CUADERNILLO DE

TEXTOS ESPECÍFICOS

NUTRICIÓN
INGLÉS I y II

2021
 NUTRICIÓN
FACULTAD DE MEDICINA Y CIENCIAS DE LA SALUD

LEVEL I
Text 1 Systems of the human body

Read the text and identify the different systems of the human body
The human body is marvelously complex, and the greatest wonder is, complex as it is, how well it works
most of the time. For purposes of study, we can divide the body into systems, although each system is
highly complex and the dividing line between systems may not be distinct. All of the systems have
specialized functions, but they are also closely related to one another, indeed their successful interaction is
absolutely necessary for our survival.

The skeletal system refers chiefly to the bones that support and protect the body. All the muscles that push
and pull the skeleton make up the muscular system. The circulatory system consists of the heart and the tubes
– arteries and veins – that transport blood. We breathe with our respiratory system, which supplies oxygen to
the body’s tissues and removes some wastes. The nervous system, whose primary components are the brain
and the spinal cord, is our “master control”, regulating all our internal functions and providing us with
information about the environment. We process food and eliminate some wastes with the digestive system.
The urinary system is reponsible for the elimination of most of the body’s liquid chemical wastes. The
reproductive system consists of those organs that characterize the sexes and enables us to conceive , bear,
and give birth to offspring. The secretion of hormones, which regulates the body’s functions chemically, is
the job of the endocrine system. The lymphatic system works with the veins in draining fluid from tissues
and helps defend the body against infection. The skin, the body’s largest organ, encloses and protects all the
body’s systems.

Text 2 Human Nutrition

Read the text and answer these questions

1. What does human nutrition deal with?
2. How many categories of nutrients are there? Identify them
3. Which nutrients are macronutrients?
4. Which ones are micronutrients?
5. How is energy measured?
6. Does water provide energy?
7. Why is fiber required?
8. What is gluconeogenesis?

Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human
life and health. Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security or a poor
understanding of nutrition and dietary practices. Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to
deaths and disabilities worldwide. Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically, and for
normal human biological development

Overview
The human body contains chemical compounds such as water, carbohydrates, amino acids (found in
proteins), fatty acids (found in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds are composed
of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Any study done to determine
nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the
chemical composition of the whole diet and of all the materials excreted and eliminated from the body
(including urine and feces).
Nutrients
The seven major classes of nutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water.
Nutrients can be grouped as either macronutrients or micronutrients (needed in small quantities).
Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are macronutrients, and provide energy. Water and fiber are macronutrients
but do not provide energy. The micronutrients are minerals and vitamins.

The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide structural material (amino acids from which proteins
are built, and lipids from which cell membranes and some signaling molecules are built), and energy. Some
of the structural material can also be used to generate energy internally, and in either case it is measured in
Joules or kilocalories (often called "Calories" and written with a capital 'C' to distinguish them from little 'c'
calories). Carbohydrates and proteins provide 17 kJ approximately (4 kcal) of energy per gram, while fats
provide 37 kJ (9 kcal) per gram, though the net energy from either depends on such factors as absorption and
digestive effort, which vary substantially from instance to instance.

Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are required for other reasons. A third class of
dietary material, fiber (i.e., nondigestible material such as cellulose), seems also to be required, for both
mechanical and biochemical reasons, though the exact reasons remain unclear. For all age groups, males on
average need to consume higher amounts of macronutrients than females. In general, intakes increase with
age until the second or third decade of life.

Some nutrients can be stored - the fat-soluble vitamins - while others are required more or less continuously.
Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much of a
required nutrient. Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, and must be obtained from food.

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range
from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are
triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not
all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms
in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-
containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally.
Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for
energy production just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down
existing protein, some glucose can be produced internally; the remaining amino acids are discarded,
primarily as urea in urine. This occurs naturally when atrophy takes place, or during periods of starvation.

