» MODULE TWO

DYNAMICS
4 Forces

5 Forces, acceleration and energy

6 Momentum, energy and simple systems

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9780170409063 87
 4 Forces
INQUIRY OUTCOMES Students:
QUESTION •• using Newton’s Laws of Motion, describe static and dynamic interactions between two or more objects and
How are forces produced the changes that result from:
– a contact force
between objects and
– a force mediated by fields
what effects do forces
•• explore the concept of net force and equilibrium in one-dimensional and simple two-dimensional contexts
produce?
using: (ACSPH050) ICT N
– algebraic addition
– vector addition
– vector addition by resolution into components
•• solve problems or make quantitative predictions about resultant and component forces by applying the
following relationships: ICT N
 
– FAB = −FBA

– Fx = F cos θ , Fy = F sin θ
•• conduct a practical investigation to explain and predict the motion of objects on inclined planes
(ACSPH098) CCT ICT
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus © NSW Education Standards Authority for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales, 2017
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88 9780170409063
 In the previous two chapters, we described the motion of objects

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and explored what happens when an object accelerates. In this
chapter, we will look at the cause of acceleration, which is force.
Forces make things move, stop and change direction. Whenever
the state of motion of an object is changing, there must be a force

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acting on it. This means every time you move, a force is acting on
you, and every time you move something, you exert a force on it. All
Sir Isaac
your interactions with the world, from tapping a screen to making Newton
the air vibrate when you speak, involve forces. Find out what
other contributions
Our current understanding of forces was largely developed Newton made
by Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). Newton’s three laws of motion to physics and
mathematics.
describe how objects interact via forces, and what happens when
an object experiences one or more forces. The unit of force, the
newton, N, is named in honour of Newton. We will describe how FIGURE 4.1  Sir Isaac Newton

forces are produced between objects and use Newton’s laws to

describe and predict the effects that forces produce.

4.1  Forces are interactions

When objects interact, they do so by exerting forces on each other. Forces are not ‘contained’ in an object,
so we do not say that an object ‘has’ a force. Forces are an interaction, and they are exerted on one object WS

by another object. When we write the symbol for a force, it is a good idea to use subscripts that say General
Homework
which object is exerting the force, and which object
 the force is exerted on. For example, if an object A is knowledge

applying a force to object B, this is written as FA on B .

Forces can be categorised into two types: contact forces and field forces. Contact forces act when objects
are touching each other (in contact). Field forces act whenever objects interact without touching. When
you hold a book in your hand, you exert a contact force on the book with the skin of your hand. The book
also experiences a gravitational force due to Earth, even though it is not touching it. This is a field force.

Contact forces
Everyday pushes and pulls are examples of contact forces. When you pick something up with your hand,
or push on something, you are exerting a contact force on it. When you walk, you are exerting a contact
force on the ground.
When you exert a contact force on a surface, such as pushing your foot against the ground to walk (as
shown in Figure 4.2), we consider that force as having two components: the normal force and the friction
force. You saw in chapter 3 how to resolve vectors into perpendicular components.

a b FIGURE 4.2 The
contact force can be
considered as the sum
of a normal force and
a friction force. a The
total contact force;
b The contact force
broken up into normal
force (perpendicular
to the surface) and
F foot on ground, friction F foot on ground, normal friction force (parallel
F foot on ground, contact to the surface)

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 89

 The normal force acts perpendicular to the surface (normal means perpendicular in mathematics),
and prevents your foot from moving into the ground. The normal force is due to interactions between
atoms on the two surfaces – the sole of your foot and the surface of the ground. The normal force acts to
prevent solid surfaces from moving into each other.
The friction force acts parallel to the two surfaces, and prevents your foot from sliding along the ground.
The friction force is also due to interactions between atoms on the two surfaces. The friction force acts
to prevent relative movement, or slipping, of two surfaces which are in contact. Note that friction doesn’t
prevent movement. Without friction, you couldn’t walk or drive a car. Friction opposes the sliding of one
surface against another.
Friction is described Static friction acts to prevent sliding of one surface against another. Kinetic friction occurs when two
in detail in chapter 5.
surfaces are already sliding relative to one another, and it slows down the sliding.
Note that there is a limit to how large a normal or friction force a surface is capable of applying. If
the limit of the normal force is exceeded, then one surface will move into the other. For example, a sharp
stone may pierce your foot. If the limit of the static friction force is exceeded, then one surface will slide
relative to the other. For example, if you try to run on wet slippery grass, you may skid and slide.
Contact forces are also exerted by liquids and gases. When you swim, you exert a contact force on the
Weblink
Terminal velocity water. Air resistance (drag) is the friction force of air on an object moving through the air.
Find out what Often we make the assumption that air resistance is very small, and ignore it. However, in many
terminal velocity is,
and how cats can everyday situations (such as driving a car), air resistance is important. Knowing when to make
survive falls from high
windows. approximations, such as ignoring friction or air resistance, and knowing when not to do this, is an
important skill in physics.

Field forces
WS
Objects that are not in contact can still interact and exert forces on each other. They do so by forces
Contact and field
Homework that are mediated by fields. Three fields will be described: the gravitational field, the electric field and the
forces magnetic field.
If you hold a pencil and let it go, it will accelerate towards Earth. It does so because of the
gravitational force that Earth exerts on it, as shown in Figure 4.3. This force is mediated by the
gravitational field of Earth. The pencil is not in contact with Earth, but it is within the gravitational field
of Earth. Earth creates the field, and exerts a force via this
field. Hence, we say the force is mediated by the field. When
you talk to someone on your phone, your communication is
g mediated by the phone – you are doing the talking, but the
communication is enabled by the phone.
All objects with mass have a gravitational field – the bigger
Pencil
Weblink
Measuring Earth’s the mass is, the stronger the field. You have already met the
gravitational field 
acceleration, g , due to the gravitational field in the previous
The GRACE project is 
measuring variations chapter. In chapter 3, we expressed g in units of m s−2. We
in Earth’s gravitational 
field. How do the two can also write g in units of N kg−1, which is a useful way to
satellites do this? 
remember that g is also the gravitational field strength close
F gravitational
to the surface of Earth. The gravitational force, FEarth on object,
on an object close to the surface of Earth, is:
  
Fgravitational = FEarth on object = mg
where m is the mass of the object.

The units of g are N kg−1 and the units of mass are kg,
FIGURE 4.3  A pencil released above the
so this gives the correct units for force. N N kg−1 is the same
ground will accelerate downwards due to as m s−2. It is very useful to be able to convert between units
the gravitational force. The gravitational
force is mediated by the gravitational field.
when you are solving problems.

90 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 If you rub a balloon on your hair, charged particles are transferred from your hair to the balloon.
The electric field
The hair and balloon both end up being charged. Charged objects have an electric field. This electric and electrostatic
field exerts a force on any charged object. Hence, the electric field of the balloon exerts a force on your forces are
discussed in detail
hair. When you hold the balloon close to your hair, you can feel (and see, if your hair is long enough) the in chapter 12.
hair pulling towards the balloon. You can see this happening in
Figure 4.4. This is because the hair and balloon have opposite

Getty Images/Digital Light Source

charges and exert an attractive force on each other via the
electric field. Like charges exert a repulsive force, also via a field.
Moving charged objects and magnetic materials have a
magnetic field. Magnetic fields exert force on moving charged
objects and on magnetic materials. If you bring the north and
south poles of a magnet close together, they will pull together.
If you try to bring two north poles or two south poles together,
they will push apart.

