Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2019 with funding from

Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.0rg/details/artofafricanmaskOOOOfinl
TU drl of dfriodih fDoisb

Exploring CvUvrdil TrciJilionS

BY CAROL FINLEY

^ Lerner Publications Company ■ Minneapolis

In memory of G.H.

Copyright © 1999 by Carol Finley

All rights reserved. International copyright secured. No part of this hook may
be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of Lerner Publications Company, except
for the inclusion of brief quotations in an acknowledged review.

Website address: www.lernerhooks.com

Library of Congress Cataloginghn-Publication Data

Finley, Carol.
African masks / Carol Finley.
p. cm. — (Art around the world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Summary: Describes how different types of masks are made and used
in Africa and how they reflect the culture of their ethnic groups
ISBN 0-8225-2078^8 (alk. paper) 'iW
1. Masks-Africa-Juvenile literature. [1. Masks-Africa.]
I. Title. II. Series. WR BR
GN645.F45 1999 J
391.4’34’096—dc21
98-10570
GN645
.F45
Manufactured in the United States of America 1999
1 2 3 4 5 6 - JR - 04 03 02 01 00 99
C 0 h t e, h t 5

Introduction to Masks i

Mos/cs of Africa //
The Function of the African Mask 13

How Masks Were Made 14

Types of Masks 16

Regions of Mask-Making Cultures I9

The Western Sudan 23
Bamana, Bwa, Senufo

West Africa and the Guinea Coast 30

Dan, We, Guro, Benin, Yoruba, Bamum

Central Africa 46
Bakwele, Teke, Pende, Kuba, Lego,
Chokwe, Songhay, Luba

Conclusion 6i

Bibliography 62

Index 62
 People of many cultures—both recent
and ancient—have made masks. Gold, stone, wood, bark, cop¬
per, bronze, tin, clay, feathers, and ivory are some of the mate¬
rials used in mask making. Some masks are also decorated with
colors, patterns, and textures. The resulting piece might look
fierce, festive, or solemn. Some masks are one part of an elab¬
orate costume.
You can appreciate the appearance of a mask even if you
know nothing about its meaning. But if you can learn how and
why the mask was used, you can increase your appreciation of
it and understand the cultural traditions ot the people that
made it.
Sometimes even experts can’t know the exact function of a
particular mask because there are no records of its original use.
What they can do is make suggestions and guesses regarding
the intentions of the artist and the wearer. The meaning of the
mask and the mask ceremony remain a mystery to the outsider.
In the modern world, people might collect masks, and muse¬
ums might display them, but originally the masks had a specific
purpose. They were much more than decorative art objects.
Dogon dancers perform an People have used masks for many reasons. For example, ac¬
ancestral ceremony in Mali.
tors from ancient Greece and Rome played some roles wearing
masks. This was to facilitate the actor’s impersonation of the
character. The Japanese and Ghinese still use elaborate masks
in some of their traditional theater. Although in Western soci¬
ety most actors do not use masks in theater anymore, a pair of
10

masks, one comic and one tragic, have be¬ representing helpful spirits. The ancient Egyp¬
come a widely recognized symbol of drama. tians made masks that covered their mum¬
People make masks for many other reasons, mies. Many people still wear masks at events
too. Tibetans hang brightly colored, fierce- such as Halloween, Carnival, and Mardi Gras.
looking masks to scare away demons. The Have you ever worn a mask? What was the
Hopi, a Native American tribe in the south¬ mask like and why did you wear it?
western United States, make kachinas, masks
12

Masks are used in many traditional dances. A Dobon

dancer in Mali participates in a Dama ceremony, which
eases passage to the afterlife, left. Below, men perform a
traditional dance in Togo.
 13

Mask makihg is a major tradition in

West and Central Africa. (See map on page 22.) Many people
in African countries use masks for ceremonial and religious
purposes. Masks can represent entities such as spirits, legendary
animals, or mythological beings. Sometimes people wear masks
with a costume as part of a ritual or performance. Secret soci¬
eties also use masks in their rites and initiations.
Masks often make a strong visual impression. When you
look at masks in an art museum, you recognize them as stun¬
ning artistic achievements, but you do not see them in their
intended context. When worn as part of a costume by a person
dancing to music, a mask takes on a powerful symbolic mean¬
ing that is lost when it is viewed alone. Most viewers can
understand only a fraction of the meaning a mask has within
the culture of a particular society.

The Function of the African Mask

The purpose of a mask is not only to conceal the identity of

the wearer. The mask actually creates a new identity—one
from the spirit world. Many Africans use masks in private ini¬
tiations, in the rituals of secret societies, and in coming-of-age
ceremonies. People use masks in public ceremonies, such as fu¬
nerals, harvest celebrations, acts of thanksgiving, and in other
rituals. And some societies also use masks to ensure fertility
and abundance of crops and animals.
14

An adze is a cutting tool that has

a thin, arched blade set at a right
angle to the handle. It is used
chiefly for shaping wood.

Masks are considered vessels of spiritual a cutting tool that has a thin, arched blade
power, but they can also be used to teach val¬ set at a right angle to the handle. The adze—
ues. In a masked dance, for example, lessons used mainly for shaping wood—is the carver’s
and morals might he taught. Many mask- chief tool. A carver often uses two or three of
making African societies did not have a writ¬ them with slightly differing sizes and shapes.
ten language. Masks and performances were Fine detail is put in later with a small knife.
one way for them to pass on their heritage. The carver might finish all the carving with
one knife after roughly adzing the block of
wood to the right shape and size. The carver
How Masks Were Made
works seated on the ground, often holding
Many of the artists who carved masks were the block of wood in position with his feet.
also farmers or blacksmiths. The carver often Besides wood, mask makers also use ivory,
learned the craft from a parent or during an metals, and beads. Sometimes the mask maker
apprenticeship with an established artist. might further decorate the mask by painting
Wood is the most common material used it or attaching other materials, such as feath¬
for making African masks. Most of the masks ers, horns, or fiber to it. Carvers believed that
available for study are no more than 100 the tools they used had special powers and
years old, because wood rarely lasts longer that the wood itself housed a living spirit. A
than that in a tropical climate. Although priest might consecrate a finished mask to
some masks and costumes are passed down give it the desired spiritual quality.
through generations, others are made for a Masks are not portraits of people. The
particular occasion and are not preserved. shape of a mask is traditional and not subject
The wood used for mask making comes to the stylistic taste of its maker. Mask mak¬
from local forests and is carved with an adze. ers generally conform to existing models of
A Bamana dance
mask with a human
figure on top, from
Mali
 This wooden
shoulder mask
from the Baga
people in Guinea is
56 inches high.

