms to attract, trap and “digest” the protein
contents of the insect
Plants as prey food of animals: Herbivores such as cattle and wild

herbivores kill the plants and use herbs, shrubs or even trees as their food
and sometimes pose great problem of management of natural and artificial
vegetations (forests and grasslands). Different plants receive varying
degree of damage as a result of browsing and grazing. Many insects and
ruminants browse lightly over the vegetation. Cattle, camels, goats, etc.,
frequently browse the tender shoots of shrubs and trees and sheep graze
53
the grasses. Generally, annuals suffer more due to grazing than the
perennials; shrubs are damaged less than herbs.
Box 2.3 Grazing vs. Browsing
Browsers pick up leaves, bark, and green stems from plants,

Deer generally are browsers and are advantaged when
grasses are unavailable in extreme weather conditions. The
disadvantage of browsing is that height may make vegetation
inaccessible (hence the long neck of the browsing giraffe),
and often-times browsers collect parts of the vegetation that
are low in nutrients, chemically defended, or both.
Grazers clip vegetation at or near ground level. such as sheep

and cattle preferably feed on the much more nutrient-rich
meristematic (growing young shoots) regions of the grasses.
Heavy grazing reduces the photosynthetic parts so much that many plants
either give up or their population decreases. This is true for palatable
species. The unpalatable species avoided by grazing animals multiply and
increase in number in absence of competition due to decrease in the
population of palatable species. The unpalatable species however may
encounter increased mortality due to hoof action and trampling (to beat
down with the feet so as to crush, bruise, or destroy)
5. Amensalism: Amensalism is a type of negative interactions in which one

population definitely inhibits (reduces) the other while remaining
unaffected itself. The environment is modified in the way that the organism
improves its own chance of survival. Amensalism commonly involves
some type of chemical interaction, by which the organisms of one species
affects the well-being and growth of individuals of other, is called
allelochemic. The chemical substances produced may be inorganic or
organic:
a. The affecting species (inhibitor species) releases certain inorganic

chemicals such as acids or bases which adversely affects the
amensal species reducing the competition for nutrients, light, and
space, between the amensal species and inhibitor species.
b. The production of relatively simple organic toxins is another source of

chemical inhibitors. These toxins inhibit seedling growth in the vicinity.
54
c. A third type of inhibitor chemical is the antibiotic - a substance
produced by an organism, which in low concentrations, can inhibit or
kill the growth of another organism. Penicillium: a fungus found in soil
produces antibiotic substances that check the growth of a large variety
of bacteria. A number of antibiotics such as penicillin have been used
extensively in human medicine.
Figure 2.13 Plants compete for water, nutrients from soil, sunlight, and space
in which to grow. A black walnut tree emits a chemical that inhibits the growth
of other trees or shrubs nearby. This is actually an example of amensalism, an
interaction in which one organism is harmed but the other (the walnut) is not.
6. Competition: The presence of other organisms may limit the distribution

of some species through competition. Such competition can occur
between any two species that use the same sorts of places. Note that two
species do not need to be closely related to be involved in competition.
For example, birds, rodents and ants may compete for seeds in desert
environments. Competition among animals is often over food, water and
mates. Animals may also compete for space, i.e., nesting sites, wintering
sites, safer sites from predators. Plants can compete for light, water,
nutrients, or even for pollinators and/or attachment sites. Competition is an
55
important process affecting the distribution and abundance of plants and
animals. There are two different types of competition, defined as follows:
a. Resource competition (also called scramble competition) occurs when

a number of organisms (of the same or of different species) utilize
common resources that are in short supply.
b. Interference competition (also called contest competition) occurs when

the organisms seeking a resource harm one another in the process,
even if the resource is not in short supply. Note that the competition
may be interspecific (between two or more different species) or
intraspecific (between members of the same species).

1. Describe the phenomenon of mutualism by providing examples both
from plants and animals
2. What is exploitation? Describe with suitable examples and eloborate
this negative ecological interaction
3. Discuss the role of parasitism as a biotic ecological factor and
compare it with predation.
4. Differentiate between browsing and grazing?
5. Describe with appropriate examples the ecological aspects of
competition.
6. Discuss the phenomenon of Amensalism.
56
Section 2.1
1 Population is a group of individuals of a given species that live in a

specific geographic area. Community refers to all the living beings
distributed into a particular geographical area. A community includes
organisms of different species.
2 The main levels of organization in nature with reference to ecology
are therefore five:
i. Individual
ii. Population
iii. Community
iv. Ecosystem
v. Biosphere
3 The parameters used to study community includes: density, frequency,
cover etc.
4 Lithosphere, Hydrosphere and Atmosphere
5 The biosphere has evolved since the first single-celled organisms
originated 3.5 billion years ago
Section 2.2
1 A complete ecosystem must exhibit following characters:

i. Living organism
ii. Physical environment
iii. Flow of energy
iv. Cycling of materials
2 Broadly Ecosystems are of three types Natural Ecosystems (complete
ecosystems), man-based ecosystems (incomplete ecosystems) and
Micro-ecosystems.
3 The physical factors that make up the abiotic component of the
ecosystem include air, water, light, temperature, soil, humidity etc.
4 Autotrophs are the green plants that are able to manufacture food in
presence of light and chlorophyll.
5 The decomposers breakdown complex organic compounds into
simpler inorganic form and make them available as nutrients to the
plants
57
Section 2.3
1. Non-cyclic; Cyclic
2. Gross Primary Productivity
3. Food chain
4. Detritus
5. Food Web
6. Respired
Section 2.4
1. Mutualism is an obligatory positive interspecific interaction that is

strongly beneficial to both species. Examples include pollination and
dispersal of fruits and seeds.
2. Exploitation refers to over use of available natural resources.
Immigration leads to a rise in population causing overpopulation. This
may lead to an increase beyond the carrying capacity hence causing
exploitation
3. Parasitism is a relation between two individuals wherein one individual
called parasite receives benefit at the expense of other individual
called host. On the contrary Predation occurs when members of one
species eat those of another species
4. See Predation Section 2.4, Negative Interactions
5. See Box 2.3
6. The presence of other organisms may limit the distribution of some
species. Ecologically it affects the distribution and abundance of
plants and animals.
7. Amensalism is a type of in which one population definitely inhibits
(reduces) the other while remaining unaffected itself. Amensalism
commonly involves some type of chemical interaction, by which the
organisms of one species affects the well-being and growth of
individuals of other, is called allelochemic.
58
UNIT No. 3
Atmosphere
Major Topics
3.1 Atmosphere: Composition and Structure

3.2 Solar Radiations in the Atmosphere
3.3 Climate and Urban Microclimate
3.4 Climate Change and Global Warming
3.5 Seasons
Introduction
We live at the bottom of a vertical ocean of air. Extending upward about

1600km, this west rest less envelop of gases known as atmosphere is far
more turbulent and mobile then the oceans of water.
The composition of the atmosphere has changed drastically since it first

formed. Most geochemists believe that the earth’s earlier atmosphere was
made up mainly of hydrogen and helium and was hundreds of times more
massive then it is now. Over billion of years most of that hydrogen and helium
has diffused into space. At the same time, volcanic eruptions have added
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and other elements to the atmosphere. The
current composition of earth’s atmosphere is unique in our solar system. This
is the only place we know with free oxygen and water vapors. We believe that
all the molecular oxygen present in air has been produced by green plants as
a by product of photo synthesis. If that oxygen were not present, animals and
human beings could not exist. As discussed in the previous unit, the
producers and consumer create a balance between carbon dioxide and
oxygen levels in the atmosphere which makes live possible on earth.
Box 3.1 The Gaia’s Hypothesis
First proposed by British chemist James Lovelock, the Gaia’s

hypothesis suggests that the balance between atmospheric
carbon dioxide and oxygen maintained by living organisms is
responsible not only for creating a unique atmospheric chemical
composition but also for other environmental characteristics that
make life possible on earth.
The present unit will not only give a detailed account of the structure and
composition of atmosphere but also lays emphasis on climate, its types and
the modifications that human interference brings in it.
59
Box 3.2 Defining Weather and Climate
Weather is a description of the physical conditions of the

atmosphere (moisture, temperature, pressure and wind) and daily
weather is determined by movement of air masses, where as,
climate is a description of the long-term pattern of weather in a
particular area. Climate undergoes cyclic changes over decade,
centuries and millennia.
After studying the present unit you will be able to:
1. Summarize the structure and composition of atmosphere.

2. Identify the characteristics and types of climates pertaining in the
South Asian region.
3. Analyze human contributions to global climate change and what
effects the modifications are having on physical and biological system.
Section 3.1 Atmosphere; Composition and Structure

As we have discussed in the introduction of this unit, the atmosphere of the
earth has unique characteristics and properties. In the present section, we will
discuss the composition, its vertical structure i.e. vertical division of
atmosphere into district layers and ecological significance of air. We hope
that the students shall find the entire unit interesting and informative.
To begin with, we shall discuss the composition of atmosphere first.
Table 3.1 Present composition of
the Lower Atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere is composed
of about 78% nitrogen, 21% Gas Symbol or Percent by
oxygen, and 0.93% argon. The Formula Volume
remainder, less than 0.1%, Nitrogen N2 78.08
contains many small but important Oxygen O2 20.94
trace gases, including water Argon Ar 0.934
vapor, carbon dioxide, and Carbon dioxide CO2 0.035
ozone. All of these trace gases Neon Ne 0.00182
have important effects on the Helium He 0.00052
earth's climate. Table 3.1 Methane CH3 0.00015
summarizes the present Krypton Kr 0.00011
composition of the lower Hydrogen H2 0.00005
atmosphere (the part of
Nitrous oxide NO 0.00005
atmosphere that we are directly
Xenon Xe 0.000009
linked to).
60
Major Gases
The most common atmospheric gas, nitrogen (chemical symbol N 2) accounts

for about 78% of the atmosphere. Nitrogen gas is largely inert, meaning that it
does not readily react with other substances to form new chemical
compounds. The next most common gas, oxygen (O2), makes up about 21%
of the atmosphere. Oxygen is required for the respiration (breathing) of all
animal life on Earth, from humans to bacteria. In contrast to nitrogen, oxygen
is extremely reactive. It participates in oxidation, a type of chemical reaction
that can be observed everywhere. Some common examples of oxidation are
apples turning from white to brown after being sliced, the rusting of iron, and
the very rapid oxidation reaction we call fire. Just under 1% of the
atmosphere is made up of argon (Ar), which is a very inert noble gas,
meaning that it does not take part in any chemical reactions under normal
circumstances.
Together, these three gases account for 99.96% of the atmosphere. The
remaining 0.04% contains a wide variety of trace gases, several of which are
crucial to life on Earth.
Trace Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2) affects the earth's climate and plays a large support
role in the biosphere, the collection of living things that populate the earth's
surface. Only about 0.035% of the atmosphere is CO2. Carbon dioxide is
required by plant life for photosynthesis, the process of using sunlight to
store energy as simple sugars, upon which all life on Earth depends. Carbon
dioxide is also one of a class of compounds called greenhouse gases.
These gases are made up of molecules that absorb and emit infrared
radiation, which we feel as heat. The solar energy radiated from the sun is
mostly in the visible range, the light that we see coming from the sun to the
earth.. This radiation is absorbed by the earth's surface, then re-radiated
(returned) back out to atmosphere but this time not as visible light, but as
infrared radiation. Greenhouse gas molecules absorb some of this reradiated
light before it escapes to atmosphere, and re-emit some of it back toward the
surface. In this way, these gases trap some of the escaping heat and
increase the overall temperature of the atmosphere. If the atmosphere had no
greenhouse gases, it is estimated that the earth's surface would be 90°F
(32°C) cooler.
Water vapor (H2O) is found in the atmosphere in small and highly variable
amounts. While it is nearly absent in most of the atmosphere, its
concentration can range up to 4% in very warm, humid areas close to the
61
surface. Despite its relative scarcity, atmospheric water probably has more of
an impact on the earth than any of the major gases, aside from oxygen.
Water vapor participates in the hydrologic cycle, the process that moves
water between the oceans, the land surface waters, the atmosphere, and the
polar ice caps. You will be studying the hydrological cycle or Water cycle (as
it is more commonly known) in the coming sections of this unit. This water
cycling drives erosion (removal of surface soil with flowing water) and rock
weathering (breaking of rock material under influence of physical and
chemical factors), determines the earth's weather, and sets up climate
conditions that make land areas dry or wet, habitable or inhospitable. When
cooled sufficiently, water vapor forms clouds by condensing to liquid water
droplets, or at lower temperatures, solid ice crystals. Besides creating rain or
snow, clouds affect Earth's climate by reflecting some of the energy coming
from the sun, making the planet somewhat cooler. Water vapor is also an
important greenhouse gas. It is concentrated near the surface and plays a
vital role in monitoring the earth’s temperature along with other green house
gases like carbon dioxide and methane.
Hence a number of phenomenon taking place on earth e.g. rain, snow,

temperature fluctuations, erosion, weathering are all controlled by water in the
atmosphere.
Ozone (O3) in the atmosphere is found in a layer about 9–36 mi (15–60 km)
in altitude. Ozone gas is irritating to peoples' eyes and skin, and chemically
attacks rubber and plant tissue. Nevertheless, it is vital to life on Earth
because it absorbs most of the high energy radiation from the sun that is
harmful to plants and animals.
You must have heard of ozone layer depletion or formation of ozone hole in
the atmosphere. In simpler terms, the thickness of ozone layer in the
atmosphere decreases to such an extent that it allows the high energy ultra
violet radiation to pass through it and reach the surface of earth. If the ozone
layers would have been intact it would have absorbed this high energy UV
rays. This shorter wavelength radiation is responsible for suntans, and is
sufficiently powerful to harm cells, cause skin cancer, and burn tissue, as
anyone who has had painful sunburn knows. The ozone molecules, along
with molecules of O2, absorb nearly all the high energy UV rays, protecting
the earth's surface from the most damaging radiation.
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere is minute. If it were all transported to

the surface, the ozone gas would form a layer about 0.1–0.16 in (2.5–4.0
62
mm) thick. This layer, as thin as it is, is sufficient to shield the earth's
occupants from harmful solar radiation.
Box 3.3 Ozone Depletion
Though going into the details of ozone depletion is beyond the scope of
our present discussion, a brief description of the phenomenon is given
for your interest and information.
Human releases a variety of chlorine containing compounds into the

atmosphere. The most important group of compounds known to be
responsible for destroying ozone layer is CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons).
CFCs were invented in 1982 by Thomas Midgley Jr. and were known to
be most wonderful compounds as these were nontoxic (non-poisonous),
non-flammable (do not catch fire), inert (not reactive under normal
conditions), economical (cheaply produced). These compounds are
widely used as gases in air conditioners, refrigerators, body and hair
sprays, room fresheners and many other products of daily use. All these
compounds contain chlorine which when release to atmosphere comes
in contact with ozone and in the presence of high energy UV reacts with
ozone hence breaking the ozone molecules. The chlorine keeps on
destructing the atmospheric ozone until it is washed out of the air.
In addition to gases, the atmosphere has a wide variety of tiny particles

suspended in the air, known collectively as aerosols. These particles may be
liquid or solid, and are so small that they may require very long times to settle
out of the atmosphere by gravity.
Table 3.2 Size Range for Aerosols
# Gas Percent by Volume
1. Rain Drops 1 – 6 mm
2. Desert Sand 0.01 mm
3. Sea Salt 0.0001 mm
4. Smoke Particles 0.0001 mm
Examples of aerosols include bits of suspended soil or desert sand, tiny

smoke particles from a forest fire, salt particles left over after a droplet of
ocean water has evaporated, plant pollen, and particles formed from the
pollution created by a coal burning power plant. Aerosols significantly affect
the atmospheric heat balance, cloud growth, and optical properties. Some
aerosols scatter sunlight, making the atmosphere look hazy. Under the right
conditions, aerosols act as collecting points for water vapor molecules, thus
speeding the formation of clouds.
63
Structure of Atmosphere
The Atmosphere is divided into layers according to major changes in

temperature. Gravity pushes the layers of air down on the earth's surface.
This push is called air pressure. 99% of the total mass of the atmosphere is
below 32 kilometers.
Troposphere - 0 to 12 km – i.e. from surface of earth up to 12 km. The

troposphere contains over 80% of the mass of the atmosphere, along with
nearly all of the water vapor. This layer contains the air we breathe, the winds
we observe and the clouds that bring our rain. In fact, all of what we know as
"weather" occurs in the troposphere, whose name means "changing sphere."
All of the cold fronts, warm fronts, high and low pressure systems, storm
systems, and other features seen on a weather map occur in this lowest
layer. Severe thunderstorms may penetrate the Tropopause. As height
increases, temperature decreases. The temperature drops about 6.5 degrees
Celsius for every kilometer above the earth's surface.
Tropopause - located at the top of the troposphere. The temperature

remains fairly constant here. This layer separates the troposphere from the
stratosphere. We find the jet stream here. These are very strong winds that
blow eastward.
Stratosphere ranges from - 100km

12 to 50 km - in the lower part
of the stratosphere. The Thermosphere 0.001mb
temperature remains fairly 90km
constant (-60 degrees
Celsius). The stratosphere
70km Mesosphere
contains most of the ozone
found in the earth's
atmosphere. In fact, the 50km 1mb
presence of ozone is the
Stratosphere
reason for the temperature
30km OZONE
profile found in the
stratosphere. As described
previously, ozone and oxygen 10km
Thermosphere
gas both absorb short wave 0km 1000mb
solar radiation. In the series of -100 0 60
Temperature C
reactions that follow, heat is Figure 3.1 Temperature changes dramatically
released. in different layers of the atmosphere
64
This heat warms the atmosphere in the layer at about (20–45 km) and gives
the stratosphere its characteristic temperature increase with height. Although
the stratosphere has very little water, clouds of ice crystals may form at times
in the lower stratosphere over the Polar Regions. Early Arctic explorers named
these clouds nacreous or mother-of-pearl clouds because of their glittering
(sparkling) appearance. More recently, very thin, widespread clouds have
been found to form in the polar stratosphere under extremely cold conditions.
These clouds, called polar stratospheric clouds, or PSCs, appear to be small
crystals of ice or frozen mixtures of ice and nitric acid. PSCs play a key role
in the development of the ozone hole.
Mesosphere - 50 to 80 km, lies above the stratosphere. The temperature

drops in this layer to about -100 degrees Celsius. This is the coldest region of
the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth from meteoroids. They burn up
in this area.
Thermosphere - 80 km and up - The air is very thin. Thermosphere means

"heat sphere". The temperature is very high in this layer because ultraviolet
radiation is turned into heat. Temperatures often reach 2000 degrees Celsius
or more. This layer contains:
a. Ionosphere - This is the lower part of the thermosphere. It extends
from about 80 to 550 km. Gas particles absorb ultraviolet and X-ray
radiation from the sun. The particles of gas become electrically
charged (ions). Radio waves are bounced off the ions and reflect
waves back to earth. This generally helps radio communication.
However, solar flares can increase the number of ions and can
interfere with the transmission of some radio waves.
b. Exosphere - the upper part of the thermosphere. It extends from about
550 km for thousands of kilometers. Air is very thin here. This is the
area where satellites orbit the earth.
Magnetosphere - the area around the earth that extends beyond the
atmosphere. The earth's magnetic field operates here. It begins at about
1000 km. It is made up of positively charged protons and negatively charged
electrons. This traps the particles that are given off by the sun.

1. How have volcanic emission contributed to the formations of
atmosphere
2. Why is the earth’s atmosphere unique in its characteristics?
3. In how many layers, the atmosphere can be divided?
4. What is the significant role played by stratosphere?
65
Section 3.2 Solar Radiations in the Atmosphere
The sun supplies the earth with an enormous amount of energy. Although it
fluctuates from time to time, incoming solar energy at the top of the
atmosphere averages about 1,330 watts per sq meter. About half of this
energy is reflected or absorbed by the atmosphere, and half the earth faces
away from the sun at any given time. Still, the amount reaching the earth’s
surface is at least 10,000 times greater than all installed electric capacity in
the world,
The absorption of solar energy by the atmosphere is selective. Visible light

passes through almost undiminished, whereas ultraviolet light is absorbed
mostly by ozone in the stratosphere. Infrared radiation is absorbed mostly by
carbon dioxide (C02) and water (H20) in the troposphere. Scattering of light by
water droplets, ice crystals, and dust in the air also is selective. Short
wavelengths (blue) are scattered more strongly than long wavelengths (red),
The blue of a clear sky or clean, deep water at midday, and the spectacular
reds of sunrise and sunset are the result of this differential scattering, On a
cloudy day, as much as 90 percent of insulation is absorbed or reflected by
clouds. Figure 3.1 shows the relative energy fluxes in the atmosphere.
Incoming
solar Outgoing
energy Reflected by Infrared 70%
Atmosphere and
(100) Clouds (25)
Absorbed by
Atmosphere and
Clouds (25)
Green
Absorbed by Reflected Reradiated from House Effect
Surface (45) (5) surface (104) (88)
Reabsorbed
Surface of
Earth
Fig 3.2 Solar-Energy Balance. Much of the incoming radiation from the sun is
reflected back to space (30%) but the remainder is absorbed by the oceans,
land and atmosphere (70%), where it creates our weather and fuels
photosynthesis. Eventually, this absorbed energy is radiated back to
atmosphere as infra red heat.
66
Some solar energy is reflected from the earth’s surfaces. Albedo is the term
used to describe reflectivity. Fresh, clean snow can have an albedo of 90
percent, meaning that 90 percent of incident radiation falling on its surface is
reflected. Dark surfaces, such as black topsoil or a dark forest canopy, absorb
energy efficiently and might have an albedo of only 2 or 3 percent. The net
average global albedo of the earth is about 30 percent. Clouds are
responsible for most of that reflection. The earth’s surface has a low average
albedo (5 percent) due to the high energy absorbency of the oceans covering
most of the globe.
Eventually, all the energy absorbed at the earth’s surface is reradiated back
into space. There is an important change in properties between incoming and
outgoing radiation, however, most of the solar energy reaching the earth is
visible light, to which the atmosphere is relatively transparent; the energy
reemitted by the earth is mainly infrared radiation (heat energy). These longer
wavelengths are absorbed rather effectively in the lower levels of the
atmosphere, trapping much of the heat close to the earth’s surface. If the
atmosphere were as transparent to infrared radiation as it is to visible light,
the earth’s surface temperature would be about 35°C (63°F) colder than it is
now.
This phenomenon is called the “greenhouse effect” because the

atmosphere, like the glass or roof of a greenhouse, transmits sunlight while
trapping heat inside. Increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide due to human
activities appears to be causing a global warming that could cause major
climatic changes, which we will discuss later in this unit.
Because of cycling of infrared energy between the atmosphere and the

planet, the amount of energy emitted from the earth’s surface is about 30
percent greater than the total incoming solar radiation. The amount of energy
reflected or reradiated from the top of the atmosphere must balance with the
total insulation if the earth is to remain at a constant temperature.

1. What do you understand by the term Albedo’?
2. Why is the amount of energy emitted from the earth surface greater
then the incoming solar radiation?
3. Increased carbon dioxide concentration result in increase
temperature. Why?
67
Section 3.3 Climate and Urban Micro Climate29,30
If weather is a description of physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity,
temperature, pressure, wind and precipitation) then climate is the pattern of
weather in a region over long time periods. The interaction of atmospheric
systems is so complex that climatic conditions are never exactly the same at
any given location from one time to the next. However, it is possible to
discern pattern of average conditions over a season, year, and decade on
century. This section will give you an overview of the types of climates that
exist on earth. To begin with, we shall first look into the factors that are
responsible to create a particular climatic condition in an area.
Factors Influencing the World Climatic Regions
The climate of a particular place is the function of a number of factors. These

factors include:
1. Latitude and its influence on solar radiation received: Latitude, usually

denoted by the Greek letter phi (φ) gives the location of a place on Earth
north or south of the equator. Lines of Latitude are the imaginary
horizontal lines shown running east-to-west. Latitude is simply the
distance form equator. The latitudes closer to the equator receive more
sunlight and are thus warmer. On the contrary the latitudes towards the
Polar Regions are cooler.
2. Air mass influences: An air mass is a large body of air whose physical
properties especially temperature and moisture content are relatively
uniform horizontally. Normally an air mass extends over hundreds of
kilometers and is defined according to both their region of origin and their
course travelled. As a general rule, maritime air masses (oceanic air) are
generally fairly moist, containing considerable amounts of water vapour,
which is ultimately condensed and released as rain or snow. By contrast,
continental air is usually a lot drier31.
3. Location of global high and low pressure zones: The air in the equatorial
regions get heated up. As a scientific principle, warm air rises upwards
thus creating a low pressure zone. The climate associated with this zone
of low pressure and rising air shows high rainfall and daily thunderstorms
in the tropical areas. Air rising above the equator spreads out, cools and
29
Pidwirny, M. (2006). "Climate Classification and Climatic Regions of the World"
Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition (July 2009). Available online from:
http://www.physical
30
geography. net/fundamentals/7v.html
Michael Ritter (2007) Global climates. Available online from: http://www.uwsp.edu/
gEo/faculty/ritter/geog101/uwsp_lectures/climates_toc.html
31
Encyclopedia of the Atmospheric Environment. Atmosphere, Climate &
Environment Information Programme Available online from: http://www.ace.mmu.ac.
uk/eae/index.html
68
moves downward (because colder Temperate
Polar
air is heavier) in the subtropical
zones. Downward air motion
Subtropics
increases atmospheric pressure,
and subtropical climate appears as
generally clear skies, low rainfall, Tropics
and high daytime temperatures of
over 40°C.
4. Heat exchange from ocean currents:
The cooler wind blowing from
oceans to land in summers lower
down the temperature in the coastal
areas. Due to this heat exchange
from ocean currents the temperature
of the coastal areas round the year
remains moderate. Figure 3.3 Earth Climatic Zones
5. Distribution of mountain barriers: The mountain barriers play a very
important role in controlling the time and quantity of rain received by a
particular area. The windward side of the mountains receives maximum
rainfall. The other side of the mountains (commonly known as leeward or
not facing the wind) are devoid of rain.
6. Pattern of prevailing winds: The prevailing winds also known as trade
winds blow predominantly from a single general direction over a particular
point on the Earth's surface. The trade winds easterly surface winds found
in the tropics near the Earth's equator. These winds produce the tropical
storms that form over the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans and
approaches to North America, Southeast Asia, Pakistan and India,
respectively.
7. Distribution of land and sea: The distribution of land and water is a factor
with important implications for climate. Water has a higher heat capacity
than land and so exhibits a greater resistance to temperature changes
than does a land area. Land heats up more during the day and in
summer, and cools down more at night and during winter than do
adjacent bodies of water. This means that localities immediately adjacent
to water exhibit smaller seasonal temperature variations than do localities
that are situated well inland.
8. Altitude: Another climate control is altitude, or elevation. Just as there is a
gradual decrease in average temperature with increasing latitude, there is
a decrease in temperature with increasing elevation. High mountains near
the Equator, for example, may have tropical vegetation at their bases but
permanent ice and snow at their summits32.
32
Climate – Students http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-198798/climate
69
The Köppen Climate Classification System is the most widely used system
for classifying the world's climates. Its categories are based on the annual
and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. This system
recognizes 5 major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter.
A. Tropical Moist Climates: all months average temperatures above 18°C
B. Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the year.
C. Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters.
D. Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters.
E. Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers.
A. Tropical Moist Climates: Tropical moist climates extend northward and

southward from the equator to about 15 to 25° of latitude. In these
climates all months have average temperatures greater than 18°. Annual
precipitation is greater than 1500 mm. Three minor Köppen climate types
exist in the A group, and their designation is based on seasonal
distribution of rainfall.
 Af or tropical wet is a tropical climate where precipitation occurs all
year long. Monthly temperature variations in this climate are less than
3°C. examples are East coast of Central America, East coast and
interior of Brazil, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines
 Am is a tropical monsoon climate. Annual rainfall is equal to or
greater than Af, but most of the precipitation falls in the 7 to 9 hottest
months. During the dry season very little rainfall occurs. Examples
include Coastal areas of southwest India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Myanmar (Burma), Southwestern Africa, northeast and southeast
Brazil etc.
 The tropical wet / dry or savanna (Aw) has an extended dry season
during winter. Precipitation during the wet season is usually less than
1000 millimeters, and only during the summer season. Northern and
eastern India, northern Australia, south central Africa, Western Central
America; south Florida, and Caribbean Islands
B. Dry Climates: The most obvious climatic feature of this climate is that
evaporation and transpiration exceed precipitation. These climates extend
from 20 - 35° North and South of the equator and in large continental
regions of the mid-latitudes often surrounded by mountains. Minor types
of this climate include:
 BW - dry arid (desert) is a true desert climate. It covers 12% of the
Earth's land surface and is dominated by xerophytic vegetation.
Regions include southern Argentina, southwest Africa, north Africa,
Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and western India
 BS - dry semiarid (steppe) is a grassland climate that covers 14% of
the Earth's land surface. It receives more precipitation than the BW.
Australia, northern and southern Africa, western United States etc.
70
C. Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates: This climate generally has
warm and humid summers with mild winters. Its extent is from 30 to 50° of
latitude mainly on the eastern and western borders of most continents..
Three minor types exist:
 Cfa - humid subtropical: The humid subtropical climate (Cfa) has hot
muggy summers and frequent thunderstorms. Winters are mild and
precipitation during this season comes from mid-latitude cyclones. A
good example of a Cfa climate is the southeastern USA, Northern
India and Pakistan through south China to Japan
 Cfb marine climates are found on the western coasts of continents.
They have a humid climate with short dry summer. Heavy precipitation
occurs during the mild winters. Washington, New Zealand and
Southeast Asia are the few examples.
 Mediterranean climates (Cs) receive rain primarily during winter
season. Extreme summer aridity is caused by the sinking air of the
subtropical highs and may exist for up to 5 months. Locations in North
America are from Portland, Oregon to all of California. Whereas,
Iranian Highlands, Cape Town area of South Africa and southwestern
Australia also exhibits similar climate type.
D. Moist Continental Mid-latitude Climates: Moist continental mid-latitude

climates have warm to cool summers and cold winters. The location of
these climates is pole ward of the C climates. The average temperature of
the warmest month is greater than 10° Celsius, while the coldest month is
less than -3° Celsius. Winters are severe with snowstorms, strong winds,
and bitter cold. Regions include North China and Korea, Eastern and
Midwestern US.
E. Polar Climates: Polar climates have year-round cold temperatures with

the warmest month less than 10°C. Polar climates are found on the
northern coastal areas of North America, Europe, Asia, and on the
landmasses of Greenland and Antarctica. Two minor climate types exist.
ET or polar tundra is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen to
depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost. EF or
polar ice caps has a surface permanently covered with snow and ice.
Climate of Pakistan33
Depending on the topography, there is an extreme variation in the
temperature of Pakistan that is the climate of Pakistan exhibits a large range
of climatic conditions. In the lower elevations, there are a number of desert
regions. There the summers can be hot and unpleasant. In the higher
33
Climate of Pakistan (2004) Available online from: http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/
IntroductiontoPakistan/climateofPakistan.htm
71
elevations, inhabitants must endure snow and cold temperatures in the
winter. The country is basically arid. However, the southern slopes of the
Himalayas and the sub-mountainous tract receiving an annual rainfall
between 760 and 1270 mm have a humid sub-Tropical climate. In the
extreme north - because of great heights - Highland climate prevails.
The controlling factors of the climate and its specific features will be
discusses separately in a unit under the title, “Pakistan Environmental
Setting”. See Unit 9 for details on climate of Pakistan besides maximum-
minimum temperature and rainfall trends in the country.
Urban Micro Climate34

