THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
COURSE NAME: PHYSICS PRACTICALS III
COURSE CODE: PH1126
COURSE INSTRUCTOR: Mr KAMAZE
EXPERIMENT No: 3
NATURE OF WORK: INDIVIDUAL LAB REPORT
DATE OF EXPERIMENT: WEDNESDSY, 30, 2020
DATE OF SUBMISSION: WEDNESDAY,6, 2021
NAME OF STUDENT: SAID JUMANNE
REGISTRATION NUMBER: T/UDOM/2018/10910
DEGREE PROGRAMME: BSc EDUCATION
YEAR OF STUDY: 3𝑟𝑑 YEAR
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT; DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIV HEAT CAPACITY OF GIVEN
SOLID
PARTICIPANTS.
SN NAME REGISTRATION No PROGRAM SIGN
01 SAID JUMANNE T/UDOM/2018/10910 BSC ED
02 HUSENI KULUCHI T/UDOM/2018/15925 BSC ED
03 MJAKULUFU SOUD J T/UDOM/2018/02695 BSC ED
04 CHUBWA IDRISA M T/UDOM/2018/11709 BSC ED

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACTS...............................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................4
THEORY….................................................................................................................................5
METHODOLOY….......................................................................................................................8
DATA COLLECTED....................................................................................................................10
DATA ANALYSIS….....................................................................................................................11
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.........................................................................................................13
CONLUSSION….........................................................................................................................14
REFERENCES….........................................................................................................................15

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 ABSTRACT
The aim of this experiment was to determine the specific heat capacity of a
solid by applying principal of mixture. The experimental set of apparatus that
were used include a thermometer for determination of temperature changes
of a mixture, calorimeter a device used to measure the amount of heat
involved in a physical process, a solid substance whose specific heat capacity
was to be determined, a stirrer for agitation of liquid for improving mixtures
and stopwatch that used to account for a time. The experimental conditions
such as air resistance were well controlled to minimize the effect of errors in
determining the specific heat capacity of a given solid substance.
The specific heat capacity of a solid mixture was calculated and given as
0.211Jg- 1K-1. This value was obtained using the given values of specific heat
capacity of water which was 4.22Jg-1K-1 and that of calorimeter was 0.38Jg-
1K-1.

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 INTRODUCTION
The calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat flow of a chemical or physical reaction.
Calorimetry is the process of measuring this heat. It consists of a metal container to hold
water above the combustion chamber and a thermometer to measure the temperature change.
Specific heat capacity is defined as the amount of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1℃. The principle of calorimetry.The measurement
of heat quantities is carried on by what is known as the method of mixtures; this makes use of
the principal that when a heat interchange takes place between two bodies initially at different
temperature, the quantity of heat lost by the warmer body is equal to that gained by the cooler
body, and some intermediate equilibrium temperature is finally reached. This is true provided
no heat is gained from or lost to the surroundings. The specific heat of a substance is the number
of calories required to raise the temperature of one gram of the substance one degree centigrade.
If strict attention is paid to the correct usage of units, this definition of specific heat is actually the
definition of the thermal capacity of a substance; then the specific heat of a substance would be
defined as the ratio of the thermal capacity of the substance to the thermal capacity of water. The
vessel in which the heat interchange takes place is called the calorimeter. The product of the mass
of the calorimeter and its specific heat is called its water equivalent. This quantity must be
included in any computations involving an interchange of heat. The water equivalent of a body is
the mass of water which would require the same amount of heat as the body in order to raise the
temperature through one degree Centigrade.

To raise the temperature of a body from a given initial temperature 𝑇1 to a final temperature
𝑇2 requires a total quantity of heat which depends on the mass of the body, the specific heat
of the material of which the body is composed, and the temperature difference. The process
of measuring quantities of heat is called calorimetry. The purpose of this experiment is to
determine the specific heat of one or more metals by the method of mixtures. This experiment
have as goal the calculation of the specific heat of a substance. In order to arrive at this
calculation it is necessary to determine the specific heat of the calorimeter, since its specific
heat capacity must be removed from the calculations for each experiment. The double wall
calorimeter is made of aluminum. While it would be convenient to use its mass and the
specific of aluminum to account for presence of the calorimeter in the following experimental
calculation, we can’t do that, strictly speaking, because the calorimeter cover is made of
phenolic and the portion of the stirrer that is affected by the heat transfer is not distinct. Some
heat energy is also lost to the air outside of the calorimeter system (through the holes) and to
the thermometer that is used to take the measurements. We will take advantage of the
(standard) specific heat of water to calibrate the calorimeter and all its parts together to arrive
at a calorimeter constant that will be useful for our calculations. The constant represents the
portion of heat transfer in the calorimeter system that does not include the water that we use
for calibration. The experimental determination of the specific heat of a metal by the method of
mixtures consists in dropping a known mass of the metal at a known high temperature into a
known mass of water at a known low temperature. The equilibrium temperature is then
measured