masks rather than create their own designs. A

design that had evidently pleased the spirits
in the past is usually followed carefully. The
similarity allows the desired spirit to recognize
the mask and come to dwell in it.
A new mask might he inspired by an image
seen in a dream. The dreamer would present
this information to the elders of the society,
and they would decide if the mask should be
carved. A mask usually has its own appointed
dancer, an appointment that might last several
decades and then remain in the same line of
descent from one generation to another.

Types of Masks

African masks can be designed to cover the

head, cover just the face, or be used as a
headdress that is attached to the top of the
head. Not all masks are life-size. They can be
gigantic or very small. The large and life-size
masks are used in public performances and
private rituals. The small masks are used as
 17

Dogon dancers in an ancestral ceremony in Mali

18

charms or amulets to cure illness and to offer imal, or a combination of the two. The ex-
protection during work or travel. Sometimes pressions range from terrifying to serene. The
small masks are made as miniature copies of examples of masks in this book will give you
larger masks. an idea of the range of imagery, technique,
The features on a mask can be human, an- and style found in the masks of Africa.
 20

Bustling fishing boats

crowd the harbor in
Elmina, Ghana, above, and
people stroll a quiet
street in N’Djamena, the
capital city of Chad, right.

?»■
 21

Africa is a vast land. It is the second

largest continent on earth. The diverse population—706 mih
lion people—is made up of more than 1,000 different ethnic
groups. The exact number is unknown because of the difficulty
of defining precisely what makes up an ethnic group. Some
groups overlap, and specific information about others is some-
times scarce. More than 1,000 languages are spoken in Africa,
which has over 50 independent countries.
Each ethnic group has its own history, customs, and culture.
Although there are some similarities in religion and ritual
throughout Africa, there are also wide-ranging differences in
cultural traditions. Masks were made mainly by settled agricul¬
tural groups, such as those living in western and central
Africa, and masks are part of the tradition of those cultural
groups. The traditional way of life and beliefs have, to some
extent, disappeared in Africa. Colonialism, the spread of Islam
and Christianity, and the advent of modern governments have
all contributed to the decline of the earlier, traditional way of
life. Africa, like every other place, changes with time. The
masking tradition, like many of the masks shown in this hook,
for the most part belongs to an earlier, now vanishing, age.
Great stylistic diversity exists in African art, which reflects
the complex array of different African cultures. The major
mask-making societies are south of the Sahara Desert and span
from Guinea on the Atlantic Coast, west to Cameroon, and
then southwest through the Democratic Republic of the
 ATLANTIC
OCEAN TUNISIA

, J , ^' ■■ —■.

WESTERN ALGERIA
SAHARA
LIBYA EGYPT

MAURITANIA

NIGER
SENEGAL^
THE _ ERITREA
GAMBIA t-,
BURKINA CHAD SUDAN
GUINEA FASO
BISSAU GUINEA BENIN
DJIBOUTI
NIGERIA
SIERRA SOMALIA
LEONE ETHIOPIA
CENTRAL^.
AFRICAN
LIBERIA REPUBLIC "'•4 UGANDA
COTE D’IVOIRE
(IVORY COAST)
EQUATORIAL_^ DEMOCRATIC
GUINEA M- REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO KENYA
'GABON

Ethnic Groups RWANDA

■BURUNDI
CABINDA
© Bamana Bakwele
TANZANIA
@ Bwa Teke
© Senufo Pende ANGOLA
G) Dan Kuba
MALAWI
Lega ZAMBIA

Guro Chokwe
NAMIBIA
Yoruba Songhay ZIMBABWE

Benin Luba BOTSWANA

Bamum

-^SWAZILAND
Regions
SOUTH
AFRICA
West Africa and Guinea Coast
,/ LESOTHO

Western Sudan

Central Africa INDIAN

OCEAN
 23

In a millet field in Chad, a boy

pulls the oxen while his mother
drives the plow and his sister
goads the animals.

Congo. Historians, for convenience and be¬ The northern part of this region, bordering
cause of some stylistic and cultural similari¬ the Sahara, has a semiarid climate. Many
ties, have grouped the mask-making societies people in this area have traditionally been
into various regions for study and discussion. cattle herders and camel breeders, ha the
This book divides the major mask-making so¬ southern sections, however, the savanna
cieties into three areas: the Western Sudan, (grasslands) and woodlands are more suitable
the Guinea Coast, and Central Africa. This for farming. The major crops are millet (a
book includes masks from each of these areas. grain), sorghum (tropical grasses), cowpeas,
and cotton.
The Western Sudan is the site of some of
The >^estern Sudan
Africa’s earliest cities and most powerful em¬
The area called the Western Sudan does not pires. Flourishing trade and commerce shaped
refer to the country of Sudan, but to an area the history of this area. Trade routes with the
south of the Sahara Desert. This grassy, tree- north were established as early as the eighth
covered region includes the countries of Mali, century, and through the centuries active
Burkina Faso, Niger, and Chad. trade took place with North Africa, the
24