About twelve thousand years ago human beings were hunter/gatherers
constantly on the move looking for food, their numbers limited by the amount
of food they could find. Then came a revolution!
People of the new Stone Age (the Neolithic Culture) learnt that they could
grow crops and domestic animals. They no longer needed to be constantly
foraging and hunting and food could be stored. They were able to live less
nomadic lives and had time to develop other skills. We see the development
of settlements beginning and a rise in population numbers as humans began
to dominate their environment.
At the beginning of the new Stone Age the world's population was estimated
to be about 5.5 million. Now it is over 6500 million. So where do all these
people live? Over half of them live in urban ecosystems, crammed into a tiny
part of the world's land surface (about 5%). Humans and human-made
structures dominate these ecosystems. Look at the table below to see how
densely populated the following cities of Pakistan are.
Table 3.3 Population Density of Some Selected Cities
City Population (million) Area (sq. km.) Population Density

Karachi 11.9 3527 3373
Lahore 6.40 2014 3178
Islamabad 1.00 906 1104
Peshawar 3.91 1257 3110
Quetta 0.80 2653 286.4
34
Urban Ecosystems – The Urban Micro-Climate (2009) Field Studies Council http://
www.field-studies-council.org/urbaneco/urbaneco/introduction/microclimate.htm
72
The urban micro climate is designated by the formation of a dome of warm air
that frequently builds up over city centers forming an urban heat island. As a
result, temperatures in the city can be several degrees Celsius higher than
temperatures in the surrounding countryside. There are two main reasons.
 Heat energy is released from industrial and domestic buildings (e.g.

through poorly insulated roofs, doors and windows). An ordinary
incandescent light bulb, like those still used in many homes, only uses
10% of the energy it requires for light and gives the rest off as heat.
 Road surfaces and building materials such as brick and concrete absorb
heat during the day and act like giant storage heaters releasing it slow at
night. Dark colours absorb more heat than light colours.
The following factors can also contribute.
 Glass buildings and windows reflect large amounts of solar radiation into
the surrounding air.
 Water attracting (hygroscopic) pollution particles in the air act as nuclei for
condensation. These promote the formation of clouds and smog which
can trap heat in the lower atmosphere.
 In many cities there may be relatively small amounts of liquid water. Less
heat energy is therefore used up in evaporation.
Precipitation and humidity
As well as being warmer urban ecosystems often have more rain. We have
already seen how atmospheric pollution can lead to more cloud cover. The
warmer temperatures can also lead to the formation of convection currents
and strong thermals. These can help both to form and strengthen
thunderstorms leading to higher rainfall both in the urban area and downwind
of it. Even though there is more rain, air humidity may be lower as fewer
bodies of open water mean there is less water evaporating into the air.
Atmospheric pollution
The urban atmosphere often has high pollution levels. Major sources are the
burning of fossil fuels, car exhaust fumes and the use of CFCs
(chlorofluorocarbons) e.g. as refrigerants and in aerosol sprays.
Photochemical smog can sometimes be seen over large cities. These form
when oxides of nitrogen and un-burnt hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust
react with sunlight forming ozone in the lower atmosphere (troposphere).
Photochemical smog is often known as ‘ozone in the wrong place’ (recall that
73
naturally ozone is formed in the stratosphere and not the troposphere).
Asthma and other breathing problems may be intensified. Pollution can cause
many other problems including 1) blackening and erosion of buildings and
other structures, 2) damage to the stratospheric ozone layer and 3) formation
of acid rain. All such effects can directly or indirectly affect wildlife and their
habitats
Light
Cloud cover and pollution smog will reduce the amount of solar radiation
entering the urban ecosystem whilst shade from tall buildings may
significantly reduce the amount of light reaching some areas. It is at night
however that the biggest difference between urban and rural areas is seen.
Night lights around the world shows how world's cities are lit up at night, with
their glow extending over the countryside around them.
Wind
Tall buildings provide shelter from the fast moving winds in the upper
atmosphere. At the same time however buildings can disturb the pattern of
airflow.
Self assessment Questions
1. Differentiate between weather and climate.

2. In which climatic zone does Pakistan fall?
3. Enlist the 5 major climatic types recognized by Köppen Climate
Classification System.
4. Define the term ‘Permafrost’.
74
Section 3.4 Climate Change, Global Warming and Green House
Effect
Box 3.4 Problem at a glance. . . .
In the previous section you have studied the concept of climate

change and its enhancement under the influence of human
disturbance. You have also studied the concept of global
warming in the section 3.2 which describes that the infrared
radiation or the heat waves are trapped closer to the ground
due to the presence of a thick layer of carbon dioxide and water
vapor in the atmospheric. There result in an increased
temperature on the surface of earth. A continuous accumulation
of green house gases tend to increase the annual average
temperature on earth on a higher pace thus result in an overall
climate change of the earth. This is what global warming is all
about and the alarming situation is a priority concern of the
environmentalists today.
This section will give a detailed overview of the concept of climate change,
global warming, its impacts, the characteristics and role of green house
gases. Let us see what do we mean by the term climate change and later we
would move on to global warming.
Climate Change
Climate change refers to the variation at a global or regional level over time. It
describes the variability or average state of the atmosphere or average
weather over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These
variations may come from processes internal to the Earth (you will be
studying in detail in Unit No. 4), be driven by external forces (e.g. variations in
sunlight intensity) or, most recently, be caused by human activities. It is
hoped that by now you are able to clearly differentiate between climate and
weather. You may refer to Box. 3.2 if a revision is desired.
Just as weather patterns change from day to day, the climate changes too.
This occurs naturally, driven by internal and external factors. However not all
changes are due to natural processes, as we humans have also exerted our
influence, which is called anthropogenic climate change. Through
widespread use of land, use of fossil fuels and the building of cities, we have
changed our climate. The major technological and socioeconomic shift of the
industrial era, the accelerated uptake of fossil fuels, and broad scale
deforestation, means we have contributed to the natural greenhouse effect.
75
The key areas for concern are those related to variability and extremes, not
simply changed average conditions. When we say that the average annual
temperature has risen by 2-3°F, it may not sound that serious unless we
realize that only 1°C rise in temperature may displace millions of people.
There are already people who have become climate refugees, and millions
more are expected in the future. Temperatures across the globe are most
certainly rising; the 1990s was the warmest decade in the last thousand
years. Sea surface temperatures have increased 0.4-0.8°C (0.7-1.4°F) since
the late 19 Century, and over the period 1961 to 2003, global ocean
temperature has risen by 0.10°C (0.18°F) from the surface to a depth of 700
m. Figure 3.5 shows the climate change tendency in the last 1000 years
compared to last 140 years. The analysis has been carried out by IPCC
(International Panel for Climate Change) and is widely used as reference
material.
Figure 3.5 Comparison of Variation in the Earth Surface

Temperature for the past 1000 years and the past 140 years
The world has warmed 0.74°C in the past hundred years and scientists are
clear that the world will get warmer this century due to further increases in
76
greenhouse gas concentrations. Global average temperature is forecast to
rise 4°C (7.2°F) toward the end of the 21st century. Warming of a few
degrees seems unimportant compared with day to day, or seasonal variations
in temperature. However, in global terms it is much larger than any of the
climatic changes experienced during the past 10,000 years, since the rise of
agriculture and civilizations
Climate Change Impacts
The Fourth Assessment Report released in 2007, by the Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated the reasons that have made the
climate change a concern for the human beings today. A brief account of the
expected impacts of climate change is given as follows:
1. Hydrology and Glaciers - Glaciers are retreating, and snow cover is

decreasing. You should not forget that glaciers are major fresh water
resources available on earth. The seasonal melting of glacial ice provided
fresh drinkable water to us. If the glaciers retreat at a higher rate than
desired not only we ought to loose the water reservoir, but also face the
destruction through excessive flooding in the rivers.
SNOWPACK HYDROELECTRICITY
An expected 25% Changes in flow and lower
RIVER FLOW reduction of snowpack by reservoir levels decrease FLOODS
Changes in river flow 2050 will change water power generation. An increase in extreme
impact water supply, supply weather will lead to higher
water quality, winter river flows, runoff
fisheries, and and flooding
recreation
DROUGHT
Higher temperatures
and changing
precipitation will lead
to more droughts
AGRICULTURE
Impacts to crop
productivity and
HABITAT irrigation demand
Warmer river
temperatures
stress cold-water DELTA LEVEES
species such as Sea level rise will
salmon threaten
Delta levees GROUNDWATER
Lower water tables due
WATER to hydrologic changes
QUALITY and greater demand
WATER USE
Less fresh water cause some shallow
Demand for agriculture
flow will allow more wells to go dry
and urban water will
salt water to intrude. increase
Figure 3.6 Impacts of Climate Change

77
Sea level has already risen due to warming and is projected to rise much
more. Many people are under the mistaken impression that only if the
polar ice caps melt will sea level rise. In fact, average sea level around
the world has already risen 4 to 8 inches in the past 100 years due to
global warming and is expected to rise another 4 to 35 inches (with a best
guess of around 19 inches) by 2100. The primary reason for this rise is
that water expands as it warms. The second reason is that as mentioned
earlier, glaciers all over the world are melting, and when land-based ice
melts, the water runs to the sea and increases its level. Thousands of
small islands are threatened by the projected sea-level rise for the 21st
century, as are low-lying coastal areas such as southern Florida. Of
course, if there is any significant melting of the polar ice sheets, the
additional rise in sea level would be enormous (measured in feet not
inches).
2. Animals – Pole-ward and elevational shifts in range and alteration in

species abundance (e.g. Sea Turtles) are the consequences expected out
of climate change. Over a million species are predicted to become extinct
by 2050. Change in climate may become more favorable to certain
species thus promoting their population. On the contrary temperature
sensitive species like Boyd's Forest Dragon, Cassowaries are expected to
become extinct due to least resistance to change in temperature.
Changes in phenology (including earlier reproduction and migration),
physiological and morphological adaptation may also occur.
3. Plants - Change in abundance as described earlier and consequently

shift in plant diversity is expected to occur through climate change.
Besides temperature, precipitation, available water / drought etc are
critical factors that regulate plant growth. Certain plant seeds require
chilled winter days to germinate. Others require specific hot and humid
environment. Change in phenology (including earlier flowering), change in
growth patterns can be a serious threat to crops. As for example, if
extended winters, lack of rainfall in terms of quantity or disturbed time
span delay flowering and subsequently fruiting in the wheat crop, it would
impart significant and direct impacts on the availability of food and
economy of the country.
4. Rainfall - A few degrees of increase in temperature will lead to more heat

waves and fewer frosts. More wildfires and droughts are expected in drier
regions whereas regions of the world with higher rainfalls would receive
increased rains thus resulting in floods. Higher latitudes of the globe
would receive more rainfall while middle latitudes, are likely to receive
78
less. For these areas the changes will pose significant problems for water
resource management.
Tropical hurricanes and cyclones may become stronger and sea levels
will rise over the coming decades. Some low-lying coastal areas and
islands are already feeling the effect, and will be more prone to inundation
from storm surges. The increase in global average temperature to which
the earth is subjected is a phenomenon known as global warming. Now
you will be studying this phenomenon in detail, its relation to green house
effect and factors that induce the green house effect.
Global Warming
Global warming is caused primarily by carbon dioxide from burning coal, oil
and gas. Certain gases that trap heat are building up in Earth's atmosphere.
The primary culprit is carbon dioxide, released from burning coal, oil and
natural gas in power plants, cars, factories, etc. (and to a lesser extent when
forests are cleared). The second is methane, released from rice paddies,
both ends of cows, rotting garbage in landfills, mining operations, and gas
pipelines. Third are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and similar chemicals,
which are also implicated in the separate problem of ozone depletion.
Nitrous oxide (from fertilizers and other chemicals) is fourth. There is
scientific consensus that global warming is real, is caused by human
activities, and presents serious challenges. Scientists working on this issue
report that the observed global warming cannot be explained by natural
variations such as changes in the sun's output or volcanic eruptions.
Green House Effect - The phenomenon
Please recall the earth’s energy budget that you have studied earlier in
section 3.2. Note the impact of green house gases shown in figure 3.2.
The green house gases namely, carbon dioxide and methane in addition to
water vapours accumulate in the atmosphere forming a layer that trap the
infra red radiation (heat waves) emitting form the earth. This layer behaves
like a blanket. As a blanket warms you up by holding the heat of your body
within it, similarly the greenhouse gases hold or trap the heat emitted by the
earth to the lower atmosphere making it warmer. As the carbon dioxide
concentration keep on increasing day by day due to burning of fossil fuels it is
exactly like taking one blanket over the other and thus continuously
increasing the warmth. The phenomenon resembles to the one that occurs in
a green house. A green house is a store made with a glass roof for keeping
plants under controlled temperature and moisture conditions. After this setup
this phenomenon has been given the name ‘Green House Effect’ (The
79
analogy is not totally correct, however, because glass is much more
transparent to infrared radiation than is air; greenhouses stay warm mainly
because the glass blocks air movement).
You have already studied the detail and the role played by carbon dioxide and
water vapours in inducing the green house effect. Although, the two exist as
trace gases but play a major role in maintaining the temperature of earth.
Besides the two components, methane also plays an important role in
enhancing the green house effect. Methane is a chemical compound with the
molecular formula CH4. It is the simplest alkane, and the principal component
of natural gas. Burning methane in the presence of oxygen produces carbon
dioxide and water. Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas. Methane in
the atmosphere is eventually oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and water
thus enhancing the green house effect.
It is however important to note that day by day increasing carbon dioxide

concentration can be controlled in a number of ways. Reducing use of fossil
fuels would considerably reduce the amount of carbon dioxide produced, as
well as reducing the levels of the pollutants which cause acid rain. This can
be achieved by either using less energy altogether, or using alternative
energy sources. You can help save energy in lots of ways:
 Turn off lights when you leave a room
 If you have a car, don't use it for short journeys
 Basically, anything at all that uses less energy
 Eliminating the use of CFCs and finally
 Increased plantations as green plants act as carbon sinks and take in
carbon dioxide to manufacture food in presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll
Although ozone depletion is not the cause of global warming, there are a
number of connections between the two. For example, many ozone-depleting
compounds are also greenhouse gases. Here this is important to note that
CFCs plays an important role in inducing green house effect, however, the
depletion of ozone layer has no role in enhancing the green house effect.
1. What are the source of green houses gases

2. What will be consequence of increased average global temperature
specifically on human beings?
3. Suggest any methods to control global warming.
80
Section 3.5 Seasons35
A season is one of the major divisions of the year, generally based on yearly
periodic changes in weather. Seasons happen due to the yearly revolution of
the Earth around the Sun. Thus, at any given time during summer or winter,
one part of the planet is more directly exposed to the rays of the Sun. This
exposure alternates as the Earth revolves in its orbit. At any given time,
regardless of season, the northern and southern hemispheres experience
opposite seasons
36
Figure 3.7 Seasons occur due to the yearly revolution of Earth around the Sun
In Temperate and Polar regions, the seasons are marked by changes in the
amount of sunlight which may cause animals to go into hibernation or to
migrate, and plants to be dormant. In these regions generally four seasons
are recognized: spring, summer, autumn, winter. In some tropical and
subtropical regions it is more common to speak of the rainy (or wet, or
monsoon) season versus the dry season, because the amount of precipitation
may vary more dramatically than the average temperature. In other tropical
areas a three-way division into hot, rainy and cool season is used. In some
parts of the world, special “seasons” are loosely defined based upon
important events such as a hurricane season, tornado season or a wildfire
season.
35
Seasons (2009) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season
36
Seasons (2002) Modeling for Understanding in Science Education, University of Wisconsin-
Madison http://ncisla.wceruw.org/muse/earth-moon-sun/materials/build/material2F/index.html
81
The varied amount of sunlight received by earth tends to develop a
temperature difference which result in the vertical and horizontal movements
of atmosphere. These movements may be on a global scale and are
permanent or may be localized temporary air mass movement that we
recognize as land-sea breeze or mountain-valley breeze. The horizontal
motion of air is what we called Wind. The movements in the atmosphere
i.e. the winds play an important role in spreading air pollution. Further more,
these winds produce spells and variability in weather.
Box 3.5 Seasons in Pakistan

We have four well-marked seasons in Pakistan:
1. Cold season (Dec to Mar) 2. Hot season (April to June)
3. Monsoon season (Jul to Sep) 4. Post-Monsoon season (Oct and Nov)
The cold season sets in by the middle of December. This period is characterized
by fine weather with an average minimum and maximum temperatures ranging
from 4 °C and 18 °C though on occasions the mercury falls well below freezing
point. Winter disturbances in this season accordingly cause fairly widespread
rain; however, winter sun is glorious.
The hot season is usually dry. Relative humidity in May and June varies from 50
% in the morning to 25 % or less in the afternoon. The temperature soars to 40
°C and beyond. The highest recorded temperature at Jaccobabad in June is 53
00. While the interior is blazing hot, the temperature along the sea coast ranges
between 25 °C to 35 00, but the humidity persists around 70 to 80 %.
The south-west monsoon reaches Pakistan towards the beginning of July and
establishes itself by the middle of the month. The strength of the monsoon
current increases from June to July; it then remains steady, and start retreating
towards the end of August. The monsoon winds bring most of the rain which is
one our major water resource.
From the middle of September to the middle of November is the transitory
period which may be called the post-monsoon season. In October, the
maximum temperature is of the order of 34°C to 37°C all over Pakistan, while
the nights are fairly cool with the minimum temperature around 16°C. In the
month of November, both the maximum and the minimum temperatures fall by
about 6°C and the weather becomes pleasant. October and November are by
far the driest months all over the plains of Pakistan.
Self Assessment Questions Section 3.5

1. __________ happen due to the yearly revolution of the Earth around
the Sun.
2. The horizontal motion of air is what we called ________
3. The movements in the atmosphere i.e. the winds play an important
role in spreading _________ _____________.
82
Section 3.1
1. Volcanic eruptions have added carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur and

other elements to the atmosphere.
2. The current composition of earth’s atmosphere is unique in our solar
system. This is the only place we know of with free oxygen and water
vapors.
3. In Principle atmosphere can be divided into four layers, troposphere,
stratosphere, Mesosphere and Thermosphere.
4. The stratosphere contains most of the ozone found in the earth's
atmosphere which protects the earth from high intensity UV radiation
Section 3.2
1. Albedo is the term used to describe reflectivity. Fresh, clean snow

can have an albedo of 90 percent, meaning that 90 percent of incident
radiation falling on its surface is reflected.
2. The energy released form the surface of earth is re-radiated back to
earth due to cloud cover or accumulation of green house gases in the
lower atmosphere. This re-radiation result in energy build up hence
increasing the total outgoing energy from the total incoming energy
3. The CO2 gas form a layer like a blanket that traps energy near to the
surface of earth hence increasing the earth’s temperature.
Section 3.3
1. See Box 3.2

2. The 5 major climatic types; each type is designated by a capital letter.
A. Tropical Moist Climates: all months average temperatures
above 18°C
B. Dry Climates: with deficient precipitation during most of the
year.
C. Moist Mid-latitude Climates with Mild Winters.
D. Moist Mid-Latitude Climates with Cold Winters.
E. Polar Climates: with extremely cold winters and summers.
3. Pakistan falls in Category B climate, dry with deficient precipitation
during most of the year
4. ET or polar tundra is a climate where the soil is permanently frozen
to depths of hundreds of meters, a condition known as permafrost
83
Section 3.4
1. The major green house gas CO2 is released from burning coal, oil and
natural gas in power plants, cars, factories, etc. The second is
methane, released from rice paddies, rotting garbage in landfills,
mining operations, and gas pipelines. Thirdly the chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) are released through refrigerator, air conditioner gases, and
body and hair sprays etc.
2. Increased global temperatures affect the plants, animals and alter
weather patterns such as rainfall and temperature patterns. Since
agriculture is directly related to weather pattern of an area, it will have
its impacts on human beings. Moreover increase in earth temperature
tends to produce more floods, land sliding, hurricanes, storm surges
and other similar disasters
3. The simplest way to control global warming is minimizing the use to
fossil fuels and extending green areas.
Section 3.5
1. Seasons
2. Wind
3. Air Pollution
84
UNIT No. 4
Lithosphere
Major Topics
4.1 Earth: Structure and Composition

4.2 Geographic Organization of the Land
4.3 Earth materials
4.4 Soil and its properties
4.5 Soil Erosion and its Impact on Environment
Introduction
Lithosphere originated from a Greek word [Lithos] i.e. “rocky” and ‘sphere’ is
the solid outermost shell of a rocky planet. The present unit describes the
composition and structure of the earth. The upper layers of the sphere have
cooled down to an extent that can support life. Under this cooler layer lies the
molten lava, extremely hot and constantly moving thus bringing about
constant changes in the earth’s structure. The weathering of rocky surfaces
under influence of winds, water run off, gravity, etc. produces soils. These
soils vary is their properties in different parts of earth as they inherit the
properties of the parent material from which they have originated. You will
also study the formation of soils and its properties. This unit also
encompasses the types of rocks, their formation in addition to an account of
the types minerals extracted from these rocks (ores) and the impacts that
mineral extraction has on environment.
You must be familiar with the deposition of mud within the water canals. This
mud reduces the depth of canals and hinders the flow of water. This
phenomena is called soil erosion i.e. the loss of surface soil along with runoff
water is erosion of soil which is one of the most serious environmental
problems these days and will be discussed here in detail. Land sliding and
mud sliding are other examples of large scale erosion which are disastrous as
well. After reading this unit you will be able to:
1. Understand the formation, structure and composition of earth.

2. Identify the different land forms on earth: mountain, plains, plateaus,
islands, etc.
3. Understand the significance and properties of soil
4. Identify the types of rocks and the minerals
5. Comprehend the environmental hazards associated to mining and soil
erosion
85
Section 4.1 Earth: Structure and Composition37
The solid component of earth is called Lithosphere. It is however, interesting
that the ground under our feet to which we think as solid and stable, is a
dynamic and constantly changing structure. It consists of layers, the
outermost cool, lightweight and brittle ‘crust’. This layer supports life and
allows the plants to grow. Inside the crust is present a flexible layer of rock
known as the Mantle. The mantle is denser than the crust and contains
elements like oxygen, silicon and magnesium. The Core or interior of earth is
composed of a dense, intensely hot mass of metal, mostly iron spread over
thousands of kilometers in diameter. Solid in the centre, this immense mass
of the core region generates the magnetic field that surrounds the earth.
Continental Crust
up to 40km thick Mantle up to
2,900 km deep
Outer Core
(Semisolid)
Molten
blobs
Inner Core (Solid)
2,900 – 5,000
5,000 – 6,370 km km depth
Oceanic Crust
up to 10km thick
Radius of Earth
6,370 km
Figure 4.1 The Layered Earth. The intensely hot, liquid or core is made mostly
of molten metal. Around it is a solid but flexible mantle hot enough to bend and
flow. Floating on top of the mantle is a thin crust of rocks that breaks up in to
large, slowly moving tectonic plates. The crust appears 10 times thicker in this
drawing than it is in reality.
The crust and the upper mantle together constitute the Lithosphere. The
thickness of the lithosphere is considered to be less than 20 kilometers near
the mid-ocean ridges to about 50 km in old oceanic regions. Under the
continents the lithosphere is thicker, as much as 150 km. The surface of earth
below the oceans (seafloor) i.e. the oceanic crust has a composition
somewhat like that of the mantle but is richer in Silicon. Continents on the
other hand are thicker, lighter regions of crust rich in calcium, sodium,
potassium and aluminum. Some physical properties of crust, mantle and core
are presented in Table 4.1, below which Table 4.2 compares the composition
of the whole earth and the crust
37
th
Concern. 8 edition Mc. Graw Hill. pp 16
86
Table 4.1 Eight Most Common Chemical Elements (percent)
Zone Thickness (km) Mean Density Mass

(g cm-3) (percent)
Crust 17 2.8 0.4
Mantle From base of crust to 2,900 4.5 68.1
Core From 2,900 km to 6, 370 10.7 31.5
Total Earth 6,370
(Earth’s Radius)
Table 4.2 Eight Most Common Chemical Elements (percent)
Whole Earth Crust

Iron 33.3 Oxygen 45.2
Oxygen 29.8 Silicon 27.2
Silicon 15.6 Aluminum 8.2
Magnesium 13.9 Iron 5.8
Nickel 2.0 Calcium 5.1
Calcium 1.8 Magnesium 2.8
Aluminum 15 Sodium 2.3
Sodium 0.2 Potassium 1.7
Throughout its history, which is about five billion years old, the materials of
the earth have more or less been continuously created, maintained and
destroyed by physical, chemical and biological processes. Collectively all the
processes responsible for the formation of new earth materials are referred to
as the Geologic Cycle. The Geologic Cycle is a group of sub-cycles, which
include, Hydrological Cycle or Water Cycle (will be discussed in detail in
Unit 5, ‘Hydrosphere’,), Tectonic Cycle (will be discussed here) and the
Biogeochemical Cycles (detailed in Unit 6).
The Tectonic Cycle38,39,4041

By now you are familiar with the internal structure of the Earth. It is composed
of Layers, outer crust, inner mantle and the most inner core. You have also
studied the physical and chemical properties of these layers. The mantle of
the earth is hot enough to move. Through the movements commonly known
as Tectonic Processes, the inner hot mantle exerts enormous pressure on
38 nd
Rana (2005) Essentials of Ecology & Environmental Science 2 ed. Prentice Hall, India:76
39
Encyclopedia Britannica – Students Edition vailable online from http://student.
britannica.com /comptons/article-9275395/lava-and-magma
40
Plate Tectonics (2009) Available online: http://www.platetectonics.com/index.asp
41
Figures 4.2 and 4.3 Adopted From: Tewhey D. (2002) Forces of Nature. Available online
from: www.scarborough.k12.me.us/wis/teachers/dtewhey/webquest/nature/plate%20boundaries
87
the outer crust thus breaking the overlying crust into huge blocks called
Tectonic Plates.
Box 4.1 Magma and Lava
Molten or hot liquefied, rock located deep below the Earth's surface is
called magma. When a volcano erupts or a deep crack occurs in the
Earth, the magma rises and overflows. When it flows out of the volcano
or crack, usually mixed with steam and gas, it is called lava.
You must have heard the phenomenon of tectonic plates moving and causing
changes on the surface of earth. They deform the earth’s crust, producing
external forms such as ocean basins, continents and mountains. When these
plates slide against each other they cause Earthquakes. These Tectonic
Processes are collectively known as Tectonic Cycle.
We know that Earth’s outer layer known as lithosphere is about 100 km. thick.
And that Lithosphere is not a uniform continuous layer but is broken into
several large segments or plates, which are called tectonic plates.
The hard rocky shell of the earth – the crust is cracked into seven huge
pieces and several smaller ones. The junctions between them are marked by
lines of volcanoes and are shaken by earthquakes, since all these plates are
in continuous motion relative to one-another. Those that carry continents such
as the American, African and Eurasian plates, are moving at a rate of about
2.5 cm a year. Those that lie beneath the Pacific are traveling five to six times
faster.
The movement of continents is known as Continental Drift. The boundaries

between plates are geologically active areas. Three main types of boundaries
are known to exist which are named as:
 Divergent Boundaries (moving away from each other)
 Convergent Boundaries (coming closer or moving towards each other)
 Transform faults (sliding against each other)
Divergent boundaries occur
at oceanic ridges where
plates are moving away
from one another and new
Lithosphere Lithosphere
lithosphere is produced.
Oceans are born and grow
wider where plates diverge
or pull apart. On the other
hand when a diverging Magma
boundary occurs on land a Figure 4.2 Divergent Boundaries
'rift', or separation arises.
88
Over the time that mass of land will break apart into distinct land masses and
the surrounding water will fill the space between them.
Convergent boundaries occur Volcano
when one plate moves
beneath the leading edge of
another plate. Here crust is
destroyed and recycled back
into the interior of the Earth as Trench Continental Plate
one plate dives under another.
These are known as
Subduction
Oceanic Plate Zones -
mountains and volcanoes are
often found where plates Earthquake
converge. Figure 4.3 Convergent Boundaries
There are 3 types of convergent boundaries:
 Oceanic-Continental Convergence: When an oceanic plate pushes
into and subducts under a continental plate, the overriding continental
plate is lifted up and a mountain range is created.
 Oceanic-Oceanic Convergence: When two oceanic plates converge
one is usually subducted under the other and in the process a deep
oceanic trench is formed. Oceanic-oceanic plate convergence also
results in the formation of undersea volcanoes.
 Continental-Continental Convergence: When two continents meet
head-on, neither is subducted because the continental rocks are
relatively light. Instead, the crust tends to fold and be pushed upward
or sideways. The convergence of Indian Plate and the Eurasian plate
has given rise to Himalayas million of years ago. The 2005 earthquake
of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan has been caused by collision between
these two plates i.e. Indian tectonic plate and the Eurasian plate.
Transform fault boundaries occur
where one plate slides another plate
without causing damage to
lithosphere. These are also known as
transform boundaries or more
commonly as faults.
There is a very close relationship

between the tectonic cycle and other
cycles. The tectonic cycle provides
water from volcanic processes as well
as energy to form and change many
earth materials. Figure 4.4 Transform Plate Boundaries
89
1. Define lithosphere?
2. In how many zones can earth be divided?
3. What is the composition of core?
4. Can you differentiate between Divergent and Convergent Plate
Boundaries?
Section 4.2 Geographic Organization of Land42
Although land only makes up one fourth of the earth’s surface, we tend to
know it better as it is the part we live in. There are many classifications of land
forms, depending on what kind of map a person is looking at. For example, a
political map would show the land divided by people and its man made
boundaries. For physical or elevation maps, the divisions are largely decided
by nature, with a little intervention from man. A careful classification, however,
can be done as follows:
• Continents • Volcanoes
• Mountains • Plains and Plateaus
• Islands
 Continents
Although the largest land masses of the earth at one time were fairly
connected, today they are generally regarded as seven large separate land
masses called continents. These continents take up a total area of 57,900
square miles. They are:
Asia: Located in the Eastern and Northern

Hemispheres. Largest continent with 17, 400 square miles
Africa: Located in the Eastern, Northern & Southern

Hemispheres. Second largest continent with 11,700 square miles
42
Land Forms available online from http://www.virted.org/MAPS&GLOBES /
Continents.html
90
North America: Located in the Western and
Northern Hemispheres with 9,400 square miles.
South America: Located in the Western and Southern

Hemispheres with 6,900 square miles.
Europe: Located in the Eastern and
. Northern Hemispheres with 3,800
Europe: Located in the Eastern and Northern
Hemisphere with 3, 800 square miles.
Australia: Located in the Eastern and Southern

Hemispheres with 3,300 square miles
Whereas, Antarctica: Located in the Eastern, Western and Southern

Hemispheres with 5,400 square miles.
 Volcano 43,44,45
A volcano is a mountain or hill formed around a crack in the earth’s crust. This
crack allows molten rock and other hot materials to be thrown out from the
earth. The rock inside the earth’s mantle is very hot, but solid because of the
great pressure on it. When the pressure upon some of this solid rock is
reduced or there is an escape route through a crack, the rock becomes a
liquid called magma. The magma is forced up and then spurts out of the
crack. Gases, often poisonous are also forced out. When the magma comes
to the surface, it is called lava. Volcanoes erupt differently. Some erupt quietly
and the lava flows down the side of the volcano and some are more violent.
The opening in the top of the volcano is called a crater. Some craters are
filled with water and become lakes such as the Crater Lake in Oregon. Most
43
Volcano available online from :http://www.mcwdn.org/MAPS&GLOBES/
Volcanos.html
44
List of Valconoes in Pakistan Available online from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List _of_ volcanoes_in_Pakistan
45
Owais Mughal (2007) Mud Valcanoes of Balochistan. Available online from:
http://pakistaniat.com/2007/03/02/mud-volcanoes-volcano-balochistan-baluchistan-
hingol-offroad-makran-pasni-hinglaj/
91
volcanoes occur in the same area as two earthquake belts. One circles the
Pacific Ocean and the other is around the Mediterranean and Asia Minor.
Volcanoes are classified as:
1. Active - These are erupting or keep erupting

2. Dormant - These are not erupting but could at any time
3. Extinct - These volcanoes are no longer active and do not erupt.
Pakistan’s Balochistan province is gifted with a diverse landscape. Among

many geological wonders here, one big attraction is the presence of 18 mud
volcanoes. In fact world’s largest and highest known mud volcano is located
in Balochistan. The altitude of this highest mud volcano is 300 ft. The mud
volcanoes of Balochistan are not only located on the land but from time to
time they appear as small temporary islands in the Arabian Sea. 7 out of the
18 mud volcanoes are located few kilometers from the Sapt post as
mentioned above, where as rest of the 11 mud volcanoes are located further
west between Kutch and Gwadar. A few of the known volcanoes are listed
below for your interest:
1. Neza e Sultan is located in Chagai District, Balochistan, Pakistan.