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 THEORY

Heat is defined as the flow of thermal energy, and as such, has S.I. units of Joules. A quantity
of heat can not be measured directly; a measurement for the amount of thermal energy in
transit (heat) can be made by determining its effects on matter. When a substance gains heat,
its total internal energy is increased, the total internal energy of a substance being defined as
the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of all the molecules in the substance.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance, and
the two are directly proportional. The greater the average kinetic energy of the molecules (
the faster the molecules move), the greater the temperature of the substance. Thus, heat
transferred to a substance increases its total internal energy, hence the average kinetic energy
of its molecules, hence its temperature. The temperature change in an object is therefore a
measure of the heat flow to or from that object. The amount of heat, Q, is directly
proportional to the temperature change in an object (ΔT), where units of temperature can be
°C. When two different substances are supplied with the same amount of heat, their
temperatures may change by a significantly different amount. This implies that the heat flow
and temperature change in an object are related by some proportionality constant that is
unique to the specific substance. This proportionality constant is the specific heat, c, of a
substance, and is measured in units of J/kg°C.

Q = mcΔT................................................1

The second law of thermodynamics states that when two objects of different temperatures are
brought into contact, heat flows from the warmer object to the cooler object. If these objects
remain in contact for enough time, they will reach equilibrium at the same final temperature,
Tf. The first law of thermodynamics tells us that thermal energy is conserved. In other words,
the same amount of heat flows out of the warmer object as flows into the cooler object, or
heat lost = heat gained. A calorimeter is simply a container that isolates substances from their
environment in order to minimize any heat flow of the surroundings into or out of the system.
It allows measurement of the specific heat of a substance (eg. a metal) by equating the heat
lost from the metal with the heat gained by another substance in the calorimeter (usually
water) and heat gained by the calorimeter itself.

The measurement of heat quantities is carried on by what is known as the method of

mixtures.This makes use of the principal that when a heat interchange takes place between
two bodies initially at different temperature, the quantity of heat lost by the warmer body is
equal to that gained by the cooler body, and some intermediate equilibrium temperature is
finally reached. This is true provided no heat is gained from or lost to the surroundings. The
experimental determination of the specific heat of a metal by the method of mixtures consists
in dropping a known mass of the metal at a known high temperature into a known mass of
water at a known low temperature. The equilibrium temperature is then measured. The heat
absorbed by the water, calorimeter, and stirrer is equal to the heat lost by the metal. The
unknown specific heat is competed from the following equation

Mc(T - T2) = (cw mw + ccal mcal ) (T2 -T1).......................2

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Where M is the mass of the metal in grams, c is the specific heat of the metal, T is the
temperature of the metal, T2 is the equilibrium temperature, T1 is the initial temperature of the
water and calorimeter, mcal ccal = Ccal is the water equivalent of the calorimeter and stirrer, and
mw is the mass of the cold water. The initial temperature of the cold water should be as much
below room temperature as the equilibrium temperature will be above it, so as to balance out
errors due to losses of heat by radiation.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY AND HEAT CAPACITY

Heat capacity, ratio of heat absorbed by a material to the temperature change. It is usually
expressed as calories per degree in terms of the actual amount of material being considered,
most commonly a mole (the molecular weight in grams). The heat capacity in calories per
gram is called specific heat. The definition of the calorie is based on the specific heat of
water, defined as one calorie per degree Celsius.

Heat capacity or thermal capacity is a physical property of matter, defined as the amount of
heat to be supplied to a given mass of a material to produce a unit change in its temperature.
[1] The SI unit of heat capacity is joule per kelvin (J/K).

C = ∆Q/∆T..................................................3

Where by ∆Q = amount of heat and ∆T = rise in temperature Heat capacity is an extensive

property. The corresponding intensive property is the specific heat capacity. Dividing the heat
capacity by the amount of substance in moles yields its molar heat capacity. The volumetric
heat capacity measures the heat capacity per volume. Heat capacity is often referred to as
thermal mass in architecture and civil engineering to refer to the heat capacity of a building.