Figure I
Bamana
Antelope
Headdresses

Mediterranean, and the Near East. Trade They use a pair of carved antelope figures as
goods, which included gold, ivory, iron bars, headdresses in agricultural ceremonies.
leather, and sorghum, were usually trans- These carved, wooden antelope figures
ported by camel. (figure 1) are fastened to a cap and worn on
Many cultural groups populate the Western top of the head. Long strands of black-dyed
Sudan region. They use masks in agricultural fiber hang down and cover the body of the
rites, funeral rites, seasonal celebrations, and wearer. These fiber strands represent the rain
initiations into private associations. that falls on the Bamana’s crops.
The antelope depicted is a legendary figure,
called Tyi Wara, who taught the Bamana how
The Bamana Culture
to farm. This type of headdress would be used
The Bamana people are primarily an agricul¬ in ceremonies and feasts during the planting
tural society who live throughout Mali and in and harvesting seasons by farmers who belong
parts of Ivory Coast and Guinea-Bissau. With to the Tyi Wara association.
more than three million people, they are the The headdresses are carved in pairs—one
most populous ethnic group in Mali. The ma¬ male and one female. The male antelope is
jority of the Bamana people have converted the larger figure on the right, shown here
to Islam, but the traditional religion and ritu¬ with an openwork pattern on the mane. The
als are still practiced in the rural areas. There, female antelope, on the left, carries a baby on
the Bamana practice cooperative farming. her back. The horn of the antelope represents
26

A woman and two children

return from a water well in the
western part of Burkina Faso.

the planted grain sprouting through the earth. cultures believe in a supreme god called Dwo,
A pair of dancers wore these headdresses, im¬ and both cultures are based on agriculture.
itating the leaps of the antelope to honor the They grow sorghum, millet, and cotton. The
legendary Tyi Wara anci to ensure a successful Bwa people also make and sell fabric from
planting season. cotton they dye and weave.
The Bamana also make a face mask with The Bwa make a range of masks carved
an antelope headdress that is used in initia¬ from wood and painted with geometric shapes
tion rites and other masks that are used by and patterns. Some of these masks—called
their various associations. plank masks—are six or seven feet high. They
are worn during funeral ceremonies and
planting and harvesting rituals.
The Bwa Culture
This Bwa mask (figure 2) is called a
The Bwa live in Burkina Faso and Mali. They hawk mask. Instead of being constructed ver¬
are fiercely independent people who have re¬ tically to be very high, this mask is made to
sisted foreign intervention. The Bwa share he very wide. The dancer who wears it uses a
many beliefs and traditions with the Bobo, spiral motion to twist his head so the mask
who live in the same area. The majority of appears to spin. The eyes and mouth of the
their populations continue to observe the tra¬ mask are circular, and a horn or antler juts
ditional religious and cultural practices. Both out of the forehead. The geometric pattern.
 27

Figure 2, Bwa, Hawk Mask

28

made up of triangles, is painted red, black,

and white.
Some Bwa masks represent supernatural fly'
ing creatures that live in the hush. These
benevolent spirits provide protection and
blessings to the families who possess their
particular masks.

The Senufo Culture

The Senufo are an ethnic group of more than

one million people who live in the area
where Ivory Coast, Mali, and Burkina Faso
meet. They are primarily subsistence farmers,
growing crops that include cotton, bananas,
rice, corn, and peanuts. Although many Sen-
ufo are converting to Islam, many remain
faithful to their traditional belief system.
Secret associations for men and women,
called poro and sandogo, are an important as-

Two Senufo dancers walk together in

the village of Boundali, Ivory Coast,
above. In Niger, where the desert meets
the Niger River, most village activities
take place along the riverbank, left.
 29

pect ot their society. These secret associations

have various grades or levels. Members are
initiated into a particular level depending on
their age, status, and achievement. Masks are
used in the ceremonies of the secret associa¬
tions and in the performance of burial rites.
The Senufo are known for their music and
art traditions. Wood-carvers, who make masks
and sculpture, follow a long apprenticeship of
seven to eight years to learn the craft from
established artists. Senufo carving is smooth
and rounded, giving the impression of a series
of curves flowing forward and downward. This
carved wood mask (figure 3) is called a Kpele
mask. It is a complex work of art with a dis¬
tinct vitality. The face is carved in an oval
shape with a pointed chin and a mouth show¬
ing teeth—characteristic features of Senufo
masks.
On top of this mask is a headdress shaped
like a bird. The sides and top of the mask are
decorated with graceful curved appendages.

Figure 3
Senufo
Kpele Mask
 30

The long appendages coming down from the Ocean—stretches from Senegal to Cameroon
top of the mask might represent hair or and includes the nations of Guinea, Sierra
animal horns. Sacrificial marks—a kind of Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo,
tattoo—are carved into the cheeks and fore- Benin, and Nigeria. The land is varied and
head of the mask, and leglike projections jut ranges from swamp and dense, tropical rain
out from the bottom. forests to more open savanna landscapes with
This mask can be worn with a costume of woodlands mixed with tall grasses and rolling
long fibers and knotted rope. It is used at hills. Early trade in this region took place
elaborate funerals organized by members of over land through trade routes heading north
the poro association. and by sea from coastal ports.
In the western portion of the Guinea
Coast, masks are used in initiations and in
West Africa and the Guinea Coast
the rites of men’s and women’s secret associa¬
The area called West Africa and the Guinea tions. To the peoples of the eastern Guinea
Coast—along the coast of the Atlantic Coast, masks represent spirits and are used for

At Elmina, Ghana’s second

largest port, fishermen work
from traditional canoes.
 31

Children sell
produce in the
village of Kong,
Ivory Coast.

rituals and celebrations. Cultural groups in rice, and cotton. They also hunt game and
this region include the Dan, We, Guro, fish. Some Dan men leave their villages to

Benin, Yoruha, and Bamum. work seasonally as laborers in other areas.