Neza e Sultan is an extinct volcano and only the magma chamber
remains and it looks like a spear.
2. Jebel e Ghurab is located in Balochistan, Pakistan. It is a mud
volcano
3. Chandragup is a mud volcano located in Balochistan, Pakistan. Also
known as Chandrakup, the volcano is considered holy by Hindus and
is an important stop for pilgrims on their way to the shrine of Devi
(goddess) Hinglaj.
4. Hingol mud volcano is located in Makran District, Balochistan,
Pakistan. It is a mud volcano located in Hingol National Park. These
are not located on the main road so you will have to consult the locals
to guide you to the exact location. The mud oozing out is not hot and
is rather cool. There is no objective information available on what
causes it. The locals have stories to tell about these though.
 Mountains
Mountains are places that are much higher than the land around them. They
also taper and have a peak. They are different from plateaus because
plateaus have flat tops, although they can be as high as mountains.
Mountains have had an important place in history as they have offered
protection from invading armies and are frequently the boundaries between
92
countries. If they are crosswise to the winds of the areas, mountains have an
important role in affecting the climate of an area. The side of the mountain
that faces the wind is the windward side and is apt to have heavier rainfall as
the wind drops the moisture before going over the mountain. The other side
called the leeward side is much drier as the rain has already been deposited
on the windward side of the mountain. Mountains also protect valleys from
extremes in weather.
Box 4.2: Mountain Range

A mountain range is a group or chain of mountains that are close together.
The highest mountains in the world are in the Himalayas that were formed
when the areas of India and the rest of Asia (the Eurasian Plate as discussed
in the previous section) came together. The highest peak is Mount Everest,
which is 29,028 feet. The next highest is K-2 which is 28,250 feet. A detailed
account of the mountains of Pakistan is given in Unit 9, Section 9.3 under the
title ‘Physiography of Pakistan’.
Some of the famous mountain ranges of Pakistan are Himalayas, Karakoram,

Hindu Kush, Sulaiman, Toba Kakar, Kirthar and Salt range.
The Northern and Western Highlands produced by the mountain building

movement extended from the Makran Coast in the south to the Pamir Plateau
in the extreme north. The Northern and Western Highlands cover most of
Balochistan, NWFP, Northern Areas (Gilgit Agency) and parts of the Punjab.
These can be further divided into five physiographic entities:
1. Mountainous North
2. Koh-e-Safaid and Waziristan Hills
3. Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains
4. Balochistan Plateau
5. Potowar Plateau and the Salt Ranges
 Plains and Plateaus46,47
Plains and plateaus are different from mountains in that they are made up of
rock formations that are in the same horizontal position - they are flat! Plains
46
Land Form available online from http://www.virted.org/MAPS&GLOBES
/Plateaus.html
47
Pothwar Plateau Available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pothohar_Plateau
93
are flat surfaces at low levels. Coastal plains are made up of bits of rock that
are carried along from rivers to the ocean or are worn away from rocks along
the seashore. Sometimes inland plains are formed when seas or lakes get
filled in with sediment or soil and become flat plains. Plateaus are raised
areas of land with a flatter top. It differs from a mountain in that a mountain
has a jagged peak at the top. Plateaus form either when mountains get worn
down or when a large portion of flat earth is pushed up from the earth.
Box 4.3: Pothwar Plateau
The Pothwar Plateau (also spelled Pothohar, or Potohar) is a plateau in

the province of Punjab, Pakistan. The area was the home of the Soanian
Culture, which is evidenced by the discovery of fossils, tools, coins, and
remains of ancient archaeological sites. The local people speak Pothohari
a dialect of Punjabi.
Pothwar Plateau is bounded on the east by the Jhelum River, on the west
by the Indus River, on the north by the Kala Chitta Range and the Margalla
Hills, and on the south by the Salt Range. The terrain is undulating. The
Kala Chitta Range rises to an average height of 450-900 meters (3,000 ft)
and extends for about 72 kilometers. The Swaan River starts from nearby
Murree and ends near Kalabagh in the Indus River. Sakesar is the highest
mountain of this region with a height of about 1500 meters.
The diverse wildlife like urial, wild boar, chinkara, chukar, hare, porcupine
and mongoose add color to the beauty of the area. Sadly, due to low rain
fall, extensive deforestation, coal mining, oil and gas exploration, the
Valley is becoming devoid of vegetation. The under water areas of lakes
(Uchali, Khabeki and Jhallar - internationally recognized Ramsar site, and
scenic Kallar Kahar) have reduced to much smaller areas than in the past.
Experts say that the lake has been here for at least 400 years. The
modern day cities of Islamabad and Rawalpindi sit on the Pothwar plateau.
 Islands
Islands are bodies of land completely surrounded by water. There is even a

continent that is an island, Australia. Islands are formed in several ways.
Many islands are really places where volcanoes built up under the ocean to
the point of peaking above the water. The lava continues to pile up as the
volcano explodes to the point that there is enough solid ground to form an
island. Some islands such as Great Britain were attached to a continent but
94
were separated by erosion of the land between the two land masses. Other
islands are coral islands. These are formed when the skeletal material of
corals piles up over years and years.
There are two types of islands - continental and oceanic. Continental

islands have plant and animal structures like the continent near the island.
Oceanic islands have their own plant and animal structure. A large chain of
islands close to each other with the same plant and animal structure is called
an archipelago.
Some Important Islands in Pakistan48
Pakistan have few islands, some of them are briefly introduced here. These
islands are important harbor sites, inhabit some endangered animal species
and most importantly possess the mangrove forest49 sites. Mangrove forests
are important as they provide food shelter and breeding sites for a number of
aquatic species and water fowl. Pakistan's mangrove ecosystem is one of the
largest found in an arid climate. Without realizing their global significance, the
local communities continue to use mangroves as fuel wood and fodder. In
urban areas, mangroves are being cut away for developmental activities on
the coast. WWF - Pakistan has taken an initiative to protect and conserve the
mangrove sites in addition to educate the local communities on the
significance and sustainable use of resources. The objectives of the WWF -
Pakistan project include rehabilitation of mangrove-degraded areas at
Sonmiani and Jiwani in Balochistan, and Sandspit in Karachi, Sindh.
Some of the important islands found in Pakistan include:
Astola Island: About 25 kilometers south of Balochistan coast, Astola–the

largest island in Pakistan–is six kilometers in length and administratively
comes under Pasni subdivision of Gwadar district. Pakistan Defense (2005)
http://www.defence.pk/forums/members-club/19678-largest-island-pakistan-
astola-island.html
Baba Bhit Island is the smallest neighborhood of Kiamari Town in Karachi,

Sindh, Pakistan. It comprises three small fishing islands which in the centre of
the harbor of Karachi. The approximated area of these islands is 4 km² and
48
List of islands of Pakistan. Available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
islands _of_Pakistan
49
Conservation of Mangrove Forests in the Coastal Areas of Sindh and
Balochistan. Available online on: http://www.wwfpak.org/forest_mangrove.php
95
the population is about 12000. The area is severely neglected by the local
and the central government because of its separation from the mainland
Buddo Island (also known as Dingi) is a small island located in the Arabian
Sea off the coast of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Buddo Island is also known as
Dingi by local fishermen. Buddo and Bundal Islands serve as a temporary
port for local fishermen. They clean their nets and dry fish on these islands.
The Bundal and Buddo Islands comprising 12,000 acres (49 km²) of land are
the assets of the Port Qasim Authority.
The Clifton Oyster Rocks are a series of islands located off the coast of the
Clifton neighborhood of Karachi. These were under the control of Pakistani
Navy until 2006, when the Karachi city government decided to include the
island as part of its plans to renovate the city. As part of these plans, the Port
Fountain was constructed at the base of the northern island. It shoots water
up to 620 feet in the air, and is the second-tallest fountain in the world.
Manora or Manoro is a small peninsula (2.5 km²) located just south of the
Port of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan. Manora is connected to the mainland by a
12 kilometer long causeway called the Sandspit.
A proof of geological changes that occur in the oceanic crust is the

appearance disappearance of certain islands. Malan Island is an offshore
mud volcano located in the Arabian Sea, 3 kilometers off the coast of
Balochistan, Pakistan. It rose out of the water overnight in March 1999. Malan
Island no longer exists
1. Differentiate between a mountain and a plateau.

2. How are islands formed?
3. How do volcanoes erupt?
4. What is the impact of the mountain ranges on the climate of an area?
Section 4.3 Earth Materials: Minerals and Rocks
You have studied about the dynamic structure of the earth. Tectonic forces
stir inside the earth causing continents to split, drift apart and then crash into
each other in slow but unstoppable collisions. Throughout its history, which is
about five billion years old, the materials of earth have more or less been
continuously created, maintained and destroyed by physical, chemical and
96
biological processes. The processes have produced many earth materials
necessary for human survival.
Box 4.4 A Revision
Collectively, all the processes responsible for the formation of new earth
materials are referred to as the geologic cycle
As we have discussed earlier, the geologic cycle is a set of sub-cycles, these

include, hydrological cycle, tectonic cycle, the rock cycle and the geochemical
cycle. In short, earth materials such as minerals, rocks, soil and water are
constantly being created, maintained and destroyed by internal and external
processes of the geologic cycle. In this section we will be studying two earth
materials, minerals and rocks. Where as, soil due to its dynamic nature will be
dealt separately in the next section (section 4.4).
Box 4.5 Defining Mineral and Rock
A mineral is naturally occurring organic, solid element or compound with

a definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure.
Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
Naturally occurring means not created by humans. Organic materials, such as

coal, produced by living organisms are generally not minerals. A mineral must
be solid, hence ice is mineral but liquid water is not. Minerals are therefore
naturally occurring inorganic crystalline substances with specific physical and
chemical properties. Rocks are aggregates of mineral or minerals. Minerals
and rocks are the foundation materials for the Soils. Their composition,
texture and structure determine the type of soil.
The two fundamental characters of a mineral that distinguish it from all other
minerals are its chemical composition and its crystal structure. No two
mineral are identical in both respects. We can therefore conclude that iron is
a mineral until it is present in the ‘iron ore’ and possess a specific crystalline
structure. Once purified; metals such as iron, aluminum or copper loose their
crystalline structure and thus are not minerals.
Types of Minerals
To understand the Earth’s lithosphere as part of the environment, we should
be familiar with some of the physical and chemical qualities of the major
minerals as they relate to soil fertility, their ability to hold water and their
potential as a resource or a pollutant.
97
1. Silicates: These are the most important rock-forming minerals. The three
most important rock-forming silicate minerals or mineral groups are
quartz, feldspar and ferromagnesium.
 Quartz: One of the single most abundant minerals in the earth’s crust,
this is generally a hard, resistant mineral composed entirely of silicon
and oxygen. It is often white or clear, but due to impurities it may also
be reddish, purple, or of any other color. Because quartz is highly
resistant to natural processes that lead to the breakdown of most
minerals, it is the common mineral in river sands and most beach
sands.
 Feldspars: The most abundant and perhaps the most important

groups of rock-forming minerals in the earth’s crust, these are
aluminosilicates of sodium, potassium, and calcium. They are
generally white, gray, or pink and are fairly hard. Feldspars are
important commercial minerals in the ceramics and industries.
Feldspars wither or break down chemically to form clays. Clays cause

many problems, but they are also very useful. For example, some clay
minerals expand and contract greatly upon wetting and drying, and the
resulting changes in volume may damage structures such as houses,
streets, and sidewalks. On the other hand, clays are extremely
important to life. Their ability to hold onto chemical elements
necessary for life is an important factor in soil fertility.
 Ferromagnesium: These minerals are a group of silicates in which the

silicon and oxygen combine with iron and magnesium. Generally
found as dark minerals in most rocks, they are not particularly
resistant to weathering and erosion processes and therefore tend to
be altered or removed relatively quickly. We will be studying the
process of erosion in section 4.5. Ferromagnesium minerals, when
abundant, may produce weak rocks. so caution must be exercised in
evaluating construction sites for highways, tunnels, and reservoirs
when these rocks are encountered.
2. Carbonates: From an environmental point of view, the most important

carbonated mineral is calcite, which is calcium carbonate. Most calcium
carbonate is formed by biological activity. Some organisms use calcium
carbonate directly in bones, shells, which are then deposited. Calcite is
the major constituent of limestone and marble—two very important types
of rocks.
98
3. Sulfides: The sulfide minerals, such as pyrite or iron sulfide (fool’s gold)
are sometimes associated with serious environmental problems,
particularly when roads, tunnels, or mines are cut that are rich in coal
which contains sulfide minerals. When in contact with surface water or air,
the minerals oxidize to form compounds such as ferric hydroxide and
sulfuric acid. The acid water thus produced is a major problem in the coal
regions.
4. Metal oxides: Metallic elements react with free oxygen in the atmosphere
to form metal oxides. Some of our most important mineral resources occur
in this form. For example, iron and aluminum, the most important metals
in our industrial society, are both mined from deposits in the form of their
oxides.
5. Native elements: Last group of minerals include the uncommon native
elements, such as gold, silver, copper and diamonds that have long been
sought as valuable minerals. The native elements generally occur in
rather small accumulations, but occasionally are found in sufficient
quantities to justify mining. As we continue to mine these valuable
minerals in lower grade deposits, the environmental impact will continue
to increase.
Box 4.6 Environmental Effects of Resource

Extraction
Resource extraction involves physical process of mining and
physical/chemical processes of separating minerals from ores or other
minerals. An ore is a rock in which a useful metal occurs (copper, gold,
platinum etc.) a small concentration of the mineral is enough to make
mining worthwhile. The extraction is done by several methods and all
the methods are environmentally hazardous. The exposed mineral in
their pure form are washed into water channels and deposit on the
gravel of the streambed. The toxic materials adversely affect the
aquatic life. In a few cases whole mountain top or the surface of an
entire island has been removed for surface mining. Uncontrollable fires,
production of noxious smoke and gases due to natural gas explosion
are some other features affecting the environment adversely.
Activity: Minerals are a natural resource for any country. The
availability and extraction of minerals determine the technological
development as well as economic and political power for the nation.
Enlist the important minerals metals and non metals found in Pakistan
99
Rocks 50,51,52,53,54
As defined earlier a rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. Within a
rock individual crystals or grains are mixed together and held firmly forming a
solid mass. The grains may be larger or smaller depending upon how a rock
was formed. Each rock type has its own characteristic in terms of:
1. Mixture of minerals
2. Grain sizes
3. Arrangement of grains
As for example Granite is a mixture of three minerals: Quartz (Silicon and
Oxygen), Feldspar (aluminosilicates of sodium, potassium, and calcium as
we have just discussed earlier in this section) and Mica Crystals (oxides of
Silicon with some other elements). Different varieties of granite have distinct
percentages of these minerals and specific grain sizes.
Rock Formation and Types
The formation of rocks is a continuous process. The crust of earth is being

continuously created, maintained and destroyed under the influence of
internal as well as external forces. These forces may include the tectonic
forces working beneath the crust or the biological processes. We call this
cycle of creation, destruction and reformation the Rock Cycle. Understanding
how this cycle works explains the origin and characteristics of different types
of rocks, as well as how they are formed, broken (weathered), transported,
deposited and altered into other forms.
There are three major rock classifications: igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic. In this section we will look at how are they made and some of
their properties.
 Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are called fire rocks and are formed either underground or
above ground. Underground, they are formed when the melted rock, called
magma, deep within the earth becomes trapped in small pockets. As these
50
Rock Creations (1999). Loogootee Community Schools Available online from
http://www.fi.edu/fellows/payton/rocks/create/index.html
51
Botham G. (1997) GeoMania Community College and Secondary Curriculum
Consulting Geological Services, University of Oregon. Available online from:
http://jersey.uoregon.edu/~mstrick/AskGeoMan/geoQuerry13.html
52
The Geographical Layout of Pakistan. Available online from: http://www.pakistan
paedia .com /land/GEO_1.html
53 nd
Rana (2005) Essentials of Ecology and Environmental Science 2 ed. Prentice
Hall, India pp 76
54
th
100
pockets of magma cool slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous
rocks. Such rocks are known as intrusive igneous rocks.
Igneous rocks are also formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma to
rise above the earth's surface. When magma appears above the earth, it is
called lava. Igneous rocks are formed as the lava cools above ground.
Texture of a rock means how large the individual mineral grains are in the
final, solid rock. In most cases, the resulting grain size depends on how
quickly the magma cooled. In general, the slower the cooling is, the larger are
the crystals in the final rock. Because of this, we assume that coarse grained
(large grains) igneous rocks are "intrusive," as they have been cooled at
depth in the crust where they were insulated by layers of rock and sediment.
Fine grained rocks are called "extrusive" and are generally produced through
volcanic eruptions of magma into lava. Granite and Basalt are examples of
igneous rocks.
Fast Cooling Fine Crystal Size
Extrusive
Igneous
Ash and Lava Rocks
Medium Magma chamber

Cooling Speed
Medium
Crystal Size
Intrusive
Slow Cooling, Igneous
Large Crystal Rocks
Size
Figure 4.5 Formation of Igneous Rocks. Igneous rocks are intrusive

if they have been cooled at depth in the crust; extrusive and are
generally produced through volcanic eruptions of magma into lava
Composition
The other factor is composition: the elements in the magma directly affect
which minerals are formed when the magma cools. The composition of
igneous magmas is directly related to where the magma is formed. It
produces basalt if the magma erupts at the surface in the form of lava, or
gabbro, if the magma is cooled inside the magma chamber and does not
erupt. It is important to remember that basalt and gabbro are two different
rocks based purely on textural differences - they are compositionally the
same.
101
In certain other cases the rocks are subducted back into the earth crust
during the tectonic cycle. This compression and subduction generally know
as differentiation process gives rise to many intermediate forms that are
enriched in lighter elements, one such example is granite.
 Sedimentary Rocks
For thousands, even millions of years, little pieces of our earth have been
eroded--broken down and worn away by wind and water. These little bits of
our earth are washed downstream where they settle to the bottom of the
rivers, lakes, and oceans. Layer after layer of eroded earth is deposited on
top of each. These layers are pressed down more and more through time,
until the bottom layers slowly turn into rock. If you have ever had a chance of
traveling on the national motor way or within the salt range you can easily
observe sedimentary rock that has been cut across to pave the way and lay
the road. The cross section of the rocks clearly shows the layers of which the
rock has been formed.
Figure 4.6 Sedimentary Rocks clearly depicting their

formation and deposition of layers one after another
(Source: http://www.gly.fsu.edu/~salters/GLY1000/11Seds_sedrocks/11Seds_sedrocks.htm)
Sedimentary rocks are called secondary, because they are often the result of
the accumulation of small pieces broken off by the pre-existing rocks. There
are three main types of sedimentary rocks:
Clastic: your basic sedimentary rock. Clastic sedimentary rocks are
accumulations of clasts: little pieces of broken up rock which have piled up
and been by compacted with time.
Chemical: these may form when standing water evaporates, leaving
dissolved minerals behind. These are common in arid lands, where seasonal
"lakes" occur in closed depressions. Thick deposits of salt and gypsum can
form due to repeated flooding and evaporation over long periods of time.
102
Organic: any accumulation of sedimentary debris caused by organic
processes. Many animals use calcium for shells, bones, and teeth. These bits
of calcium can pile up on the seafloor and accumulate into a thick enough
layers to form an "organic" sedimentary rock.
 Metamorphic Rocks
The metamorphic rocks get their name from "meta" (change) and "morph"
(form). Any rock can become a metamorphic rock whether it is igneous or
sedimentary.. All that is required is for the rock to be moved into an
environment in which the minerals which make up the rock become unstable
and out of equilibrium. In most cases, this involves to a rise in temperature
and pressure. Under high temperature and pressure metamorphic changes in
the minerals occur to give rise to a third form of rock the metamorphic
rocks. A well known example of metamorphic rock that exists in Pakistan and
is being used frequently as a building material is Marble.
Metamorphic rocks can be layered (foliated) or not layered (not-foliated)

depending upon the direction and type of pressure they are subjected to. The
process of layering within metamorphic rocks is called foliation (derived from
the Latin word folia, meaning "leaves"). Foliation occurs when a rock is being
compressed along one axis that is in one direction. This causes the platy
structure formation along axes perpendicular to the force. This result in a
banded, or foliated, rock, with bands or layers showing the colors of the
minerals that formed them. Slate is a foliated metamorphic rock originating
from shale. Rocks that were subjected to uniform pressure from all sides will
not be foliated. Marble is generally not foliated, which allows its use as a
material for sculpture and architecture.
The formation of marble takes place when lime stone or calcite (that are in
fact sedimentary rocks) are subjected to high temperature and pressure over
long periods are converted to a compressed form of rock that is marble.
Pakistan is known for onyx (a high quality form of decorative marble) which is
exported. Other marble deposits of different attractive colors, shades and
fabric exist in inexhaustible quantities in North West Frontier Province, the
Northern Areas, Azad Jummu Kashmir, Federally Administrated Tribal Area,
Balochistan and some parts of northern Punjab. White, whitish-gray black-
silky, Jet-black, pink, grayish-green, black-zebra, green-zebra, camel and
cream color verities are being mined and marketed locally.
A great variety of parent rock types occur in Pakistan, which exert

considerable influence on the properties of the soil. All the three rocks types
are found in Pakistan viz. the igneous rocks, the sedimentary rocks and the
metamorphic rocks. In the Himalayan regions, the common rock types are
103
metamorphic which are gneisses, slates, quartzite and marble. Granite,
diorite, gabbro, dolerite and peridotite are more common types of igneous
rocks, which occur in Dir, Swat, Chitral, Gilgit, Zhob, Chagai, Las Bela and
Nagarpark.
The Rock Cycle

With the description of the three types of rocks, it is now easier to visualize
the entire rock cycle. The whole rock cycle thus can be summarized as:
1. The cooling down of magma inside the earth (intrusive) or after
eruption as lava (extrusive) forms igneous rocks.
2. The igneous rocks under the forces like water, air gravity etc. are
broken, weathered or torn into pieces which are transported and
deposited layers after layer thus forming sedimentary rocks.
3. The igneous or sedimentary rocks when subjected to high
temperature and pressure form metamorphic rocks.
4. The metamorphic rocks under increased temperature and pressure
may again liquefy to form pliable magma
Weathering
Extrusive erosion
Igneous transportation
deposition
Rocks
Magma Uplift Burial and
Lithification
Intrusive
Igneous Rocks Sedimentary
Rocks
Metamorphic
Rocks
Melting
Figure 4.6 The Rock Cycle. Formation of igneous, sedimentary and

metamorphic rocks and melting of rocks under high temperature
and pressure back to magma thus completing the cycle
Source: http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/DisplayImage.cfm?ID=169

1. How are metamorphic rocks formed? Give an example.
2. What are the characteristic features of a mineral that differentiate it
from other minerals?
3. What are the environmental impacts of mineral extraction?
4. Differentiate between intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks.
104
Section 4.4 Soils and its Physical Properties55
People are dependent on soils, and conversely good soils are dependent on
people and the use they make of the land. Soils are the natural bodies in
which plants grow. They provide the starting point for successful agriculture.
Soils also have other meanings for humankind. They underlie the foundations
of houses and factories and determine whether these foundations are
adequate. They are also the beds for roads and highways. Soils are used to
absorb wastes from sewage systems, wastes from other municipal, industrial,
and animal sources. Unfortunately, misused and unprotected soils can be
washed into streams and rivers; later they can be deposited in municipal
reservoirs, impairing water quality and shortening the period of usefulness of
the reservoir. Obviously, soils are as important to city dwellers as to those on
the farm.
Most great civilizations have depended on good soils. The ancient dynasties
of the Nile were made possible by the food-producing capacity of the fertile
soils of the river valley and its irrigation systems. Just as good soils helped to
build flourishing civilizations, soil destruction or mismanagement was a
contributing factor in their downfall. The cutting of timber in the river
watersheds resulted in erosion and topsoil loss. Lack of proper maintenance
resulted in the accumulation of harmful salts, and the once productive soils
became barren and useless. The proud cities of the river valleys fell into ruin,
and their inhabitants migrated elsewhere.
Even today, many do not fully recognize the long-term significance of soils.
They are ignorant of what soils are, what they have meant to past
generations, and what they mean today and to future generations. One
reason for the lack of concern for soils is the different concepts as to what
soils are. For example, to a mining engineer, soil is the debris covering the
rocks or minerals that must be quarried. It is a nuisance and must be
removed. To a highway engineer, soil may be the material on which a
roadbed is to be placed. If its properties are unsuitable, it will need to be
removed and replaced with rock and gravel. To the average homeowner a
good soil is rich, dark, and crumbly as opposed to “hard clay,” which resists
being spaded into a seedbed for a flower or vegetable garden. The
homemaker can relate to the soil’s stickiness or tendency to cling to the shoe
soles and eventually to carpets. Dirt is soil out of place. The farmer, along
with the homeowner, looks upon the soil as a habitat for plants. However, the
farmer earns a living from the soil and is therefore forced to pay more
55 th
Brady N. C. (1990) The Nature and Properties of Soil – 10 edition. Maxwell
McMillian International Editions. Pp 91-100
105
attention to its characteristics. To the farmer, soil is more than useful — it is
indispensable.
A prime reason for studying soils is to obtain a general concept as to what

they are and how they can and should be used. Such a concept is essential
to understanding how soils can serve the engineer, the farmer, and the home
owner. It is also a requisite for determining how best to conserve soils for
future generations.
The physical properties of soils are extremely important in determining how

soils can and should be used. They range from properties that determine a
soil’s suitability for a foundation for a building or a roadbed to its suitability for
the production of different crop plants.
Box 4.7 Mineral Soil
A mineral soil is a physical mixture of inorganic particles,

decaying organic matter, air, and water.
Before studying the details of the physical properties of the soil, a brief
account of how soils are formed is give. The formation of soil or Soil Genesis
is an important phenomenon that involves three main processes that is:
1. Weathering or break down of parent material

2. Transportation of weathered material and
3. Deposition in form of layers giving rise to a characteristic soil profile.
Soil Formation
The surface of the rocks when exposed to wind, water or other physical
forces experience weathering. The weathered material overlying the rocks is
known as regolith. It may be few centimeter shallow to several meters thick.
The regolith may have weathered from the underlying rock or may have been
transported from some where else along with wind or flowing water.
The upper 1-2 m of regolith differ form the material below. It is higher in
organic matter because plants roots concentrate there. Within this layer are
found numerous soil organisms including insects and earthworms. These soil
organisms decompose the dead organic matter further modifying the upper
layers. If we cut a vertical section of regolith we can clearly see a darker but
fertile layer on the top while a lighter colored layer devoid of organic matter
below. These layers are called horizons and the biochemically weathered
and productive regolith having distinct layers or horizons is called the soil
106
We can therefore summarize the entire concept as that the soil is the loose
(unconsolidated) material lying over the bedrock, going through continuous
changes by biochemical activities and differentiated into distinct layers or
horizon thus forming a soil profile. The individual layers of soil profile are
knows as horizons. Each Soil profile no matter in which part of the earth they
exists, consists of a upper darker horizon rich in organic matter and the lower
lighter horizon with comparatively less organic matter. Both the horizons
together are known as solum – a Latin work which means SOIL.
Factor Influencing Soil Formation
Studies of soils throughout the world have shown that the kinds of soil that
develop are largely determined by five major factors:
1. Climate (particularly precipitation and temperature)
2. Living Organisms
3. Nature of Parent Material
4. Topography
5. Time of Parent Material Exposure
Climate is perhaps the most influential of the factors because it determines
the nature of the weathering that occurs. Temperature and precipitation
affects the rates of chemical, physical and biological processes responsible
for soil development. For every 10°C rise in temperature the rates of
biochemical reaction doubles. The type of vegetation and the activity of the
soil organisms are directly influenced by the climate. Thus climate has its
influence on the second soil forming factor – the living organisms.
Living organisms play a major role in profile differentiation. Organic matter

accumulation, nutrient cycling and structural stability are all enhanced by the
activities of the organisms in the soil. Vegetation cover reduces natural soil
erosion rates thereby slowing down the rate of mineral surface removal. The
effect of vegetation on soil formation can be seen by comparing properties of
soil under grassland and forest vegetation. The organic matter content of the
grass land is generally higher than that of soils in forested areas. The high
organic content gives a darker color to the soil and increase the water holding
capacity of the soil.
Human activities can also influence the soil formation. Destroying the natural
vegetation (tree, grass) and tilling (preparing the soil for crop
production)abruptly modify the soil forming characters. Similraly, irrigation and
addition of fertilizers also drastically influences the soil formation.
The nature of Parent Material profoundly influences the soil characteristics.