Text 3 Carbohydrates

Read the text and answer these questions

1. What is a carbohydrate?
2. How are saccharides divided?
3. What is the function of polysaccharides?
4. Where do we find starch?
5. Where do we find sugars?

A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with
a hydrogen–oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water) and thus with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m
may be different from n). This formula holds true for monosaccharides. Some exceptions exist; for example,
deoxyribose, a sugar component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. The carbohydrates are
technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them as aldoses and ketoses.

The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugars,
starch, and cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups: monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides and disaccharides, the smallest
(lower molecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. The word saccharide comes
from the Greek word σάκχαρον (sákkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of
carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -
ose, as in the monosaccharides fructose (fruit sugar) and glucose (starch sugar) and the disaccharides sucrose
(cane or beet sugar) and lactose (milk sugar).

Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy
(e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g. cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods).
The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD)
and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA.
Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the
immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

They are found in a wide variety of natural and processed foods. Starch is a polysaccharide. It is abundant in
cereals (wheat, maize, rice), potatoes, and processed food based on cereal flour, such as bread, pizza or pasta.
Sugars appear in human diet mainly as table sugar (sucrose, extracted from sugarcane or sugar beets), lactose
(abundant in milk), glucose and fructose, both of which occur naturally in honey, many fruits, and some
vegetables. Table sugar, milk, or honey are often added to drinks and many prepared foods such as jam,
biscuits and cakes.

Cellulose, a polysaccharide found in the cell walls of all plants, is one of the main components of insoluble
dietary fiber. Although it is not digestible, insoluble dietary fiber helps to maintain a healthy digestive system
by easing defecation. Other polysaccharides contained in dietary fiber include resistant starch and inulin,
which feed some bacteria in the microbiota of the large intestine, and are metabolized by these bacteria to
yield short-chain fatty acids.

Text 4 Fat

Read the text and answer these questions

1 Mention some examples of fats
2 Which are the functions of fat?
3 Why are some fatty acids called essential?
4 How are fats and oils categorized?
5 What's the relationship between fats and energy?

Fats are one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrates and proteins. Fat molecules consist
of primarily carbon and hydrogen atoms and are therefore hydrophobic and are soluble in organic solvents
and insoluble in water. Examples include cholesterol, phospholipids, and triglycerides.

Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and fats serve both structural and metabolic functions.
They are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans) and are the most energy dense,
thus the most efficient form of energy storage.

Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be
synthesized in the body from simpler constituents. There are two essential fatty acids (EFAs) in human
nutrition: alpha-linolenic acid (an omega-3 fatty acid) and linoleic acid (an omega-6 fatty acid). Other lipids
needed by the body can be synthesized from these and other fats. Fats and other lipids are broken down in
the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas.

Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the carbon atoms in the aliphatic chain.
Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain. Unsaturated fats have one
or more double bonded carbons in the chain. Some oils and fats have multiple double bonds and are therefore
called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be further divided into cis fats, which are the most common
in nature, and trans fats, which are rare in nature.
Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can solidify easily and are
typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid
content and are solids. Olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid. Fats serve both as
energy sources for the body, and as stores for energy in excess of what the body needs immediately. Each
gram of fat when burned or metabolized releases about 9 food calories (37 kJ = 8.8 kcal). Fats are broken
down in the healthy body to release their constituents, glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol itself can be
converted to glucose by the liver and so become a source of energy.
 NUTRICIÓN
FACULTAD DE MEDICINA Y CIENCIAS DE LA SALUD

LEVEL II
Text 1 Eating disorders

Read the text and answer these questions

1 What's an eating disorder? Mention some examples
2 Which are the causes of eating disorders?
3 How can these disorders be treated?
4 In general, when do these disorders begin?
5 Which topics should be discussed with children, teenagers and young adults?