Specific heat capacity

Is the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a substance per unit
of mass? The specific heat capacity of a material is a physical property. In SI units, specific
heat capacity (symbol: c) is the amount of heat in joules required to raise 1 gram of a
substance 1 Kelvin. It may also be expressed as J/kg·K.

How Specific Heat Capacity Determined

If a liquid of known mass and temperature putted in the inner container and a solid/liquid of
known mass and temperature is added to the liquid the specific heat capacity of any substance
can be calculated/determined of one of substance specific heat capacity are known. Assume
Hot Mass Iron Is Added To the Calorimeter Contain Cold Waterof water = m1

Mass of copper and stirrer = m2

Mass of hot iron = m3

Initial temperature of water and calorimeter = θ1

Initial temperature of hot iron = θ2

Final temperature (iron + water + calorimeter) = θ3
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Specific capacity of water = C1

Specific capacity of calorimeter = C

Specific capacity of iron = C3

But: If the hot iron added to the cold water, the hot iron loss heat energy and cold water gain
heat energy
From: Principle conversion of energy Heat gain = heat loss

But: Heat gain by water =m1c1 (θ2 – θ1)

Heat gain by calorimeter =m2 c2(θ3 – θ1)

Heat lost by iron = m3 c3(θ2 – θ3)

Then: Heat gain by water + Heat gain by calorimeter = heat loss by hot

iron m1c1 (θ2 – θ1)+ m2 c2(θ3 – θ1) = = m3c 3(θ2- θ3) To make c3

subject

c3 =( m1c1+ m2 c2) (θ3 – θ1)/ m3((θ2- θ3)

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 METHODOLOGY

EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS.

 A calorimeter was used to hold a mixture so as to measure the specific heat capacity of
a solid.
 A thermometer was used to measure the temperature change of the mixture.
 A Stirrer was used for stirring the mixture to fasten heat exchange for the solution.
 A jacket was used as to prevent heat loss to the surround.
 A beaker was used to keep boiling water that used to heat a solid provided.
 A solid substance mixed with water and absorb heat energy and hence determining its
specific capacity
 A digital balance was used to measure the mass of water and a solid substance.

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP.

8
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The solid substance S was heated in a beaker B which contained water to about 100℃, the
solid substance was suspended in the beaker by a peace of thread from a retort stand. The
mass of a calorimeter 𝒎𝒄 when empty was measured using a digital balance as well as the
mass of a calorimeter when filled with cold water also measured using a digital balance then
results recorded on the table of results. The calorimeter with cold water was placed in a jacket
J and initial temperature of cold water 𝜽𝟏 was measured using a thermometer. Quickly, a
solid was transferred into a calorimeter and immediately it was covered to minimize heat loss.
The mixture was stirred until it maintained its equilibrium (𝜽𝒆), The solid was removed in
water and its mass 𝒎𝒔 was measured using a digital balance. The results was presented in the
table 1.1.

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 DATA COLLECTED

The following were the set of data recorded from the experiment.

Table 1.1

Mass of calorimeter Mc 32.08g

Mass of calorimeter with Water M1 106.05g

Initial temperature of cold water 𝜃1 94 30 ℃

Initial temperature of a solid 𝜃2 94℃

Final temperature of the mixture[equilibrium 32℃

temperature] 𝜃𝑓 = 𝜃
Mass of solid 𝑚𝑠 49.35g

Mass of water 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚1 − 𝑚𝑐 73.95g

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 DATA ANALYSIS

From the set of calorimeter constant provided, the three temperature readings, and the mass of the
cold water and mass of solid, the specific heat capacity of a solid was calculated as follows;
From the formula;

Cs = (MwCw + McCc)(Q - Q1)/Ms( Q2 - Q)

But, the following data were provided;

Specific heat capacity of water Cw= 4.2J/g/K

Specific heat caacity of calorimeter Cc = 0.38J/g/K

Mass of solid Ms =49.35g

Mass of calorimeter= 32.08g

Mass of calorimeter with water 𝑀1= 106.05g

Mass of water Mw = 73.97g

Initial temperaure of cold water Q = 30°C

Initial temperature of solid Q2 = 94°C

Equillibrium temperature = 32°C

Then;

Cs = ( 32.08𝑔×0.38J/g/K)+(73.97g×4.2J/g/K)(32−30)/49.35(94−32)

Cs = 0.211J/g/K
Therefore the value of the specific heat capacity of the solid was 0.211J/g/K

From the table of the specific heat capacities, this value of the specific heat capacity corresponds
to the value of the specific heat capacity of silver which is 0.233Jg -1K-1. The slight difference in
the two values may be due to the errors which may have been introduced in the experiment, and
the error in this value is;-

ΔCs = 0.233Jg-1K-1 – 0.211Jg-1K-1

ΔCs = 0.022 Jg-1K-1

Then the percentage error in the value of specific heat capacity;

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 %error= 0.022
x 100%
0.233

= 9.44%

Therefore the percentage error in the value of the specific heat capacity of the solid was 9.44%

QUESTION 1

How is heat losses by conduction,convection and radiation minimized in this experiment?