For example soil texture (will be discussed in detail below) is largely
107
influenced by parent material. Soil texture helps control the downward
movement of water. You must have observed that water readily moves
downward in a sandy soil however, the movement is slower in a clayey soil.
Similarly if the parent material consists of higher lime stone content the
derived soil will be higher in lime stone content and will delay the
development of acidity. The vegetation that demand an acidic soil
environment will find it difficult to flourish in the environment rich in limestone.
Topography relates to the

configuration of land surface and is
described in terms of elevation,
slope, aspect etc. Topography
hasten or slows down soil formation.
In smooth flat areas water is
removed on a slower rate than in
hilly areas. In hilly areas the running
off water may remove the surface
soil thus preventing the formation of
a deeper soil profile. Fig 4.7 Topography affects soil properties.
At sharp slopes depth is controlled
The length of the time for which the materials have been subjected to
weathering influences soil formation. The soils that have a relatively short
exposure to weathering are not well developed.
The Soil Profile
The layering or horizon development described above give rise to natural

bodies called soils. Each soil is characterized by a given sequence of these
horizons. A vericle exposure of these horizon is called a soil profile. For
convenience in study and description, 5 master soil horizons are recognized.
They are designated using the capital letters O, A, E, B and C. A common
sequence of horizons within a profile is given in figure 4.7
O Horizon
The O group is comprised of organic layer that form above the mineral soil.
They result from litter derived from dead plants and animals. O horizon
usually occurs in forest area and is generally absent in grass lands.
A Horizon
The A horizon is the top most mineral horizon and contain a strong mixture of
partially decomposed (humified organic matter) which tends to impart a
darker color than that of the lower horizons.
108
E Horizons
Semi
The E horizons are those of O decomposed
organic layer
maximum leaching where
A Mineral mixed
accumulates iron and aluminum humus dark
Solum
oxides. The E horizon is generally colored layer
lighter in color than the A Horizon
and is found the A horizon. E Maximum
leaching of
Fe, Al oxides
B Horizon
Maximum
The subsurface B horizon includes
B accumulation
layers in which accumulation of from & below
materials takes place from above
and even from below. In humid Least
C weathering,
environments, B horizon is the areas Ca and Mg
for maximum accumulation such as carbonates
oxides of iron and aluminum and Bedrock
silicates. In drier regions, calcium
carbonate, calcium sulfate and other
salts may accumulate in the B Figure 4.8 Hypothetical mineral soil
horizon profile showing the major horizons that
may be present in a well drained soil.
C Horizon
The C horizon is the unconsolidated material underlying the solum (soil). It

may or may not be the same as the parent material from which the solum
formed. The C horizon is outside the zones of major biological activities and
us generally little affected by the processes that formed the horizons above it.
The upper layer of C horizon becomes a part of the solum as weathering and
erosion continues.
R Horizon
Underlying consolidated rock, with little evidence of weathering
Among the important physical properties of soils to be considered in this

section are soil texture and soil structure.
 Soil texture involves the size of individual mineral particles and

specifically refers to the relative proportions of various-sized particles
in a given soil.
 Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into groups or

aggregates.
109
Together, these properties help determine not only the nutrient-supplying
ability of soil solids but also the supply of water and air necessary for plant
root activity.
 Soil Texture (Size Distribution of Soil Particles)
The size of particles in mineral soil is not readily subject to change. Thus, a
sandy soil remains sandy, and a clay soil remains clayey. Since the
proportion of each size group in a given soil (the texture) cannot be easily
altered, it is considered a basic property of a soil. To study the mineral
particles of a soil, scientists separate them into groups according to size. The
groups are referred to as separates. The analytical procedure by which the
particles are separated is called particle-size analysis, the determination of
the particle-size distribution.
Particle-Size Analysis
A particle-size analysis is done by using sieves to mechanically separate out

the very fine sand and larger separates. Then the weight of each separate is
measured. The silt and clay contents are then determined by measuring the
rate of settling of these two separates from suspension in water.
The principle involved is simple. When soil particles are suspended in water,
they tend to sink. Because there is little variation in the density of most soil
particles, their velocity (v) of settling is proportional to the square of the radius
(r) of each particle. Thus, v = kr2, where k is a constant. This equation is
referred to as Stokes’s law.
With knowledge of the velocity of settling, Stokes’s law can be used to

calculate the radius of the particles as they settle and the percentage of each
size fraction in the sample. These percentages are used to identify the soil
textural class, such as sand, silt, or loam. A particle-size analysis gives a
general picture of the physical properties of a soil. The analysis also is the
basis for assigning each soil a textural class.
Physical Nature of Soil Separates
1. Coarse Fragments
Fragments that range from 2 to 75 millimeters (mm) (up to 3 in.) along their
greatest diameter are termed gravel or pebbles; those ranging from 75 to mm
(3 to 10 in.) are called cobbles (if round) or flags (if flat); and those more than
250 mm across are called stones or boulders.
110
2. Sand and Gravel
Sand grains or gravel may be rounded or irregular depending on the amount

abrasion they have undergone. Unless coated with clay and such particles
are not sticky even when wet. They cannot be molded as clay and therefore
are not plastic. The water-holding capacity of sand grains is low, and because
of the large spaces between the separate particles, water and air pass
through rapidly. Hence, soils dominated by sand or gravel possess good
drainage and aeration but may be drought prone.
3. Silt
Silt particles are intermediate in size and properties between sand and clay
particles. They are irregularly fragmental, diverse in shape, and seldom
smooth or flat. Silt is essentially microsand particles, with quartz generally the
dominant mineral. The silt separate, because it usually has an adhering film
of clay, possesses some plasticity, cohesion (stickiness), and adsorptive
capacity, but much less than the clay separate. Silt may cause the soil
surface be compact and crusty unless it is supplemented by adequate
amounts of sand, clay, and organic matter.
4. Clay
The surface area per unit mass of clay is very high because of the small size
of the individual particles. Fine colloidal clay has about 10,000 times as much
surface area as the same weight of medium-sized sand. Since the adsorption
of water, nutrients, and gas and the attraction of particles for each other are
all surface phenomena; the very high specific surface of clay is significant in
determining soil properties. Clay particles vary in shape from plate-like to
round. When clay is wet, it tends to be sticky and plastic or easily molded.
The presence of clay in a soil gives it a fine texture and slows water and air
movement. While clayey soil becomes sticky when wet, it can also be hard
and cloddy when dry unless properly handled. Clay expands and contracts
greatly on wetting and drying, and the water-holding capacity of soils high in
clay generally is high.
Soil Textural Classes
These four different sized particles together compose the soil. However, the
composition varies with varying proportion of each component. For example,
a soil with higher sand content is a sandy soil and a soil with higher clayey
content is a clayey soil. This difference in the proportion changes the
properties of the soil entirely. This variation gives rise to Textural Classes.
Box 4.9 describes the four broad categories of soil textural classes.
111
Box 4.8 Soil textural classes
Sands
The sand group includes all soils in which the sand separate make up at
least 70% and the clay separate 15% or less. The properties of this soil
are therefore characteristically those of sand
Silts
The silt group includes soils with at least 80% silt and 12% clay particles.
Naturally the properties of this soil are dominated by those of silt.
Clays
A soil must contain at least 35% of clay to be designated as a clayey soil.
The proportion of sand or silt may exceed the proportion of clay itself; still
the properties of clay are so dominant that they overwhelm those of sand
or silt.
Loam
The loam group is the most complicated soil textural class. Loam may be
defined as a mixture of sand, silt and clay particles that exhibit the
properties of all particles equally. Most soils of agriculture importance are
a type of loam.
However, the classification is not that simple always. Often the varying
quantities of sand, silt and clay in a soil requires a modified textural class
name. For example a loam in which sand is dominant is classified as sandy
loam. Similarly, there may occur silt loam, silt clay, sandy loam, loamy sand,
etc. The textural class of soil is not subject to easy modification in the field.
Texture of a given soil can be changed only by mixing it with another soil of a
different textural class.
 Soil Structure
The term structure relates to grouping or arrangement of soil particles. It

describes the gross; overall arrangement of the primary soil separates into
secondary groupings called aggregates or peds.
Soil conditions and characteristics such as water movements, heat transfer,

aeration, and porosity are much influenced by structure. The important
physical changes imposed by the farmer in plowing, cultivating, draining,
liming and manuring his land are structural rather than textural.

1. Differentiate between the two: soil texture and soil structure.
2. Why is soil structure important to a farmer?
3. Why is clay more adsorptive as compared to the sand and silt
particles?
112
Section 4.5 Soil Erosion and its Impact on Environment56
Box 4.9 Soil Erosion
Detachment or movement of soil or rock by water, wind, ice or

gravity is known as soil erosion. Soil erosion removes the upper
fertile layers of soil thus damaging the quality and richness of soil
No soil phenomenon is more destructive worldwide than soil erosion. It

involves loosing not only water and plant nutrients but ultimately the soil itself.
Furthermore the soil that is removed finds its way into streams rivers and
lakes and pollutes those resources and bodies. Erosion is a serious problem
in all climates because wind as well as water can remove soil. Water will be
considered first.
The water that falls on earth in from of precipitation has generally two fates. It
either penetrates into the soil or flow over the soil surface (a phenomenon
known as ‘run off’ in technical terms). How much water penetrates the earth
surface and what proportion is wasted as runoff water depends on a number
of factors. The primary factors include type of precipitation, soil texture,
topography and most importantly vegetation cover.
A primary principle of soil water management is to encourage water

movement into rather off the soil. If the water is allowed to penetrate, the soil
can serve as a ‘reservoir’ for future plant uptake. Surface runoff reduces or
prevents penetration. Water that could be retained in the plant root zone for
subsequent absorption is lost.
Runoff levels vary greatly from region to region and from soil to soil. In some
humid regions, losses as high as 50-60% of the annual precipitation have
occurred. While annual runoff losses are much lower in arid and semi arid
regions however, during heavy rain storms mush higher losses may occur in
the arid regions. In any case, runoff losses seriously deter sustainable
agriculture and attempts to prevent them must receive high priorities.
Accelerated Erosion
Water erosion is one of the most common geological processes. It results into
leveling of mountains, and the development of plains, plateaus, valleys and
56 th
Brady N. C. (1990) The Nature and Properties of Soil – 10 edition. Maxwell
McMillian International Editions. Pp 91-100
113
deltas. We have read earlier the formation of sedimentary rocks, the vast
deposits that now appear as sedimentary rocks have originated in this way.
Erosion as a natural phenomenon occur at a rate of about 0.1-0.2 ton / acre.
Erosion that exceeds this normal rate becomes destructive and is referred to
as Accelerated Erosion.
Erosion takes place in two steps:

1. Loosening or detachment of soil particle
2. Transportation of soil with running water
On soil surfaces the beating by

raindrops cause most of the loosening
whereas running water facilitates the
carrying away of loosened soil.
Types of Water Erosion
Three types of water erosion are

Fig 4.9(a) Sheet Erosion
generally recognized: sheet, rill and
gully. In sheet erosion, soil is removed
more or less uniformly from every part
of the slope. However sheet erosion is
often accompanied by tiny channels
(rills) irregularly dispersed, this is rill
erosion. Rills can be eliminated by
tillage, but the damage is already
done – the soil is lost.
When the volume of water is Fig 4.9(b) Rill Erosion

increased, the formation of larger
channels or gullies occurs by
downward cutting. This is called gully
erosion. The gullies cannot be
removed by ordinary tillage practices.
While all types may be serious, the
losses through sheet and rill erosion,
although less noticeable, are
responsible for most of the field soil
deterioration. Fig 4.9(c) Gully Erosion
114
Wind Erosion57,58
Wind erosion is a serious problem in many parts of the world. It is worse in

arid and semiarid regions. Wind erosion is a natural process, but can also be
induced or magnified via indiscriminate land use, deforestation, construction,
overgrazing and urbanization.
Rate of wind erosion depends on precipitation, temperature, wind speed and

soil and rock type. These geologic factors affect the well-being of natural
vegetation, living organisms as well as human life. Ecosystems with high-
intensity winds are likely to be subjected to more erosion. Sediment and silt
content on slopes are lost in the presence of strong winds. This resultant
removal from one area and deposit to another affects the porosity and
permeability of the surface. Decreases permeability leads to reduced
infiltration. By this we mean that less water penetrates into the soil while more
is carried away as runoff thus accelerating water erosion
Ground cover, both the litter and organic layers, is held firm by embedded
roots and compacted rocks that stay firm due to precipitation and pressure.
However, when the trees are removed for construction of roads and buildings
the rate of wind erosion increases enormously.
Erosion in Pakistan
About 13.05 million hectares of area is affected by water erosion and about
6.17 million hectares is affected by water erosion. Soil erosion is taking place
at an alarming rate and is mainly due to deforestation in the north. Water
erosion is prominent on steep slopes such as the Pothwar track and
surrounding areas, an area extensively used for cultivation. The highest
recorded rate of erosion is estimated to be 150-165 tonnes/hectare/year. The
Indus River carried the fifth largest load of sediment (4.49t/h) in the world in
1990. According to some estimates the Indus is adding 500,000 tonnes of
sediment to the Tarbela Reservoir every day, reducing the life of the dam by
22% and the capacity of reservoir by 16%.
Wind erosion has a relatively lower impact than water erosion. However, the
combination of the two is more devastating. This reduces the productivity of
the land by 1.5-7.5% per year. This affects almost one-fifth of the Punjab.
57
Gaynor Borade (2009) Facts about Wind Erosion. Available online from: http://www
.buzzle.com/articles/facts-about-wind-erosion.html
58
Shah, Z. H. and Arshad, M. (2006) Land Degradation in Pakistan: A Serious Threat
to Environments and Economic Sustainability Available online from: http://www.eco-
web.com/edi/index.htm
115
Table 4.3 Area affected by water erosion (000 ha)
Degree of erosion Punjab Sind NWFP Baluchistan NA Pakistan
Slight (sheet & rill 61.2 - 156.3 - 110.5 328.0
erosion)
Moderate (sheet & 896.8 - 853.8 1858.6 25.8 3635.0
rill erosion)
Severe (rill, gully 588.1 58.9 1765.1 2724.4 504.2 5640.7
and/or stream bank
erosion)
Very severe (gully, 357.9 - 1517.0 - 1571.6 3446.5
and pipe erosion)
Total 1904.0 58.9 4292.2 4583.0 2212.1 13050.2
Table 4.4 Area affected by wind erosion (000 ha)
Degree of erosion Punjab Sind NWFP Baluchistan Pakistan
Slight 2251.4 295.0 13.1 36.0 2595.5
Moderate 279.1 70.2 3.8 143.6 469.7
Severe to very severe 1274.0 1686.8 19.6 100.9 3081.3
Total: 3804.5 2052.0 36.5 280.5 6173.5
Figure 4.10 Astola Island – the largest Island in

Pakistan; the coastline is subjected to severe erosion.
(Picture Courtesy: http://www.defence.pk
1. Define soil erosion?
2. What are the three major types of water erosion?
3. How can erosion be controlled?
116
Section 4.1
1. The solid component of the earth is called Lithosphere.

2. Broadly earth can be divided into three zones, crust mantle and core.
3. The Core or interior of earth is composed of a dense, intensely hot
mass of metal, mostly iron spread over thousands of kilometers in
diameter.
4. Divergent boundaries occur at oceanic ridges where plates are
moving away from one another and new lithosphere is produced.
Convergent boundaries occur when one plate moves beneath the
leading edge of another plate. Here crust is destroyed and recycled
back into the interior of the Earth as one plate dives under another.
Section 4.2
1. Mountains are places that are much higher than the land around
them. They also taper and have a peak. Plains and plateaus are
different from mountains in that they are made up of rock formations
that are in the same horizontal position - they are flat!
2. Many islands are really places where volcanoes built up under the
ocean to the point of peaking above the water. The lava continues to
pile up as the volcano explodes to the point that there is enough solid
ground to form an island. Some islands such as Great Britain were
attached to a continent but were separated by erosion of the land
between the two land masses. Other islands are coral islands. These
are formed when the skeletal material of corals piles up over years
and years.
3. Volcanoes erupt differently. Some erupt quietly and the lava flows
down the side of the volcano and some are more violent.
4. Mountains have an important role in affecting the climate of an area.
The side of the mountain that faces the wind is the windward side and
is apt to have heavier rainfall as the wind drops the moisture before
going over the mountain. The other side called the leeward side is
much drier as the rain has already been deposited on the windward
side of the mountain. Mountains also protect valleys from extremes in
weather.
117
Section 4.3
1. The igneous or sedimentary rocks when subjected to high

temperature and pressure modify to form metamorphic rocks. Marble
is a known example
2. Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic crystalline substances with
specific physical and chemical properties.
3. See Box 4.6
4. The rocks that are formed from cooling down of lave inside the earth
crust are intrusive whereas, the rocks formed from cooling of magma
after it is erupted in form of lava are called extrusive igneous rocks.
Section 4.4
1. Soil texture involves the size of individual mineral particles and

specifically refers to the relative proportions of various-sized particles
in a given soil. Soil structure is the arrangement of soil particles into
groups or aggregates
2. Soil conditions and characteristics such as water movements, heat
transfer, aeration, and porosity are much influenced by structure. The
important physical changes imposed by the farmer in plowing,
cultivating, draining, liming and manuring his land are structural rather
than textural.
3. The surface area per unit mass of clay is very high because of the
small size of the individual particles. Since the adsorption of water,
nutrients, and gas and the attraction of particles for each other are all
surface phenomena; the very high specific surface of clay is significant
in determining soil properties.
Section 4.5
1. See Box 4.9

2. The three major types of erosion are: sheet erosion, rill erosion and
gully erosion. For reference see figure 4.9 (a, b, and c).
3. Erosion can be controlled by increasing ground cover. Planting trees
and other plants create compaction and the soil is held firmly with
roots embedded into the soil.
118
UNIT No. 5
59,60
Hydrosphere
Major Topics
5.1 Water: a unique solvent and a vital resource

5.2 Composition of Hydrosphere
5.3 Water Cycle
5.4 Human Impacts on Hydrological Cycle
5.5 Human Use of Water
Water: a unique solvent and a vital resource
Water is absolutely fundamental to life as we know it. It is difficult even to

imagine a form of life that might exist without water. Happily, Earth is virtually
flooded with water. A total volume of some 325 million cubic miles (1.4 billion
cubic kilometers) covers 71% of Earth’s surface. About 97.5% of this volume
is the salt water of the oceans and seas. The remaining 2.5% is fresh water
with a salt content of less than 0.1%. This is the water upon which most
terrestrial biota, ecosystems, and humans depend. Of this 2.5%, more than
two-thirds (87%) is bound up in the polar ice caps and glaciers. Thus, only
0.77% of total earth water is found in lakes, wetlands, rivers, groundwater,
biota, soil, and the atmosphere (Fig. 5.1). However, evaporation from the
oceans combines with rainfall to re-supply that small percentage continually
through the solar-powered hydrologic cycle, described in detail in Section 5.3.
Thus, fresh water is a continually renewable resource.
Soil Moisture
Oceans and Ice and Snow (2%)
Saline Lakes (87%) Ground
(97.5%) Water
(95%)
Fresh Water Liquid Water Lakes &
(2.5%) (13%) Rivers (3%)
Fig 5.1 The easily accessible water in lakes, rivers and streams represents only 3% of all
liquid fresh water, which is 13 percent of all fresh water, which is 2.4 percent of all water.
Streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, swamps, estuaries, groundwater, bays,

oceans, and the atmosphere all contain water. They provide drinking water,
59 th
Cunningham, Cunningham and Saigo (2005) Environmental Science a Global Concern. 8
edition pp 421-434
60 th
Botkin and Keller (2007) Environmental Science – Earth as a Living Planet 5
edition
119
water for industries, and water to irrigate crops. Bodies of water furnish
energy through hydroelectric power and control flooding by absorbing excess
water. They provide transportation, recreation, waste processing, and habitats
for aquatic plants and animals. Fresh water is a vital resource for all land
ecosystems, modulating the climate through evaporation and essential global
warming (when the fresh water is in the atmosphere as water vapor).
During the last two centuries, many of these uses (and some threats ‘to
them), have led us to construct a huge infrastructure designed to bring water
under control. We have built dams, canals, reservoirs, sewer systems,
treatment plants, water towers, irrigation systems, and desalination plants. As
a result, waterborne diseases have been brought under control, vast cities
thrive in deserts, irrigation makes it possible to grow 40% of the world’s food,
and one-fifth of all electricity is generated through hydropower. These great
benefits are especially available to people in the developed countries.
In the developing world, by contrast, over 1 billion people still lack access to
clean drinking water, 2.5 billion do not have access to adequate sanitation
services, and over 3 million deaths each year are traced to waterborne
diseases (mostly in children under 5). In addition, because of the
infrastructure that is used to control water whole seas are being lost, rivers
are running dry, tens of million people have been displaced to make room for
reservoirs, groundwater resources are being depleted, and disputes over
water have raised tensions from local to international levels. Fresh water is a
limiting resource in many parts of the world and is certain to become even
more so as the 21st century unfolds.
There are two ways to consider water issues. The focus in this unit is on
quantity that is: the composition of hydrosphere: oceans, glaciers, rivers and
streams, lakes etc.: the global water cycle and how it works and the human
impact on water resources and the water cycle. Unit 6 of your other course
‘Environmental Pollution’ however, focuses on water quality, that is, on water
pollution and its consequences, sources and water pollution control.

1. About 97.5% total earth’s water is the salt water of the ________ and
_______.
2. The total available fresh water is about ________ of the total world
water resources
3. Fresh water is a continually renewable resource
4. In the _________ world over 1 billion people lack access to clean
drinking water
120
Section 5.2 Composition of Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is composed of all of the water on or near the earth. This
includes the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even the moisture in the air. The
distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in
which water resides for short or long times. Table 5.1 shows the major water
compartments in the world.
Table 5.1 Earth’s Water Compartments

Estimated Volume in Percent of Total and Average Residence Time
Sr. No. Compartment % Total Average Residence Time

Water
1. Ocean 97.6 3,000 to 30,000 Years
2. Ice & Snow 2.07 1 to 16,000 years
3. Ground Water down to 1 km 0.28 Days to Thousands of Years
4. Lakes & Reservoirs 0.009 1 to 100 Years
5. Rivers & Streams 0.0001 10 to 30 Days
In addition to the water resources enlisted above, other significant

compartments includes: biological moisture in plants and animals, which
together compose approximately 0.005% of the total earth’s water and has a
residence time of about 1 week. Other significant segments include the water
bound as soil moisture and as water vapors in the atmosphere with their
respective percentages 0.005% and 0.001%.
In the present section we will discuss the major water compartments that
together compose the hydrosphere. The description is as follow:
1. Oceans
Together the oceans contain more than 97 percent of all the liquid water in
the world. Oceans are too salty for most human uses, but they contain 90% of
the world’s living biomass. Water exchange among the oceans is limited due
to ocean basin reservoirs; therefore, they have different compositions,
climatic effects and even different surface elevations.
Oceans play an important role in moderating the earth’s temperature. Huge

currents transport warm water from the equator to higher latitudes and cold
water flows from the poles to the tropics
121
Box 5. 1 Interesting Facts:
In tropical areas, with a hot climate and frequent rain, the surface water
are warmed by the sun and diluted by rainwater hence becoming lighter in
density.
At higher latitudes on the other hand, surface waters are cold and much
denser. This dense water is heavier so sinks down to the bottom into
deeper layers of the ocean and starts flowing towards the equator.
Warm surface water of the tropics floats on the top of this cold dense
water. Sharp boundaries form between different water densities, different
salinities, and different temperatures hence do not allow the mixing
between these layers.
The average residence time of water in the ocean (the length of time that an
individual molecule spends circulating in the ocean before it evaporates and
becomes a part of the hydrological cycle again) is about 3000 years. In the
deepest ocean trenches, movement is almost non-existent and water may
remain undisturbed for tens of thousands of years.
Pakistan is located at the mouth of Indian Ocean. Thus it is the gate way for
central Asian states to reach the Indian Ocean. Worlds 75% trade pass
through Arabian Sea and Pakistan enjoys the privilege of being a central point
in that trade route having 700 km of coastal line and deep sea port of
Gawader. Gawadar is strategically located between three increasingly
important regions of the world: the oil-rich Middle East, heavily populated
South Asia and the economically emerging and resource-rich Central Asia. It
is therefore considered as ‘Special Economic Zone’ in Pakistan being a
regional hub of trade and investment activities.
1. Glaciers, Ice and Snow
About 2.4 percent of all water that is fresh, nearly 90% is tied up in glaciers,
ice caps and snowfields. Glaciers are really rivers of ice flowing downhill very
slowly. They now occur only at higher attitudes and high latitudes. Some
18,000 years ago about one third of the continental landmass was covered
with glacial ice sheets. Most of the ice has now melted and the largest
ruminant is in Antarctica. As much as 2 km thick, the Antarctica glaciers
covers some of highest mountain peaks and contain nearly 85% of all ice in
the world.
122
There are two main types of glaciers: alpine glaciers, which are found in
mountain terrains, and continental glaciers, which can cover larger areas as
enormous masses of ice that not visibly affected by the landscape and
covering the entire surface beneath them. Antarctica and Greenland are the
only places where continental ice sheets currently exist. These regions
contain vast quantities of fresh water. The volume of ice is so large that if the
Greenland ice sheet melted, it would cause sea levels to rise some six meters
(20 feet) all around the world. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, sea levels
would rise up to 65 meters (210 feet).
The glaciers are the primary fresh water resource on the earth. They feed the
streams and the rivers with adequate amounts of water that is used up mainly
for irrigation purposes. In Pakistan, agriculture and power generation are fully
dependent on the fresh water supply fed by the discharges of the Karakorum
glaciers. Table 5.2 enlists some important glaciers found in Pakistan.
61
Table 5.2 List of important glaciers found in Pakistan
Glacier Region Length in Km Area in km2
Siachen Karakoram (Baltistan) 75 1,180.00
Biafo Karakoram (Shigar) 68 625.00
Baltoro Karakoram (K-2) 62 755.00
Batura Karakoram (Hunza) 58 290.00
Hisper Karakoram (Nagar) 53 620.00
Trich Hinkush (Chitral) 29 500.00
Glaciers are highly sensitive to minor changes in the atmospheric