An eating disorder is a mental disorder defined by abnormal eating habits that negatively affect a person's
physical or mental health. They include binge eating disorder, where people eat a large amount in a short
period of time; anorexia nervosa, where people eat very little due to a fear of gaining weight and thus have a
low body weight; bulimia nervosa, where people eat a lot and then try to rid themselves of the food; pica,
where people eat non-food items; rumination syndrome, where people regurgitate food; avoidant/restrictive
food intake disorder (ARFID), where people have a lack of interest in food; and a group of other specified
feeding or eating disorders. Anxiety disorders, depression and substance abuse are common among people
with eating disorders. These disorders do not include obesity.

The causes of eating disorders are not clear. Both biological and environmental factors appear to play a role.
Cultural idealization of thinness is believed to contribute to some eating disorders.

Treatment can be effective for many eating disorders.Typically, this involves counselling, a proper diet, a
normal amount of exercise and the reduction of efforts to eliminate food. Hospitalization may be needed in
more serious cases. Medications may be used to help with some of the associated symptoms. About 70% of
people with anorexia and 50% of people with bulimia recover within five years. Recovery from binge eating
disorder is less clear and estimated at 20% to 60%. Both anorexia and bulimia increase the risk of death.

In the developed world, binge eating disorder affects about 1.6% of women and 0.8% of men in a given year.
Anorexia affects about 0.4% and bulimia affects about 1.3% of young women in a given year. Up to 4% of
women have anorexia, 2% have bulimia, and 2% have binge eating disorder at some point in time. Anorexia
and bulimia occur nearly ten times more often in females than males.Typically, they begin in late childhood
or early adulthood. Rates of other eating disorders are not clear. Rates of eating disorders appear to be lower
in less developed countries.

Prevention
Prevention aims to promote a healthy development before the occurrence of eating disorders. It also intends
early identification of an eating disorder before it is too late to treat. Children as young as ages 5–7 are aware
of the cultural messages regarding body image and dieting. Prevention comes in bringing these issues to the
light. The following topics can be discussed with young children (as well as teens and young adults).
Emotional Bites: a simple way to discuss emotional eating is to ask children about why they might eat
besides being hungry. Talk about more effective ways to cope with emotions, emphasizing the value of
sharing feelings with a trusted adult.
Say No to Teasing: another concept is to emphasize that it is wrong to say hurtful things about other
people's body sizes.
Body Talk: emphasize the importance of listening to one's body. That is, eating when you are hungry (not
starving) and stopping when you are satisfied (not stuffed). Children intuitively grasp these concepts.
Fitness Comes in All Sizes: educate children about the genetics of body size and the normal changes
occurring in the body. Discuss their fears and hopes about growing bigger. Focus on fitness and a balanced
diet.

Internet and modern technologies provide new opportunities for prevention. On-line programs have the
potential to increase the use of prevention programs.The development and practice of prevention programs
via on-line sources make it possible to reach a wide range of people at minimal cost.Such an approach can
also make prevention programs to be sustainable.

Text 2 Malnutrition

Read the text and answer these questions

1 What is malnutrition?
2 What's the difference between undernutrition and overnutrition?
3 What can happen if undernutrition happens at a very young age?
4 What can people do to improve nutrition?
5 Which groups of people suffer the most from undernutrition?

Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating a diet in which one or more nutrients are either not
enough or are too much such that the diet causes health problems. It may involve calories, protein,
carbohydrates, vitamins or minerals. Not enough nutrients is called undernutrition or undernourishment
while too much is called overnutrition. Malnutrition is often used to specifically refer to undernutrition
where an individual is not getting enough calories, protein, or micronutrients. If undernutrition occurs during
pregnancy, or before two years of age, it may result in permanent problems with physical and mental
development. Extreme undernourishment, known as starvation, may have symptoms that include: a short
height, thin body, very poor energy levels, and swollen legs and abdomen. People also often get infections
and are frequently cold. The symptoms of micronutrient deficiencies depend on the micronutrient that is
lacking.