ANSWER

Heat loss due to conduction is prevented by placing the calorimeter box in a well-lagged vessel
using wool or cork material. Heat loss due to convection is prevented by placing a lid on the box.
Heat loss due to radiation is minimized by polishing the box in order to smoothen it. A
calorimeter is an instrument used to measure the heat released or absorbed by the materials that
are contained within it. It can be used to determine the specific heat of an element or to measure
the amount of heat that is released or absorbed inside the instrument.

QUESTION 2

In this kind of experiment, the solid should not be soluble in the liquid placed in the
calorimeter. Explain why?

ANSWER

It will lead to the inaccurate calculation of specific heat capacity also it will lead to exothermic or
endothermic reactions.

QUESTION 3

The equilibrium temperature should not be too high. Why?

ANSWER

Equilibrium should not be too high in order to prevent occurrence of reactions which are
feasible at high temperature conditions

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 DISCUSION OF RESULTS

The aim of this experiment was to determine the material of a sample by finding the specific heat
capacity. From the value of the specific heat capacity of a material calculated, it allow us to
compare it to a table of material (from the theory) with the similar specific heat capacity to
determine what it accurately is. There are some of difficulties to this experiment such as the
transferring of the metal block out of the water into calorimeter is limiting as during this transfer
there will be as a significant loss of heat energy to the surrounding which could impact the
results. Secondly, was the parallax error in reading the exact temperature of the thermometer this
error could be controlled by using digital thermometer which will give reading to a more accurate
degree reducing percentage error in measurement and in calculations. The result of Specific heat
capacity has many applicattion in everyday life for example in engines the different parts expand
and contract due to fluctuations of the heat in the engines. Therefore engine parts must be of the
same specific heat capacity because if one parts heats up and expands or contracts faster than
another parts these will cause cracking. Another common use of specific heat capacities is a
kettle. The heating elements inside the kettle has a low specific heat capacity to the heat the water
up but the kettle itself must have high specific heat capacity to prevents some body from burning
themselves. This specific heat capacity experiment is hard to control due to metal objects being
exposed to their air before it is submerged in the calorimeter this makes it hard to make a very
precise decision on what material is in fully controlled conditions where there is no heat energy
lost to the surrounding the actual specific heat capacity can be found and these discussed can be
specific heat capacity for that material
The sources of errors such as the heat loss while transferring solid into the calorimeter, During
conduction, convection, and radiation, there might be heat loss,The bulbs of the thermometer
might not be completely inside the solid may lead to the fluctuation of results from the actual
value. The precaution measures such as a sufficient amount of solid powder should be used to
cover the tip of the thermometer, dropping of solid should be quick and gentle,to avoid excess
radiation, the calorimeter should be polished from outside should be taken to overcome the effect
of errors associated while performing an experiment,

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 CONCLUSION

The experiment based on determination of specific heat capacity of solid by using principle
of mixture was done under the course of experimental instructions. Dispite upon some
sources of errors that become difficult to manage but experimental result of specific heat
capacity obtained which was 0.211J/g/K observed to deviate smoothly from theoretical result
of specific heat capacity of silver which was 0.233J/g/K. This resulted to the value of
experimental percentage error to be equals to 9.44%. The resulted difficulty to gain accurate
answer during this experiment was due to some of heat lost during to transfer of hot solid to
the cold water as well as parallax in taking the reading from thermometer. A simplified way
to improve the accuracy of the results include the use of digital set of apparatii such as digital
thermometer.

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 REFERENCES

Nelkon M. and Parker P., (1987), Advanced Level Physics, Heinemann Educational
Publishers, London.

Theory of Heat’ – Maxwell, James Clerk – page 57-67 – Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press –
1970

Talks about conservation of heat, the form and function of calorimeters, Method of Mixture
‘The Edinburgh Encyclopedia Conducted by David Brewster’, with the assistance of gentlemen
eminent in science and literature the first American edition – Published by Joseph and Edward
Parker in 1832 – page 294:

This is a discussion of Dr Joseph Black’s and Dr William Irvine groundbreaking discovery of

specific heat capacity.

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