This society has a reputation for having
fierce warriors, feared by neighboring soci-
The Dan Culture
eties. The Dan believe the world has two

The Dan live in northern Liberia and western realms. One is made up of the villages where

Ivory Coast. They farm their land, raising humans live, and the other is the forest—

goats and chickens and growing nuts, fruits. home to wild animals and bush spirits.
32

Figure 4
Dan
Gle Mu Mask

Carvers make a variety of masks that embody features of ideal beauty. The mask is oval, and
the spirit gle, whose home is the forest. A it has a triangular chin, circular eyes, raised
mask is made as a result of a dream brought eyebrows, and pronounced lips. It is worn at
by a forest spirit who wants to have a form in ceremonial events and festivals as part of a
order to take part in village life. Village elders costume. Another mask known as gle gon rep¬
decide whether to commission such a mask. resents a male spirit. It would have an angry
Individual masks belong to one family in the or aggressive expression, protruding eyes, and
village and are passed down through genera¬ exaggerated teeth. The movements of dancers
tions. Besides full-size face masks, the Dan are calm and gentle when wearing the female
also carve small, handheld masks copied from masks and threatening and dramatic when
a larger model. The smaller mask also benefits wearing the male masks.
from the power of the original. The Dan make other masks of forest spirits
One type of mask the Dan make is known and sometimes wear them while dancing on
as gle mu (figure 4). This smoothly carved, stilts. The Dan are also known for their ele¬
highly polished mask of a female face displays gantly carved wooden spoons, which are
34

given to Dan women who distinguish them- (the Ancient One). This powerful looking,
selves through generosity and hospitality. frightening mask (figure 5) is carved of wood
and decorated with many attached horns,
cowrie shells, fangs, hair, and fiber. The many
The We Culture
horns in this particular mask increase its
The We live in the forested area of south¬ fierceness. The terrifying effect of this mask
western Ivory Coast and Liberia. Originally on an audience can only be imagined. Is this
subsistence farmers, many We now work in one of the most frightening masks you have
commercial and government jobs. Their tra¬ ever seen?
ditional culture has many similarities to the
Dan, who live near them. The We are known
The Guro Culture
for their abilities as healers who use medicinal
plants found in their forest habitat. The Guro live in the savanna and the forests
They use masks to contact guardian spirits of Ivory Coast. They are a farming society
through the spirits of their ancestors. One of whose main crops are coffee, cotton, rice,
the masks they make is called a gela mask cocoa, and yams. They trace their lineage.

Figure 5
We
Gela Mask
(The Ancient One)
 ■f. i- .'
: •••;■ '-C',
36

through oral histories, hack to the Mali Em¬ ther teeth. The Guro wear these masks in
pire of the 13 th century. Later they moved dances representing various stories. According
south to their present location. Private associ¬ to legend, a Guro hunter captured these
ations that use masks are an integral part of masks from the bush and was able to harness
their culture. The Guro masks are among the the magical powers they contain.
most elegantly styled in West Africa. This example of Zamble (figure 6) is
There is a Guro tradition of three masks brightly colored with stripes and geometric
that represent various figures. One mask, shapes. The elongated shape of the face is
called Gu, is a beautiful, young woman. An¬ typical of the Guro mask. Many of their other
other is Zaouli, a bearded man, and the third masks are in the form of large animals, such
is Zamble, an antelope with crocodile or pan¬ as elephants and buffalo. The Guro use

Figure 6
Guro
Zamble Mask
38

masks in secret societies and at important remarkahle pieces of art—many cast in brass,
public events, such as the enthronement of some carved in ivory—for the king and his
a leader. court. The British overthrew the Benin ruler
in 1897, destroyed the royal palace, and im¬
posed a period of colonization. The kingdom
The Benin Culture
of Benin is now part of the state of Nigeria.
The Benin culture dates back several cen- Many of the people work in farming and tim¬
turies. It reached the height of its power dur¬ ber enterprises.
ing the 1500s and 1600s. Craftsworkers made Both the purpose and criteria of royal art
are entirely different from those devoted to the
attention of the spirit world. Benin art, spon¬
sored by the court of the king, was designed to
support imperial prestige. The king, called the
oba, was both a political and a spiritual leader.
He was thought to be both human and divine.
Only the oba could commission works of ivory,
bronze, or copper. These pieces of art were
made to honor the king and commemorate
him in life and death.
Masks were made for ceremonial wear.
Sometimes they were worn as a chest piece,
on the hip, or as a buckle. This particular
mask (figure 7) is carved from ivory and is
thought to have been worn by the oba over the
hip. The delicate, idealized features are char¬
acteristic of Benin artwork. A series of faces is
carved around the head as a crown and around
the neck as a collar. These are the bearded
figures of Portuguese traders, who appear as
A young man learns the art of wood carving in Benin a motif in Benin art. The Portuguese began
City, Nigeria.
trade with the Benin in the 15th century.
Figure 7
Benin
Ivory Mask
40
 41

A shrine to a Yoruba
goddess is located in a
sacred grove in Oshogbo,
Nigeria.

They increased the wealth of the oba and brought Although the majority of the Yoruha have
new materials and products into the kingdom. converted to Christianity or Islam, the
Yoruba traditional religion thrives among its
remaining followers. Some of the traditional
The Yoruba Culture
elements have also been retained by Christ¬
The Yoruba are a large ethnic group of more ian and Muslim converts. In the Yoruba be¬
than 20 million people who live in south¬ lief system, there are four types of spiritual
western Nigeria. They trace their ancestry beings: a supreme god, a group of subordinate
back to the kingdom of Ife, whose height of gods, deified ancestors, and nature spirits.
achievement and power dates back to the The Yoruba society traditionally existed as
period from the 11th to the 15th century. a group of separate kingdoms. Some of those
42

Figure 8
Yoruba
Beaded Headdress

in rural areas were centered around agricul¬

Garments and objects were covered with
ture. Some were highly urbanized. For exam¬
elaborate, colorful, beaded designs. Only a
ple, the city of Ibadan was one of the largest
king had the right to wear a beaded crown
cities in precolonial Africa. Modern-day
headdress. This crown (figure 8) has a face
Yoruba engage in many occupations. They
designed on it. A bird sits at the very top of
work as business people, government workers,
the crown, gazing down at the king. Strands
farmers, laborers, and artisans.
of beads, a headed veil, or beaded flaps would
Yoruba artists became skilled at making
hang from the bottom of the crown to cover
objects from glass beads that had been
the king s face. This served to set the king
introduced by European trade in the 1800s.
apart from all commoners. The surface of the
44

headdress is covered with a variety of zigzag, Craftspeople made works of art for the fon.

striped, and other geometric patterns. Yoruba These works included sculpture, masks,

artists are also known for their sculpture made thrones, jewelry, and ceremonial costumes.

of wood and metal. Private societies also had masks that were
used for various purposes, such as illustrating
and enforcing the society’s traditions and
The Bamum Culture
celebrating public events.
Three related ethnic groups, the Bamum, the The Bamum are a relatively small ethnic
Bamlike, and the Tikar, live in the grasslands group. The majority have converted to Islam,
of Cameroon. The grasslands were at one and they make their living mainly through
time governed by a king, called a /on. Ac¬ farming grains, vegetables, and coffee.
cording to legend, the fon had the power to This buffalo mask (figure 9) is thought to
transform himself into an animal, such as a belong to the kivifoyn association of the
leopard, a buffalo, or an elephant. The fon Bamum culture. The kwifoyn are a high-
was responsible for officiating at ceremonial ranking association responsible for upholding
and religious functions. the community’s laws and social customs.