Newton’s laws of motion

The effects of forces can be described and predicted using
Newton’s laws of motion. Newton’s laws apply in both static
and dynamic situations. Statics is the study of systems where
the objects are not moving. Dynamics refers to systems where
one or more components are moving, and often accelerations
are involved. FIGURE 4.4  The person’s hair is attracted to the balloon because
the hair and balloon are both charged. This force is mediated by the
electric field.
Newton’s first law
Newton’s first law states that, in the absence of external forces, an object at rest remains at rest and an
object in motion continues in motion with a constant velocity. In other words, when no force acts on an The magnetic
object, the acceleration of the object is zero. field is described
in detail in
This statement was enormously important for two reasons. chapter 14.
1 Newton’s first law tells us that if there is no force acting, there will be no acceleration. It explicitly
links the idea of force to acceleration. This leads us to the definition of force as something that causes
acceleration. Hence, Newton’s first law is fundamental to our understanding of what forces are.
2 Newton’s first law contradicted the writings of Aristotle. This lead to a revolution in our understanding
of the laws of nature.
For nearly 2000 years, the writings of the Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BCE) were taught in
schools and universities. Their significance was such that they came to be considered fundamental to the
understanding of the natural world. The Aristotelian view of motion was that an object ‘contained’ force
or ‘impetus’, and it moved until the ‘impetus’ ran out.
Newton and others, including Galileo, disagreed with the Aristotelian view. Newton’s first law
contradicts this Aristotelian view, and was a direct response to it.
One of the reasons the Aristotelian view was considered correct for so long was that it appears to
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match our experience. We observe that moving objects on Earth do not keep moving forever – they
slow down and stop. In the Aristotelian model, they ‘run out of impetus’ and so stop moving. In the Newton’s laws
Newtonian model, if an object is slowing down, it is accelerating, so there is a force acting on it to cause and road safety
Explain how
this acceleration. Usually, this force is friction. seatbelts and
Note that Newton’s first law deals with the case of a single object with no forces acting on it. Newton’s airbags work in
terms of Newton’s
second law, which we will discuss next, tells us what happens when one or more forces are acting. first law.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 91

 Newton’s second law
Newton’s second law tells us what happens when one or more forces act on an object. It quantifies the
relationship between force and acceleration that was introduced in the first law.
Newton’s second law tells us that, when a force acts on an object, the acceleration of the object as a
result of that force is:

 Fon A
aA =
mA

where mA is the mass of the object. Or, as it is often written:

 
Fon A = mA a A

Note that both force and acceleration are vectors, and the direction of the acceleration is the same
as that of the force.  
Newton’s second law also tells us about the units of force, N. For the equation Fon A = mA a A to be
dimensionally correct, then the units on each side must be the same:
Weblink
Measuring mass [N] = [kg][m s−2]
What is inertial
mass? Is it different
So, in fundamental units, 1 N = 1 kg m s−2.
to gravitational We will apply Newton’s second law to solve a range of problems involving equilibrium situations
mass? Find out what
it is, and how it is (including static equilibrium) in the next two sections, and to solve problems in dynamic situations in
measured.
the following chapter.

Newton’s third law

Newton’s third law reminds us that forces are interactions between objects. Both objects are affected by
WS an interaction. If you push the tips of your two index fingers together, you will see the skin compress on
Newtonʼs third law
Homework
both fingers and you will feel the force on both fingers.
Newton’s third law states that, whenever an object A exerts a force on object B, then object B exerts
an equal and opposite force on object A. We write this mathematically as:
 
FA on B = − FB on A
or sometimes more simply as
 
FAB = − FBA
 
These two forces, FA on B and FB on A , are called a Newton’s third law force pair. Also they are
sometimes referred to as an action–reaction pair. As the two forces are part of a single interaction, either
one could be the action or the reaction. When you push your two index fingers together, both push and
both are pushed.
There are some important things to remember about Newton’s third law force pairs.
1 The forces act on different objects. If a pair of forces are acting on the same object, then they cannot
be a Newton’s third law force pair. Always writing forces with subscripts will help you remember this,
and help you identify whether two forces are a Newton’s third law force pair or not.
2 The forces are of the same type, because they are the two parts of a single interaction. The Newton’s
third law force pair to a gravitational force is always a gravitational force. The Newton’s third law force
pair to a contact force is always a contact force. A contact force can never be the Newton’s third law
force pair to a gravitational force.
3 As already stated, the two forces are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions.
Weblink
Newton car Figure 4.5 shows two Newton’s third law force pairs. The satellite and Earth exert equal and opposite
Build your own gravitational forces on each other. The gravitational force is due to the gravitational fields created by
‘Newton car’ and
use it to investigate the masses of Earth and the satellite. Even though the masses of the two objects are very different, both
Newton’s third law.
experience a force of the same magnitude. Similarly, the man pushing on the wall experiences an equal

92 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 and opposite push by the wall. The man pushes the wall to the right, and the wall pushes the man to the
left. In this case, both forces are contact forces – they are experienced by the two different objects, and
act in opposite directions.

Earth
pulls the
a F by mass of satellite  
satellite on F by wall on person F by person on wall
The satellite mass of Earth
pulls Earth

F by mass of
Earth on mass
of satellite

A pair of gravitational forces

FIGURE 4.5  Two Newton’s third law force pairs. a A pair of field forces: the gravitational force of Earth on a satellite, Fby mass of Earth on mass of satellite, and its
Newton’s third law force pair, the gravitational force of the satellite on Earth, Fby mass of satellite on mass of Earth; b A pair of contact forces: the person pushes
on the wall, Fby person on wall, and the wall pushes on the person, Fby wall on person

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.1

F by table on cup, normal
Figure 4.6 shows a cup sitting on a table. The forces acting on the cup
are the gravitational force of Earth pulling downwards on the cup, and
the normal force of the table pushing upwards on the cup. Identify the
Newton’s third law force pairs to each of these forces.

F by Earth on cup, gravitational

FIGURE 4.6  The forces acting on a cup

sitting at rest on a table

ANSWER LOGIC
  
Fgravitational = FEarth on cup •• Write the gravitational force in the form FA on B.

  •• Write Newton’s third law using the forces involved in

FEarth on cup = − Fcup on Earth
the question.
 •• Identify the Newton’s third law pair.
Fcup on Earth is the Newton’s third law force pair to the gravitational
force of Earth on the cup. This must be a gravitational force.
  
Fnormal = Ftable on cup •• Write the normal force in the form FA on B.

  •• Write Newton’s third law using the forces involved in

Ftable on cup = − Fcup on table
the question.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 93

 ANSWER LOGIC
 •• Identify the Newton’s third law pair.
Fcup on table is the Newton’s third law force pair to the normal force
of the table on the cup. This must be a normal (contact) force.
 •• State your final answer.
The gravitational force Fcup on Earth is the Newton’s third law force
pair to the gravitational force of Earth on the cup, and the contact
force Fcup on table is the Newton’s third law force pair to the normal
force of the table on the cup.
TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 The cup described above is pushed along the table. It experiences two horizontal forces: the push
from someone’s hand, and friction from the surface of the table. Identify the Newton’s third law force
pair to each of these forces.
2 Explain why the normal force and the gravitational force on the cup cannot be a Newton’s third law force pair.
KEY CONCEPTS

●● Objects interact via forces.

●● Forces can be contact forces (objects are touching) or field forces (objects are not touching).
●● Newton’s first law says that if no force acts on an object, it will not accelerate. It will move in a
straight line with constant speed, or remain at rest.
●● Newton’s first law relates force to acceleration, and so provides a definition of force.
 
●● Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between force and acceleration: F = ma . The
direction of force and acceleration are the same.
●● Newton’s third law says that when object
 A exerts
 a force on object B, then object B exerts an
equal and opposite force on object A: FAB = − FBA
●● Newton’s third law force pairs act on different objects, and are always the same type of force.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Describe the difference between field forces and contact forces.
2 Identify three different field forces.
4.1 3 Identify the two components of the contact force that one solid surface exerts on another. Draw a diagram
to explain your answer.
4 A rolling ball gradually slows down and comes to a stop. How would Aristotle have explained this
observation? How would Newton have explained it?
5 Is a force caused by an acceleration? Explain your answer with reference to Newton’s second law.
6 Explain the following with reference to Newton’s first law.
a An object at rest does not spontaneously move.
b A person standing on a bus stumbles forwards when the bus stops suddenly.
c A seated person not wearing a seatbelt is not ‘thrown forwards’ towards the windscreen in a car crash,
but they do hit the windscreen.
7 Apply Newton’s second law to explain why it takes longer for a car towing a trailer full of gravel to come to
a stop than the same car without the trailer.
8 Which applies the greater gravitational force: Earth on you, or you on Earth? Explain your answer.
9 Identify
 the
 Newton’s third law force pairs to the following forces, and write the force pairs in the form
FA on B = −FB on A .
a A car’s tyres push backwards against the road.
b A charged balloon is repelled by a second charged balloon.
c The tip of a compass needle is attracted towards the north pole of Earth.
10 When you take a step forward, you push your foot down and backwards against the ground. Identify the
reaction force to the contact force that you exert against the ground. In what direction does it act?

94 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4.2 Net force in one and two dimensions
In this section, we will look at how to solve problems and make quantitative predictions about resultant
and component forces. To do this we will need to be able to add forces in one and two dimensions. In one
dimension, we can add forces algebraically. In two or more dimensions, we must add forces vectorially.

 s second law was introduced in the previous section as F = ma , which can be rearranged
Newton’
 F
as a = . This is the case when only a single force acts on an object. However, in almost all situations,
m
there are at least two forces acting, and often more. In these situations, we need to consider the net force
(total force) that acts on an object.
The more general form of Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object depends upon
the net force that acts on that object:
 
 F ∑ Fon A
a A = net on A =
mA mA

Adding forces to find the net force

The net force that acts on an object is the vector sum of all the forces that are acting on that object:
 
Fnet, A = ∑ FA
Consider the case of the block shown in Figure 4.7. This block is subject to two forces,
both acting towards the 4.0 N
 right. If we call the right the positive direction, then the net force 3.0 N
acting on the block is Fnet = (+ 4.0 N) + (+ 3.0 N) = 4.0 N + 3.0 N = + 7.0 N. Usually we drop
the + sign, and just write this as 7.0 N. This block will accelerate to the right. FIGURE 4.7  A block subject to two
Now consider the block shown in Figure 4.8. This block is also subject to two forces, forces acting in the same direction
one acting towards the right and the other to the left. If right is the positive direction,
then the3.0 N force that acts left must be negative. The net force now acting on the
3.0 N 4.0 N
block is Fnet = (+ 4.0 N) + (−3.0 N) = 4.0 N − 3.0 N = +1.0 N. This block will also accelerate
to the right, but at a much lower rate than the block shown in Figure 4.7.
Imagine that the block is again subjected to the same two forces, but now the forces
are acting at right angles to each other, as in Figure 4.9. FIGURE 4.8  A block subject to two
forces acting in opposite directions
We cannot simply add the forces algebraically now – we need to treat them as
vectors. However, because these forces are at right angles, we can treat them as the two
perpendicular components of the net force, as shown in Figure 4.10. The net force (the
3.0 N
sum of the forces) can be found using Pythagoras’s theorem or using trigonometry.
Using Pythagoras’s theorem:
 2 2
Fnet = ( 3.0 N ) + ( 4.0 N ) = 5.0 N
4.0 N

FIGURE 4.9  A block (seen from

3.0 N 3.0 N above) subject to two forces, acting at
right angles to each other
u

4.0 N SF on box 5 5.0 N 4.0 N

SF on box 5 5.0 N

FIGURE 4.10  Vector addition of forces acting at right angles

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 95

 Note that the net force now is less than when the two forces were acting in the same direction, but
greater than when they acted in opposite directions.
Using trigonometry, we can find the angle, θ, at which the force acts:
4.0 N
tan θ =
3.0 N
so
 4.0 N 
θ = tan −1   = 53°
 3.0 N 

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.2

Two tugboats apply forces on a barge through ropes, as shown in Figure 4.11. What is the resultant force
due to the two barges?

4.0 3 103 N
Tugboat A

458
Barge
458

Tugboat B
4.0 3 103 N

FIGURE 4.11  Two tugboats pull on a barge

ANSWER LOGIC
  •• Identify the relevant data in the question
FA = 4.0 × 10 3 N ; FB = 4.0 × 10 3 N
The two forces are acting at 90° to each other. •• Recognise that the forces are perpendicular.
•• Apply Pythagoras’s theorem to find the net force and write an
Fnet = FA2 + FB2 appropriate equation.

•• Substitute the known values with units and calculate the

= (4.0 × 10 3 N)2 + (4.0 × 10 3 N)2 answer.

= 5.66 × 103 N •• Calculate the answer.

3
Fnet = 5.7 × 10 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

TRY THIS YOURSELF

What would the magnitude and direction of the net force be if tugboat B doubled the force with which
it pulled?

Force diagrams
Force diagrams, such as those in Figures 4.7 and 4.8, are very useful for helping us to understand the
forces acting on an object. This is particularly true in two dimensions, as shown in Figures 4.9 and 4.10.
When you draw a force diagram, a force is drawn so the tail is at the point at which the force acts.
The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the force. The direction of the arrow is in the
direction of the force. Look again at Figure 4.9 to see how this is done.

96 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 Only the forces acting on the object of interest are shown. Forces exerted by the object on other things
are not shown. This means you cannot show a Newton’s third law force pair on the force diagram for a
single object. In Figure 4.11, the forces of the tugboats acting on the barge are shown, but not the forces
exerted by the barge on the tugboats. WS
The net force is not an actual force (like gravity or friction) – it is a sum of forces. The net force is not
Vector
Homework
generally drawn on a force diagram. If you do include it, make sure it is a different sort of arrow so it is decomposition
not confused with the actual forces acting. Look again at Figure 4.10 and see how the net force arrow is a and addition

different style to the arrows representing actual forces. Note that this net force arrow is not shown on the
force diagram for the block in Figure 4.9.

knilbeW
Resolving
Resolving forces into components forces into
components
When we are adding forces that are not perpendicular, we generally need to resolve them into perpendicular Use this physics
applet to
components. Recall that you have already done this for velocities when you studied kinematics. investigate what
happens to the
Sometimes we break forces into vertical and horizontal components. Sometimes we break forces into net force when
components parallel and perpendicular to a surface. Which we choose will depend on the problem we you vary the angle
between the two
are trying to solve. forces being added.
Figure 4.12 shows a person pulling a suitcase. The person
exerts a force of magnitude F at an angle θ to the horizontal. Using
trigonometry, we can decompose this force into horizontal and
vertical components. The horizontal component, Fx  , is given by:
Fx = F cos θ

se
tca
sui
and the vertical component by: 

on
F u

on
Fy = F sin θ Fy

ers
yp


Fb
The two components add to give the total force, F , which has
u
magnitude F. Using Pythagoras’s theorem, we can find the magnitude
Suitcase Fx
of the force from the magnitudes of the components:
FIGURE 4.12  The force exerted by a person on a suitcase,
F = Fx2 + Fy2 decomposed into components

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.3

Phil is racing to get to the airport luggage check-in before his flight closes. He is dragging his heavy
suitcase, as shown in Figure 4.12, and is wishing he’d just packed carry-on luggage instead. He exerts a
force of 30 N at an angle of 60° to the horizontal on the suitcase. Calculate the horizontal and vertical
components of this force.