temperatures. They are therefore considered good indicator to help us to
quantify changes in the earth’s climate. Increased anthropogenic activities
and consequently increased carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere has lead
us to phenomenon we call global warming, which results in retreating or
meeting of glaciers. Continued climate change is predicted to lead to major
changes in fresh water flows with dramatic impacts on biodiversity, people
and their livelihood. However, the problems associated with glacier retreat in
the face of climate change are not straight forward. On the one hand current
increased meting induces a gradual increase in discharge followed by
increased land sliding and floods. In the longer terms, however, as glacier
mass decrease there will be a decrease in the runoff with massive
implications. Perennial rivers could be changed into seasonal streams giving
rise to fresh water scarcity in the summer months when melt water
contributes the most.
61
http://www.pearltours.com.pk/facts.htm
123
To avoid a major conflict over water, there is a need for proper management
of water resources. In addition, appropriate measure should be taken to slow
down deglaciation process by controlling excessive carbon dioxide emissions.
2. Groundwater (down to 1km)
After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of fresh water is held in the ground as
ground water. Ground water is the part of precipitation that seeps down
through the soil until it reaches rock material that is saturated with water.
Water in the ground is stored in the spaces between rock particles. Ground
water slowly moves underground, generally at a downward angle (because of
gravity), and may eventually seep into streams, lakes, and oceans.
The seepage of rain water into the soil is known as percolation. The inward
movement through permeable rocks is a process called infiltration. The
upper layers of soil hold both air and water and make up the zone of
aeration. Moisture for plant growth comes mainly from these layers. The
depth of the zone of aeration, however, varies depending on the amount of
rainfall received, soil type and surface topography. The deeper soil layers
where all spaces are filled with water and almost no air make up the zone of
saturation. The top of this zone is the water table.
Water table is not flat, but undulates according to the surface topography. Nor
it is stationary through the season, rising and falling according to precipitation
and infiltration rates. The water table may occur close to the land surface, as
in a marsh, or it may lie at many hundred of feet below the surface.
Underneath the water table lie a porous layer of sand, gravel, etc. known as
aquifers. Under the aquifer lie a relatively impermeable layer of rock and clay
that keep water from seeping out at the bottom. The infiltrated water
penetrates to refill the aquifers at specific areas known as recharge zone.
The rate at which most aquifers are filled is very slow, and the ground water
presently is being removed faster then it can be replenished in many areas.
Urbanization, road building often blocks recharge zones and prevent
replenishment of important aquifers. Further more, seepage of pollutants into
recharge zone have polluted aquifers in many areas. Well managed cities
takes particular measures to protect aquifer recharge zones from pollution or
development as a way to replenish the aquifer with pure water.
124
3. Lakes, Ponds and Reservoirs
A lake is an inland depression that holds standing fresh water round the year.
Maximum lake depths range from a few meters to over 1600m (Lake Baikal in
Siberia). Surface area may vary in size from less than one half hectare (one
acre) to larger areas such as Caspian Sea, covering hundreds of thousands
of square kilometers. Ponds are generally considered to be small temporary
bodies of water shallow enough for rooted plants to grow over most of the
bottom. Both lakes and ponds are relatively temporary features on the land
because they are eventually filled with silt or are emptied by cutting out an
outlet to consume water.
While lakes contain about 100 times as much water as all rivers and streams
combined, they are still a minor component of total world water supply. Their
water is much more accessible than groundwater or glaciers and they are
important in many ways for human and other organisms.
Reservoirs are lakes created artificially to meet specific needs such as
provision of water for domestic use, irrigation, industrial use, hydroelectricity
production, flood control and for recreation.
Pakistan is home to several natural and man made lakes and reservoirs. The
largest lake in Pakistan is the Manchar Lake, which is also the largest lake in
South Asia. A brief overview of some important lakes in Pakistan has been
given in Table 5.3. Most of these serve as fresh water reservoirs for different
localities of Pakistan.
Table 5.3 Some important lakes in Pakistan62,63
No. Name Location Notes
1. Ansoo Lake Kaghan A high-altitude lake (elevation 16,490
Valley feet)
2. Hadero Lake Thatta District Hadero is a brackish water lake in
Sindh. The lake was declared wildlife
sanctuary in 1977.
3. Haleji Lake Thatta, Sindh The lake is located at about 70 km from
Karachi and is the largest water fowl
reserve in Asia.
4. Karambar Ishkoman Karambar Lake is the 31st highest lakes
Lake Valley in the world. The approximate length of
Northern the lake is 3.9 km, width 2km and,
Areas average depth is 52m.
62
Ecotourism Society of Pakistan Available online from http://www.ecotourism.org.
pk/lakes.pdf
63
Wikipedia (2009) List of Lakes in Pakistan Available online from http://en.wikipedia.
org/wiki/ List_of_ lakes_in_Pakistan
125
5. Keenjhar Thatta, Sindh The lake is also called Kalri Lake and is
Lake one of the largest freshwater lakes in
Pakistan.
6. Lower Skardu, The lake is also known as Shangrila
Kachura Northern Lake and is located at a drive of about
Lake Areas 20 minutes from Skardu town.
Shangrila was named after a book titled
"Lost Horizon" by James Hilton.
Shangri-la is a Chinese word meaning
"Heaven on earth".
7. Manchar Sindh Lake Manchar is the largest freshwater
Lake lake in Pakistan and one of the largest
in Asia. It is located west of the Indus
River in Sindh. The area of the lake
fluctuates with the seasons from as
little as 350 km² to 520 km².
8. Rawal Lake Islamabad Rawal Lake is a man-made lake in
Islamabad Capital Territory, Pakistan.
The lake is spread over an area of 8.8
sq. km and is one of the major source
of water for the residents of Islamabad
and Rawalpindi.
9. Rush Lake Nagar Valley, Rush Lake is a high altitude lake
Northern located near Rush Pari Peak. At over
Areas 4,694 meters, Rush is the highest lake
in Pakistan and one of the highest
alpine lakes in the world.
10. Saiful Muluk Kaghan The lake is located in the northern end
Valley, of Kaghan Valley. The lake has total
NWFP surface area of over 2.5 square
kilometer. The lake is famous for its
fairytale of Saiful Maluk
11. Satpara Skardu Located in Skardu Valley and is one of
Lake Valley, NA the largest fresh water lakes in
Pakistan & supplies water to Skardu.
12. Simli Lake Islamabad Located 30 km from Islamabad, is
formed from the melting snow and
natural springs of Murree Hills. Simli
Lake is the largest drinking water
source for the residents of Islamabad.
13. Sheosar Deosai Situated in the Deosai Plateau, one of
Lake Plains, the highest plateaus of the world.
Northern Sheosar means blind lake.
Areas
126
4. Rivers and streams
Precipitation has three possible fates after it has reached the surface of earth:
It is either evaporated back to the atmosphere or is infiltrated into the ground
or runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back toward the
sea. Small rivulets accumulate to form streams, and streams join to form
rivers. Although the total amount of water contained at any one time in rivers
and streams is small compared to the other water reservoirs of the world,
these surface waters are vitally important to humans and most other
organisms. Most rivers, if they were not constantly replenished by
precipitation, melt-water from snow & ice, or seepage from ground water,
would begin to diminish in a few weeks.
The speed at which a river flows is not a very good measure how much water
it carries. Headwater streams are usually small and fast, often tumbling
downhill in a continuous cascade. As the stream reaches more level terrain, it
slows and generally becomes deeper and more quiet. The best measure of
the volume carried by a river is its discharge, the amount of water that passes
a fixed point in a given amount of time. This is usually expressed as liters
cubic feet of water per second. The 16 largest rivers in the world carry nearly
half of all surface runoff on earth. The Amazon is by far the largest river in the
world.
The longest and the largest river in Pakistan is the Indus River, which is also
called the 'Lifeline of Pakistan', as Indus and its tributaries are probably the
largest water source in Pakistan. Around two-thirds of water supplied for
irrigation and in homes come from the Indus and its associated rivers. The
tributaries that fall directly in to the River Indus include, Astore River, Gomal
river, Gilgit, Kurram and Shigar River, Panjnad (formed by confluence of 5
rivers of Punjab: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej), Soan, Swaan etc.
Other rivers that don’t directly fall into River Indus include: Dasht River
(Gawadar), Haro (Abbotabad), Hub (Lasbela), Lyari & Malir rivers (Karachi)64
Pakistan’s economic and social wellbeing is built on this65 water system
despite the scant average annual rainfall of just 240 millimeters. Over the
years, Pakistan has harnessed the Indus River to bring 35.7 million acres
under irrigation to cultivate land in otherwise desert conditions. Today, the
country has the world’s largest irrigation system, one of great technical,
institutional and social complexity. This irrigated agriculture system accounts
for a 1/4 of the country’s GDP, 2/3 of employment and about 80% of exports.
64
Wikipedia (2009) Lakes in Pakistan Available online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_
rivers_of_ Pakistan
65
World Bank: Pakistan’s Water Economy (2009) Available online:
http://go.worldbank.org/WCKW2A5ZA0
127
1. How are oceans responsible to keep the temperature of the world
moderate?
2. How do glaciers contribute to the livelihood on earth?
3. What are the short term and impacts of retreating of glaciers?
4. Differentiate between percolation and infiltration.
5. What is an aquifer?
6. How do rivulets originate?
7. Lakes and rivers are relatively temporary feature on the land and may
disappear. Why?
Section 5.3 Hydrological Cycle
The hydrological cycle describes the circulation of water as it evaporates from

land, water (evaporation) and organisms specially plants (transpiration);
enters the atmosphere; and is precipitated back (rainfall) to the earth’s
surface; then moves underground by infiltration or over the surface by run
off into rivers, lakes and sea (overland flow) from where it is evaporated
once again. This cycle supplies fresh water to the land masses, maintain a
habitable climate and moderates world temperature. The following figure
clarifies the stages of the hydrological cycle.
Transpiration
Infiltration
Precipitation
Unsaturated Evaporation
Saturated
Water Table Percolation Stream
Ground Water
Figure 5.2 In the Hydrological Cycle water moves constantly between aquatic,
atmospheric and terrestrial compartments, driven by solar energy and gravity.
128
The precipitation water that moves in to the earth surface continues its
downward motion through a process called percolation. It finally reaches the
water table and recharges the ground water reserves.
Box 5.2 Infiltration and Percolation
Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface

enters the soil.
Percolation is the process by which water moves through porous

surfaces as in case from upper layers of soil to deeper layers.
Plants play an important role in the hydrological cycle. They absorb ground
water and pump it into the air through a process called evapo-transpiration
(evaporation + transpiration). In tropical rain forests, as much as 75% of
annual precipitation is returned to the atmosphere by plants. Solar energy is
the main driving force behind the hydrological cycle which evaporates surface
water.
. Box 5.3 Evaporation
Evaporation is the process in which a liquid is changed to vapor

(gas phase) at temperatures well below its boiling point
Molecules of water vapor enters the atmosphere, leaving behind salts and
other contaminants and thus creating purified freshwater. We used to think
rainwater as a symbol of purity. Unfortunately, increasing amounts of
atmospheric pollutants are picked up by water vapor as it condenses in to
rain.
Box5.4 Humidity
The amount of water vapor in the air is called humidity.
We have already defined absolute and relative humidity in the previous

section. Relative humidity is the amount of water vapor in the air expressed
as a percentage of the maximum amount that could be held at that particular
temperature. When water vapors in a volume of air reaches to the maximum
limit. We say that it has reached to the saturation point. At the saturation
point, water molecules begin to form aggregates and the process is called
condensation. If condensation occurs at a temperature above 0°C tiny water
droplets are formed and if the process occurs at below 0°C, ice forms. In
either case, the temperature at which condensation occurs is known as dew
point.
129
An accumulation of condensed water vapors in to water droplets or ice
crystals is what we call a cloud. Normally cloud particles are small enough to
remain suspended in the air, but when water droplets or ice crystals become
large enough, gravity over whelms and precipitation (rainfall) occurs.
Rain falls unevenly over the planet. In some places, it rains more or less
constantly, while other areas get almost no precipitation of any kind. The
amount of rain received by an area is largely affected by its topography. For
example, monsoon winds carry moisture-laden sea air and bring heavy
rainfall on shore. Similarly, mountains act as both cloud formers and rain
catchers. As air sweep up the windward side of a mountain, pressure
decrease and the air cools, causing relative humidity to increase. Eventually,
the saturation point is reached, and moisture in the cool air condenses,
forming rain drops (or snow flakes).
Define the terms: Evaporation, Humidity, Transpiration and Infiltration
5.4 Human impacts or hydrological cycle:
The human impacts on the hydrological cycle can by classified into four
categories. These are as fallows:
1. Changes to Earth’s Surface
In most natural ecosystem, precipitation is intercepted by vegetation and

infiltrates into porous topsoil. This water provides livelihood to the natural and
artificial ecosystems and is absorbed by the plants and eventually evapo-
transpired back to atmosphere. Some of the infiltration water percolates to the
deeper layers hence recharging the ground water reservoirs. In addition dirt,
detritus and micro-organisms are filtered out as the water percolates through
soil and pervious rock, making ground water drinkable.
Box 5.5 Porous and Pervious Rocks

A porous rock allows water to pass through it, making use of the spaces
between the pores. Rocks such as sandstone are porous since they allow
water to penetrate the gaps between the rock particles whereas, a
pervious rock differs from a porous one in that a pervious rock is
something which allows water to pass through it due to cracks or defects.
130
Human beings keep on cutting the forests to clear the land for urbanization or
agricultural use. As forests are cleared, water infiltration decrease, where as,
the runoff increases, consequently, less evapo-transpiration and ground water
recharge is observed. Lowered evapo-transpiration means less moisture for
local rain fall. On the other hand insufficient ground water resources results in
dry, lifeless and barren streams during the day periods.
2. Climate change
Varying water regime will subsequently alter the climate of the world. There is
now unmistakable evidence that earth climate is warming because of the rise
in green houses gases. We have already discussed that deforestation lowers
down infiltration and ground water recharge. The loss of ground water
reserves result in dry streams and lakes. In addition, an increase in global
temperature increases evapo-transpiration hence making the drought prone
regions drier. On the other hand, the regions will sufficient forest cover and
high precipitation will experience increased rainfall. Global warming tends to
make day regions drier and the wet region of the globe, wetter.
3. Atmospheric pollution
The suspended particles in the atmosphere forming a brownish haze

especially in the industrial area are called aerosols. The aerosol particles
support the formation of clouds but suppress rainfall. With suppressed rainfall
comes drier conditions so more dust and smoke are the result. However,
unlike the accumulation of green houses gases, the aerosol impact is more
local and have a lifetime measured in days.
4. Withdrawal for human use
Human consumption of surface and ground water resources in increasing day

by day since the resource recharge is not on a similar rate, an overall
depletion of water resources has taken place. Humans, therefore, are major
players in the hydrological cycle.

1. Differentiate between Porous rock and a pervious rock
2. Define aerosols?
3. What could be the impact of global climate change in the drought
prone areas?
4. What is dew point?
131
Section 5.5 Human Use of Water
Clean, fresh water is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Perhaps
more than any other environmental factor, the availability of water determines
the location and activities of humans on earth. Renewable water supplies are
made up two basic sources (1) Surface runoff and (2) Infiltration into
freshwater aquifers.
About two-thirds of the water carried in rivers and streams every year occurs
in seasonal floods that are too large or violent to be stored or trapped
effectively for human uses. Still, the readily accessible, renewable water
supplies are very large, amounting to some 1,500 km3 (about 400,000 gal)
per person per year worldwide.
- Water-Rich and Water-Poor Countries
Distribution of rainfall is uneven on earth. Some parts of the receive rain in
abundance where as others face a scarcity. South America, West Central
Africa, and South and Southeast Asia all have areas of very high rainfall.
Brazil and the Democratic Republic of Congo, because they have high
precipitation levels and large land areas, are among the most water-rich
countries on earth. Canada and Russia, which are both very large, also have
some of the highest total annual water supplies of any country. Available
water supplies are determined by the amount of rainfall received in that
particular area. Iceland, for example, has about 160 million gallons per person
per year. In contrast, Kuwait, where temperatures are extremely high and rain
almost never falls, has less than 3,000 gallons per person per year from
renewable natural sources. Almost all of Kuwait’s water comes from imports
and desalinized seawater. Egypt, in spite of the fact that the Nile River flows
through it, has only about 11,000 gallons of water annually per capita, or
about 15,000 times less than Iceland.
Another important consideration is rainfall inter-annual variability. In some
areas, such as the African Sahel region, abundant rainfall occurs some years
but not others. Unless steps are taken to even out water flows, the lowest
levels encountered usually limit both ecosystem functions and human
activities. Human beings have effectively made efforts to control water, to
divert floods and drain marshes during wet seasons or wet years, and to store
water in reservoirs or divert it from streams so that it would be available
during the dry seasons or dry years.
- Types of Water Use
In contrast to energy resources, which are consumed when used, water has
the potential for being reused many times. In discussing water appropriations,
we need to distinguish between different kinds of uses and how they will
132
affect the water being appropriated, Withdrawal is the total amount of water
taken from a lake, river, or aquifer for any purpose. Much of this water is
employed in nondestructive ways and is returned to circulation in a form that
can be used again. Consumption is the fraction of withdrawn water that is
lost in transmission, evaporation, absorption, chemical transformation, or
otherwise made unavailable for other purposes as a result of human use.
Degradation is a change in water quality due to contamination or pollution so
that it is unsuitable for other desirable services. The total quantity available
may remain constant after some uses, but the quality is degraded so the
water is no longer as valuable as it was.
Worldwide, humans withdraw about 10 percent of the total annual renewable
supply. The remaining 90 percent is generally uneconomical to tap, that is, it
would cost too much to store, ship, purify, or distribute. From the withdrawn
water, almost 50 percent is either consumed or degraded in most industrial
societies. The other half of the water we withdraw would still be valuable for
further uses if we could protect it from contamination and make it available to
potential consumers.
The natural cleansing and renewing functions of the hydrologic cycle do
replace the water we need if natural systems are not overloaded or damaged.
Water is a renewable resource, but renewal takes time. The rate at which
many of us are using water now may make it necessary to carefully protect,
conserve, and replenish our water supply.
- Quantities of Water Used
Human water use has been increasing about twice as fast as population
growth over the past century. However, the overall average has great
discrepancies in the proportion of annual runoff withdrawn in different areas.
As you might expect, those countries with a plentiful water supply and a small
population withdraw a very small percentage of the water available to them.
Canada, Brazil, and the Congo, for instance, withdraw less than 1 percent of
their annual renewable supply. By contrast, in countries such as Libya and
Israel, where water is one of the most crucial environmental resources, water
withdrawal together amount to more than 100 percent of their renewable
supply. They are essentially extracting groundwater faster than it is being
replenished. Obviously, this is not sustainable in the long run.
- Use by Sector
Water use can be analyzed by identifying three major kinds of use, or sectors:
1. Domestic
2. Industry, and
3. Agriculture
133
Worldwide, agriculture claims about 69 percent of tot-al water withdrawal,
ranging from 93 percent of all water used in India to only 4 percent in Kuwait.
Canada, where the fields are well watered by natural precipitation, uses only
12 percent of its water for agriculture. It is important to note that water use by
sector depends strongly on national wealth and degree of industrialization.
Poorer countries with little industry and limited domestic supply systems use
little of their water in these sectors.
In many developing countries, agricultural water use is notoriously inefficient
and highly consumptive. Often, 60 to 70 percent of the water withdrawn for
agriculture in these countries never reaches the crops for which it is intended,
The most common type of irrigation is to simply flood the whole field or run
water in rows between crops, where as much as half is lost through
evaporation or seepage from unlined irrigation canals. Most of the rest runs
off, evaporates, or infiltrates into the field before it can be used. Moreover,
infiltrating water is often contaminated with soil, fertilizer, pesticides, and
residues, making it low quality. Sprinklers are more efficient in distributing
water evenly over the field than flooding and can be used on uneven terrain,
but they can lose a great deal of water to evaporation. Water-efficient drip
irrigation and other low-volume distribution systems can save significant
amounts of water, but are used, currently, on only about one percent of the
world’s croplands.
Worldwide, industry accounts for about one-fourth of all water use, ranging
from 70 percent of withdrawal in some European countries, such as
Germany, to 5 percent in less industrialized countries, such as Egypt and
India. Cooling water for power plants is by far the largest single industrial use
of water, typically accounting for 50 to 100 percent of industrial withdrawal
depending on the country. Although cooling water usually is not chemically
contaminated, warm water can be thermal pollution if dumped directly into a
stream or lake.
Industry often competes with agriculture for available water. Although Third
World Countries typically allocate only about 10 percent of water withdrawal
to industry, this could change rapidly as they industrialize. Water may be as
important as energy in determining which countries develop and which remain
undeveloped.
1. What steps have human beings taken to even out water flows and to
counter drought periods?
2. Differentiate between consumption and degradation of water.
3. Why is it important to conserve water?
4. Why are traditional methods of irrigation in efficient?
134
Section 5.1
1. About 97.5% total earth’s water is the salt water of the oceans and
seas.
2. The total available fresh water is about 0.77% of the total world water
resources.
3. Fresh water is a continually renewable resource
4. In the developing world over 1 billion people lack access to clean
drinking water
Section 5.2
1. Oceans play an important role in moderating the earth’s temperature.

Huge currents transport warm water from the equator to higher
latitudes and cold water flows from the poles to the tropics
2. The glaciers are the primary fresh water resource on the earth. They
feed the streams and the rivers with adequate amounts of water that
is used up mainly for irrigation purposes.
3. Increased meting induces a gradual increase in discharge followed by
increased land sliding and floods
4. The seepage of rain water into the soil is known as percolation. The
inward movement through permeable rocks is a process called
infiltration.
5. Underneath the water table lie a porous layer of sand, gravel, etc.
known as aquifers
6. Precipitation has three possible fates after it has reached the surface
of earth: It is either evaporated back to the atmosphere or is infiltrated
into the ground or runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of
gravity back toward the sea forming small rivulets
7. Both lakes and ponds are relatively temporary features on the land
because they are eventually filled with silt or are emptied by cutting
out an outlet to consume water.
Section 5.3
1. Evaporation is the process in which a liquid is changed to vapor (gas

phase) at temperatures well below its boiling point
2. The amount of water vapor in the air is called humidity
3. The evaporation of water from the surface of the plant is known as
transpiration
135
4. Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface
enters the soil
Section 5.4
1. A porous rock allows water to pass through it, making use of the
spaces between the pores. Rocks such as sandstone are porous
since they allow water to penetrate the gaps between the rock
particles whereas, a pervious rock differs from a porous one in that a
pervious rock is something which allows water to pass through it due
to cracks or defects.
2. The suspended particles in the atmosphere forming a brownish haze
especially in the industrial area are called aerosols
3. An increase in global temperature increases evapo-transpiration
hence making the drought prone regions drier.
4. The temperature at which condensation occurs is known as dew point.
Section 5.5
1. Human beings have effectively made efforts to control water, to divert

floods and drain marshes during wet seasons or wet years, and to
store water in reservoirs or divert it from streams so that it would be
available during the dry seasons or dry years
2. Consumption is the fraction of withdrawn water that is lost in
transmission, evaporation, absorption, chemical transformation, or
otherwise made unavailable for other purposes as a result of human
use. Degradation is a change in water quality due to contamination or
pollution so that it is unsuitable for other desirable services
3. Water is a renewable source but takes time to replenish the quantity
used by human beings. In addition to avoid over loading and damage
to water resources, it is also important that the available resources be
protected and conserved to ensure continuous availability.
4. The traditional method of irrigation is to simply flood the whole field or
run water in rows between crops, where as much as half is lost
through evaporation or seepage from unlined irrigation canals. Sue to
this high lost these methods are considered as in efficient.
136
UNIT No. 6
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
Major Topics
6.1 Nitrogen Cycle

6.2 Carbon Cycle
6.3 Phosphorus Cycle
6.4 Sulfur Cycle
Introduction
This various inputs and outputs of the biotic components (producers,

consumers, and decomposers) fit together remarkably well. The products and
by products of each group are the food or essential nutrients for the other. For
example, the organic material and oxygen produced by green plants are the
food and oxygen required by consumers. In turn, the carbon dioxide and
waste generated by the consumers when broken down become exactly the
nutrients needed by green plants. You would have frequently observed the
cattle consuming the green plants as food and in return the cow dung
produced by the animals as waste is the best fertilizer for the plants. This kind
of recycling is fundamental to sustainability for two reasons.
i. It prevents the accumulation of wastes that would cause problems in

an ecosystem, e.g. ammonia is excreted by many animals and is
toxic, if it is not converted to nitrates and taken up by the plants; the
concentration would increase up to lethal levels.
ii. The cycles guarantee that the ecosystem will not run out of essential
elements.
Are you familiar with the law of conservation of matter? It states, ‘atoms
cannot be created or destroyed’, so recycling is the only possible way to
maintain a dynamic system.
To see how well the biosphere has mastered recycling, we now focus on the
pathways of four key elements heavily affected by human activities: nitrogen,
carbon, phosphorus and sulfur. Since all these pathways lead in circles and
involve biological, geological and chemical processes, they are known as
biogeochemical cycles.
137
Box 6.1 Important to Note:
Recall ‘Energy Flow in an Ecosystem’ Unit 2. Please note that the

flow of energy is one-directional and that energy is not recycled.
On the contrary, the matter is recycled and the flow is cyclical.
After studying this unit, you will be able to:

1. Familiar with the dynamism and equilibrium existing in the biosphere.
2. Understand the recycling of materials among different spheres (litho,
hydro and atmosphere).
3. Appreciate how simpler compound built up complex organic
compound and are again broken down back into simpler forms.
6.1 Nitrogen cycle66

Nitrogen (N) is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteins, the
building blocks of life. All organisms require nitrogen to live and grow.
Although the majority of the air (almost 78%) we breathe is N2, most of the
nitrogen in the atmosphere is unavailable for use by organisms. This is
because the strong triple bond between the N atoms in N2 molecules makes
it relatively inert.
Box 6.2. Inert
In chemistry, the term inert is used to describe

something that is not chemically active.
In fact, in order for plants and animals to be able to use nitrogen, N2 gas
must first be converted to a chemically available form such as ammonium
(NH4+), nitrate (NO3-), or organic nitrogen (e.g. urea - (NH3)2CO). It is
noteworthy that due to this inert nature of N2, available nitrogen is often in
short supply in natural ecosystems thus limiting the plant growth. The short
supply is therefore fulfilled by artificially adding manures, urea and other
artificial fertilizers.
Nitrogen is an incredibly versatile element, existing in both inorganic and

organic forms as well as many different oxidation states. The movement of
nitrogen between the atmosphere, biosphere, and geosphere in different
forms is described by the nitrogen cycle (Figure 1), one of the major
biogeochemical cycles. Five main processes cycle nitrogen through the
biosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere:
66
John Arthur Harrison, Ph.D. "The Nitrogen Cycle: Of Microbes and Men," Visionlearning
Vol. EAS-2 (4), 2003. Available online from
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=98
138
- nitrogen fixation: conversion of inert non-reactive nitrogen gas to
reactive nitrogen compounds such as ammonia
- nitrogen uptake: taking up of inorganic nitrogen compounds like
ammonia by plants and formation of more complex organic
compounds like amino acids and proteins
- nitrogen mineralization (decay): breakdown of complex organic
compounds back to simpler inorganic form – a process commonly
known as ‘decay’
- nitrification: conversion of ammonia to nitrate
- denitrification: Conversion of nitrate to nitrogen gas (inert form)
Nitrogen in Atmosphere
Lightning
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrifying algae
Excretion Plant protein eaten
Nitrogen
fixing Blue-green Algae
Denitrifying bacteria eaten by fish
bacteria Decaying
organic matter
Decaying
Free nitrates, nitrites and ammonia organic matter
67
Figure 6.1 The Nitrogen Cycle
The processes make up the entire nitrogen cycle and are discussed in detail
in the following pages. It is important to note that microorganisms, particularly
bacteria, play major roles in all of the principal nitrogen transformations.
However, activity rates are affected by environmental factors that influence
microbial activity, such as temperature, moisture, and resource availability.
Nitrogen Fixation
N2 (inert nitrogen gas) NH4+ (ammonia)
Nitrogen fixation is the process wherein N2 is converted to ammonium,

essential because it is the only way that organisms can attain nitrogen
directly from the atmosphere. Certain bacteria, for example those among the
genus Rhizobium, are the only organisms that fix nitrogen through metabolic
67
Concept taken: Foss Web Resource
Centrehttp://www.fossweb.com/resources/pictures/16327852.gif
139
processes. Nitrogen fixing bacteria often form symbiotic relationships with
host plants.
Box 6.3 Symbiosis

Symbiosis basically means ‘living together’ or interacting for mutual benefit
This symbiosis is well-known to occur in the

legume family of plants (e.g. beans and
Root
peas). In this relationship, nitrogen fixing
bacteria inhabit the root nodules, (Figure 6.2) Root Nodules
receive carbohydrates and a favorable
environment from their host plant in
exchange for some of the nitrogen they fix.
There are also nitrogen fixing bacteria that
exist without plant hosts, known as free-living
nitrogen fixers. In aquatic environments,
blue-green algae (actually a bacteria called
Figure 6.2 The nitrogen
cyanobacteria) is an important free-living fixing bacteria inhabit the
nitrogen fixer. root nodules of the plants
In addition to nitrogen fixing bacteria, high-energy natural events such as

lightning, forest fires, and even hot lava flows can cause the fixation of
smaller, but significant amounts of nitrogen. The high energy of these natural
phenomena can break the triple bond of N2 molecules, thereby making
individual N atoms available for chemical transformation.
Within the last century, humans have become as important a source of fixed
nitrogen as all natural sources combined. Burning fossil fuels, using synthetic
nitrogen fertilizers and cultivation of legumes all fix nitrogen. Through these
activities, humans have more than doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen is
pumped into the biosphere every year, the consequences of which are
discussed below:
Nitrogen Uptake
NH4+ Organic N
The ammonia produced by nitrogen fixing bacteria is usually quickly

incorporated into protein and other organic nitrogen compounds, either by a
host plant, the bacteria itself, or another soil organism. When organisms at
the top of the food chain (like us!) eat, we are using nitrogen that has been
fixed initially by nitrogen fixing bacteria.
140
Nitrogen Mineralization
Organic N NH4+
After nitrogen is incorporated into organic matter, it is often converted back

into inorganic nitrogen by a process called nitrogen mineralization, otherwise
known as decay. When organisms die, decomposers (such as bacteria and
fungi) consume the organic matter and lead to the process of
decomposition. During this process, a significant amount of the nitrogen
contained within the dead organism is converted to ammonium. Once in the
form of ammonium, nitrogen is available for use by plants or for further
transformation into nitrate (NO3-) through the process called nitrification.
Nitrification
NH4+ NO3-
Some of the ammonium produced by decomposition is converted to nitrate

via a process called nitrification. The bacteria that carry out this reaction gain
energy from it. Nitrification requires the presence of oxygen, so nitrification
can happen only in oxygen-rich environments like circulating or flowing
waters and the very surface layers of soils and sediments.
The process of nitrification has some important consequences. Ammonium

ions are positively charged and therefore stick to negatively charged clay
particles and soil organic matter. The positive charge prevents ammonium
nitrogen from being washed out of the soil (or leached) by rainfall. In
contrast, the negatively charged nitrate ion is not held by soil particles and so
can be washed down the soil profile, leading to decreased soil fertility and
nitrate enrichment of downstream surface and ground waters.
Denitrification
NO3- N2+ N2O
Through denitrification, oxidized forms of nitrogen such as nitrate and nitrite

(NO2-) are converted to dinitrogen (N2) and, to a lesser extent, nitrous oxide
gas. Denitrification is an anaerobic process that is carried out by denitrifying
bacteria, which convert nitrate to dinitrogen in the following sequence:
NO3- NO2- NO N2O N2

Nitrate Nitrite Nitric Nitrous Nitrogen gas
Oxide Oxide
141
Nitric oxide and nitrous oxide are both environmentally important gases.
Nitric oxide (NO) contributes to smog, and nitrous oxide (N2O) is an
important greenhouse gas, thereby contributing to global climate change.
Once converted to di-nitrogen, nitrogen is unlikely to be reconverted to a

biologically available form because it is a gas and is rapidly lost to the
atmosphere. Denitrification is the only nitrogen transformation that removes
nitrogen from ecosystems (essentially irreversibly), and it roughly balances
the amount of nitrogen fixed by the nitrogen fixers described above.
Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle and its environmental

consequences
Early in the 20th century, a German scientist named Fritz Haber figured out
how to short circuit the nitrogen cycle by fixing nitrogen chemically at high
temperatures and pressures, creating fertilizers that could be added directly
to soil. This technology has spread rapidly over the past century, and, along
with the advent of new crop varieties, the use of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers
has led to an enormous boom in agricultural productivity. This agricultural
productivity has helped us to feed a rapidly growing world population, but the
increase in nitrogen fixation has had some negative consequences as well.
While the consequences are perhaps not as obvious as an increase in global
temperatures or a hole in the ozone layer, they are just as serious and
potentially harmful for humans and other organisms.
Not all of the nitrogen fertilizer applied to agricultural fields stays to nourish
crops. Some is washed off of agricultural fields by rain or irrigation water,
where it leaches into surface or ground water and can accumulate.
 In groundwater that is used as a drinking water source, excess
nitrogen can lead to cancer in humans and respiratory distress in
infants.
 In surface waters, added nitrogen can lead to nutrient over-
enrichment, particularly in coastal waters receiving the inflow from
polluted rivers. This nutrient over-enrichment, also called
eutrophication, has been blamed for increased frequencies of
coastal fish-kill events, increased frequencies of harmful algal
blooms, and species shifts within coastal ecosystems.
Reactive nitrogen (like NO3- and NH4+) present in surface waters and soils
can also enter the atmosphere as the smog-component nitric oxide (NO) and
the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O). Nitrogen oxides comprise a
significant portion of the acidity in acid rain which has been blamed for forest
death and decline in parts of Europe and the Northeast United States. NO is
142
also a major factor in the formation of smog, which is known to cause
respiratory illnesses like asthma in both children and adults.
Currently, much research is devoted to understanding the effects of nitrogen

enrichment in the air, groundwater, and surface water. Scientists are also
exploring alternative agricultural practices that will sustain high productivity
while decreasing the negative impacts caused by fertilizer use. These studies
not only help us quantify how humans have altered the natural world, but
increase our understanding of the processes involved in the nitrogen cycle as
a whole.
Section 6.2 Carbon Cycle68
Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe, and is

absolutely essential to life on earth. In fact, carbon constitutes the very
definition of life, as its presence or absence helps define whether a molecule
is considered to be organic or inorganic. Every organism on Earth needs
carbon either for structure, energy, or, as in the case of humans, for both.
Discounting water, you are about half carbon. Additionally, carbon is found in
forms as diverse as the gas carbon dioxide (CO2), and in solids like
limestone (CaCO3), wood, plastic, diamonds, and graphite.
The movement of carbon, in its many forms, between the atmosphere,

oceans, biosphere, and geosphere is described by the carbon cycle (Figure
6.3). This cycle consists of several storage pools of carbon and the
processes by which the various pools exchange carbon.
 If more carbon enters a pool than leaves it, that pool is considered a
net carbon sink.
 If more carbon leaves a pool than enters it, that pool is considered
net carbon source.
The global carbon cycle, one of the major biogeochemical cycles, can be
divided into geological and biological components. The geological carbon
cycle operates on a time scale of millions of years, whereas the biological
carbon cycle operates on a time scale of days to thousands of years. We will
discuss the both components one by one.
68
John Arthur Harrison, Ph.D. "The Carbon Cycle: What Goes Around Comes Around,"
Visionlearning Vol. EAS-2 (3), 2003. Available on line from
http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=95
143
Sunlight CO2 Cycle Auto and factory
emission
Plant
Respiration
Photosynthesis
Animal
Organic Carbon Respiration
Root
Respiration
Dead Organisms and
Decay Organisms
Waste Products
Fossil and Fossil Fuels
Figure 6.3 The Carbon Cycle
The geological carbon cycle
In the atmosphere, carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid
which is a weak acid than when reaches the earth as rain, reacts with
minerals at the earth’s surface, slowly dissolving them into their component
ions through the process of chemical weathering. These component ions
are carried in surface waters like streams and rivers eventually to the ocean,
where they precipitate out as minerals like calcite (CaCO3). Through
continued deposition and burial, this calcite sediment forms the rock called
limestone.
This cycle continues as seafloor spreading pushes the seafloor under

continental margins in the process of Subduction69.
Box 6.4 Subduction
It is the process in which rocks break and move or are displaced along
the fractures. The subducted plate usually moves in jerks, resulting in
earthquakes. The area where the subduction occurs is the
subduction zone.
69
Subduction definition available online from:
http://library.thinkquest.org/17457/platetectonics/5.php
144
As seafloor carbon is pushed deeper into the earth by tectonic forces, it
heats up, eventually melts, and can rise back up to the surface, where it is
released as CO2 and returned to the atmosphere. This return to the
atmosphere can occur violently through volcanic eruptions, or more
gradually in seeps, vents, and CO2-rich hot springs. Tectonic uplift can also
expose previously buried limestone. One example of this occurs in the
Himalayas where some of the world’s highest peaks are formed of material
that was once at the bottom of the ocean. All these changes occurs over
million of years and control carbon dioxide concentrations over huge time
periods.
The Biological Carbon Cycle
Biology plays an important role in the movement of carbon between land,

ocean, and atmosphere through the processes of photosynthesis (refer to
Unit 1, section 1.3, Box 1.2 for definition of Photosynthesis) and respiration.
 Photosynthesis: Virtually all multicellular life on Earth depends on
the production of sugars from sunlight and carbon dioxide. Plants
take in carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere during
photosynthesis and produce carbohydrates
 Respiration: is the metabolic breakdown of those sugars to produce
the energy needed for movement, growth, and reproduction. During
respiration CO2 is released back into the atmosphere.
The chemical reaction that takes place are as follows:

Respiration:
C6H12O6 (organic matter) + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H2O + energy

Photosynthesis:
Energy (sunlight) + 6CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
Through photosynthesis, green plants use solar energy to turn atmospheric

carbon dioxide into carbohydrates (sugars). Plants and animals use these
carbohydrates (and other products derived from them) through a process
called respiration, the reverse of photosynthesis. Respiration releases the
energy contained in sugars for use in metabolism and changes carbohydrate
“fuel” back into carbon dioxide, which is in turn released to back to the
atmosphere.
145
Box 6.5 Important to Note
The amount of carbon taken up by photosynthesis and released back

to the atmosphere by respiration each year is about 1,000 times
greater than the amount of carbon that moves through the geological
cycle on an annual basis.
Seasonal Imbalance in CO2 Concentration on Land
On land, the major exchange of carbon with the atmosphere results from
photosynthesis and respiration. During daytime in the growing season,
leaves absorb sunlight and take up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. At
the same time plants, animals, and soil microbes consume the carbon in
organic matter through respiration and return carbon dioxide to the
atmosphere. Photosynthesis stops at night when the sun cannot provide the
driving energy for the reaction, though respiration continues. This kind of
imbalance between these two processes is reflected in seasonal changes in
the atmospheric CO2 concentrations. As for example, during winter in the
northern hemisphere, photosynthesis ceases when many plants lose their
leaves, but respiration continues. This condition leads to an increase in
atmospheric CO2 concentrations in the northern hemisphere. With the onset
of spring, however, photosynthesis resumes and atmospheric CO2
concentrations are reduced.
Carbon Deposition in Oceans
In the oceans, phytoplankton (microscopic marine plants that form the base
of the marine food chain) use carbon to make shells of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3). The shells settle to the bottom of the ocean when phytoplankton
die and are buried in the sediments. The shells of phytoplankton and other
creatures can become compressed over time as they are buried and are
often eventually transformed into limestone deposits. Additionally, under
certain geological conditions, organic matter can be buried and over time
form deposits of the fuels coal and oil. It is the non-calcium containing
organic matter that is transformed into fossil fuel. Both limestone formation
and fossil fuel formation are biologically controlled processes and represent
long-term sinks for atmospheric CO2.
Human Alteration of the Carbon Cycle
Recently, scientists have studied both short- and long-term measurements of

atmospheric CO2 levels. Since the onset of the industrial revolution about
150 years ago, human activities have contributed to a long-term rise in
atmospheric CO2. the activities include:
146
 Burning of fossil fuels
Burning oil and coal releases carbon into the atmosphere far more rapidly
than it is being removed, and this imbalance causes atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations to increase.
 Deforestation
By clearing forests, we reduce the ability of photosynthesis to remove CO 2
from the atmosphere, also resulting in a net increase. Because of these
human activities, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations are higher
today than they have been over the last half-million years or longer.
CO2 increases the atmosphere’s ability to hold heat; it has been called a
“greenhouse gas.” Scientists believe that the increase in CO2 is already
causing important changes in the global climate. Many attribute the observed
0.6 degree C increase in global average temperature over the past century
mainly to increases in atmospheric CO2.
Effects on Plantations
Even without the changes in climate, however, increased concentrations of

CO2 could have an important impact on patterns of plant growth worldwide.
Some species of plants respond more favorably to increases in CO2 than
others, scientists believe we may see pronounced shifts in plant species as a
result of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations, even without any
change in temperature. For example, under high CO2 concentrations, shrubs
are thought to respond more favorably than certain grass species due to their
slightly different photosynthetic pathway. Because of this competitive
inequality, some scientists have hypothesized that grasslands will be invaded
by CO2-responsive shrubby species as CO2 increases.
6.3 Phosphorous Cycle70,71
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions
PO43- and HPO42-. It is a part of DNA-molecules, of molecules that store
energy (ATP and ADP) and of fats of cell membranes. Phosphorus is also a
building block of certain parts of the human and animal body, such as the
bones and teeth.
70
http://www.lenntech.com/phosphorus-cycle.htm (phosphorous cycle)
71 th
ed. pp 67-68
147
Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments. Unlike the
compounds of other matter cycles phosphorus cannot be found in air in the
gaseous state. This is because phosphorus is usually liquid at normal
temperatures and pressures. It is mainly cycling through water, soil and
sediments. In the atmosphere phosphorus can mainly be found as very small
dust particles.
Rocks and
Soils
ATP Inorganic
Phosphate
PO4 -3
Figure 6.4 The Phosphorus Cycle
The phosphorus cycle (fig. 6.4) begins when phosphorus compounds are
leached from rocks and minerals over long periods of time. Because
phosphorus has no atmospheric form, it is usually transported in aqueous
form. Inorganic phosphorus is taken in by producer organisms, incorporated
into organic molecules, and then passed on to consumers. It is returned to the
environment by decomposition. An important aspect of the phosphorus cycle
is the very long time it takes for phosphorus atoms to pass through it. Deep
sediments of the oceans are significant phosphorus sinks of extreme
longevity. Phosphate ores that now are mined to make detergents and
inorganic fertilizers represent exposed ocean sediments that are millennia
old. You could think of our present use of phosphates, which are washed out
into the river systems and eventually the oceans, as an accelerated
mobilization of phosphorus from source to sink. Aquatic ecosystems often are
dramatically affected in the process because excess phosphates can
stimulate explosive growth of algae and photosynthetic bacteria populations,
upsetting ecosystem stability. Notice also that in this cycle, as in the others,
the role of organisms is only one part of a larger picture.
148
6.4 Sulfur Cycle72
Sulfur plays a vital role in organisms, especially as a minor but essential

component of proteins. Sulfur compounds are important determinants of the
acidity of rainfall, surface water, and soil. Most of the earth’s sulfur is tied up
underground in rocks and minerals such as iron disulfide (pyrite) or calcium
sulfate (gypsum). This inorganic sulfur is released into air and water by
weathering, emissions from deep seafloor vents, and by volcanic eruptions
(fig. 6.5).
The sulfur cycle is complicated by the large number of oxidation states the
element can assume, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
sulfate ion (SO4-2), and sulfur, among others. Inorganic processes are
responsible for many of these transformations, but living organisms,
especially bacteria, also sequester sulfur in biogenic deposits or release it into
the environment. Which of the several kinds of sulfur bacteria prevails in nay
given situation depends on oxygen concentrations, pH, and light levels.
ATMOSPHERE
-2
SO4
Acid Rain
SO2
Plant Uptake Decomposition
-2
Sulfate SO4
Volcanoes, Geologic
Uplifting, Upwelling SEA
Inorganic Sulfur (S)
Groundwater, Mining
and Fossil Fuel Burning
Reduced Sulfur (H2S)
Sedimentation
Sulfur in Iron Sulfide

fossil Fuels Rocks, Coal,
Oil, Ores
Figure 6.5 The Sulfur Cycle. Sulfur is present mainly in rocks, soil and water. It
cycles through ecosystem when it is taken in by organisms. Combustion of
fossil fuels causes increased levels of atmospheric sulfur compounds, which
create problems related to acid rain
72 th
ed. pp 67-68
149
Human activities also release large quantities of sulfur, primarily through
burning of fossil fuels. The sulfur emission through natural processes in
addition to the human induced sulfur emission (by burning of fossil fuels)
result in acid rain which is a serious problem. Acid rain is rain or any other
form of precipitation that is unusually acidic. There are many forms of acid
rain that are seen around the world. In parts of the world where there is wet
weather, there is acid rain, acid snow, and acid fog. In parts of the world
where there is dry weather, there is acid gas and acid dust. It cause human
health problems, damage buildings and vegetation, and reduce visibility.
1. What is biogeochemical cycle?

2. Why a biogeochemical cycle fundamental to sustainability?
3. What do you understand by the term ‘fixation’?
4. Enlist a few nitrogen fixing organisms.
5. Where are the major reserves of earth’s biological carbon?
6. Phosphorus cycle is a gradual flow from land to water. Explain?
7. How is sulfur released to atmosphere?
8. What is acid rain, how is it caused?
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1. The combinations of biological, geological and chemical processes
that are responsible to keep balance on earth are known as
biogeochemical cycles.
2. Biogeochemical cycles are fundamental to sustainability for two
reasons.
i. It prevents the accumulation of wastes that would cause
problems in an ecosystem, e.g. ammonia is excreted by many
animals and is toxic, if it is not converted to nitrates and taken
up by the plants; the concentration would increase up to lethal
levels.
ii. The cycles guarantee that the ecosystem will not run out of
essential elements
3. Conversion of an inert non-reactive element to reactive and complex
compounds is known as fixation
4. Rhizobium and Cyanobacteria
5. The major reserves of earth’s biological carbon are the living things
mainly green plants.
6. Phosphorous cycle is a gradual flow from land to water because
phosphorous cycle is the slowest cycle found on earth and a
phosphorus atom takes several years to pass through the whole cycle.
Further, the release of phosphates to water bodies and to oceans is
higher than the phosphorus returning back to land.
7. Most of the earth’s sulfur is tied up underground in rocks and minerals
such as iron disulfide (pyrite) or calcium sulfate (gypsum). This
inorganic sulfur is released into air and water by weathering,
emissions from deep seafloor vents, and by volcanic eruptions
8. Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually
acidic.
151
UNIT No. 7
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS DISTRIBUTION
Major Topics
7.1 Understanding Biological Diversity
7.2 Biological Evolution
7.3 Levels in Diversity
7.3.1 Ecosystem Diversity
7.3.2 Species Diversity
7.3.3 Genetic Diversity
Section 7.1 Understanding Biological Diversity73

The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations is known as
Biological Diversity or Biodiversity. Biodiversity can be measured on many
biological levels ranging from genetic diversity within a species to the variety
of ecosystems on Earth, but the term most commonly refers to the number of
different species in a defined area.
Recent estimates of the total number of species range from 7 to 20 million, of

which only about 1.75 million species have been scientifically described. The
best-studied groups include plants and vertebrates (phylum Chordata),
whereas poorly described groups include fungi, nematodes, and arthropods
(insects). In fact, species that live in the ocean and in soils remain poorly
known. For most groups of species, there is a gradient of increasing diversity
from the Poles to the Equator, and the vast majority of species are
concentrated in the tropical and subtropical regions.
Human activities, such as direct harvesting of species (for food, wool and
hunting, etc.), introduction of alien species, habitat destruction, and various
forms of habitat degradation (including environmental pollution), have caused
dramatic losses of biodiversity; current extinction rates are estimated to be
100—1000 times higher than pre-human extinction rates.
Some measure of biodiversity is responsible for providing essential functions

and services that directly improve human life. For example, many medicines,
clothing fibers, and industrial products and the vast majority of foods are
derived from naturally occurring species. In addition, species are the key
73
Biodiversity McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology (2005) McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc.
152
working parts of natural ecosystems. They are responsible for maintenance of
the gaseous composition of the atmosphere (recall Unit 3: atmosphere),
regulation of the global climate, generation and maintenance of soils (unit 4
Lithosphere: properties of so//; so/l structure formation), recycling of nutrients
and waste products (recall unit 5, biogeochemical cycles), and biological
control of pest species (unit 2, predation and other relationships among the
animals in an ecosystem). Ecosystems surely would not function if all species
were lost, although it is unclear just how many species are necessary for an
ecosystem to function properly.
The diversity of life on this planet brings us many aesthetic and cultural
benefits, and cultural diversity is inseparably linked to biodiversity. Millions of
people enjoy hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, wildlife watching and other
outdoor activities based on nature. These activities not only provide
refreshing physical exercise but also can be psychologically and emotionally
restorative. In some cultures, nature carries spiritual implications and a
particular species or landscape may be linked to a sense of identity and
meaning. Observing or protecting nature has moral significance for many
people.
Carnivores
Herbivores
Producers
Decomposers
High Diversity Medium Diversity Low Diversity

Figure 7.1 Human activities, such as direct harvesting of
species (for food, wool and hunting, etc.), habitat destruction,
and degradation have caused dramatic losses of biodiversity
(Source: McPhee J. (2003) Biodiversity: The big (and even bigger) picture, The
Science Creative Quarterly Available online from: http://www.scq.ubc.ca/ biodiversity)
153
Benefits of Biodiversity74
Generally the benefits of biodiversity are related to the economic values they
represent and their impact on sustainable development. The benefits of
biodiversity can therefore be categorized as follows:
A. Biological Resources
B. Ecosystem Services
C. Social Benefits
The three categories mentioned each can be related to economic impacts.

These impacts can be
 Direct in the sense that they have direct economic value, like
medicine, wood, tourism, or,
 Indirect in the sense that the economic value follows from a better
economic and often sustainable infrastructure, like research,
education and protection measures.
The three categorize can be further described as follows:
A. Biological Resources
1. Food: Human existence (and that of most other organisms) depends
heavily on primary producers, which are mainly plants. Five thousand
plant species have been used as food by humans, however, less than
twenty feed the majority of the world's population, whereas, only three or
four carbohydrate crops are considered essential.
2. Medicinal resources: The components of biodiversity are important for

human health. One of the key health issues associated with biodiversity is
that of drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A
significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from
biological sources. For centuries, almost all medical treatments were
based on plant and animal extracts, and this type of treatment remains
essential even today About 80% of the world population depends on
medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical
practice) for primary healthcare.
74
Source: Biodiversity on Coast learn, Biodiversity Conservation Centre, Russia,
Available online from: http://www.biodiversity.ru/coastlearn/bio-eng/benefits.html
154
Box 7.1 Traditional medicine
Traditional medicine is still used extensively for basic
medical care in developing countries. Modern medicine is
taking a keen interest in these resources in the hope of
discovering new cures. Examples of animal and plant
species that are useful for medical purposes are:
 Asprin is made from an organic molecule derived from
willow
 The yew tree, found in many parks and gardens, is a
source of taxol, an anti-carcinogenic substance used
to treat cancers
 Digitalin, which comes from fox gloves, is used to treat
heart insufficiencies
3. Agriculture: In the field of agriculture, the genetic diversity discovered
within each type of crop is of considerable importance. It is a major
weapon against the threats posed to crops and livestock by pests and
diseases. Farmers are now showing a growing interest in the genetic
diversity of crops and livestock in order to increase production and cope
with changing environmental conditions.
Box 7.2 Importance to Agriculture

Numerous species are useful to farmers and gardeners in
a number of ways:
1. Numerous insects pollinate crops
2. Termites and earthworms aerate the soil
3. Toads, frogs and salamanders love

eating insects and slugs that eat up
living plant parts.
4. In just one day a ladybird eats over 100

aphids (small plant eating insects – see
adjacent figure), which are harmful to
crops
5. Insect eating birds (Parus major - blue

tits etc.) feed their chicks on caterpillars,
thereby protecting fruit trees
155
4. Provision of habitat for some commercially valuable resources:
Certain natural areas provide support for commercially valuable
environmental resources. Some habitats protect the wildlife populations
during the crucial period of their lifecycle e.g. reproduction. These species
find shelter in such specific habitats / areas. Outside these specific
habitats these species are widely and profitably harvested. Examples
include mangrove forests where a number fish species visit the shallow
waters to lay eggs. When mangrove areas are cleared for urban
development, populations of commercial fish species that rely on
mangroves for breeding habitats, also diminish. That is why these crucial
habitats are declared protected areas, due to their importance for
maintaining stocks of fish and other aquatic fauna.
5. Wood products: Wood is a basic commodity used worldwide, and is still

largely harvested from the wild. It is a primary source of fuel, is used in
construction, furniture, and forms the basis for paper production.
6. Ornamental plants: Many plant species are increasingly being used for
ornamental and horticultural purposes, with new hybrids and strains being
developed and marketed.
B. Ecosystem Services
1. Protection of water resources: Natural vegetation cover in water
catchments helps to maintain hydrological cycle, regulating water runoff,
and controlling extreme events such as flood and drought. Vegetation
removal results in siltation of catchment waterways, loss of water quality,
and degradation of aquatic habitat, among other things. Vegetation also
helps to regulate underground water tables, preventing dry-land salinity
that affects vast areas of the agricultural land. Wetlands and forests act as
water purifying systems, while mangroves trap silt, reducing impacts on
marine ecosystems
2. Soils formation and protection: Biological diversity helps in the

formation and maintenance of soil structure and the retention of moisture
and nutrient levels. The loss of biological diversity through clearing of
vegetation has contributed to the salinity of soils, leaching of nutrients,
and accelerated erosion of topsoil, reducing the land's productivity /
fertility. Trees, on the other hand, lower the water table and remove
deposited salt from the upper soil horizons.
156
Soil protection can preserve the productive capacity of the soil, prevent
landslides, safeguard coastlines and riverbanks, and prevent the coastal
fisheries by siltation.
Trees and other vegetation also assist in soil formation. A significant

contribution is the introduction of organic matter death and decay of roots
and other plant parts by microbial activity. Another contribution is through
the effects of root systems which break up soil forming the specific porous
structure that facilitate penetration of water. Root systems also bring
mineral nutrients to the surface through root uptake.
3. Nutrient storage and cycling: Ecosystems perform the vital function of

recycling nutrients (recall biogeochemical cycles unit 6). These nutrients
include the elements of the atmosphere (nitrogen that is fixed by nitrogen
fixing bacteria) as well as those found in the soil (sulfur, phosphorous),
which are necessary for the maintenance of life. Biological diversity is
essential in this process. Plants are able to take up nutrients from the soil
as well as from the air, and these nutrients can then form the basis of food
chains, to be used by a wide range of other life forms. The soil then gets
the nutrient from dead or waste matter which is transformed by
microorganisms; this may then feed other species such as earthworms
which also mix and aerate the soil and make nutrients more readily
available
4. Pollution breakdown: Ecosystems and ecological processes play an

important role in the breakdown and absorption of many pollutants created
by humans and their activities. These include wastes such as sewage,
garbage and oil spills. Components of ecosystems from bacteria to higher
life forms are involved in these breakdown and assimilative processes.
Excessive quantities of any pollutant, however, can be detrimental to the
integrity of ecosystems and their biota.
5. Contribution to climate stability: Vegetation influences the climate at

macro and micro levels. As for example, undisturbed forests can help to
maintain the rainfall in its immediate vicinity by recycling water vapour at a
steady rate back into the atmosphere. On smaller scales, vegetation has a
moderate influence on local climates and may create quite specific
microclimates. Some organisms are dependent on such microclimates for
their existence
6. Maintenance of ecosystems: Ecosystem relationships resemble a web

of connections from one living thing to many other living and non-living
things. The relationships are complex and we have read a few examples
157
on how one organism is dependent on other organism for its food, shelter
survival. Vegetation is essential to the maintenance of water and
maintenance of the oxygen/carbon dioxide balance of the atmosphere.
Due to the complex nature of ecosystem relationships, the removal or
disturbance of one part of the ecosystem could affect the functioning of
many other components of the ecosystem.
7. Recovery from unpredictable events: Maintaining healthy ecosystems

improves the chances of recovery of plant and animal populations from
unpredictable natural catastrophic events such as earthquakes, fire, flood
and cyclones or from disasters caused by humans. Inadequately
conserved and isolated populations, and ecosystems which are degraded,
are less likely to recover. Weak populations may end up with small non-
viable genetic bases, which can lead to extinctions
C. Social benefits
Biological diversity provides considerable base to conduct research and

scientific studies. Natural areas provide excellent living laboratories for such
studies, for comparison with other areas under different systems of use, and
for valuable research into ecology and evolution.
Biodiversity is also a significant source of leisure activities. It is a focal point

for tourism and all kinds of recreational activity, which are undergoing rapid
expansion in natural environments and are often the main source of income
for the local population. The aesthetic qualities of such areas are discrete, in
large part due to the range of biological diversity to be found on this continent.
The cultural value of biological diversity conservation for present and future
generations is an important reason for conserving it today. Human cultures
co-evolve with their environment, and therefore the conservation of biological
diversity can also be important for cultural identity. The natural environment
provides many inspirational, aesthetic, spiritual and educational needs of
people from all cultures both now and in the future.
Threats to Biodiversity
As you have studied in earlier units, extinction, the elimination of a species,
is a normal process of the natural world. Species die out and is replaced by
others. In undisturbed ecosystems, the rate of extinction appears to be about
one species lost every decade. In this century however, human impacts on
populations and ecosystem shave accelerated the rate, causing hundreds of
158
species, sub-species and varieties to become extinct every year. If the
present threads continue, we may destroy millions of kinds of plants, animal
and microbes in the next few decades.
a. Natural causes of Extinction
Studies of fossil record suggest that more then 99 percent all species that
ever existed are now extinct. Most of these species were gone before human
came on the scene. Dinosaurs are an example you are all familiar with. In
addition to dinosaurs, 50 percent of other existing genera also disappeared
from the earth at the time.
Box 7.3
Dinosaurs disappeared at the end of Cretaceous period

some 65 million years back
Species arise through process of mutation and Natural Selection and

disappears the same way Climate change unavailability of food, natural
disasters, striking of large asteroids to the earth perhaps triggered the mass
extinction.
Box 7.4 Mutation and Natural Selection

Mutations in one of the phenomenon that cause alteration in the
genes and can produce new or altered traits in individuals, resulting
in the appearance of heritable differences between organisms
Many ecologists worry that ‘global climate change’ caused by release of
green house gases in the atmosphere could have similar catastrophic
impacts.
b. Human Caused Extinction
Most human induced extinction is due to habitat lost. Once the habitat is
fragmented for human use, the species population divides into isolated
groups that are vulnerable to catastrophic events. Very small populations may
not have enough breeding adults to remain viable even under normal
circumstances. By destroying habitats, we not only eliminate the prominent
species, but also many obscure ones of which we may not even are aware.
Over harvesting is another major reason of source depletion. For example,
fish stocks have been seriously depleted by over harvesting in many parts of
the world. Similarly, game animals are prone to extinction due to over hunting.
Some known species in Pakistan include Urial, Markhor, ibex (mountain
goats), partridges, chakur, cranes and various other water fowls (birds) etc. A
159
number of species have been enlisted as endangered species and hunting
these is banned unless the hunt is licensed and permitted by the wildlife
department. Apart from hunting and fishing, species harvesting is carried out
to obtain a variety of valuable commercial products from nature. Some of this
represent sustainable harvest but others are highly destructive and represent
a serious threat to certain rare species. Despite international ban on trade in
products from endangered species, smuggling of furs, hides, horns, live
specimens and medicines amounts to million of dollars each year.
Box 7.5 Ivory Trade
Elephants are an important example of the problems of wildlife trade.

In 1980, there were about 1.3 million African elephants, a decade
later only half were left. Poachers killed almost 600,000 elephants in
1980s,
c. mainly
Predator andtopest
collect ivory worth up to $ 100 per kg. An
control
international ban on ivory trading in 1989 greatly reduced poaching
Some animal populations have been greatly reduced because they are
regarded as danger to humans or livestock. Wolves were common is Pothwar
Region’ of Pakistan a few decade ago. The local residents considering it as a
threat to themselves and their livestock tend to kill every animal they
encounter. Defenders of wildlife regard this approach as cruel and ineffective
in reducing livestock losses. Protecting flocks with guard dogs and keeping
livestock out of the area that are home range of wild species would be a
better solution they believe.
d. Introducing exotic species
Aliens introduced into habitats where they are not native — are one of the
greatest threats to native biodiversity, Exotic species can be thought of as
Biological pollution. The exotic species become free from their natural
predators, parasites, pathogens and competitors that keep them in check in
their native home. Even mild species can turn into super aggressive weedy
invasives.
e. Diseases
Diseases organisms or pathogens may also be considered predators. To be

successful over the long term, a pathogen must establish a balance in which
it is vigorous enough to reproduce, but not so lethal that it completely
destroys the host. When a disease is introduced in a new environment, or if
the host weakens down due to other ecological factors, the host-predator
balance may be lacking and an epidemic may sweep through the area.
160
Box 7.6 Introduction of Paper Mulberry - A case Study
from Islamabad:
In mid 1960s with the development of Islamabad as the federal capital,

paper mulberry was planted on a mass scale. The prime objectives were to
make the city green and to control soil erosion. In a few decades the exotic
species became invasive and spread vigorously hence replacing the native
flora. Paper mulberry is not only a threat to biodiversity but also human
health as its pollen causes asthma and other allergies in the spring
season. City development authorities, realizing the problem are making
continuous efforts to eradicate the weed. However, sprouting of new
shoots with the removal of the older trees is also continuous.
f. Pollution
Toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local populations of

organisms. Pesticides are one of the major pollutants that adversely affect the
aquatic fauna and the fish — eating birds. The pesticides and fertilizers are
washed along with run off water into nearby water bodies hence increasing
the toxic levels. Lead poisoning is another major cause of mortality for many
species of wild life. Water fowl such as ducks, cranes, swans, etc. swallow
the spent shotgun pellets that fall into lakes and marshes. From these pellets,
the lead slowly accumulates in their blood and other tissues.
Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

Biodiversity refers to all diversity of species found in a given ecosystem.
These are the structural components of the ecosystem. The structural
components are responsible for the functioning of ecosystem i.e. they
determine major ecosystem processes such as energy flow and nutrient
cycling. Certain species play an absolute vital role to the survival of many
other species in an ecosystem. These are known as the keystone species.
The keystone species in an ecosystem may be a predator that keeps
herbivore population under control. Alternatively, large animals like wolves,
elephants, tigers, etc. are considered umbrella species for the whole
ecosystem. If they survive, there will likely still be enough undisturbed
habitual for other living species. The loss is biodiversity is expected to be
costly, because natural ecosystem provides vital services to human societies.
Re-creational, aesthetic and commercial losses will be inevitable. The loss of
wild species, therefore, will bring certain and unwelcome consequences,
because it is linked directly to the degradation and disappearance of
ecosystem.
161
Wetland Drainage Forest clearing for crop &
livestock threatens over 20%
Farming and Aquaculture of terrestrial species
Species migrate as temperature changes
Human Population Growth
HABITAT LOSS Predator-prey balance in system changes
Deforestation, flooding, droughts
Food supply for Species changes
Dead Zone due to nutrient runoff to oceans
CLIMATE
Mating and reproductive cycles change
Water projects, dams etc. change ecosystem CHANGE
WAR AND Damage to ecosystem

Global warming induce species migration CONFLICT
Local introduction of species
INTRODUCED Human Resource management
SPECIES
Threats to Pollution
Biodiversity
Accidental Introduction
Alteration of Habitat
INFECTIOUS
DISEASES
Genetic Modification Ozone depletion has damaged species
ULTRAVIOLET
Species weakened by habitat change RADIATION
Over harvesting for food medicine
Pathogens strengthen by warming Over fishing
OVER-EXPLOITATION
Acid Rain changes soil health, damage
plants
Some Species highly sensitive to toxins When ecosystems are
altered often the pest
Drugs for one species may kill others
POLLUTION eaters are reduces and the
plants pest population increases
Plastic kills many sea birds
Figure 7.2 Human Threats to Biodiversity

(Source: Kathleen Sundmark (2009) Biodiversity Maps Available online from http://www.novamind.com/connect/tag/biodiversity)
162
Biodiversity of Pakistan75,76
The country lies at the western end of the South Asian subcontinent, and its
flora and fauna are composed of a blend of Palearctic and lndomalayan
elements, with some groups also containing forms from the Ethiopian region.
Pakistan covers a number of the world’s eco-regions, ranging from the
mangrove forests stretching from the Arabian Sea to the towering mountains
of the western Himalayas, Hindukush and Karakoram. The Earth has been
divided into 238 ecoregions, by the United Nation, the National Geographic
Society; Out of them 5 are in Pakistan. The Global eco-regions of Pakistan
are:
1. Rann of Kutch flooded grasslands

2. Tibetan Plateau
3. Western Himalayan Temperate Forests
4. Indus Delta Ecosystem
5. Arabian Sea.
Extensive efforts have been taken in Pakistan by the government especially

through NGO and community involvement to protect and conserve the natural
habitats. Pakistan has 225 Protected Areas (PAs) 14 national parks, 99
wildlife sanctuaries, and 96 game reserves. Despite all these efforts the
biodiversity degradation could not be completely stopped. The major reasons
of biodiversity loss in Pakistan include:
Deforestation
Principle cause of deforestation in Pakistan is the consumption of fuel wood

and timber.
Grazing
Rapidly increasing domestic livestock population is the direct cause of

degradation on rangelands and forests
Soil Erosion & Desertification
Agricultural activities and overstocking has lead to the reduction of vegetation

cover, resulting in the acceleration of both wind and water erosion.
75
Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan (2000) A framework for conserving our natural Wealth.
Publication prepared by prepared by the Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Environment,
Local Government and Rural Development in collaboration with the World Wide Fund for
Nature, Pakistan and IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Pakistan
76
Pakistan Environment (2006) Available online form www.wwfpak.org
163
Salinity/water logging:
Being a serious problem faced by the agriculture sector, pockets of forests of

the lndus basin could be threatened.
Pollution:
Pakistan faces a serious challenge of growing pollution in urban areas and

water courses. Likewise discharge of sewage and industrial effluent into
aquatic and marine ecosystems is also on the rise.
Hunting/Fishing:
There is a strong tradition of illegal hunting and sports hunting in Pakistan.