A woman participates in
an elephant mask festival
in Bafoussan, a center
for provincial
administration in the
western highlands of
Cameroon, left.
Figure 9, Bamum, Buffalo Mask
46

Women work in a
maize field in Angola.

Buffalo masks represent strength to the traditionally agricultural. The crops include
Bamum, and this carved wooden mask does bananas, root vegetables, and grains. In addi¬
look powerful with its protruding horns, ears, tion, people in this region raise domestic
eyes, nostrils, and teeth. The mask is shown animals and hunt wild game.
with a costume of hrown feathers. The buffalo Central Africans use masks for coming-
was greatly respected for its strength and iia- of-age ceremonies, initiations into secret soci¬
telligence. Can you imagine a dance being eties, funerals, healing, and ancestor worship.
performed with this dramatic mask and
feather costume? Other animal motifs that ap¬
The Bakwele Culture
pear in grassland art include the spider, the
chimpanzee, and the elephant. The Bakwele people live in northern Gabon
and along the border of Congo. They are
mainly subsistence farmers, and little is
known about their traditional culture and re¬
Central Africa
ligious beliefs.
Central Africa includes the nations of Gabon, They are known for a gorilla mask they
Congo, Chad, Central African Republic, the make—called gon—and for their abstract,
Democratic Republic of the Congo, and An¬ often heart-shaped masks. This Bakwele mask
gola. This regioia is covered with forests, rain (figure 10) shows a heart-shaped face framed
forests, and open and tree-covered savannas. by curved horns that also form a heart shape.
The economies of most cultural groups are The eyes are thin slits and the nose is shaped
 47

Figure 10. Bakwele, Heart-Shaped Mask

48

like a triangle. Other features of this design appeals to the spiritual forces on behalf of the
are eyelike motifs on the top of each horn. Teke people.
Portions of this area have been painted white. The Teke make fetishes for spiritual and pro¬
The Bakwele use the gorilla mask to exert am tective purposes. Fetishes are small statues—
thority and power, but they use this type of some small enough to he handheld—used to
heart-shaped mask for initiation ceremonies ensure luck in hunting, fertility, and health.
and at the conclusion of a period of mourning. Sometimes the fetishes might be filled with
magical substances.
The Tsaye, a subgroup within the Teke cul¬
The Teke Culture
ture, make a distinctive disc-shaped mask.
The Teke live in Congo and eastern Gabon. This wooden mask (figure 11) is boldly geo¬
They raise vegetables aiad bananas and hunt metric and abstract in design. Masks of this
wild game. In their traditional belief system, type are often painted in combinations of red,
there is a supreme god, called Nzami, and white, brown, blue, and black. Geometric
several ancestor and nature spirits. Village chief¬ shapes define the eyes, nose, and mouth.
tains have authority over local communities. Other shapes on the mask are thought to rep¬
The king, who has the greatest authority, is resent the sky, half-moon, and stars. The
considered to he both human and divine. He mask is worn with a costume made of raffia

This dirt road is the main route

through Central African Republic.
 49

Figure 11, Teke, D/sc-Shoped Mosk

Figure 12
Pende
Panya Ngombe Mask

fabric and feathers and is used by a secret so¬ very small masks for use as protective
ciety. The person wearing the mask performs amulets, and some are large masks for use as
for the community at important events, such architectural elements on buildings. The
as the weddings and funerals of high-ranking masks represent ancestors, human characters,
individuals. animals, or a combination of these things.
This Pende mask (figure 12), called panya
ngornbe, is thought to be a combination of a
The Pende Culture
wild cow and a human. This type of mask is
The Pende live in the Democratic Republic used in coming-of-age ceremonies for young
of the Congo (formerly Zaire) and the Central men. Because of its size, this mask may have
African Republic. They were a major group been made as an interior decorative piece for
in central Africa at one time, but in the last a high-ranking person’s house. It is made of
century, their population has declined. They wood and painted with geometric shapes. The
are known for their artistic skill. Pende also make pottery and do metal work.
The Pende make refined masks. Some are They are particularly known for their small,
life-size for use in performances, some are carved ivory whistles and pendants.
 51

The Kuba Culture

The Kuba live in the south central part of

the Democratic Republic of the Congo. They
trace the history of their kingdom back
through the reigns of more than 100 kings. In
the 16th century, the Kuba were a powerful
group that controlled some of the trade routes
in central Africa. Modern'day Kuba live in
urban areas and work in a wide range of OC'
cupations. In the rural areas, most Kuba grow
grains, fruits, and vegetables, and they hunt
and fish.
The Kuba believe in a supreme being
called Nyeem, who created the world. Nature
spirits and important ancestors can be called
upon by humans to ensure fertility, health,
and success in hunting. Wool is the legendary
founder of the Kuba people and their first
king.
The Kuba make three important masks
that illustrate their legendary history. One of
these is the Ngady Amujoash mask (figure 13).
This mask represents Woot’s sister. It is a hel¬
met mask, which means that it covers the en¬
tire head of the wearer. It is carved in wood,
then decorated in a mainly triangular pattern Figure I 3

with red, yellow, white, and black paint. (The Kuba, Ngady Amwaash Mask
52

head to foot in a dazzling design of color and

pattern. They are also famous for their fine
woven and appliqued textiles.