ANSWER LOGIC

 θ = 60°; F = 30 N •• Identify the relevant data in the question.

Fx  = F cos θ •• Write the expression for the horizontal component of the force.
 = 30 N cos 60° •• Substitute the known values with units.
   = 15 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fy = F sin θ •• Write the expression for the vertical component of the force.
    = 30 N sin 60° •• Substitute the known values with units.
    = 26 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fx = 15 N; Fy = 26 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate significant figures.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 97

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the force Phil exerts if the magnitude of the
force is 50 N and it acts at an angle of 30° to the horizontal.
2 Describe what happens to the two components of the force if Phil gradually increases the angle at
which he pulls until he is pulling directly upwards.

Adding forces using perpendicular components

Once we have decomposed the forces into components, we can add them to find the net force. All the
x components are added to find the total x component, and all the y components are added to find the
total y component of the net force.
We first break each force into its component parts, as described above:

F1 x = F1 cos θ1 , F2 x = F2 cos θ2 

F1 y = F1 sin θ1 , F2 y = F2 sin θ2 

Then we add all the x components to get the x component of the net force:

Fnet, x = F1 x + F2 x + 

and add all the y components to get the y component of the net force:

Fnet, y = F1 y + F2 y + 

We can then find the magnitude of the total force from:

Fnet = ( Fnet, x )2 + ( Fnet, y )2

and find the angle at which it acts using trigonometry:

Fnet, y
tan θnet =
Fnet, x

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.4

Eleanor is taking her boat out on the river to do some fishing. Due to the river current, she has to
steer the boat at an angle to the direction she actually wants to go. The propeller
 exerts a force, FP, on
the boat, with magnitude 250 N pointing N40°E. The water exerts a force, FW , with magnitude 400 N
pointing directly west. What is the magnitude of the force exerted on the boat?

98 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC

a •• Draw force diagrams to visualise the situation.


408 F p 5 250 N


F w 5 400 N


b F w 5 400 N


 F p 5 250 N
F net

508

c F wx 5 Fw

 
F net Fp
F net, y F py 5 F p sin 508

F net, x F px 5 F p cos 508

FIGURE 4.13  a A force diagram showing the two forces;

b Vector addition of the two forces; c Breaking the forces
into components and adding the components

North is y direction and east is x direction. •• Choose coordinate axes.

FPx = FP cos θ = 250 N cos 50° = 161 N •• Decompose the two forces into x and y components.
FPy = FP sin θ = 250 N sin 50° = 192 N
FWx = FW cos θ = 400 N cos 180° = −400 N
FWy = FW sin θ = 400 N sin 180° = 0 N
Fnet, x = FPx + FWx = 161 N − 400 N = −239 N •• Add the components to find the x and y components of the
net force.
Fnet, y = FPy + FWy = 192 N + 0 N = 192 N
•• Use Pythagoras’s theorem to find the magnitude of the
( Fnet, x ) + ( Fnet, y )
2 2
Fnet = net force.

•• Substitute known values with units.

= (−239 N )2 + (192 N )2
= 307 N •• Calculate the final answer.
Fnet = 310 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 99

 TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 For the situation in Worked example 4.4, calculate the angle at which the net force acts.
2 A wedge-tailed eagle is swooping. It experiences a gravitational force of 45 N directly downwards,
and a force due to the air of 25 N at an angle of 45° above the horizontal. Calculate the net force
acting on the eagle, and the angle at which it acts.

Applying Newton’s third law

Remember that forces are interactions, so forces come in pairs. Whenever an object exerts a force on
something, it experiences an equal and opposite force.
Newton’s third law explains how a propeller can make a boat move. In Worked example 4.4, the
propeller is turned by the engine. The turning blades of the propeller push on the water, pushing it
backwards away from the boat. According to Newton’s third law, the water exerts an equal and opposite
force on the propeller, pushing it forwards. As the propeller is attached to the boat, this pushes the boat
forwards. The propeller doesn’t work unless it has something to push against.
Newton’s third law also helps us understand why we need friction between our feet and the ground
to walk. When you push backwards against the ground with your foot, you exert a friction force against
the ground. From Newton’s third law, the ground exerts an equal and opposite friction force forwards on
you. It is this friction force that pushes you forwards when you walk. Without friction between your feet
and the ground, you wouldn’t be able to walk.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.5

The foot in Figure 4.14 exerts a normal force of 600 N downwards on the ground and a friction force
of 300 N to the left on the ground. Calculate the total contact force exerted by the ground on the foot,
assuming the foot does not slip.

b FIGURE 4.14 The
a
contact force can be
considered as the sum
of a normal force and
a friction force. a The
total contact force;
b The contact force
broken up into normal
force (perpendicular
to the surface) and
F foot on ground, friction F foot on ground, normal friction force (parallel
F foot on ground, contact to the surface)

ANSWER LOGIC

We take the positive x direction to be right and the positive y •• Choose coordinate directions.
direction to be up.
 •• Identify the relevant data in the question.
Ffoot on ground, friction = F = −300 N
 x
Ffoot on ground, normal = F = −600 N
y
  •• Write Newton’s third law for the situation in the question.
Fground on foot = − Ffoot on ground

100 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWER LOGIC
 •• Apply Newton’s third law.
Fground on foot, friction = −Fx = +300 N

Fground on foot, normal = −F = + 600 N
y
•• Write the expression for the total contact force.
Fcontact = Fx2 + Fy2

•• Substitute the known values with units.

= ( 300 N )2 + ( 600 N )2
= 670.8 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fcontact = 671 N •• State the final answer with correct units and appropriate
significant figures.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 For the situation in Worked example 4.5, calculate the angle at which the contact force exerted by
the ground on the foot acts.
2 Repeat Worked example 4.5 for a normal force of 450 N and a friction force of 450 N.


KEY CONCEPTS

●● When more than one force acts on an object, its acceleration is determined by the net force, Fnet .
 
●● The net force on an object is the vector sum of all forces acting on that object: Fnet on A = ∑ Fon A.

 F
●● Newton’s second law states that aA = net on A .
mA
●● Forces are vectors with magnitude and direction.
●● Forces can be broken into components: Fx = F cos θ and F y = F sin θ.
●● Forces can be added by adding them up component-wise: Fnet, x = F1x + F2x +  and
Fnet, y = F1 y + F2 y + 
(Fnet, x )2 + (Fnet, y )
2
●● The magnitude of the net force is found using Pythagoras’s theorem: Fnet = .
Fnet, y
●● The net force acts at an angle tan θnet = .
Fnet, x
●● Newton’s third law says if object
 A exerts
 a force on object B, then object B exerts an equal and
opposite force on object A: FA on B = − FB on A.
●● Force diagrams are a useful way of representing forces on an object. They show all the forces,
and only the forces, acting on the object.

