PETROLOGY

-is the study of rock – igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary – and the processes
that form and transform them.

CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS
-are formed from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be derived from
partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust.
-“ignis” means fire

Example:
Granite- used extensively in building materials and making structures.
Gabbro, Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice

1.1. TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

1.1.1. TEXTURE
-is the size, shape, and arrangement of grains (for sedimentary rocks) or crystals
(for igneous and metamorphic rocks)

1.1.1.1. PHANERITIC TEXTURE

-Comprised of large crystals that are clearly visible to the eye with or
without a hand lens or binocular microscope.
-This texture forms by slow the cooling of magma deep underground in
the plutonic environment.

GABBRO GRANITE
1.1.1.2. APHANITIC TEXTURE
- Consist of small crystals that cannot be seen by the eye with or hand lens
- Texture results from rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow
subsurface) environments.

BASALT RHYOLITE
1.1.1.3. PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE
-Porphyritic rocks are composed of at least two minerals having a
conspicuous (large) difference in grain size.
-The larger grains are termed phenocrysts and the finer grains either
matrix or groundmass
Examples:
Quartz-porphyry, Lamprophyre

Quartz-porphyry
1.1.1.4. GLASSY TEXTURE
-Glassy textured igneous rocks are non-crystalline meaning the rock
contains no mineral grains. Glass results from cooling that is so fast that
minerals do not have a chance to crystallize. With high silica content.

OBSIDIAN

1.1.1.5. VESICULAR TEXTURE

This term refers to vesicles (cavities) within the igneous rock. Vesicles
are the result of gas expansion (bubbles), which often occurs during volcanic
eruptions.

PUMICE

1.1.1.6. FRAGMENTAL (PYROCLASTIC) TEXTURE

The pyroclastic texture shows a mixture of rocks fragments, pumice,
and volcanic ash.
 The ash is very fine grained, so only the rock fragments and pumice
are identifiable.
Tuff – if the largest fragments are less than 2.5 inches long.
Breccia – if fragments are larger.
1.1.2. COLOR
-a very useful indicator of the types of minerals present in the rock and
therefore the specific type of rock.
Mafic – Dark Colored
Felsic – Light colored
1.1.3. COMPOSITION
-Igneous Rocks can be classified based on their composition. The
composition of Igneous rocks depend on what mineral they are formed from.

MAFIC
- This are magmas associated with crystal spreading.
- These are rocks are made at temperatures 1200 to 900 degrees Celsius.
- Minerals that are formed are olivine, pyroxene and calcium plagioclase.
- These rocks are relatively dark in color.
- Examples include Gabbro and Basalt

BASALT GABBRO
 FELSIC
- This are magmas associated with crystal compression.
- These are rocks are made at temperatures below 600 degrees Celsius.
- Minerals that are formed include orthoclase feldspar, muscovite and quartz.
- These rocks, compared with mafic, is lighter in color
- Examples include Granite and Rhyolite

GRANITE RHYOLITE

SILICA
- Silicon tetrahedron (SiO4)
- 75.5% of the earth’s crust
- Mafic has 0% - 45% silica content
- Intermediate has 45% - 65% content
- Felsic has 65% - 100% silica content
1.1.4. GENERAL TYPES

The two main categories of igneous rocks are extrusive and intrusive. Extrusive rocks
are formed on the surface of the Earth from lava, which is magma that has emerged from
underground. Intrusive rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the crust
of the planet.

o INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK

- Plutonic
- Formed from Magma
- Cool slowly.
- Usually Dark
- Usually dense
- Forms coarse grained rock.
- Presence of crystal growth
- Examples of this rocks are granite and diorite.

BASALT GABBRO

o EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCK

- Volcanic
- Formed from Lava
- Cool quickly.
- Usually Light
- Usually light
- Forms fine-grained rock.
- Lack of crystal growth.
 GRANITE RHYOLITE

2. METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Definition:
These rocks are rocks that have become changed by intense heat or pressure while
forming. In the very hot and pressured conditions deep inside the Earth’s crust, both
sedimentary and igneous rocks can be changed into metamorphic rock. In certain
conditions these rocks cool and crystallize usually into bands of crystals.

Examples:
Slate -  It has microscopic clay and mica crystals that have grown perpendicular to the
maximum stress direction.

Phyllite - It is similar to slate, but has typically been heated to a higher temperature. As
a result, the micas have grown larger.
Gneiss - It forms at the highest pressures and temperatures, and has crystals large
enough to see with the unaided eye.

Factors that Control Metamorphism

Metamorphism occurs because rocks undergo changes in temperature and pressure and
may be subjected to differential stress and hydrothermal fluids. Metamorphism occurs
because some minerals are stable only under certain conditions of pressure and
temperature.

A. The Role of Temperature

Temperature increases with depth in the
Earth along the Geothermal Gradient.
Thus higher temperature can occur by
burial of rock. Temperature can also
increase due to igneous intrusion.
Changes in temperature conditions during
metamorphism cause several important
processes to occur. With increasing
temperature, and thus higher energy,
chemical bonds are able to break and
reform driving the chemical reactions that changes the rock's chemistry during
metamorphism. Increasing in temperature can also result in the growth of crystals. In a
rock, a small number of large crystals have a higher thermodynamic stability than do a
large number of small crystals.
B. The Role of Pressure
Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature will vary
with depth in the Earth.  Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all
directions.
Pressure, the second of the two physical parameters controlling metamorphism and
occurs in two forms. The most widely experienced type of pressure is lithostatic. This
"rock-constant" pressure is derived from the weight of overlying rocks. Lithostatic
pressure is experienced uniformly by a metamorphic rock. That is, the rock is squeezed
to the same degree in all directions. Thus, there is no preferred orientation to lithostatic
pressure and there is no mechanical drive to rearrange crystals within a metamorphic
rock experiencing lithostatic conditions.