The Lega Culture

The Lega, who live in the northeastern part

of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, are

Village life in this rural area of the Democratic Republic a farming, hunting, and fishing culture. They
of the Congo is isolated. Almost no traffic passes through are known for their carvings—including
the region.
masks—in wood and ivory. Participation in an
association, called Bwami, is an important ele¬
pattern of painted triangles is also used in ment of Lega life. The Lega strive to advance
Kuba textile designs.) The lines coming down to higher and higher levels in the Bwami as¬
from the eyes represent tears. Blue and white sociation by acquiring knowledge and exhibit¬
beads form the outlines of the eyebrows, nose, ing moral excellence. Bwami has four or seven
mouth, forehead, and top of the head. Cowrie grades, depending on the particular Lega
shells cover the head, and colored fabric cov' group. Masks are used as emblems to signify a
ers the ears. person’s rank in the Bwami association. They
The other two masks that illustrate Kuha are worn during initiations and other cere¬
legendary history are called Mwaash oMhooy monies, held in the hands, or displayed with
and Bwoom. Mwaash aMhooy represents the other masks in groups.
king, possibly Woot, and Bwoom represents This Lega mask (figure 14) is from the
the king’s brother or other high-ranking kindi level, the highest rank of Bwami. The
Kuba. These masks are used at initiation rites, wooden mask is very simple and elegant in
ceremonial events, and funerals. design. Lega masks are painted white, which
The Kuba place great importance on the
artistic appearance of objects and clothing.
They make a range of objects decorated with
Figure 14
heads and shells and extraordinary headwork-
Lega
and'shell costumes that cover the wearer from Bwami Mask
54

Figure 15
Chokwe
Mwana Pwo
Mask

gives them a ghostlike appearance. The most not united under a single ruler. They farm,
common Bwami mask is a small wooden face herd cattle, and hunt game. The crops they
with a beard attached to it. Only the two raise include millet, cassava (a plant grown
highest grades have ivory objects as emblems for its edible roots), peanuts, yams, and maize.
of rank. The senior kindi—those who instruct The Chokwe are known for their large sculp¬
the younger kindi initiates—also wear a hat tured figures of ancestors, masks, baskets, and
of cowrie shells and elephant-tail hairs. Masks elaborate jewelry made of copper, tin, wood,
and other emblems are passed on to other or stone.
members of the association as they are initi¬ The Chokwe believe in a supreme being
ated into the various grades. called Nzambi, who created the universe but
is uninvolved in current events. The spirits of
ancestors and natural forces are the important
The Chokwe Culture
guardians of human beings on earth. Private
More than one million Chokwe people live associations also play an important role in the
in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Chokwe culture.
Angola, and Zambia. They continue to resist Cne of these private groups—the Makanda
outside intervention and retain a strong con¬ association—uses a group of masks in its com-
nection to their traditional customs and belief ing-of-age ceremonies for young men. Cne of
system. Some Chokwe people have gone to these masks (figure 15) is a Mwana Pwo, a
work as laborers in factories and copper maiden mask that represents a female ances¬
mines, but most live in small villages and are tor. This type of mask portrays the ideal
55
56

of female beauty. Here, the eyes of the Among other things, the associations are re¬
smoothly carved face are decorated with gold. sponsible for conveying Songhay history, leg¬
A tattooed pattern gracefully curves around ends, and rules of behavior.
the eyes to the cheeks. Gold earrings adorn In the Songhay language, a mask is a
the ears, and the hair is made of delicately kifivebe. Secret associations use masks in initi¬
woven fiber. The effect is one of elegant ation ceremonies, in ceremonies honoring
serenity. The Chokwe also use three masks current or ancestral leaders, and in cere¬
representing male ancestors in the coming-oT monies welcoming important guests.
age ceremonies. This mask (figure 16) shows the highly
geometric design Songhay sculptors use when
carving a kifwebe. A square shape defines the
The Songhay Culture
mouth and chin. A triangle is used to make
The Songhay are an ethnic group of 1.5 mil¬ the nose, and ovals form the eyes. Curved
lion people who live in the Democratic Re¬ lines are cut into the mask and painted. The
public of the Congo. They are related to the predominance of white signifies that a mask
Luba, who live near them. Secret associations is female. Male masks have more red and
are an important part of the Songhay culture. black. The curved lines decorating the mask

Figure 16
Songhay
Face Mask
57
58

Figure 17
Luba
Kifwebe Mask

are thought to represent animal stripes. Mag- had absolute authority and was thought to be
ical substances can be attached to the top of both human and divine. Women figure promi¬
the mask, which give it great power, and a nently in Luba myth, and they held important
costume can be attached to the holes along positions in the Luba royal court. Children,
the side and bottom of the mask. too, are highly valued in Luba society.
Songhay artists also make amulets (charms) Artists also occupy a high place in Luba
and “power statues” that protect the owner society, and some are thought to be knowl¬
from illness and calamities. Some of these edgeable about magic. Among the objects
carved wooden figures are heavily decorated artists make are amulets, masks, and sculp¬
with feathers, beads, animal fur, and metal. tures portraying women.
The Luba make a mask similar to the
Songhay mask (see figure 16 on page 57), and
The Luba Culture
they also call it a kifwebe. This mask (figure
The Luba also live in the Democratic Repub' 17) is shaped like a sphere and is characteris¬
lie of the Congo, near the Songhay people. tic of the Luba style. It has curved lines cut
Their population amounts to more than one into the wood around the eyes, forehead, and
million. Farming is the Luba’s main economic cheeks. These grooves are painted white.
activity, and maize and millet are the most Woven fiber sometimes hangs down from the
important crops. mask, representing hair. The mask is used
The Luba trace their settlement back to the during funerals and ceremonies honoring
8th century and their kingdom back to King ancestors. Masks are also used in many
Kalala llunga of the 16th century. The king theatrical performances.
59
60
 The masks of Africa were made primarily
for religious and ritual purposes that have no parallel in Euro¬
pean-based societies. The masks were not meant to be decora¬
tive objects or museum pieces, but were made to be used in
public performances and private rituals.
Other African masks include a wood
and metal Ndomo mask of the Information on the culture and traditions of African ethnic
Bamana people in Mali, opposite page, groups is incomplete and, in some cases, nonexistent. Much of
left; a Baoule snake and hyena mask
the traditional way of life has now disappeared in Africa be¬
from Mali, opposite page, right; and a
Dan Deangle mask from northern cause of the spread of Islam and Christianity and the effect of
Liberia and western Ivory Coast, colonial rule. In the 1800s and much of the 1900s, Africa was
above.
dominated hy European powers. The Erench, British, Belgian,
German, Italian, Dutch, and Portuguese colonists divided much
of the land and controlled most of Africa. The borders the Eu¬
ropeans made split up some societies and grouped others to¬
gether. Ghana did not gain independence from colonial
occupation until 1957. After that, a wave of independence
movements followed throughout the continent. The aftermath
of colonial rule and subsequent revolution have left many
African societies struggling for survival and stability.
The art of mask making survives in some societies that still
make them for private rituals and public ceremonies. Carvers in
some places make masks especially for tourists and collectors.
All are worthy of further study.
62