CHECK YOUR
1 In a tug-of-war competition, team A exerts a force of 200 N to the left on the rope, and team B exerts a UNDERSTANDING
force of 300 N to the right. Calculate the net force acting on the rope, and give its direction.
2 A force of 30 N acts in a direction N30°E on an object with mass 100 kg at rest on a smooth horizontal surface. 4.2
a Calculate the northerly component of the force.
b Calculate the easterly component of the force.
3 A naughty dog is trying to pull a sock off a washing line. The dog exerts a force with a horizontal
component of magnitude 100 N and vertical component of 50 N.
a Draw a diagram showing the force and its components.
b Calculate the magnitude of the force.
c Calculate the angle to the horizontal at which the force acts.
4 When vacuuming the living room, you need to clean under the couch. You exert a force on the couch of
500 N, at an angle of 65° above the horizontal. Describe the force that the couch exerts on you. Give its
magnitude and direction.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 101

 5 Two forces, of magnitudes 5 N and 15 N, act on an object.
a What is maximum possible net force on the object?
a
b What is the minimum possible net force?
c Draw a diagram for each case. 4.0 N 5.0 N
6 Two children push a shopping trolley. Marcus pushes forwards with a force of 100 N, and Laurence pushes
to the right with a force of 150 N. Calculate the net force acting on the trolley.
7 When an aeroplane flies, its engines provide a forwards force called thrust, and its wings provide an
upwards force called lift. The lift force acts perpendicular to the wings. It is also subject to drag from the air
when flying, which acts in the opposite direction to the motion of the plane.
b
Draw force diagrams for an aeroplane in each of the following situations.
a Sitting on the tarmac as passengers board
5.0 N
a b Ascending at an angle θ at constant velocity
c Cruising at constant speed at a fixed altitude
4.0 N 5.0 N a
d Descending at an angle θ at constant velocity
4.0 N
Remember that the lengths of the force arrows should indicate relative sizes of forces.
4.0 N 5.0 N
8 Three dogs are fighting over a frisbee. One dog is pulling in a northerly direction with a force of 100 N, the
second dog is pulling in an easterly direction with a force of 250 N, and the third dog is pulling south-east
with a force of 150 N. Calculate the net force acting on the frisbee and give its direction.
b 9 Determine the net force acting on the object in each of the situations shown in Figure 4.15.
c
a b
5.0 N
4.0 N 5.0 N 458N 5.0 N
5.0

4.0 N 4.0 N

4.0 N

c 5.0 N
d

c
458 5.0 N 458 5.0 N
4.0 N
458 5.0 N
4.0 N
308
4.0 N
4.0 N
c
FIGURE 4.15  What is the net force on the object in each of these situations?
d
458 5.0 N
d
458 5.0 N
4.0 N
458 5.0 N

308

4.0 N 308
d
4.0 N

458 5.0 N

102 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

308
  Zero net force: equilibrium in one
4.3
and two dimensions
Once we have found the net force acting on an object, we can calculate its acceleration using Newton’s
second law. When all the forces acting add to zero, the acceleration is zero. This is called equilibrium.
When an object is at rest or moving with constant velocity, it has no acceleration. If the acceleration
of an object is zero, then the net force acting on the object must also be zero. We call this condition
equilibrium. Note that an object in equilibrium is not necessarily static.
An object can be in equilibrium if no forces at all are acting, but usually it is because all the forces
acting on it balance to produce a zero net force.
Consider a cup sitting on a table, as shown in Figure 4.16a. The cup is at rest, so the forces acting it
must balance:
 
Ftable on cup + FEarth on cup = 0
or  
Ftable on cup = − FEarth on cup

The two forces, the normal force and the gravitational force, are equal in this case and act in opposite
directions, but they are not a Newton’s third law force pair. We can see this immediately from the
subscripts – both forces act on the same object, the cup. Furthermore, the forces are of different types –
one is a gravitational force (a field force), and the other is a contact force.

a F by table on cup, normal b F by table on cup, normal

F by table on cup, normal

1 F by Earth’s mass on cup 5 0
F by table on cup, normal
1 F by hand on cup
F by Earth’s mass on cup 1 F by Earth’s mass on cup 5 0
F by hand on cup
F by Earth’s mass on cup

FIGURE 4.16  The cup is at rest, and so it is in equilibrium. The net force acting on the cup is zero. a The gravitational force
and normal force balance each other. b The normal force increases so that it balances the gravitational force and the push by
the hand.

Now consider what happens if you push down on the cup, as shown in Figure 4.16b. The total
downwards force has increased. The gravitational force has not changed, but there is an additional force
due to the hand. Now:
  
Ftable on cup + FEarth on cup + Fhand on cup = 0
or   
Ftable on cup = − ( FEarth on cup + Fhand on cup )

We can see that the normal force has increased, as it must now balance the combination of the
gravitational force on the cup and the push downwards by the hand.
An object that is moving at constant velocity is also in equilibrium. Consider the person in Figure 4.17
(page 104) who is dragging a rock at constant speed along the ground. The rock is subject to three forces,
as shown in Figure 4.17b. In order for the forces to add to zero, their vertical (y) components must add to
zero, and their horizontal (x) components must also add to zero. The gravitational force due to Earth and
the normal force due to the surface of the ground both act vertically. The friction force acts horizontally,

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 103

 and opposes the sliding of the rock relative to the ground. The force by the person acts at an angle θ to
the ground. The vertical and horizontal components of each force are shown in Figure 4.17c.
In the horizontal direction:
Fnet, x = Fperson on rock, x − Fground on rock, friction = Fperson on rock cos θ − Fground on rock, friction = 0
In the vertical direction:
Fnet, y = Fperson on rock, y + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock
= Fperson on rock sin θ + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock = 0

a b c

F by person on rock F by person on rock, y

F by ground on rock, normal
F by ground on rock
F by person on rock, x
u
F by ground on rock, friction

F by Earth on rock
F by Earth on rock

FIGURE 4.17  a A person drags a rock at constant speed; b Force diagram showing forces acting on the rock; c Forces acting on the rock broken into
horizontal (x) and vertical (y) components

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.6

Draw force diagrams to show the forces acting on a car when it is:
1 stationary.
2 moving along a straight stretch of road at a constant 60 km h−1.
Remember that the lengths of the arrows represent approximately the magnitudes of the forces and  show
whether a force is equal to, larger than, or smaller than other forces. Label the forces in the form FA on B .

ANSWERS LOGIC

1 When a car is stationary, the forces acting on the car are: •• Identify the forces acting from the information in
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre the question.
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car.
•• Draw a diagram.
F by surface on tyre F by surface on tyre •• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres should
sum to be the same length as the gravitational force
downwards.

F by Earth on car
Velocity 5 0

FIGURE 4.18  Forces acting on a

stationary car.

104 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 ANSWERS LOGIC

2 When a car is moving at constant velocity, the forces acting •• Identify the forces acting from the information in the
on the car are: question.
• the normal force of the ground surface on each tyre
• the friction force of the surface on the car ( forwards)
• air resistance (backwards)
• the gravitational force of Earth on the car
•• Draw a diagram.
F by surface on tyre F by surface on tyre
F by air on car •• The contact forces of the ground on the tyres should
sum to be the same length as the gravitational force
downwards.

F by surface on tyre, friction •• The friction force by the ground must be the same length
as the force due to air resistance backwards.

F by Earth on car

FIGURE 4.19  Forces acting on a car moving

at constant velocity.

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1  Draw a force diagram for a car parked on a hillside.

2 Draw a force diagram for the cup shown in Figure 4.16b, but with the hand instead applying an upwards force to the cup,
where that force is less than the gravitational force on the cup.

Note that in Worked example 4.6, we have put the direction of the friction force of the road surface
on the car pointing forwards. Remember that a car drives forwards by pushing backwards against the
road. According to Newton’s third law, if the car pushes backwards against the road, the road must push
forwards against the car. Therefore, it is the friction force of the road on the tyres that pushes the car
forwards. Opposing this force is the force of air resistance, which can be very large, and increases as the
speed of the car increases. At equilibrium, when the car is moving at constant velocity, these two forces
are equal.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.7

Rob is dragging a rock through his garden to make it the centrepiece of his new water feature. The rock
has a mass of 75 kg. Rob exerts a force of 240 N at an angle of 60o to the horizontal. The rock moves at a
constant speed. Calculate the magnitudes of the two components of the contact force that the ground
exerts on the rock. Figure 4.17 will help you.