This has resulted into the decline of bird and mammal species.
Agricultural practices:
Pakistan faces degradation of agro-ecosystems caused by irrigation. The

agricultural use of pesticides and fertilizers has rapidly increased in recent
years. Pesticide use in Pakistan has increased 7 fold in quantity between
1981 and 1992.
Table 7.1 gives a summary of the fauna and flora found in Pakistan and its
comparison to the entire fauna and flora of the world. The table also enlists
the important endemic species of our country. Endemism, an organism being
“endemic” means exclusively native to a place or biota i.e. it is not found else
where except Pakistan
1. Define Biodiversity?
2. What are the natural causes of species extinction?
3. How does introduction of alien species affect an ecosystem?
4. What are the impacts of pollution on biodiversity? Give at least one
example?
5. Define endemic species. Name any two endemic species found in
Pakistan.
164
Table 7.1 Biodiversity in Pakistan77,78
Flora/Fauna Number of Species
In World In Pakistan Endemic

Plants 297,326 species 6000+ species of which
5700 Angiosperms 380
21 Gymnosperms Angiosperm
189 Pteridophytes
775 Algae
20 Algae
4500 Fungi species 2 species
Mammals 18 orders 10 orders
4,100 species 188 species of which: Indus Dolphin.
63 rodents Chiltan Markhor.
39 carnivores Pakistan Sand Cat.
38 bats Suleiman Markhor.
25 hoofed animals Punjab Urial
11 insectivores Balochistan Bear
9 aquatic animals,
3 primates, 1 pholidota
Birds 8,600 species 666 migratory & resident
species
Reptiles 6,500 species 174 species of which:
88 lizards
72 snakes
10 turtles
1 crocodile
1 Gavial
Amphibians 16 species
Fishes 2,600 species 525 species of which:
400 marine fish
125 freshwater species
Insects / 750,000 species 20,000 species 700 marine
Invertebrates
77
Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan (2000) A framework for conserving our natural Wealth.
Publication prepared by prepared by the Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Environment,
Local Government and Rural Development in collaboration with the World Wide Fund for
Nature, Pakistan and IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Pakistan
78
The World Conservation Union (2007) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Summary
Statistics for Globally Threatened Species, Table 1: Numbers of threatened species by major
groups of organisms (1996–2007)
165
Section 7.2 Biological Evolution79
In the previous section you have studied the concept of biodiversity, its
significance and the threats due to human interference which is resulting in
extinction of species. In this section we will study the concept of species and
the theories of species origin. You may find the specific biological terms
difficult though the concepts have been simplified to the maximum possible
extent for better understanding. It is however suggested that the definitions
given in the text boxes may be read thoroughly.
In biology, evolution is the process of change in the inherited traits of a

population of organisms from one generation to the next. For definitions see
Box 7.5.
Box 7.7Definitions
Inherited Trait
An inherited trait is a distinct phenotypic character (physical
character) of an organism that may be inherited by its offspring.
For example, eye color is a character, while blue, brown, black
and hazel are traits.
Species
A species is a group of individuals that can interbreed and
produce new off-springs. For example human being is a species
scientifically known as Homo sapiens
Population
A population is a collection of individuals of same species
As you know that the off-springs (generation produced) inherit the

characteristics present in the parents. However, the off-springs are not
exactly alike the parents that is a change is observed from one generation to
another. Though changes between generations are relatively minor, however,
differences accumulate with each subsequent generation and over a time
period (time period that extend over thousands of years) can cause
considerable changes in the organisms. With this change in the inherited
traits emerge new species.
79
Evolution Available online from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution
166
How inherited traits are transferred to the next generation? Inherited traits
come from the genes that are passed on to offspring during reproduction.
However during the course of reproduction, the inherited characters can be
altered under specific conditions creating a difference between the parents
and the off-springs. Mutation is one of the phenomenons that cause
alteration in the genes and can produce new or altered traits in individuals,
resulting in the appearance of heritable differences between organisms.
Heritable differences are the characters that can be transferred from one
generation to the next. As for example if a parent gets an injury and gets a
limb (an arm or a leg) removed, the child is not going to inherit such
characters. In addition to mutation, new traits also come from the transfer of
genes between populations, for example as a result of migration.
Box 7.8 Migration
Most animal migrations involve seasonal movements to an

area for breeding, for example, bird migration refers to the
regular seasonal journeys undertaken by many species of
birds. Migrations include journeys made in response to
changes in food availability, habitat or weather. In contrast,
birds that are non- migratory are known as resident birds.
Activity
Pakistan is known as a passage for several migratory birds.
Find out at least one example of a migratory bird species that
reside in Pakistan during its journey.
Mutations provide raw material for evolution. As a result of mutation, new

genotypes (genetic characteristics) are produced. The new genotypes may be
poorer than the parents or they may be better in terms of adaptability to their
environment. Some genotypes survive and reproduce better than others
hence result in a gain in relative gene frequency that is increased population.
This is what we refer to as Natural Selection. Natural selection is therefore a
process by which heritable traits that are helpful for survival and reproduction
become more common in a population, while harmful traits become rarer.
Furthermore, the successful organisms with advantageous traits show
adaptation to the physical condition that further enhances the chance of
survival.
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Box 7.9 Adaptation
An adaptation is a positive characteristic of an organism that has
been favored by natural selection or we can say that any change in
the structure or functioning of an organism that makes it better suited
to its environment is known as adaptation. Organisms that are not
suitably adapted to their environment will either have to move out of
the habitat or die out. The term die out in the context of adaptation
simply means that the death rate exceeds the birth rate for a long
enough period until the species disappear or extinct.
Evolution occurred through Natural Selection is more systematic and gradual.

In contrast to it evolution may occurs by another phenomenon involving
random changes in the gene frequency known as genetic drift. Genetic drift
arises from the role chance plays in whether a given individual will survive
and reproduce. In a situation when a species is separated into populations
through geographic or man made barriers that prevents from interbreeding
and mutations; genetic drift and the selection of unique traits cause the
accumulation of differences over generations and hence emergence of new
species takes place.
Natural Selection always tends to make the population fit more precisely to
the existing environments. However, human interference alters the
environment on a faster rate and the slow evolutionary process finds it hard to
cope with the fast changing environmental conditions. This results in the
extinction of species.
The similarities between organisms suggest that all known species are
descended from a common ancestor. Studies of the fossil record and the
diversity of living organisms had convinced most scientists by the mid-
nineteenth century that species changed over time. However, the mechanism
driving these changes remained unclear until the 1859 publication of Charles
Darwin’s On the Origin of Species, detailing the theory of evolution by
natural selection. Darwin’s work soon led to overwhelming acceptance of
evolution within the scientific community. In the 1930s, Darwinian natural
selection was combined with Mendelian inheritance to form the modern
evolutionary synthesis, in which the connection between the units of evolution
(genes) and the mechanism of evolution (natural selection) was made. This
powerful explanatory theory has become the central organizing principle of
modern biology, providing a unifying explanation for the diversity of life on
Earth.
168
Some of you who have studied biology in your previous classes must be
familiar with Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance. Since these laws are beyond the
scope of our course, therefore these have not been discussed here.

1. Differentiate between natural selection and genetic drift.
2. What is an adaptation? How does it help in survival of a species in
unfavorable conditions?
3. What happens if a species is isolated into small groups by geographic
or other man made barriers?
7.3 Levels in Diversity80

In previous units, you have studied some of the facts of organisms and
complex ecological relationships that give the biosphere its unique productive
characteristics. Three kinds of biodiversity are essential to preserve the
ecological system:
1. Genetic Diversity is a measure of variety of the same genes with
individual species.
2. Species Diversity describes the number of different kinds of
organisms within an individual community or ecosystem.
3. Ecological / Ecosystem Diversity assesses the richness of a
biological system, trophic levels, ecological processes that capture
energy, sustain fool webs and recycle materials with this system.
These levels are all interrelated yet distinct enough that they can be studied
as three separate components. Most studies, either theoretical or
experimental, focus on the species level, as it is the easiest to work on both
conceptually and in practice. The following parts will cover all levels of
diversity, though examples will generally use the species level.
Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the variety present at the level of genes. Genes, made of
DNA, are the building blocks that determine how an organism will develop
and what its traits and abilities will be. This level of diversity can differ by
alleles (different variants of the same gene, such as blue or brown eyes), or
by entire genes or by units larger than genes such as chromosomal structure.
Genetic diversity can be measured at many different levels, including
population, species, community, and biome. Which level is used depends
upon what is being examined and why, but genetic diversity is important at
each of these levels.
80
Biodiversity Theory. Three Levels of Biodiversity Available online from:
canadianbiodiversity.mcgill.ca/English /theory/threelevels.htm
169
The amount of diversity at the genetic level is important because it represents
the raw material for evolution and adaptation. More genetic diversity in a
species or population means a greater ability for some of the individuals in it
to adapt to changes in the environment. Less diversity leads to uniformity,
which is a problem in the long term, as it is unlikely that any individual in the
population would be able to adapt to changing conditions. As an example,
modern agricultural practices use monocultures, which are large cultures of
genetically identical plants. This is an advantage when is comes to growing
and harvesting crops, but can be a problem when a disease or parasite
attacks the field, as every plant in the field will be susceptible. Monocultures
are also unable to deal well with changing conditions.
Within species, genetic diversity often increases with environmental

variability. If the environment often changes, different genes will have a
chance to flourish at different times or places. In this situation genetic
diversity remains high because a variety of genes are in the population at any
given time. If the environment didn't change, then the small number of genes
that had an advantage in that particular environment would spread at the cost
of the others, causing a drop in genetic diversity.
In communities, genetic diversity increase with the diversity of species. How

much it increases depends not only on the number of species, but also on
how closely related the species are. Species that are closely related (e.g. two
species of Acacia - Kikar) have similar genetic structures and makeup and
therefore do not contribute much additional genetic diversity. These closely-
related species will contribute to genetic diversity in the community less than
more remotely-related species (e.g. Acacia and Shisham) would.
Species Diversity
Biodiversity studies typically focus on species. They do so, not because

species diversity is more important than the other two types, but because
species diversity is easier to work with. Species are relatively easy to identify
by eye in the field, whereas genetic diversity (above) requires laboratories,
time and resources to identify and ecosystem diversity (see below) needs
many complex measurements to be taken over a long period of time. Species
are also easier to conceptualize and have been the basis of much of the
evolutionary and ecological research.
Species are well known and are distinct units of diversity. Each species can
be considered to have a particular "role" in the ecosystem, so the addition or
loss of single species may have consequences for the system as a whole.
Conservation efforts often begin with the recognition that a species is
170
endangered in some way, and a change in the number of species in an
ecosystem is a readily obtainable and easily comprehensible measure of how
healthy the ecosystem is.
Ecosystem Diversity
Ecosystem-level deals with species distributions and community patterns, the

role and function of key species, and combines species functions and
interactions. The term "ecosystem" here represents all levels greater than
species which may include: associations, communities, ecosystems, etc.
Different names are used for this level and it is sometimes divided into
several different levels, such as community and ecosystem levels; all these
levels are included in this overview. This is the least-understood level of the
three described here due to the complexity of the interactions. Trying to
understand all the species in an ecosystem and how they affect each other
and their surroundings while at the same time being affected themselves, is
extremely complex.
One of the difficulties in examining communities is that the transitions

between them are usually not very sharp. A lake may have a very sharp
boundary between it and the deciduous forest within which it exists, but the
deciduous forest will shift much more gradually to grasslands or to a
coniferous forest. This lack of sharp boundaries is known as "open
communities" (as opposed to "closed communities," which would have
sudden transitions) and makes studying ecosystems difficult.
Some researchers think of communities as simply the sum of their species

and processes, and don't think that any of the properties found in
communities are special to that level. Many others disagree, claiming that
many of the characteristics of communities are unique examples of these
characteristics include the levels of the food chain and the species at each of
those levels, and other interactions.
1. What is the advantage that diverse vegetation has over monotypic

vegetation both in natural and agricultural system?
2. What do you understand by the term ecological diversity?
3. Why is studying species diversity preferred over genetic and
ecological diversity?
4. Differentiate between ‘habit’ and ‘habitat’?
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Section 7.1
1. The variety of life in all its forms, levels and combinations is known as
Biological Diversity or Biodiversity
2. Climate change unavailability of food, natural disasters, striking of
large asteroids to the earth are the reasons behind natural extinction.
3. The exotic species become free from their natural predators,
parasites, pathogens and competitors that keep them in check in their
native home. Even mild species can turn into super aggressive weedy
invasives.
4. Toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local populations of
organisms. Pesticides is one of the major pollutants that adversely
affect the aquatic fauna and the fish — eating birds.
5. Endemism, an organism being “endemic” means exclusively native to
a place or biota i.e. it is not found else where except Pakistan. Indus
Dolphin, Chiltan Markhor are two examples.
Section 7.2
1. Natural selection is therefore a process by which heritable traits that

are helpful for survival and reproduction become more common in a
population, while harmful traits become rarer. On the other hand
Genetic drift arises from the role chance plays in whether a given
individual will survive and reproduce.
2. See Box 7.8
3. In a situation when a species is separated into populations through
geographic or man made barriers that prevents from interbreeding and
mutations; genetic drift and the selection of unique traits cause the
accumulation of differences over generations and hence emergence
of new species takes place.
Section 7.3
1. More genetic diversity in a species or population means a greater

ability for some of the individuals in it to adapt to changes in the
environment.
2. Ecological diversity refers to different forms of life which are present in
a particular site.
3. Species are relatively easy to identify by eye in the field, whereas
genetic diversity (above) requires laboratories, time and resources to
172
identify and ecosystem diversity (see below) needs many complex
measurements to be taken over a long period of time.
4. A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits") is an ecological or
environmental area that is inhabited by a particular animal or plant
species. On the other hand the natural tendencies or growth form of
plants is known as its habit e.g. herb, shrub, tree etc.
173
UNIT No. 8
Man-Environment Interaction
Major Topics
8.1 Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability
8.2 Effect of Human activity on Environment
8.3 Implication for Human Society
Introduction
We depend on nature for food, air water and almost everything we use.
Ecosystems provide us and other species with a number of ecosystem
services (figure 8.1). Without these services performed by diverse
communities of species we would be starving, gasping for breath and
drowning in our own wastes.
Figure 8.1 Ecosystem
Services. Energy from
Sun (Solar Capital) and Solar
natural resources Capital
(Natural Capital) provide provides 99% of
Earth’s Energy
ecological services that
support and sustain the
earth’s life and
economies
Climate
Air Control
Resources Recycling
(Carbon,
nitrogen,
sulfur)
Water
Resources Renewable
Energy
Resources
Natural
Soil
Formation Capital
Life Support
and Economic Non-
System Renewable
Waste Energy
Removal &
Detoxification
Non-
Natural Renewable
Renewable Mineral
Pest &
Resources
Disease
Biodiversity Forest etc.
Control
and Gene
Pool
174
In unit 2 we have already been through the interaction of living and the non-
living environment. The flow of energy in an ecosystem and the formation of
simple food chain and complex food webs have also been studied. Nature
keeps itself balanced with the involvement of a number of resources. The
natural systems use solar energy as the ultimate source and the nutrients,
water, etc. are substantially recycled (recall water cycle and biogeochemical
cycles). We can therefore derive a two point theory i.e. all natural ecosystems
and biospheres achieve sustainability by:
i. Using renewable solar energy as their resource
ii. Recycling, the chemical nutrients that its organisms need for
survival, growth and reproduction
Human interference, however, changes this ideal condition to a large extent.
This is only because human beings in order to seek maximum benefit from
nature begin resource exploitation on a faster rate than it is restored. In this
unit we will emphasize on the human environmental interactions and the
impacts we have on our environment. After studying this unit the student will
be able to:
- Understand the basic principles of ecosystem sustainability
- Identify the impacts that human activities make on the environment.
- Make out the possible measures that can be taken to acquire a more
sustainable living
Section 8.1 Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability
To move in the direction of sustainability, activities need to be oriented to

meet our human needs efficiently, fairly, and within the means of nature to
support those needs. Natural systems—ecosystems, water, forests, and our
atmosphere, are deteriorating at a rate faster than they can be renewed and
replenished. That is occurring largely due to our increasing encroachment
upon and degradation of those natural resources. Encroachment occurs
through using up land, water, woods, and natural habitats faster than those
can be recreated. Degradation occurs through our increasing release into
nature of man-made substances, fossil fuel emissions, and other elements
from below the Earth’s surface faster than natural systems can reabsorb and
break them down.
At the same time, our consumption habits and patterns, as well as population
as a whole, are increasing regionally, nationally, and globally. These two
trends — deteriorating natural systems on the one hand, and rising
consumption and population on the other — are like two sides of a funnel
which are converging upon each other. To stabilize, if not reverse, these
175
trends we need to find more efficient ways to meet human needs fairly, while
reducing dependence upon those activities that are encroaching upon and
degrading natural systems.
Four principles can guide our actions to move in this direction. Those
principles are based upon several years of scientific discussion and
consensus about what needs to happen to reorient human activity toward a
sustainable society. The principles are:
1. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals and

minerals
Today we are living in a fossil fuel-based society and are largely dependent
upon mining operations for energy, transportation, and a multitude of natural
resources. At the same time, mining operations threaten national parks,
require massive amounts of energy and chemicals that leak into groundwater,
produce radioactive waste and noxious emissions, and can even displace
communities. Mining and burning fossil fuels generate unsafe levels of many
different pollutants causing acid rain, smog, ozone depletion, and global
climate change, and contribute to environmental health problems such as
learning disabilities, feeble immune systems, asthma, cancer, and
developmental problems. This means that in order for a society to be
sustainable, the balance of flows between the ecosphere (living organisms
and the physical systems with which they interact) and the lithosphere (the
earth’s crust) must be such that concentrations of substances from the
lithosphere do not systematically increase in the whole ecosphere, or in parts
of it.
2. Reduce encroachment upon nature
This principle addresses the physical destruction and manipulation of the

biosphere, and, consequently, the services nature provides to society. These
activities include: paving over productive bioregions, over harvesting of
natural resources such as forests and fisheries, and development leading to
urban sprawl. It also includes protecting natural habitats, smart growth and
supporting sustainable fishing, agriculture and timber harvesting practices
3. Meet human needs fairly and efficiently, giving priority to basic

needs.
From a systems perspective, natural systems are inherently efficient.

Unfortunately, human systems today are not. This is where people have a lot
176
to learn from the planet. The challenge is for people to understand the local
conditions and boundaries of a given environment and then to find ways to
design and use the resources within that environment. A tree throws off
branches and leaves, blows off water and oxygen, and finally falls flat and
sprawls on the ground. Yes, it makes a huge mess, but a tree is still efficient
within the system because the ‘waste’ it produces is used as a resource for
something, or someone, else. We can shift from linear models of infinite
resource use and infinite growth to cyclical models of infinite transformation
and change. This is how nature works.
4. Reduce dependence upon chemicals and synthetic compounds:
This means that in order for a society to be sustainable, the production and
accumulation of human-made substances must not happen faster than they
can be reintegrated back into natural cycles. The focus here is on reducing
our dependence on synthetic materials by using safe, biodegradable
alternatives which can be reintegrated into natural cycles, as well as
decreasing the amount of waste generated by society in general. This is
important because the earth has a limited capacity to assimilate waste and
the volume of material produced by humans today is building up at a rate that
far exceeds the earth’s capacity. Furthermore, nature has no experience with
the synthetic compounds humans are introducing and often has no way of
breaking them down. As a result, it is often impossible to predict the
consequences or locate the cause and negative effects on public and
environment. Even in the rare cases where it is possible to identify the
problem source, the damage done is often irreversible or may take long
periods of time to rectify.
1. What do you understand by the terms bio-degradable and non-degradable

wastes?
2. How is the use of synthetic products harmful for the ecosystem?
3. What are the negative impacts of mining and burning of fossil fuels?
4. Enlist the four principles of ecosystem sustainability.
177
Section 8.2 Effect of Human Activity on Environment
Ecosystems have existed for thousands of years or more maintaining natural

populations of the biota and the processes that in turn sustain the ecosystem.
In the previous units (unit 2 and 6) we have focused on energy flow and
nutrient cycling -- how natural systems work in theory. In reality, however it is
earth’s specific ecosystems that we depend on for goods and services. Is our
use of natural and managed ecosystems a serious threat to their long-term
sustainability? How have humans modified natural ecosystems? To survive
and support growing numbers of people, we have greatly increased the
number and area of the earth’s natural systems that we have modified,
cultivated, built on, or degraded. We have used technology to alter much of
the rest of nature in the following ways:
1. Fragmenting and Degrading Habitat
Habitat fragmentation is the separation of a landscape into various land uses

(e.g., development, agriculture, etc.), resulting in numerous small, disjunctive
habitat patches left for use by wildlife. Fragmentation eliminates habitat for
those species requiring large unbroken blocks of habitat.
Interior Habitat and Species Decrease
Interior Species Edge Habitat and Species Increase
Edge Species
Fragmentation
Fig 8.2 Fragmentation destroys Habitat for many Species
Additionally, the small habitat patches resulting from fragmentation often do

not provide the food and cover resources for many species that do attempt to
use them. Figure 8.2 explains how fragmentation of habitat affects the interior
178
species that become more exposed hence more prone to extinction.
Fragmentation result in an increased risk of death by predation, if the animal
has to venture beyond the cover of the patch to find new food resources, or
starvation.
2. Simplifying Natural ecosystems
When we plow grasslands and clear forests, we often replace their thousands
of interrelated plant and animal species with one crop or one kind of tree
called monocultures; or with buildings, highways, and parking lots. Then we
spend a lot of time, energy, and money trying to protect such monocultures
from invasion such as Opportunist species of plants (weeds), Pests (mostly
insects, to which a monoculture crop is like an all-you-can-eat restaurant),
and Pathogens (fungi, viruses, or bacteria that harm the plants we want to
grow).
3. Consumption
Using, wasting, or destroying an increasing percentage of the earth’s net

primary productivity that supports all consumer species (including humans) is
the main reason we are crowding out or eliminating the habitats and food
supplies of a growing number of species.
Figure 8.3 Human use Lost or degraded land forest to
agriculture and pasture desertified
of biomass produced by and occupied by human 8%
photosynthesis. Humans Used directly (food,
destroy, alter and directly animal fodder, wood
products, fisheries) 16%
use about 27% of earth’s
total net primary Altered by human
productivity activity (cultivated
or grazed forest
land, occupied by
human and aquatic
Not used by
system 3%
Human 73%
4. Strengthening selected species
Other reason include strengthening some populations of pest species and

disease-causing bacteria by (1) speeding up natural selection and (2) causing
genetic resistance through overuse of pesticides and antibiotics.
5. Eliminating predators
Some ranchers want to eradicate bison or prairie dogs that compete with their
sheep or cattle for grass. They also want to eliminate wolves, coyotes,
eagles, and other predators that occasionally kill sheep. Big game hunters
also push for elimination of predators that prey on game species.
179
6. Alien Species
Deliberate or accidental introduction of new or nonnative species not only

degrades a habitat but offer tough competition to the native species. The
aliens may include some beneficial (such as food crops) and some species
that are harmful to humans as well as other species. We have already
discussed invasive species previously in unit 7. Please refer to Box. 7.6
7. Over harvesting renewable resources
Ranchers and nomadic herders sometimes allow livestock to overgraze

grasslands until erosion converts these ecosystems to less productive semi-
deserts or deserts. Farmers sometimes deplete soil nutrients by excessive
crop growing. Fish species are over-harvested. Illegal hunting (poaching)
endangers wildlife species with economically valuable parts (such as elephant
tusks, rhinoceros horns, and tiger skins).
8. Interference with Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycling
Humans make heavy use of the energy that starts from sunlight and flows
through natural and agricultural ecosystems. Agriculture for example,
provides most of our food. To accomplish this we have converted almost 11%
of earth’s land area from forest and grass land biomes to agricultural
ecosystems. Grassland provides animals for labor, meat, wool, leather and
milk. Forests provide us with food for fuel, building material and paper. Finally
some 15% of the world’s energy consumption is derived directly from plant
material. Furthermore, humans convert many natural and agricultural lands to
urban and sub urban housing, highways, dumps, factories, etc. we can count
another 8-10% consumption of potential primary production. Thus we use
more than 35% of land’s primary product to support human needs.
In addition to running on solar energy, the current human system depends

heavily on fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, and crude oil. Crude oil is refined to
produce liquid fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, fuel oil, and so on. Even in
the production of food, which depends fundamentally on sunlight and
photosynthesis, it is estimated that we use about 10 calories of fossil fuel for
every calorie of food consumed. This additional energy is depleted in the
course of preparing fields, fertilizing the plants, controlling pests, harvesting
the food, and processing, preserving, transporting and, finally, cooking it. For
these reasons, most people concerned about sustainability are solar-energy
advocates. Solar energy is extremely abundant. Just as important, we already
have the technology to obtain much more of our energy needs from sunlight
and the forces it causes, such as wind.
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Nutrient Cycling: Ecosystems dispose of wastes and replenish nutrients by
recycling the elements. This maintains their sustainability, indefinitely. Human
systems, by contrast, are based in large part on a one-directional flow of
elements (Fig. 8.4). For example, the fertilizer— nutrient phosphate, which is
mined from deposits, ends up going into waterways via land runoff and
effluents from sewage treatment. The same one-way flow occurs with such
metals as aluminum, mercury, lead, and cadmium, used in our industry. At
one end, these resources are mined from the Earth; at the other, they are
discarded in dumps and landfills. As a result the resources are depleted at the
source end and cause pollution at the disposal end terminal other.
Mineral Chemical Humans

Crops
Deposits Fertilizer
s
Manufactured Human Landfill Effluent

Products Use Dumps Discharge
Figure 8.4 In a man-made ecosystem the flow of nutrients is one-directional.
The Earth has substantial (but not unlimited) deposits of most minerals;
however, the capacity of ecosystems to absorb wastes without being
disturbed is comparatively limited. This limitation is aggravated, furthermore,
by the fact that many of the products we use are non-biodegradable. In
addition, chemicals such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) released into the
atmosphere can increase the amount of harmful ultraviolet energy reaching
the earth by reducing ozone levels in the stratosphere. Emissions of carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse gases—from burning fossil fuels and from
clearing and burning forests and grasslands—can trigger global climate
change by altering energy flow through the atmosphere.

1. Briefly describe the impacts of habitat fragmentation.
2. What is the basic difference between a natural ecosystem and a man-
made ecosystem?
3. Define chlorofluorocarbons? How do these compounds affect the
environment?
4. What percentage of net primary productivity is consumed by the
humans?
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Section 8.3 Implications for Human81
To survive we must exploit and modify parts of nature. But, we are beginning
to understand that any human intrusion into nature has multiple effects, most
of them unpredictable. The challenge is to:
1. Maintain a balance between simplified, human-altered ecosystems
and the neighboring, more complex natural ecosystems on which we
and other life-forms depend and
2. Slow down the rates at which we are altering nature for our purposes.
If we simplify and degrade too much of the planet to meet our needs
and wants, what is at risk is not the earth but our own species.
What Can We Learn from Nature About Living More Sustainably? Organisms,
populations, and ecosystems are remarkably resilient when exposed to
stresses caused by natural or human- induced changes in environmental
conditions. However, scientific research indicates that environmental stresses
have harmful effects on organisms, populations, and ecosystems that can
affect their environmental health and long-term sustainability.
Many biologists believe the best way for us to live more sustainably is to:
 Learn about the processes and adaptations by which nature sustains
itself and
 Mimic these lessons from nature.
Biologists have used these lessons from nature to formulate several
principles to guide us in our search for more sustainable lifestyles:
 Our lives, lifestyles, and economies are totally dependent on the sun
and the earth. We need the earth, but the earth does not need us.
 Everything is connected to everything else. The primary goal of
ecology is to discover which connections in nature are the strongest,
most important, and most vulnerable to disruption.
 We can never do merely one thing. Any human intrusion into nature
has mostly unpredictable side effects. When we alter nature, we
should ask, “And then what?”
 We should reduce and minimize the damage we do to nature and help
heal some of the ecological wounds we have inflicted.
 We should use care, restraint, humility, and cooperation with nature as
we alter the biosphere to meet our needs and wants.
 Using such guidelines, we can create a more ecologically and
economically sustainable society that lives within its ecological means
by (1) taking no more than we need, (2) using renewable resources no
faster
81
Bernard J. Nebel, Richard T. Wright (1993) Environmental Science The Way the World
th
Works 4 ed. Prentice Hall publication pp 60-68
182
Section 8.1
1. Bio-degradable waste are the by products which consists of natural

stuff, such that when you throw it microorganisms will degrade it and
release the natural products back to atmosphere. Take an example of
your Garden's waste. You throw it out side and one day it will turn into
Compost, a very good fertilizer. On the other hand Non-
Biodegradable stuff can not be decomposed like glass, steel etc.
They won’t be melting in Nature no matter how strong are the
organisms are.
2. Refer to Fourth Principle of Section 8.1, ‘Reduce dependence upon
chemicals and synthetic compounds’
3. Mining and burning fossil fuels generate unsafe levels of many
different pollutants causing acid rain, smog, ozone depletion, and
global climate change, and contribute to environmental health
problems such as learning disabilities, feeble immune systems,
asthma, cancer, and developmental problems.
4. The Four Principles are:
i. Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals
and minerals
ii. Reduce encroachment upon nature
iii. Meet human needs fairly and efficiently, giving priority to basic
needs
iv. Reduce dependence upon chemicals and synthetic
compounds
Section 8.2
1. Habitat fragmentation eliminates habitat for those species requiring

large unbroken blocks of habitat. Further more, it results in an
increased risk of death by predation or starvation
2. A natural ecosystem is cyclic in terms of nutrient and energy flow. A
man made ecosystem is unidirectional.
3. Chlorofluorocarbons are the compounds of chlorine and carbon that
when released into air remains suspended for several years, until
these come in contact with the ozone layer of the stratosphere. The
chlorine gas reacts with ozone gas thus causing depletion of ozone.
4. We consume more than 35% of land’s primary product to support
human needs.
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UNIT No. 9
Pakistan’s Environmental Setting
Major Topics
9.1 Location and Extent
9.2 Climate
9.3 Soil and Topography
9.4 Flora and fauna
9.5 Human settlement pattern
9.1 Location and Extent82
Pakistan has a great variety of landscapes with a diversified relief. It has all
the majestic high mountain ranges of the sub-Continental north: the
Himalayas, the Karakorams and the Hindu Kush, the vast and rich irrigated
plains of the lndus Basin covering vast tracts of the Punjab and Sindh, the
stark deserts of Cholistan (Punjab) and Thar (Sindh), the inter-montane
valleys of NWFP (North West Frontier Province), the awe-inspiring rugged
plateaus of Balochistan and the meeting point of the Himalayas, the Hindu
Kush, and the Karakorams in the Northern areas are some of the most varied
features of the country’s landscape
83
Fig 9.1 Location Map of Pakistan
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CIA World Factbook, 2007
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Geographically, Pakistan lies between 24° and 37° N latitude and 61° and 75°
E longitude. It is bordered by China in the north, Arabian Sea in the south,
Iran in the west, Afghanistan in the north-west and India in the east (Fig. 1). It
is a federation of four provinces: NWFP, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan with
its capital at Islamabad. The land area of Pakistan is about 796,000 sq. km
and an estimated population of 134 million (June 1996), having a population
density of 168 persons per sq. km.
Of the 79.6 million hectares land area, only about 22 million hectares (23%)
are available for cultivation: 18 million ha irrigated and 4 million ha rain-fed.
Forests, both natural and man-made, cover about 4% of its land area.