For Further Reading Liberia in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner

Publications Company, 1988.
Cameroon in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner
Publications Company, 1992. Mali in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner
Publications Company, 1990.
Central African Republic in Pictures.
Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Nigeria in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner
Company, 1996. Publications Company, 1995.

Cote D’Ivoire in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner Senegal in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner

Publications Company, 1988. Publications Company, 1989.

Kenya in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner Zaire in Pictures. Minneapolis: Lerner

Publications Company, 1991. Publications Company, 1992.

Selected Bibliography

Biondi Joann, and Jim Haskins. From Afar to Murray, Jocelyn, ed. Cidtural Atlas of Africa
Zulu: A Dictionary of African Cultures. New York: Facts on File, 1989.
New York: Walker and Co., 1995.
Olson, James S. The Peoples of Africa:
Crowder, Michael, and Roland Oliver. The An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. Westport,
Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1996.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
Phillips, Tom, ed. Africa: The Art of a
1981.
Continent. New York: Prestel, 1995.
Kerchache, Jacques, Jean-Louis Paudrat, and
Segy, Ladislas. Masks of Black Africa. New
Lucien Stephan. Art of Africa. New York:
York: Dover Publications, 1976.
Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1993.

Index

adze, 14 Bakwele people, 46-48 Buffalo Mask, 44-46

Africa: ethnic groups of, 21; map Bamana people, 24-26 Burkina Faso, 26-30
of, 22; mask-making societies Bamlike people, 44 Bwami association, 52-54
of, 21, 23 Bamum people, 44-46 Bwami Mask, 52-54
amulets, 50, 58 Beaded Headdress, 42-44 Bwa people, 26-28
Angola, 54-56 beads, 14, 42-44, 52 Bwoom Mask, 52
Antelope Headdresses, 24-26 Benin people, 38-41
Bobo people, 26 Cameroon, 44-46
 63

carvers, 14, 29, 32 Guinea-Bissau, 24-26 Panya Ngombe Mask, 50

Central Africa, 46-59 Guinea Coast, 30-46 Pende people, 50
Central African Republic, 50 Gu Mask, 36 plank masks, 26
ceremonial events, 13, 52, 56, 58. Guro people, 34-38 poro association, 28-30
See also coming-of-age
ceremonies; initiation Hawk Mask, 26-28 royal art, 38
ceremonies headdresses, 24-26, 42-44
Chokwe people, 54-56 Heart'Shaped Mask, 46-48 secret associations and societies,
Christianity, 21, 41, 61 hunting, 31, 36, 48, 51, 52, 54 13, 28-29, 36-38, 44, 50,
colonialism, 21, 38 56-58
coming'ot-age ceremonies, 13, 50, initiation ceremonies, 13, 26, 29, Senufo people, 28-30
54-56 48, 52, 54, 56 Songhay people, 56-58
Congo, 46-51 Islam, 21, 24, 28, 41, 44, 61 spirits, 13, 14, 16, 28, 32, 34, 41,
costumes, 9, 30, 46, 48, 50, 52 ivory, 14, 38, 39, 50, 52-54 48, 51
crops and animals, ensuring Ivory Coast, 24-26, 28-30, 31-38 supreme beings, 26, 48, 51, 54
abundance of, 13, 24, 26, 51 Ivory Mask, 38, 39
Teke people, 48-50
dance, 12, 14, 16, 17, 26, 32, 36, 46 Kifwebe Mask, 56, 58, 59 Tikar people, 44
Dan people, 31-34 kings, 39-41, 42, 44, 48, 51-52, trade, 23-24, 30, 38, 51
decoration, 9, 14, 26, 28, 29-30, 58 Tsaye people, 48-50
34, 36, 42, 44, 46, 48, 51-52, Kpele Mask, 29-30 Tyi Wara association, 24, 26
56, 58 Kuba people, 51-52 types of masks, 16-18
Democratic Republic of the kwifoyn association, 44, 46
Congo, 50-58 weddings, 50
DisC'Shaped Mask, 48-50 Lega people, 52-54 We people, 34
dreams, 16, 32 Liberia, 31-34 West Africa, 30-46
livestock, 23, 54 Western Sudan, 23-30
elders, 16, 32 Luba people, 58 wood, 14, 29, 44, 51, 52-54

Face Mask, 56-58 Makanda association, 54-56 Yoruba people, 41-44

farming, 23, 26, 31, 38, 48, 51, Mali, 24-30
52, 54, 58; cooperative, 24; map of Africa, 22 Zambia, 54-56
subsistance, 28, 34, 46 masks: features on, 18; functions Zamble Mask, 36-38
fertility, ensuring, 13, 51 of, 9-10, 13-14; making, Zaouli Mask, 36
fetishes, 48 14-16, 61; size of, 16, 18
funerals and hurial rites, 13, 26, materials, 9, 14- See also beads;
29, 30, 50, 52, 58 ivory; wood
metal, 14, 44, 50
Gabon, 46-50 Mwaash aMbooy Mask, 52
Gela Mask, 34, 35 Mwana Pwo Mask, 54-56
Gle Gon Mask, 32
Gle Mu Mask, 32, 33 Ngady Amwaash Mask, 51-52
Gon Mask, 46-48 Nigeria, 38-44
gorilla mask, 46-48
64

About the Author

Carol Finley studied art history at Northwestern University and did graduate work at Bryn
Mawr College. She worked as a trader in the financial markets before pursuing a career in
writing. She lives in London and New York City.