ANSWER LOGIC

FRob on rock = 240 N; θ = 60° •• Identify the relevant data from the question.
 mrock = 75 kg
Fnet = 0 because constant speed •• Recognise that the rock is in equilibrium.
Fnet, x  = FRob on rock, x − Fground on rock, friction •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the horizontal (x)
direction ( Fnet, x = 0) (refer to Figure 4.17c).
    = FRob on rock cos θ − Fground on rock, friction
=0

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 105

 ANSWER LOGIC

Fground on rock, friction = −FRob on rock cos θ •• Rearrange the equation to find the unknown force.
= −240 N cos 60° •• Substitute known values with units.
= −120 N •• Calculate the answer.
Fnet, y = FRob on rock, y + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the vertical (y) direction
(Fnet, y = 0) (refer to Figure 4.17c).
= FRob on rock sinθ + Fground on rock, normal − FEarth on rock
=0
Fground on rock, normal = FEarth on rock − FRob on rock sin θ •• Rearrange the equation to find the unknown force.
FEarth on rock = mrockg •• Write an expression for the gravitational force acting on the rock.
−1
= (75 kg)(9.8 N kg ) •• Substitute known values with units.
= 735 N (down) •• Calculate the answer.
Fground on rock, normal = 735 N − 240 N sin 60° •• Substitute values into the expression for Fground on rock, normal.
= 530 N (two significant figures) •• Calculate the final answer.

Fground on rock, friction = −120 N in the opposite direction to the motion •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
Fground on rock, normal = 530 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

1 Explain what will happen to the force exerted by the ground on the rock if Rob increases the force he
applies.
2 Refer back to Figure 4.11, showing two tugboats pulling on a barge. If the barge moves at constant
velocity, what is the drag force due to the water acting on the barge?

INVESTIGATION 4.1

Static equilibrium
When an object has zero net force acing on it, it is in equilibrium. When the object is also at rest, we
Critical and call it static equilibrium.
creative thinking

AIM
Numeracy To show that the net force on a stationary, non-accelerating object is zero, within uncertainty limits
Our hypothesis is that the net force on the stationary ring is zero.

MATERIALS

•• Wooden board and 3 nails

•• Hammer
•• String
•• Protractor
•• 3 spring balances
•• Small rigid ring
•• Paper
•• Pencil
•• Tape

106 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 !
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT
The spring balances may flick back or flick an object into a Wear safety glasses when working with springs.
person’s eye.

What other risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

1 Tape the piece of paper to the middle of the board and place the ring on top.
2 Hammer the three nails into the board, each near an edge of the board but well separated from each other
(see Figure 4.20).
3 Hook one spring balance
over each nail.
4 Use a piece of string to
tie each spring balance to
the hook. Do not double-
knot it until you have
adjusted the length!
5 Adjust the lengths of each
piece of string so that the
ring is over the piece of
paper, and each balance is
reading within its limits.

RESULTS

1 Trace the ring and the

direction of each string on
the paper.
2 Record the force
measured by each
balance against the
tracing of the correct FIGURE 4.20  Experimental set-up
string.
3 Estimate the uncertainty
in each spring balance reading.
When you have recorded your results, you can remove the ring and spring balances, and make measurements
on your paper.
4 Draw a set of axes on your paper with the origin at the position where the ring was.
5 Measure and record the angle of each force (string line) to one or both axes.
You now have a force diagram for your ring.

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

1 Calculate the net force acting on the ring.

2 Calculate the uncertainty in the net force.

DISCUSSION
Was your hypothesis supported, within the uncertainty in your net force? Explain any discrepancies.

CONCLUSION
With reference to the data obtained and its analysis, write a conclusion based on the aim of this investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 107

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● When the net force acting on an object is zero, the object is said to be in equilibrium.
●● An object in equilibrium has zero acceleration.
●● An object in equilibrium has constant velocity, which may or may not be zero velocity.
●● An object at rest with zero net force acting on it is said to be in static equilibrium.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Is it possible for an object in equilibrium to be moving? Explain your answer.
2 What is the magnitude of the net force acting on an aeroplane flying horizontally at a constant speed of
4.3 400 km h−1? Explain your answer.
3 A child is pulling a toy truck behind her over level ground at constant speed. How do you know that all the
forces acting on the toy truck are balanced?
4 For each of the situations in Figure 4.21, what additional force would need to be added for the object to be
in equilibrium? Calculate the magnitude and direction.

a b c

3.0 N
458 3.0 N 458 3.0 N
4.0 N
4.0 N
4.0 N 308

FIGURE 4.21

F F
4.0
5 A heavy, 10.0 kg painting is suspended from N
two cables in a gallery. Each cable applies the 308 308
same force to the painting, at an angle of 30°
above the horizontal (Figure 4.22). What is the 10.0 kg
force applied by each cable on the painting?
FIGURE 4.22  A heavy painting suspended by two cables

Investigating the motion of objects

4.4
on inclined planes

An object on a slope is always affected by (at least) three forces – the gravitational force, FEarth on object ,
acts vertically downwards; the normal force, N, acts perpendicular to the surface of the slope; and the
friction force, Fsurfact on object, friction, acts parallel to the slope. These forces are shown in Figure 4.23a.
In previous examples, we have found it convenient to decompose vectors into vertical and horizontal
components. When dealing with inclined planes, it is usually more convenient to use axes parallel and
perpendicular to the slope.
Consider an object on a slope, as in Figure 4.23a. We assume the object can only accelerate parallel
to the slope – that is, it will not sink into the slope, or lift off above it. If acceleration can only occur
parallel to the slope, then the net force perpendicular to the slope must be zero. Acceleration is possible
parallel to the slope, so the net force parallel may not be zero. Hence it makes sense to choose our x axis
as parallel to the slope and our y axis as perpendicular to the slope. When we do this, two of the three

108 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 forces are already acting along one axis or the other. The friction force acts along the x axis (parallel to
slope), and the normal force acts along the y axis (perpendicular to slope). The gravitational force can be
decomposed into a component along each axis, as shown in Figure 4.23b.

a F surface on block, normal b F surface on block, normal

F surface on block, friction F surface on block, friction

y
F Earth on block, x

u u x
F Earth on block F Earth on block, y

FIGURE 4.23  a The forces acting on an object on an inclined plane; b The forces decomposed into components parallel (x) and
perpendicular (y) to the slope

We can then use Newton’s second law in component form to analyse the behaviour of the object.
In the y direction (perpendicular), where the net force is zero:
Fnet, y = ΣFy = Fsurface on object,normal − FEarth on object, y = Fsurface on object,normal − FEarth on object cos θ = 0
In the x direction, where the net force may be non-zero:
Fnet, x = ΣFx = Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object, x = Fsurface on object, friction − F(Earth on object) sin θ = mobject a
There are two things that can happen when we place an object on an inclined plane such as this − it
can stay in place, or it can slide down. If it stays in place, then the object is in equilibrium, and Fnet, x =
ΣFx = 0. In this case,
Fsurface on object, friction = −FEarth on object sin θ = mobject g sin θ
This occurs if the maximum static friction force is greater than or equal to the component of the
gravitational force acting down the slope.

WORKED EXAMPLE 4.8

Harriet sits on a slide so that her brother Laurence can’t use it. Harriet has her bare feet against the slide,
and there is enough friction to prevent her moving. If Harriet has a mass of 21 kg and the slide makes an
angle of 35° to the horizontal, calculate the magnitude of each force acting on her.