1. The geographical coordinates for Pakistan are__________________.
2. The total land area of Pakistan is _______________ sq. km. of which
_________ million hectares are available for cultivation.
3. ______________ lies in the east of Pakistan whereas, Afghanistan
lies in the ______________.
9.2 Climate84
Depending on the topography, there is an extreme variation in the
temperature of Pakistan. The country is essentially arid except for the
southern slopes of the Himalayas and the sub- mountainous tract where the
annual rainfall varies between 760 and 1270 mm. This area has humid sub-
Tropical climate. In the extreme north - because of great heights - Highland
climate prevails. The controlling factors of the climate are:
1. The sub-Tropical location of Pakistan that tends to keep the
temperature high, particularly in summer.
2. The oceanic influence of the Arabian Sea that keeps down the
temperature contrast between summer and winter at the coast.
3. Higher altitudes in the west and north keep temperatures down
throughout the year.
4. The Monsoon winds that bring rainfall in summer.
5. The Western Depression originating from the Mediterranean region
and entering Pakistan from the west that brings rainfall in winter.
These cyclones make a long land journey and are thus robbed of most
of the moisture by the time they reach Pakistan.
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Introduction to Pakistan Section 9: Climate. Available online from:
http://www.wildlifeofpakistan.com/IntroductiontoPakistan/climateofPakistan.htm
185
6. A temperature inversion layer at a low elevation of about 1,500 m in
the south during the summer that does not allow the moisture-laden
air to rise and condensation to take place.
Temperature
Pakistan can be divided into four broad temperature regions:
1. Hot summer and mild winter: 32°C or more in summer and 10 to 21°C
in winter.
2. Warm summer and mild winter: 21 - 32°C in summer and 10 to 21°C
in winter.
3. Warm summer and cool winter: 21 - 32°C in summer and 0 - 10°C in
winter.
4. Mild summer and cool/cold winter: Summer temperature between 10
and 21°C and winter temperature between 0 and 10°C.
16 – 20ºC 16 – 20ºC
20 – 24ºC 20 – 24ºC
24 – 28ºC 24 – 28ºC
28 – 32ºC 28 – 32ºC
32 – 36ºC 32 – 36ºC
Figure 9.2a Maps showing maximum and minimum temperature regime 85
85
Map Credit: UNEP Environment Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific
http://www.rrcap.unep.org
186
Rainfall
The major part of Pakistan experiences dry climate. Humid conditions prevail
but over a small area in the north. The whole of Sindh, most of Balochistan,
the major part of the Punjab and central parts of Northern Areas receive less
than 250 mm of rainfall in a year. Northern Sindh, southern Punjab, north-
western Balochistan and the central parts of Northern Areas receive less than
125 mm of rainfall. True humid conditions appear after the rainfall increases
to 750 mm in plains and 625 mm in highlands.
There are two sources of rainfall in Pakistan: the Monsoon and the Western
Depression. The former takes place from July to September and the latter
from December to March. Based on the average rainfall (in mm) between
1974 and 1983, Table 3 attempts to give a picture of the quantity of
precipitation received in Pakistan.
Less than 200 mm
200 – 300 mm
300 – 400 mm
400 – 500 mm
500 – 600 mm
600 – 700 mm
700 – 800 mm
800 – 900 mm
900 – 1000 mm
1000 – 1200 mm
1200 – 1400 mm
1400 – 1600 mm
1600 – 1800 mm
1800 – 2000 mm
Figure 9.2b Pakistan – Precipitation regime
Fill in the Blanks

1. ___________________________ in the west and north keep
temperatures down throughout the year.
2. Generally climate of Pakistan is _________________ except for the
Himalayan and the sub mountainous tracts.
3. In Pakistan, rainfall occurs through two main sources namely
_____________ and ___________________________.
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9.3 Soils, Physiography and Topography of Pakistan86
Aridity prevailing over major part of Pakistan is the main climatic characteristic
that affects its soils. This has resulted in limiting the soil moisture and
scantiness of vegetative cover. Soils in Pakistan are rich in Basic but poor in
Nitrogenous matter.
9.3.1 Parent Material
The soils of Pakistan are derived from two types of parent materials:
1. Alluvium, Loess and wind reworked sands. They are of mixed
mineralogy.
2. Residual material obtained from weathering of underlying rocks. Most
of the rocks are Calcareous. In some areas, Granites have produced
non-calcareous soil material. Very small quantities of salts are
released from most of the rocks. The soils are therefore, essentially
non-saline.
9.3.2 Soil Classification
The soils of Pakistan have acquired distinct characteristics from the parent
material and by their mode of formation. The river-laid sediments have
developed into Alluvial Soils. The desert sands have turned into distinct soils.
The hills, mountains and the plateaus have produced Residual Soils with
patches of Alluvial, Loess and other soils. Accordingly, the soils of Pakistan
can be classified into the following six types:
 Alluvial Soils of the Flood Plains
 Alluvial Soils of the Bar Uplands
 Soils of the Piedmont Plains
 Desert Soils
 Soils of Pothwar Plateau
 Soils of Western Hills
9.3.3 Physiography of Pakistan
The physical framework of Pakistan has been built by two major geomorphic
processes that have produced two distinct physiographic entities:
1. The Western Highlands produced by the mountain building movement
extended from the Makran Coast in the south to the Pamir Plateau in
the extreme north.
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2. The Indus Plains resulting from the deposition of sediments from the
Indus River and its tributaries.
The Western Highlands cover most of Balochistan, NWFP, Northern Areas

(Gilgit Agency) and parts of the Punjab. These can be further divided into five
physiographic entities:
 Mountainous North
 Koh-e-Safaid and Waziristan Hills
 Sulaiman and Kirthar Mountains
 Balochistan Plateau
 Pothwar Plateau and the Salt Ranges
The Mountainous North covers the northern parts of Pakistan and

comprises parallel mountain ranges intervened by narrow and deep river
valleys. East of the Indus River, the mountain ranges in general run from east
to west. To its west - from north to south - run the following important
mountain ranges:
 The Himalayas
 The Karakorams
 The Hindu Kush
The western most parts of the Himalayas fall in Pakistan. The sub-Himalayas
(the southern most ranges) do not rise to great heights (600 - 1200 masl).
The Lesser Himalayas lie to the north of the sub-Himalayas and rise to 1,800
- 4,600 masl. The Great Himalayas are located north of the Lesser
Himalayas. They attain snowy heights (of more than 4,600 m).
The Karakoram Ranges in the extreme north rise to an average height of

6,100 m. Mount Goodwin Austin (K-2) - the second highest peak in the world -
is 8,610 m and located in the Karakorams.
The Hindu Kush Mountains take off the western side of the Pamir Plateau
that is located to the west of the Karakorams. These mountains take a
southerly turn and rise to snowy heights. Some of the peaks rise to great
heights like Noshaq (7,369 m) and Tirich Mir (7,690 m).
The Koh-e-Safaid Ranges have an east-west trend and rise to an average

height of 3,600 m. They are commonly covered with snow. Sikeram, the
highest peak in Koh-e-Safaid Ranges rises to 4,760 m. Similarly, the
elevation of Waziristan Hills ranges from 1,500 and 3,000 m.
189
Some rivers flowing in the region have formed passes through which armies,
peoples and cultures have moved. Among them, the Khyber Pass is the most
important. It connects Peshawar in Pakistan to Kabul in Afghanistan.
The Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountain Ranges extending from south of Gomal

River, lie between Balochistan Plateau and the Indus Plains. On reaching the
Murree-Bugti Hills, they turn northward and extend up to Quetta. Further
south, they meet the Kirthar Mountains, which merge in to the Kohistan area
of Sindh. The Sulaiman Mountains rise to an average height of 600 m that
decreases southward. Takht-e-Sulaiman (3,487 m) and Takatu (3,470 m) are
the highest peaks of the Sulaiman Ranges.
The Balochistan Plateau is located west of the Sulaiman-Kirthar Mountains.

Its western part is dominated by a number of sub-parallel ranges: the Makran
Coast Range (600 m), and the Central Makran Range (900- 1200 m). The
highest peak Ras Koh, attains a height of 3010 m.
The Pothwar Plateau and the Salt Range region are located to the south of
the mountainous north and lie between the Indus River on the west and the
Jhelum River on the east. Its northern boundary is formed by the Kala Chitta
Ranges and the Margalla Hills and the southern boundary by the Salt
Ranges. The Kala Chitta Range rises to an average height of 450 - 900 m
and extends for about 72 km. The main Pothwar Plateau extends north of the
Salt Range. It is an undulating area 300 - 600 m high. The Salt Ranges have
a steep face towards the south and slope gently in to the Pothwar Plateau in
the north. They extend from Jhelum River up to Kalabagh where they cross
the Indus River and enter the Bannu district and rise to an average height of
750 - 900 m. Sakesar Peak (1,527 m) is the highest point of the Salt Ranges.
The Indus Plains have been formed by the alluvium laid down from the river
Indus and its tributaries. The Indus is a mighty stream about 2,900 km long
with catchment areas of about 963,500 sq. km. From its source it flows from
east to west between the Karakorams and the Himalayas. It receives a
number of tributaries from the west: Kabul River, Kurram, Tochi and the
Gomal River. The left side tributaries are Jhelum, Ravi and Sutlej. They
combine at Panjnad. The swelling of Indus and its tributaries during summer
causes floods. Sometimes the rivers change their courses and spread fertile
silts in some areas and coarse sands in others. All these processes have built
the Indus plains and have made them agriculturally very important. The Indus
Plains slope down from north to south. In the north, they rise to about 300 m
and drop to about 75 m near Pajnad in the Punjab. From there, they slope
gently and cascade in to the Arabian Sea.
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The Indus Plains can be divided into the following physiographic entities:
 Piedmont Plains
 Alluvial Terraces
 Active Flood Plains
 Delta/c Plains
 Rolling Sand Plains and Dunes
Extensive Piedmont Plains have developed between the Indus River and the
Sulaiman-Kirthar mountains. They have been built by the alluvial fans along
the lndus flowing eastward down the mountains. Most of the rivers rolling
down the mountains become active only when rainfall takes place. They flow
down the slopes swiftly. On reaching the foothills, they loose speed and drop
part of their load within the streams, which split into a number of narrow
channels. These channels become so overburdened (with sediment load) that
they die before they reach the lndus towards which they flow. The gravel,
sand and silt thus deposited, form the alluvial fans. The Piedmont plains,
dominated by the alluvial fans, provide good soils and suitable topography for
agriculture.
Alluvial Terraces are depositional and are separated from the adjoining flood
plains by the river-cut bluffs ranging in height from 5 to 15 m. The sediments
of the terraces are called old alluvium and are composed of compact
calcareous silty clays.
Active Flood Plains are narrow strips of land along the Indus and its
tributaries varying from 24 to 40 km in width. They are inundated almost every
year, covered with rich alluvium and are suitable for agriculture. Old flood
plains cover extensive areas between the active flood plains and the desert
areas in the lower Indus Valley.
The Deltaic Plains have in fact been built by the lndus as a large delta at its
mouth. The apex of the delta is to the south of Thatta. The area bounded by
the Kalri and Pinyari, the two distributaries of the Indus, is taken as the Indus
Delta. The delta is scarred with old and present channels of the lndus. At the
coast, barrier bars have developed. There are extensive mud flats sliced by
the tidal channels. The inland limit of the mud flats is marked by a cliff.
An extensive area in the south-west of Pakistan is covered with Rolling Sand

Plains and Dunes. It is separated from the Indus valley by the dry channels of
Ghaggar River. This extensive desert is called Cholistan in the Punjab and
Thar in Sindh. It is not drained by any perennial stream. Therefore wind action
is dominant in the formation of its topography. A vast expanse of sand plains
with dunes dominates the scene. Agriculturally, it is a poor area.
191
9.3.4 Forest Cover87
The climate of Pakistan varies with altitude, which in turn affects the type of
vegetation. It has some of the world’s highest cold areas that occur above
5,175 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.) in the Himalayas and the hottest low
areas in the Indus Plains with many intermediate ecological zones.
Pakistan has nine major Ecological Zones with the main ecological
determinants as Arid and Semi-Arid conditions. These conditions prevail over
most part of the lndus Plains and the Balochistan Plateau. The Humid
conditions exist over the hills and mountains in the north. In the Arid and
Semi-Arid areas, most parts are bare of vegetation. At riverbanks and deltas,
Riverain and Mangrove forests have emerged. On humid hills and mountains,
pines and coniferous forests occur that change with altitude. The Dry sub-
Tropical forests dominate up to an altitude of 1,000 masl, the Coniferous
forests from 1,000 to 4,000 m. above tree line, Dwarf Alpine forests followed
by the Alpine Pastures occur up to snow line.
Based on the above classification, the following seven forest types are
recognized:
1. Alpine Forests
2. Coniferous Forests
3. Sub- Tropical Forests
4. Tropical Thorn Forests
5. Irrigated Plantations (artificial!)
6. Riverain Forests
7. Mangrove/Coastal Forests
The Alpine Forests occur in the northern districts of Chitral, Swat, Dir and
Kohistan. Because of long severe winters, dwarfed and stunted trees of Silver
Fir (Abies webbiana), Juniper (Juniperus spp.) take place.
The Coniferous Forests occur from 1,000 to 4,000 m altitudes. Swat, Dir,
Malakand, Mansehra and Abbottabad districts of NWFP, and Rawalpindi
districts of the Punjab are the main areas covered with coniferous forests. Fir
(Abies spp.) and Spruce (Picea smithiana) occupy the highest altitudes,
Deodar (Cedrus deodara) and Blue Pine (Pinus wallichiana), the intermediate
heights, and Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii), the lower areas. The Coniferous
forests also occur in Balochistan hills. Chilghoza Pine (Pinus gerardiana) and
Juniper (Juniperous macropoda) are the two most common species of
Balochistan.
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The sub-Tropical Dry Forests are found in the Attock, Rawalpindi, Jhelum
and Gujrat districts of the Punjab, and in the Mansehra, Abbottabad, Mardan,
Peshawar and Kohat districts of NWFP up to a height of 1,000 m. In
Balochistan, they are confined to the Sulaiman Mountains and other hilly
areas. Dominant tree species are Phulai (Acacia modesta), Kau (Olea
cuspidata) and Dodoneae viscosa.
The Tropical Thorn Forests are dominated by Xerophytic Scrubs. They are
most widespread in the Punjab plains. They also occupy small areas in
southern Sindh and western Balochistan. Common species are Acacia spp.,
Salvadora oleodes, Prosopis cineraria, Capparis aphylla, etc.
The Irrigated Plantations were first developed in 1866 at Changa Manga

(Punjab!). Today they occupy about 226,000 ha. Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo),
Mulberry (Morus alba), Babul (Acacia nilotica), Eucalyptus and Populus spp.
are the common tree species grown in the Irrigated Plantations.
The Riverain Forests grow in narrow belts along the banks of Indus and its
tributaries. They are more commonly found in Sindh and to some extent in the
Punjab. Babul (Acacia niotica), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo) and Tamarax
diolca are the most common species. Prosopis cineraria, Tamarax spp. and
Populus euphratica are some other species found in these Forests.
The Mangrove Forests are located in the Indus delta. However, lack of fresh
water has resulted in their stunted growth. Avecennia officanilis is the main
species. Ceriops and Rhizophoras are the other tree species but are fast
disappearing because of human pressure.
9.3.5 Areas of Major land cover Transformations (Hot Spots)
As a consequence to deforestation and changing land use patterns, the most

critically affected ecosystems of Pakistan are:
Juniper Forests of northern Balochistan, essentially categorized as

Protected Forests, are heavily harvested for timber and fuel wood. The
unrestricted grazing has further hampered the natural regeneration of trees.
Indus River Zone is the other such area where ecological changes have
drastically affected the Riverain Forests as also the Coastal Mangrove
Forests. Large tracts of riverain forests have been cleared for agriculture. The
river Indus has been dammed and dyked and thus confined.
The resulting drop in river level has left extensive areas of the riverain forests
high and dry. As a further consequence of the construction of upstream dams
(in the northern parts) and barrages in the plains of the Punjab and Sindh,
193
there has been considerable drop in the Indus water. This has caused
reduction of fresh water flow in the delta (at the confluence of the Arabian
Sea) resulting in increased salinity which in turn has damaged the mangrove
forests and thus eliminated several tree species. The uncontrolled cutting of
trees for firewood and fodder needs has further accelerated the reduction and
degradation of swamp forests.
The Himalayan Temperate Forests are also under severe pressure from
logging for timber and firewood and making clearings for agriculture; for the
ever-increasing population pressure.

1. Define parent material
2. Classify the soils of Pakistan
3. Enlist the northern mountain ranges of Pakistan
4. Describe the location of the Pothwar Plateau and the Salt Range
Region
5. Enlist the seven forest types of Pakistan.
6. What do you understand by the term ‘hot-spots’?
9.4 Flora and Fauna88,89

You have studied a detailed account on Biodiversity of Pakistan in Unit No. 7.
The same information is summarized here so that no aspect of Pakistan’s
Environmental Setting is felt incomplete.
9.4.1 Flora
As you have studied about 5,500 - 6,000 species of vascular plants have
been recorded in Pakistan including both native and introduced species. The
flora included elements of the 6 phytogeographic regions, 4 monotypic genera
of flowering plants and around 400 (7.8%) species are endemic to Pakistan.
Box 9.1 Endemic Species

Endemic species are the ones that are exclusively native to a specific place
or biota. Here we mean the species that are found no where except Pakistan
88
Pakistan Environment: Biodiversity by Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF, Pakistan)
Available online from http://www.wwfpak.org/p_environment_biodiversity.php
89
Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan (2000) A framework for conserving our natural
Wealth. Publication prepared by prepared by the Government of Pakistan, Ministry of
Environment, Local Government and Rural Development in collaboration with the World Wide
Fund for Nature, Pakistan and IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Pakistan
194
Almost 80% of the endemics are found in the northern and western
mountains. The Kashmir Himalayas are identified as a global centre of plant
diversity and endemism. Families with more than 20 recorded endemics are
Papilionaceae (57 species), Compositae (49), Umbelliferae (34), Poaceae
(32) and Brassicaceae (20).
9.4.2 Mammals
Around 174 mammal species have been reported in Pakistan. Out of these,
there are at least 3 endemic species and a number of endemic and near
endemic sub-species (Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan, W\NF - P, IUCN -
P and GoP).
9.4.3 Birds
668 bird species have been recorded in Pakistan. Out of them, 375 were
recorded as breeding. Breeding birds are a mixture of Palearctic and
Indomalayan forms (1/3rd) and the occurrence of many species at one or the
other geographical limits of their range shows the diverse origins of the
avifauna. The Sulaiman Range, the HinduKush, and the Himalayas in the
NWFP and Azad Kashmir comprise part of the Western Himalayan Endemic
Bird Area; this is the global centre of bird endemism. The Indus Valley
wetlands are the second area of endemism.
9.4.4 Reptiles / Amphibians
Around 177 species, being a blend of Palearctic and lndomalayan forms Out
of the total 14 species of turtles, 90 of lizards and 65 of snakes have been
reported. While 13 species are believed to be endemic. Being a semi arid
country, only 22 species of amphibians have been recorded, of which 9 are
endemic.
9.4.5 Fish / Invertebrates
Pakistan has 198 native and introduced freshwater fish species. The fish
fauna is predominately south Asian and with some west Asian and high Asian
elements. Fish species diversity is highest in the Indus river plains and in
adjacent hill ranges (Kirthar Range), and in the Himalayan foothills in Hazara,
Malakand, Swat and Peshawar. Diversity is lowest in the mountain zone of
the northern mountains and arid parts of north-west Balochistan. There are 29
endemic species.
195
There has been little research on Invertebrates of Pakistan. About 5,000
species of invertebrates have been recorded including insects (1,000 species
of true bugs, 400 species of butterflies and moths, 110 species of flies and 49
species of termites). Other includes 109 species of marine worms, over 800
species of mollusks and 355 species of nematodes.
1. Define the term ‘endemic species’

2. How many species of vascular plants are in Pakistan?
3. How do reptiles differ from amphibians?
9.5 Human Settlement Pattern

The traditional regions of Pakistan, shaped by ecological factors and historical
evolution, are reflected in the administrative division of the country into four
provinces: Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier Province and Balochistan.
9.5.1 Rural Settlement
Two-third of the rural population of Pakistan lives in nucleated villages or

hamlets i.e., in compact groups of dwellings. The concept of a village often
tends to be equivalent to an area of land that, together with a village and its
satellite hamlets, forms a unit. It is difficult to speak of an average size of a
village, for patterns of habitation are complex. Rural areas commonly lack
basic facilities such as water, sanitation, electricity, education, and health
services. There are great disparities between rural and urban areas and
between rich and poor in rural areas (Pakistan, 2004a, Pakistan, 2005a). The
rich rural landlords own most of the rural resources, have an elite status, and
exercise excessive powers that are mostly unchecked by the legal system.
These landlords dominate not only rural areas but also the overall political
system in the country.
9.5.2 Urban Settlement
Islamabad is the capital of the country. The other principal cities are Karachi
(capital city of Sindh province), Lahore (capital city of Punjab province),
Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Peshawar (capital city of NWFP province), and
Quetta (capital city of Balochistan province). The urban population of Pakistan
represents about one-third of the total population (Pakistan, 2004a). Rapid
and unplanned urban expansion has resulted in deterioration of living
conditions, degradation of physical environment and excessive pressures
196
upon the existing urban facilities (Khan & Bhutta, 2001; Luby et al., 2004;
Pakistan, 2005b; Siddiqi, et al., 2004). Water supply and sewerage systems
are inadequate, of poor quality, and mostly unhygienic (Pakistan, 2004a;
Pakistan, 2005c) Unplanned industrialization has destroyed natural
resources. In many places, industry has polluted soil, water and air (ADB,
2005; llliyas et al., 1997; Pakistan, 2005c). The unplanned and unchecked
system of traffic results in air and noise pollution.
At independence, Pakistan was a predominantly rural country. While the rural

population still constitutes about two-thirds of the total population, the share of
urban population has been progressively increasing as a result of the
structural transformation of the economy. People move to urban areas
because of expectations that cities can provide better employment
opportunities and higher incomes. While urban settlement patterns have
varied across countries, efforts to significantly restrain migration or urban
growth have largely proven to be unsuccessful. To an extent, the
development of smaller towns can reduce the migration to metropolitan areas
and mega cities. Creation of employment opportunities in such areas must
also be accompanied by investment in social infrastructure. The policies that
determine the “terms of trade” between urban and rural areas should ensure
that pricing distortions do not unintentionally encourage migration.
Of the total population of the country, estimated at 153.45 million in 2005,

101.22 million live in rural areas (65.96 per cent) and 52.23 million live in
urban areas (34.04 per cent). By 2010, the total population is expected to
increase to 167.37 million, at overall annual growth rate of 1.8 per cent, with
the rural and urban populations at 106.55 million (63.66 per cent) and 60.82
million (36.34 per cent) respectively. During 2005-10, the rural and urban
pollution growth rates are estimated at 1.1 per cent and 3.3 per cent
respectively. Allowing for population with significant urban characteristics
would give an even higher estimate of urban population. Of the total increase
of population of 13.92 million during MTDF, 5.34 million (38.36 per cent) will
be in rural areas and 8.58 million (61.64 per cent) in urban areas. Thus, while
the urban population will grow at a higher rate and the level of urbanization
will increase to 38 per cent, the rural share of 62 per cent in 2010 will still be
the bulk share of the total population. There are about 50,000 villages in the
country with populations below 10,000; around 448 small towns with
population less than 100,000; 40 medium size towns with population above
100,000; 7 metropolitan cities of Faisalabad, Multan, Gujranwala, Hyderabad,
Peshawar, Rawalpindi and Quetta with population in excess of 1 million; and
the 2 mega cities of Karachi and Lahore. Infrastructure and services in both
rural and urban areas are deficient and substantial improvements are needed.
However, the rural areas continue to lag behind in the availability of physical
197
infrastructure education and health facilities, safe drinking water supply and
sanitation and other social services. The present position of some important
rural-urban indicators is summarized in Table 9.1 below.
90
Table 9.1 Rural Urban Indicators, 2005
S. No. Sector Unit Rural Urban Total
1. Population In Million 101.22 52.23 153.45

2. Labour Force In Million 65.96 34.04 100
3. Un-Employed Labor Force In % 6.74 9.70 7.69
4. Population Below Poverty Line In % 34.00 20.30 30.00
5. Literacy Rate In % 44 74 66
Male In % 55 75 76
Female In % 25 59 52
6. Municipal Water Supply In % 25 85 65
7. Municipal Sewerage/Sanitation In % 30 65 42
8. Roads In km. 97881 157975 255856
9. Basic Health Units Nos. 5290 - 5290
10. Rural Health Clinics Nos. 552 - 552

1. Define the term urbanization.
2. What is the percentage of rural population in Pakistan?
3. Name the two mega cities of Pakistan.
4. What does a rural area lack when compared to an urban area?
90
Source: Midterm Development Framework, Ministry of Planning and Development, GoP.
Available online: http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/ministries/planninganddevelopment-
ministry/mtdf/15-pdf
198
Answers to Self assessment Questions
Section 9.1
1. 24° and 37° N latitude and 61° and 75° E longitude

2. 79.6 million hectares; 22 million hectares
3. India; West
Section 9.2
1. Higher altitudes
2. Arid
3. Monsoon and Western Depression
Section 9.3
1. Residual material obtained from weathering of underlying rocks

2. The soils of Pakistan can be classified into the following six types:
 Alluvial Soils of the Flood Plains
 Alluvial Soils of the Bar Uplands
 Soils of the Piedmont Plains
 Desert Soils
 Soils of Pothwar Plateau
 Soils of Western Hills
3. The northern mountain ranges are:
 The Himalayas
 The Karakorams
 The Hindu Kush
4. The Pothwar Plateau and the Salt Range region are located to the
south of the mountainous north and lie between the Indus River on
the west and the Jhelum River on the east. Its northern boundary is
formed by the Kala Chitta Ranges and the Margalla Hills and the
southern boundary by the Salt Ranges
5. Based on the above classification, the following seven forest types
are recognized
 Alpine Forests
 Coniferous Forests
 Sub- Tropical Forests
 Tropical Thorn Forests
 Irrigated Plantations (artificial!)
 Riverain Forests
 Mangrove/Coastal Forest
199
6. Places where plants and animals are most threatened such as Juniper
Forests
Section 9.4
1. Endemic species are the ones that are exclusively native to a specific
place or biota. Here we mean the species that are found no where
except Pakistan
2. About 5,500 - 6,000 species of vascular plants have been recorded in
Pakistan
3. Amphibians, which include salamanders, toads and frogs, are
vertebrate animals (in the phylum Chordata) that spend at least part
of their life cycle in water. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have to
live part of their life in water. Examples include, snakes, lizards,
turtles etc.
Section 9.5
1. Urbanization is the physical growth of urban areas from rural areas

as a result of population immigration to an existing urban area
2. 65.96 %
3. Karachi and Lahore
4. The rural areas lag behind in the availability of physical infrastructure
education and health facilities, safe drinking water supply and
sanitation and other social services.
200

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INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENT

Bachelor Level Course

Department of Environmental Science

Allama Iqbal Open University

Course Development Dr. Hina Fatimah

Contributing Authors Prof. Dr. Abdulrauf Farooqi

Dr. Zahidullah, Lecturer, Department of

Reviewers Dr. Saeed Ahmad Sheikh, Assistant

Editor Mr. Abdul Wadood

 Title Ms. Shabnam Irshaad

 Typesetting Mr. Muhammad Usman

Primarily the objectives of this course are to:

1.1 Environment: Definitions, History, Scope and Importance

Unit 2 Frame Work of Ecology

2.1 Levels of Organization in Nature

3.1 Atmosphere: Composition and Structure

4.1 Earth: Structure and Composition

5.1 Water: A Unique Solvent and a Vital Resource

6.1 Nitrogen Cycle

Unit 7 Biological Diversity and Its Distribution

7.1 Understanding Biological Diversity

Unit 8 Man Environment Interaction

8.1 Four Principles of Ecosystem Sustainability

Unit 9 Pakistan Environmental Setting

9.1 Location and Extent

This unit looks more closely at science as a systematic way of knowing,

1. Define environmental science, ecology and its types.

Environment (from the French ‘environner’ to encircle or surround) can be

Definition of Environment: Another important definition of environment

It can be concluded from the above definition that environment comprises of

Environmental Conservation, alleviation of poverty and sustainable development

Box 1.1 Domino’s Effect

The domino effect is a chain reaction that occurs when a

One of the contributing factors to the growing poverty in Pakistan is

Another adverse affect of environmental degradation is increased vulnerability to

NSTA (2008)6 pledged strong support for environmental education as a way

Only a few universities offered programs in the field of Environmental Science

Table 1.1 Number of Experts required in the field of Environmental Science

No. Category Number Experts Specific remarks

Forestry Environmental Ecology

Criteria for environmental awareness (environmental literacy) includes:

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere implies the protective blanket of gases,

2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources

3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists

4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their

Environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological

1. Physical elements: Physical elements are as space, landforms, water

2. Biological elements: Biological elements such as plants, animals,

3. Cultural elements: Cultural elements such as economic, social and

Importance of Environmental Science

2. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development: Development in its

3. Explosively Increase in Pollution: World census reflects that one in

4. Need for an Alternative Solution: It is essential, especially for

5. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction: It is incumbent upon us to

6. Need for Wise Planning of Development: Resources withdrawal,

It is essential to make the public aware of the alarming consequences of the

1. Growing Population: A population of over 160 millions is growing at