Photo Acknowledgments
Brooklyn Museum of Art, Gift of Dr. and Mrs. Abbott Lippman, late 19th'early 20th century, Wood, pigment, 13!4" H x 111^" W
X 4" D (33.5 X 29.3 x 11.5 cm), 49; Buffalo Museum of Science C12963, 29; Photograph © 1998 Founders Society Purchase,
Eleanor Clay Ford Fund for African Art, The Detroit Institute of Arts, Accession No. 79.37, Pende Mask, Panya Ngombe Mask,
1875/1925 ' African H 21.59 W 52.07 D 16.51, 50; © Victor Englebert, 12 (left), 20 (bottom), 23, 40 (top); Werner Forman/
Art Resource, NY, 11 (detail), 60, 61; Giraudon/Art Resource, NY, 15; © Dave G. Houser, 28 (bottom left); © Wolfgang
Kaehler, 19 (detail); © Jason Laure, 46, 48, 52; © 1983 The Metropolitan Museum ot Art, The Michael C. Rockefeller
Memorial Collection, Gift of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1964. (1978.412.435-.436), 25; © 1998 The Metropolitan Museum ot Art,
TTie Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979. (1979.206.196), 27; © 1986 The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Lillian and Sidney Lichter, 1985. (1985.420.2), Photograph by Schecter Lee, 33; © 1998
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979.
(1979.206.105), 37; © 1981 The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Gift of Nelson
A. Rockefeller, 1972. (1978.412.323), Photograph by Jerry L. Thompson, 2 and 39; © 1993 The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979. (1979.206.8), 47; © 1991 The
Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Michael C. Rockefeller Memorial Collection, Bequest of Nelson A. Rockefeller, 1979.
(1979.206.83), 57; National Museum of African Art, Eliot Elisofon Photographic Archives, Smithsonian Institution, Photograph
by Franko Khoury, 55; The Newark Museum/Art Resource, NY, 16; Panos Pictures; © Fred Hoogervorst, 26, © J. H. Morris, 38
and 40 (bottom), © Betty Press, 5 (detail), 12-13 (center) and 41, © David Reed, 8 and 17, © Liba Taylor, 30; Gela Mask (The
Ancient One), “The Seattle Art Museum,” Gift of Katherine White &. the Boeing Co.” Photo: Paul Macapia, 35; Kifwebe Mask,
“The Seattle Art Museum,” Gift of Katherine White and the Boeing Co., Photo: Susan Dirk, 59; TRIP/M. Jelliffe, 20 (upper
left); TRIP/H. Hockey, 44; © Brian A. Vikander, 7 (detail), 20 (middle right), 28 (upper right), 31, 60 (right); © Virginia
Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond VA. The Adolph D. and Wilkins C. Williams Fund. Yoruba Culture (Nigeria, Republic of
Benin), Crown, Glass bead, cloth, string, 19"H x bh" W (48.2 x 17.2 cm), photos by Katherine Wetzel, 42 (detail) and 43;
© Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, VA. The Arthur and Margaret Glasgow Fund. Bamum Culture (Cameroon, Detail,
Buffalo Mask and Feather Costume, Wood, feathers, burlap, string. Mask: 7h"H x 16"W x 29"D (19 x 40.6 x 73.6 cm). Costume:
48"H x 38"W, (122 X 96.5 cm), photo by Katherine Wetzel, 45; © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, VA. The Arthur
and Margaret Glasgow Fund. Photo: Katherine Wetzel. © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Kuba Culture (Zaire), Ngady Amwaash
Mask, Wood, paint, cloth, cowrie shells, glass beads, string, 12h''H x 8"W x 9Z"D (31.7 x 20.3 x 24.1 cm), 51; © Virginia
Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, VA. The Arthur and Margaret Glasgow Fund. Lega Culture (Eastern Zaire), Bwami Mask, Wood,
white clay, 10"H x 6"W x dZ"© (25.4 x 15.2 x 8.3 cm), photo by Katherine Wetzel, 53; Laura Westlund, 14 (drawing), 22 (map).

Front Cover: © Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Richmond, VA. The Arthur and Margaret Glasgow Fund, Kuba Culture (Zaire),
Ngady Amwaash Mask, wood, paint, cloth cowrie shells, glass beads, string, 12Z" H x 8"W x 9Z"D (31.7 x20.3 x24.1 cm), photo by
Katherine Wetzel.

Back cover: Photograph © 1998 Founders Society Purchase, Eleanor Clay Ford Fund for African Art, The Detroit Institute of
Arts, Accession No. 79.37, Pende Mask, Panya Ngombe Mask, 1875/1925 - African H 21.59 W 52.07 D 16.51.
I
 BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY

'#1 QQQQ sj 354 28 3

'A^EST ROXBURY BRANCH

»■ ■>
n* ^■’ " ■’■ '■
f,.i , /■ ,• ':

»'L
• ■■••■
V
Ir' . ■ /,>>
|'4 ^ ■

• ; ■v'f®
 ^ne way to learn about the traditions of another people is
to study their art. It could be said that art is a universal
language, a window into cultures different from our own.
Mask making is an important tradition among the diverse
p^opTe ofAfrica. For many African cultures, a mask not only
conceals the identity of the wearer, but also creates a new
identity—one from the spirit world. In this book, Carol
Finley opens a window into that world and its meanings,
exploring its beauty and mystery, through the art of African
mask making.

ISBN 0-8225-2078-8

90000
NM/o

Lerner
Publications Company
9 780822 520788