ANSWER LOGIC

m = 21 kg; θ = 35° •• Identify the relevant data, and recognise that Harriet is
in equilibrium.
Fnet = 0, because not moving
Figure 4.23 shows the forces acting, but in this case they act on
Harriet, rather than a block.
The three forces acting on Harriet are the gravitational force of
Earth, and the normal and frictional forces due to the surface.
FEarth on Harriet = mg •• Write the expression for the gravitational force.
–1
= (21 kg) (9.8 N kg ) •• Substitute known values with units.
= 205.8 N downwards •• Calculate the value (do not round at this stage).

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 109

 ANSWER LOGIC

Fnet, x = FEarth on Harriet, gravitational, x − Fslide on Harriet, friction = 0 •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the parallel (x)
direction (Fnet, x = 0) (refer to Figure 4.23b).
Fslide on Harriet, friction = FEarth on Harriet, x •• Rearrange to find the unknown force.
= FEarth on Harriet sin θ •• Expand the expression.
= (205.8 N) sin 35° •• Substitute known values with units.
= 118 N •• Calculate the value.
Fnet, y = FEarth on Harriet, gravitational, y − Fslide on Harriet, normal = 0 •• Write the equation for equilibrium in the perpendicular (y)
direction (Fnet, y = 0) (refer to Figure 4.23b).
Fslide on Harriet, normal = FEarth on Harriet, y •• Rearrange to find the unknown force.
= FEarth on Harriet cos θ •• Expand the expression.
= (205.8 N) cos 35° •• Substitute known values with units.
= 169 N •• Calculate the value.
Fslide on Harriet, normal = 170 N •• State the final answer with correct units and significant
figures.
Fslide on Harriet, friction = 120 N
FEarth on Harriet = 210 N

TRY THESE YOURSELF

Continuing on from Worked example 4.8, Laurence tries to get Harriet out of his way by pushing her
down parallel to the slide with a constant force of 150 N.
1 If the friction force acting on Harriet is unchanged, what is the net force acting on her? Describe her
motion while this force is exerted.
2 If this extra force causes Harriet to slide down at a constant speed, calculate the magnitude of each force
acting on Harriet now. What must have happened to the friction force? What is the net force in this case?

Chapter 5 If the object sitting on an inclined plane slides down, this tells us that the maximum static friction
section 5.2 gives
more details and
force was less than the component of the gravitational force acting down the slope. So, in the x direction
includes worked we have:
examples showing Fnet, x = ∑ Fx = Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object sin θ = mobject a
how to do this.
and the object accelerates down the slope at a rate of:
Fsurface on object, friction − FEarth on object, gravity sin θ
a=
Weblink
Forces on a box mobject
on an inclined
plane Fsurface on object, friction − mobject g sin θ
Watch the video, and =
work along with it mobject
to decompose the
gravitational force. Hence, we can measure acceleration of an object sliding on an inclined plane to calculate the kinetic
friction force acting between the object and the surface of the plane.
If we vary the angle between the plane and the horizontal, we can find the maximum static friction
force between the surfaces. If the angle at which the object just starts to slide is θc, which is called the
Weblink
IgNobel award: critical angle, then
the physics of
sheep-dragging
Fstatic friction max = mobject g sin θc
Read this article about
Australian research on Note that here we have discussed the case of an object at rest subject to the static friction force, or an
sheep-dragging. Draw
a force diagram for a object sliding and subject to the kinetic friction force. The case of an object rolling, such as a ball rolling
sheep being dragged
up a rough ramp.
down a slide, is more complicated. The simple analysis described here for objects at rest or sliding is not
a good model for a rolling ball.

110 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 INVESTIGATION 4.2

Motion of objects on inclined planes

Critical and
The measurement of the acceleration of objects on inclined planes can be used to deduce the frictional creative
force that acts between the plane and an object sliding on it. The frictional force will be different for different thinking
surfaces and for different angles. You can also use an inclined plane that can be adjusted to different angles
Numeracy
to measure the maximum static frictional force between the plane and the object. Reading ahead to the
next chapter where friction is discussed in more detail, and dynamics is presented, may help you with this Information and
investigation. communication
technology
capability
AIM

•• Write an aim for an investigation using objects sliding on inclined planes.

WS
•• Write an inquiry question or hypothesis.
Skiing the
Homework
MATERIALS super_G: the
ulitmate inclined
•• An inclined plane plane

•• One or more objects to slide down the inclined place

What else will you need? Write your own equipment list. For example, you might need timing equipment,
motion-sensors, a range of different surface materials, a protractor, and various weights. What you need will
depend on your inquiry question or hypothesis. Remember to talk to your teacher about what equipment
is available.

!
WHAT ARE THE RISKS IN DOING THIS INVESTIGATION? HOW CAN YOU MANAGE THESE RISKS TO STAY SAFE? RISK
ASSESSMENT

What risks are associated with your investigation, and how can you manage them?

METHOD

•• Write a detailed method for your investigation. Check it with your teacher before you proceed.
•• Remember to include what will be measured, and think about how you can minimise uncertainties.

RESULTS
An investigation
Record your results as you measure them. A table is often a good way of organising your results. Remember to involving motion
include units and uncertainties! on inclined
planes could be
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS extended to a
depth study by
How will you analyse your results so that you can answer your inquiry question or test your hypothesis? using it to study
friction in detail,
DISCUSSION or comparing
rolling with
•• Have you answered your inquiry question? Did your results support your hypothesis? sliding motion
using objects of
•• If other groups were working on similar investigations, did their results agree with yours? different shapes
•• Are there ways you could improve your investigation? and surface
materials.
CONCLUSION
Write a conclusion summarising the outcomes of your investigation.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 111

 KEY CONCEPTS
●● An object on an inclined plane is subject to the contact force due to the plane (normal and
WS
friction) and the gravitational force.
Important theory
Homework ●● It is usually convenient to decompose the forces acting on an object on an inclined plane into
components parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
●● Objects on inclined planes are generally in equilibrium (zero net force) perpendicular to the
plane, but may be accelerating (non-zero net force) parallel to the plane.
●● The kinetic friction force that the surface of a plane exerts on an object can be found by
measuring the acceleration of the object sliding down the plane.
●● The maximum static friction force that the surface of a plane exerts on an object can be found
by measuring the angle at which the object begins to slide.

CHECK YOUR
UNDERSTANDING 1 Why is it usually more convenient to decompose forces into components parallel and perpendicular to the
plane for objects on inclined planes, than into horizontal and vertical components? Explain your answer.
4.4 2 A 1200 kg car is parked on a slope at an angle of 15° to the horizontal.
a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on the car.
b Calculate the magnitude of each force.
3 A 1200 kg car is travelling at constant speed up a slope at an angle of 15° to the horizontal.
a Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on the car.
b Calculate the magnitude of each force.
4 In an experiment to measure the static friction force, students are using a plate sliding down an inclined
plane. If the plate has a mass of 1.0 kg and the maximum static friction force that the inclined plane can
exert on it is 4.2 N, calculate the minimum angle of the plane such that the plate will begin
to slide.
5 In an experiment to measure the kinetic friction force, students are using a 1.0 kg plate sliding down an
inclined plane. The plane is at an angle of 60° to the horizontal. The time taken for the plate to slide a
distance of 30 cm, starting from rest, is measured to be 0.32 s.
a Calculate the acceleration of the plate.
b Calculate the net force acting on the plate.
c Calculate the kinetic friction force that the plane exerts on the plate. You may wish to review kinematics
in chapter 3.
6 Describe how you could calculate the uncertainties in the experiment described in question 5. What
information would you need?