Undernourishment is most often due to not enough high-quality food being available to eat. This is often
related to high food prices and poverty. A lack of breastfeeding may contribute, as may a number of
infectious diseases such as: gastroenteritis, pneumonia, malaria, and measles, which increase nutrient
requirements. There are two main types of undernutrition: protein-energy malnutrition and dietary
deficiencies. Protein-energy malnutrition has two severe forms: marasmus (a lack of protein and calories)
and kwashiorkor (a lack of just protein). Common micronutrient deficiencies include: a lack of iron, iodine,
and vitamin A. During pregnancy, due to the body's increased need, deficiencies may become more common.
In some developing countries, overnutrition in the form of obesity is beginning to present within the same
communities as undernutrition. Other causes of malnutrition include anorexia nervosa and bariatric surgery.

Efforts to improve nutrition are some of the most effective forms of development aid. Breastfeeding can
reduce rates of malnutrition and death in children, and efforts to promote the practice increase the rates of
breastfeeding. In young children, providing food (in addition to breastmilk) between six months and two
years of age improves outcomes. There is also good evidence supporting the supplementation of a number of
micronutrients to women during pregnancy and among young children in the developing world. To get food
to people who need it most, both delivering food and providing money so people can buy food within local
markets are effective. Simply feeding students at school is insufficient. Management of severe malnutrition
within the person's home with ready-to-use therapeutic foods is possible much of the time. In those who have
severe malnutrition complicated by other health problems, treatment in a hospital setting is recommended.
This often involves managing low blood sugar and body temperature, addressing dehydration, and gradual
feeding. Routine antibiotics are usually recommended due to the high risk of infection. Longer-term
measures include: improving agricultural practices, reducing poverty, improving sanitation, and the
empowerment of women.

There were 821 million undernourished people in the world in 2018 (10.8% of the total population). This is a
reduction of about 176 million people since 1990 when 23% were undernourished, but an increase of about
36 million since 2015, when 10.6% were undernourished. Undernutrition is more common in developing
countries. Certain groups have higher rates of undernutrition, including women—in particular while pregnant
or breastfeeding—children under five years of age, and the elderly. In the elderly, undernutrition becomes
more common due to physical, psychological, and social factors.

Text 3 Health disorders and food choice

Read the text and answer these questions

1. What are the consequences of an unbalanced diet?
2. What happens when cholesterol is oxidized?
3. What is obesity?
4. Why is obesity undesirable and unhealthy now?
5. What do anorexic patients do?
6. What do bulimic patients do?
7. What is tooth decay called?
8. What is gum disease called?

An unbalanced diet, e.g. one having too much fat or sugar may lead to some health disorders such as heart
disease, obesity, tooth decay and gum disease, intestinal diseases.

Heart disease

The amount and type of fat in our diet may increase the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD): saturated fatty
acids can raise the level of cholesterol in the blood and high levels in blood cholesterol are related to the
development of CHD.

Cholesterol is found in some foods and is produced in the body by the liver, from saturated fatty acids in
food. When cholesterol is oxidized, it is stored in the linings of the coronary arteries, which start to be
blocked. Antioxidants, found in Vitamin E, C, B-carotene and selenium, help to avoid cholesterol from
picking up oxygen.

If a diet includes polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and some monounsaturated fatty acids, the cholesterol
made in the liver is reduced. Oils processed to become margarine or other cooking fats may change the
PUFAs into trans fatty acids, and this is a risk factor to increase the amount of cholesterol. Some margarine
manufacturers have reduced the amount of trans fatty acids during processing to make their products
healthier.

Obesity

It is a nutritional disorder that may be caused by hormonal disorders but in most cases, by eating more food
than the body needs. The excess iS stored as fat in the body. In the past being overweight was a way of
showing that a person was rich. This idea has changed and obesity is considered undesirable and unhealthy
because it can provoke heart disease, chest infections, varicose veins, hernias, high blood pressure, diabetes,
gall stones, osteoarthritis of the back, knees and hips and skin infections.