C. Classification
i. Mineralogy
Common minerals in metamorphic
rocks include quartz, feldspar, mica,
calcite, and hornblende. All rocks are
composed of minerals, and each mineral is
only stable over a particular range of
temperatures and pressures. Outwith that
range it will tend to break down or
combine with a neighbouring mineral to
form a new mineral.

ii. Chemical
If the general chemical composition can be determined from the mineral
assemblage, then a chemical name can be employed. For example a schist with a
lot of quartz and feldspar and some garnet and muscovite would be called a garnet-
muscovite quartzo-feldspathic schist. A schist consisting mostly of talc would be
called a talc-magnesian schist. Examples:
Like limestone, marble is very subject to the karst process. Quarzites are
metamorphic rocks in which more than 80% of the rock mass consists of quartz.
iii. Texture
This may be a more useful method of categorizing metamorphic rocks when in the
field. The term texture describes the size, shape and arrangement of grains within a
rock. During metamorphism, pressure causes crystals to align until they are at right
angles to the direction of maximum compression. This occurs through the gradual
rotation of existing crystals and the growth of new crystals in a pressure-controlled
orientation.

Most metamorphic textures involve foliation. Foliation is generally caused by a

preferred orientation of sheet silicates. If a rock has a slatey cleavage as its
foliation, it is termed a slate, if it has a phyllitic foliation, it is termed a phyllite, if it
has a shistose foliation, and it is termed a schist. A rock that shows a banded
texture without a distinct foliation is termed a gneiss.

Types:
D. Metamorphic Grade
Metamorphic grade is a general term for describing the relative temperature and
pressure conditions under which metamorphic rocks form. As the temperature and/or 
pressure increases on a body of rock we say that the rock undergoes prograde
metamorphism or that the grade of metamorphism increases. 
 Low-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures between about 200 to
320oC, and relatively low pressure.  Low grade metamorphic rocks are characterized
by an abundance of hydrous minerals  (minerals that contain water, H2O, in their
crystal structure).

o Examples of hydrous minerals that occur in low grade metamorphic rocks:

 Clay Minerals

 Serpentine

 Chlorite

 High-grade metamorphism takes place at temperatures greater than 320 oC and

relatively high pressure.  As grade of metamorphism increases, hydrous minerals
become less hydrous, by losing H2O and non-hydrous minerals become more
common.

o Examples of less hydrous minerals and non-hydrous minerals that

characterize high grade metamorphic rocks:
 Muscovite - hydrous mineral that eventually disappears at the
highest grade of metamorphism

 Biotite - a hydrous mineral that is stable to very high grades of

metamorphism.

 Pyroxene - a non hydrous mineral.

 Garnet - a non hydrous mineral.

Retrograde Metamorphism

 As temperature and pressure fall due to erosion of overlying rock or due to tectonic
uplift, one might expect metamorphism to a follow a reverse path and eventually
return the rocks to their original unmetamorphosed state.  Such a process is
referred to as retrograde metamorphism.  The reasons for this include:

 chemical reactions take place more slowly as temperature is decreased

 during prograde metamorphism, fluids such as H2O and CO2 are driven off, and
these fluids are necessary to form the hydrous minerals that are stable at the
Earth's surface.

 chemical reactions take place more rapidly in the presence of fluids, but if the
fluids are driven off during prograde metamorphism, they will not be available to
speed up reactions during retrograde metamorphism.

3. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
-Formed by the compaction and cementing together of sediments

IMPORTANT PROCESSES INVOLVED

a. WEATHERING – A process of rocks being broken down to pieces
b. EROSION – process of movement and transportation of sediments

c. DEPOSITION - process when rocks are fragmented into tiny bits, then carried to low

areas and settled at the bottom.
d. SEDIMENTATION – process of building up of deposited rocks after many years

e. LITHIFICATION – a process of cementing soft, unconsolidated sediments into hard

rocks.

THE STAGES IN THE FORMATION OF SEDIMENTATION ROCKS

 THE THREE TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
A. CHEMICAL ROCKS
-Are formed when dissolved materials precipitate from solution.

B. ORGANIC ROCKS
-Are formed by accumulated sedimentary debris caused by organic processes
 C. CLASTIC ROCKS
-Also known as DETRITAL SEDIMENT, are formed by weathering debris.

References

Chapter 2 Igneous Rocks. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2023, from

https://www.southalabama.edu/geology/haywick/GY111/chapter2.PDF

‌Shinjo, R., Amuro, T., Oura, K., Oshiro, K., Tahara, S., & Sakai, H. (2020). Geochemical

Characteristics of Mafic and Felsic Igneous Rocks (1.9–1.75 Ga). Island Arc, 29(1).

https://doi.org/10.1111/iar.12369

CK-12 Foundation. (2023). Intrusive and Extrusive Igneous Rocks. CK-12 Foundation; CK-12

Foundation. https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-

flexbook-2.0/section/4.8/primary/lesson/intrusive-and-extrusive-igneous-rocks-ms-es/