112 MODULE TWO » DYNAMICS 9780170409063

 4   CHAPTER SUMMARY

◗◗ Objects interact via forces. ◗◗ Forces can be added by adding them up component-wise:
Fnet, x = F1x + F2 x +  and Fnet, y = F1y + F2 y + 
◗◗ Forces can be contact forces (objects touching) or field
forces (objects not touching). ◗◗ The magnitude of the net force is found using Pythagoras’s

(Fnet, x ) + (Fnet, y )
2 2
◗◗ Newton’s first law says that if no force acts on an object, theorem: Fnet = .
it will not accelerate. It will move in a straight line with
constant speed, or remain at rest. Fnet, y
◗◗ The net force acts at an angle given by tan θnet = .
Fnet, x
◗◗ Newton’s first law relates force to acceleration, and so ◗◗ Force diagrams are a useful way of representing forces on
provides a definition of force. an object. They show all the forces, and only the forces,
acting on an object.
◗◗ Newton’s second law quantifies the relationship between

 Fon A   ◗◗ When the net force acting on an object is zero, the object is
force and acceleration: aA = or F = ma . The direction said to be in equilibrium.
mA
of force and acceleration are the same. ◗◗ An object in equilibrium has zero acceleration and
constant velocity.
◗◗ Newton’s third law tells us that when an object A exerts
a force on object B, then object
 B exerts
 an equal and ◗◗ An object at rest with zero net force acting on it is in
opposite force on object A: FA on B = −FB on A . static equilibrium.
◗◗ Newton’s third law pairs act on different objects, and are ◗◗ An object on an inclined plane is subject to the contact
always of the same type of force. force due to the plane (normal and friction) and the
gravitational force.
◗◗ When more than one force acts on an object,its
acceleration is determined by the net force, Fnet . ◗◗ We decompose the forces acting on an object on an inclined
plane into components parallel and perpendicular to the plane.
◗◗ The net force on an object
 is the vector
 sum of all forces
acting on that object: Fnet on A = ∑ Fon A . ◗◗ Objects on inclined planes are generally in equilibrium
(zero net force) perpendicular to the plane, but may be
◗◗ Forces can be broken into perpendicular components: accelerating (non-zero net force) parallel to the plane.
Fx = F cos θ and Fy = F sin θ

4   CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS Qz

Review quiz

1 State: 5 Draw a diagram to show:

a Newton’s first law. a the vertical and horizontal components of a force
b Newton’s second law. vector directed at an angle θ to the horizontal.
c Newton’s third law. b the parallel and perpendicular components of the
gravitational force on a mass sliding on a frictionless
2 Explain why Newton’s third law force pairs can never be surface inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal.
shown on a single force diagram.
6 Two people have a tug-of-war competition that
3 When adding up the forces acting on an object, should results in a tie. Sketch a diagram to show all the forces
you include the Newton’s third law force pairs to the acting on:
forces acting on the object? Explain your answer.
a each person.
4 An elephant pulls on a rope with a force of 500 N. With what b the rope.
force does the rope pull on the elephant? Explain your answer.

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 113

 7 Draw a force diagram showing the forces acting on a ball 16 In a static equilibrium experiment, a ring is connected
in each of the following situations. to three strings, each of which exerts a force on the ring
a When you hold it at rest in your hand. as shown in Figure 4.24. Calculate the magnitude of the
unknown force, F, and the angle, θ, at which it acts.
b As you throw the ball upwards.
c After the ball has left your hand and is moving up.
d When the ball reaches the top of its path.
e When the ball is on the way back down. F
12 N
8 A physics textbook is resting on the rear parcel shelf of a
car moving at 50 km h−1. The book becomes a dangerous
308 u
missile when the car comes to a sudden stop. Explain why.
9 A book is sitting at rest on a table. Marcus puts his 608
hand on the book and pushes downwards, with slowly
increasing force. Describe what happens to:
a the gravitational force acting on the book. 15 N
b the normal force of the table acting on the book as
Marcus increases the force with which he pushes.
FIGURE 4.24  Three forces act on a
10 A ball sits at
 rest on the ground. In the form of stationary ring
FA on B = −FB on A , identify the Newton’s third law force
pair to:
a the gravitational force acting on the ball. 17 Rob is pushing a shopping trolley with wonky wheels. He
b the normal force of the ground acting on the ball. exerts a force of 90 N in a direction N45°E on the trolley,
and at the same time the ground exerts a friction force of
11 A ball has been
 thrown  and it is flying through the air. In 30 N N10°W on the trolley. Calculate the magnitude and
the form of FA on B = −FB on A , identify the Newton’s third direction of the net force on the trolley.
law force pair to:
18 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide down
a the gravitational force acting on the ball.
a frictionless snowfield inclined at 15° to the horizontal.
b the drag (friction) of the air acting on the ball.
Calculate the magnitude of:
12 Calculate the net force acting on a boat when the force by a the component of the weight force perpendicular to
the wind on the sails is 500 N to the west, and there is an the snowfield.
additional force due to a motor of 400 N to the north.
b the force down the slope of the snowfield on the
13 Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the toboggan and child.
following force vectors.
19 A toboggan and child of combined mass 67 kg slide down
a 25 N at 30° above the horizontal, pointing right. a grassy slope inclined at 15° to the horizontal. The force of
b 25 N at 30° below the horizontal, pointing right. friction exerted by the slope on the toboggan is 50 N.
c 25 N at 30° above the horizontal, pointing left. Calculate the magnitude of:
d 25 N at 30° below the horizontal, pointing left. a the component of the weight force perpendicular to
the snowfield.
14 A 40 kg block is on a frictionless plane inclined at 42°.
b the net force down the slope on the toboggan
a Calculate the component of the gravitational force
and child.
that is:
i parallel to the surface. 20 A crowded school bus enters a left-hand corner while
maintaining a constant speed. The younger pupils standing
ii perpendicular to the surface.
say that they were pushed to the right of the bus. Explain
b i What is the resultant force on the block? why they are incorrect, and give a proper explanation for their
ii What is the normal force on the block? apparent motion from within the bus.
15 Two children run in and kick a soccer ball at exactly the 21 It is often observed that a force is required to maintain the
same moment. Anna kicks the ball with a force of 150 N motion of an object, such as a car along a straight, level
west, and Belinda kicks it with a force of 220 N north. road. Does this mean that Aristotle was correct after all?
Calculate the net force on the ball at this moment. Justify your opinion.

114 CHAPTER TWO

MODULE 11 » CHEMISTRY
» DYNAMICS 9780170409063
 22 A rocket launch involves engines expelling large a Identify the forces acting on each book and draw a
quantities of gas downwards with high speed. Explain separate force diagram for each.
how this results in the rocket moving upwards. b Apply Newton’s third law to identify equal and
23 Three books sit in a pile on a student’s desk: a maths book opposite forces in your diagrams (remember that a
on top, a chemistry book in the middle, and a physics Newton’s third law force pair cannot be shown on a
book on the bottom (Figure 4.25). single force diagram).
c Apply Newton’s second law to write a relationship
between the forces acting on the chemistry book.
24 The anchor chain of a large ship exerts a force on the ship
of 6.0 × 103 N in a direction N30°E at an angle of 60° to
the horizontal.
a Sketch a diagram to show this situation.
b For this force, calculate the magnitude of the
component in each of the following directions.
i Horizontally
ii Vertically up
iii North
FIGURE 4.25  A pile of books on a student’s desk
iv East

9780170409063 CHAPTER 4 » FORCES 115