A person trying to lose weight should go to a doctor or dietician to find a weight-reducing diet that suits him
or her and includes a good variety of foods with fresh fruit, vegetables and wholegrain cereals. Fat and sugar,
high protein foods and alcohol should be limited.

Eating disorders

Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa have got a lot in common and a person may have symptoms of both.
Both anorexic and bulimic patients are often afraid of becoming fat and have got a distorted image of their
own body.
Anorexic patients refuse to eat enough food to maintain their body weight according to age and size. They
eat very little, get food out of their body by vomiting or taking laxatives, and exercise vigorously so that they
can burn off any energy taken from food.

Bulimic patients have got urges to eat large amounts of food (binge eating) and provoke vomiting or take
laxatives to prevent gaining weight.

Tooth decay and gum disease

They are found in many people round the world who eat foods containing added sugar. Tooth decay is called
dental caries and gum disease, periodontal disease

Text 4 Dietary Guidelines

Read the text. Do you follow these recommendations? Which recommendations don't you follow? Have you
learned anything new?

Scientists have researched a lot over many years about the effect of food on people’s health, well being, and
life expectancy. Governments in all countries are responsible for nutrition and health in population. People
with certain health conditions, e.g. high levels of blood cholesterol, heart disease, high blood pressure,
diabetes or chronic constipation may require more or less of each nutrient, according to the doctor’s advice
and control.

Some dietary recommendations for a healthy lifestyle are:

- Eat less sugar
- Eat less fat
- Eat more fibre and starchy foods
- Eat less salty food
- Drink less alcohol
- Drink at least two litres of water daily
- Eat a variety of foods
- Enjoy your food
- Eat more fruit and vegetables (2 and 3 daily servings respectively)
- Eat the right amount to maintain a healthy weight
And…get more exercise!

Eating less sugar is advisable to reduce cases of dental caries and obesity. Refined sugars are recommended
as they provide no more than 10% of total energy intake. It is convenient to include more naturally sweet
foods in meals and avoid adding more sucrose to them. Another resource is to use sugar-reduced products,
and to cut down the amount of sugar and sweets or other sugar-containing snack.

The total fat intake is no more than 40% of total energy intake, which is around 75g per day for an average
woman and 100g for an average man. No more than 11% of this should come from saturated fats.

Following this piece of advice will help reduce the risk of developing heart disease. That is why it is
convenient to use low-fat dairy products such as yogurt, cottage cheese, skimmed or semi-skimmed milk;
and to eat more poultry and white fish, as they contain less fat than red meat.

Fried foods should be replaced by grilled or baked ones, and butter and margarine by low-fat spreads.
Besides, it is advisable to eat more fat-reduced products and less sausages, cakes, biscuits, crisps and
pastries.
It is recommended an intake of fibre of at least 30g a day for an average adult, as it helps prevent intestinal
disorders. You can find fibre in vegetables, fruit and wholegrain cereals. Starchy foods are the “filling ones”,
and avoid eating between meals. You should eat more wholegrain cereal products, fresh fruits and
vegetables, and pulses, wheatmeal or wholemeal bread and less sugar in snacks, white flour, and white bread.
The recommended intake of salt is no more than 6g per day. In doing so, it is advisable to replace salt by
spices, herbs, and salt substitutes which contain less sodium, and to reduce snacks and foods that have salt
added as part of their processing, such as bacon, cheese, sausages, cooked meats, smoked fish, canned
vegetables.

You should not drink more than 4% of the total amount of energy from alcohol, so as to help prevent obesity
and the risk of damage to the liver.

Dietary guidelines show the relative proportions of different kinds of food people should eat and encourage
them to eat a variety.

The “5 a day” campaign increases the consumption of fruit and vegetables. It encourages people to eat 400 g
of fruit and vegetables a day which can be eaten in at least 5 portions a day.

People are to eat food with high fat or sugar content in small amounts to avoid obesity. Cooking methods that
add fats to foods such as frying are to be avoided, too, and replaced by grilling or baking. On the other hand,
eating too little food can also bring serious effects on health.