Curs 1

Sets. Relations. Equivalence relations. Factor set.
Order
relations. Functional relations
Sets
Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 1 / 67

Sets. Relations. Equivalence relations. Factor set. Order
Sets
In order to avoid paradoxes, we shall consider that all the elements of the
sets which are considered belong to a certain universal or total set T .
Also, we consider the empty set, which may be defined as
∅ := {x ∈ T |x 6= x} .

Sets
∅ := {x ∈ T |x 6= x} .
Remark
Using the property of the logical operation of implication, according to
which ”False implies anything”, any statement made about the
elements of the empty set is automatically true!

Sets
∅ := {x ∈ T |x 6= x} .
Remark
Using the property of the logical operation of implication, according to
which ”False implies anything”, any statement made about the
elements of the empty set is automatically true!

Relations between sets
Definition
Let A and B be two sets. We call the two sets equal, and write A = B,
if for any element x ∈ T of the total set the following equivalence holds
x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B .

Definition
x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B .
Proposition
For any sets A, B, and C the following properties hold:
A=A (reflexivity)
A = B ∧ B = C =⇒ A = C (transitivity)
A = B =⇒ B = A (simmetry)

Definition
x ∈ A ⇐⇒ x ∈ B .
Proposition
A=A (reflexivity)
A = B ∧ B = C =⇒ A = C (transitivity)
A = B =⇒ B = A (simmetry)

Definition
Let A and B be two sets. We say that the set A is included in the set B,
and write A ⊆ B, if for any element x ∈ T of the total set the following
implication holds
x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B .
In this case we call the set A a subset of the set B, respectively the set
B a superset of the set A.
Proposition
A⊆A (reflexivity)
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C =⇒ A ⊆ C (transitivity)
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A =⇒ A = B (antisimmetry)

Definition
Let A and B be two sets. We say that the set A is included in the set B,
and write A ⊆ B, if for any element x ∈ T of the total set the following
implication holds
x ∈ A =⇒ x ∈ B .
In this case we call the set A a subset of the set B, respectively the set
B a superset of the set A.
Proposition
A⊆A (reflexivity)
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ C =⇒ A ⊆ C (transitivity)
A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A =⇒ A = B (antisimmetry)

Operations with sets
We shall consider T to be a fixed total set, such that all the sets which are
considered are subsets of the set T . We shall denote by Set(T ) the class
of all sets included in the total set T .
Definition
Complementation is the unary operation
CT : Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
by which we associate to any set A the complementary set of the set A

with respect to the total set T , denoted CT (A)(or sometimes, if the set
T is implicit, simply A), which is formed by exactly those elements of
the total set not belonging to the set A:
CT (A) = {x ∈ T | x 6∈ A} .

Operations with sets
We shall consider T to be a fixed total set, such that all the sets which are
considered are subsets of the set T . We shall denote by Set(T ) the class
of all sets included in the total set T .
Definition
Complementation is the unary operation
CT : Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
by which we associate to any set A the complementary set of the set A

with respect to the total set T , denoted CT (A)(or sometimes, if the set
T is implicit, simply A), which is formed by exactly those elements of
the total set not belonging to the set A:
CT (A) = {x ∈ T | x 6∈ A} .

Proposition
For any set A ∈ Set(T ) the equality CT (CT (A)) = A(or A = A) is true.
Proposition
Let A and B be two arbitrary sets. Then A ⊆ B if and only if
CT (B) ⊆ CT (A)(or B ⊆ A).

Proposition
For any set A ∈ Set(T ) the equality CT (CT (A)) = A(or A = A) is true.
Proposition
Let A and B be two arbitrary sets. Then A ⊆ B if and only if
CT (B) ⊆ CT (A)(or B ⊆ A).

Definition
Intersection is the binary operation
∩ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
by which to any two sets A and B one asocciates a new set A ∩ B, called
their intersection, formed by the common elements of the two sets:
A ∩ B = {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A) ∧ (x ∈ B)} .

Proposition
The intersection operation has the following properties:
−idempotence: A ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

−associativity: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ), (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) ;
−commutativity: A ∩ B = B ∩ A, (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ) ;
−unit element: A ∩ T = T ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;
−absorbant element: A ∩ ∅ = ∅ ∩ A = ∅, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) .
Remark
The operation of intersection can be extended from two sets to
arbitrary families of sets. If {Ai }i∈I is a family of stes included in the
total set T , where I is some index set, the intersection of the family is
given by \
Ai = {x ∈ T |(∀i ∈ I )x ∈ Ai } .
i∈I

Proposition
The intersection operation has the following properties:
−idempotence: A ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

−associativity: (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C ), (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) ;
−commutativity: A ∩ B = B ∩ A, (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ) ;
−unit element: A ∩ T = T ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;
−absorbant element: A ∩ ∅ = ∅ ∩ A = ∅, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) .
Remark
The operation of intersection can be extended from two sets to
arbitrary families of sets. If {Ai }i∈I is a family of stes included in the
total set T , where I is some index set, the intersection of the family is
given by \
Ai = {x ∈ T |(∀i ∈ I )x ∈ Ai } .
i∈I

Definition
Union is the binary operation
∪ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
by which to any two sets A and B one associates a new set A ∪ B,

called their union, formed by the elements which belong to at least one
of the two sets:
A ∪ B = {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A) ∨ (x ∈ B)} .

Proposition
The operation of union has the following properties:
−idempotence: A ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

−associativity: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ), (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) ;
−commutativity: A ∪ B = B ∪ A, (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ) ;
−unit element: A ∪ ∅ = ∅ ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;
−absornant element: A ∪ T = T ∪ A = T , (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) .
Remark
The operation of union can also be extended to arbitrary families of
sets. If {Ai }i∈I is a family of sets included in the total set T , where I is
an index set, the union of the family is given by
[
Ai = {x ∈ T |(∃i ∈ I )x ∈ Ai } .
i∈I

Proposition
The operation of union has the following properties:
−idempotence: A ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

−associativity: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C ), (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) ;
−commutativity: A ∪ B = B ∪ A, (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ) ;
−unit element: A ∪ ∅ = ∅ ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;
−absornant element: A ∪ T = T ∪ A = T , (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) .
Remark
The operation of union can also be extended to arbitrary families of
sets. If {Ai }i∈I is a family of sets included in the total set T , where I is
an index set, the union of the family is given by
[
Ai = {x ∈ T |(∃i ∈ I )x ∈ Ai } .
i∈I

Proposition
For any sets A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) the following properties hold:
−absorbtion: A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ,
A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A ;
−distributivity: A ∩ (B ∪ C ) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) ,
A ∪ (B ∩ C ) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C ) ;
−modularity: A ⊆ C =⇒ (A ∪ B) ∩ C = A ∪ (B ∩ C ) ;
−the laws of the complementary: A ∩ A = ∅ ,
A∪A=T ;
−de Morgan’s laws: (A ∩ B) = A ∪ B ,
(A ∪ B) = A ∩ B .

Remark
The distributivity properties and de Morgan’s laws can be extended to
arbitrary families of sets:

T T S S
Ai ∪ B = (Ai ∪ B) , Ai ∩ B = (Ai ∩ B) ;
i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I

T S S T
Ai = Ai , Ai = Ai .
i∈I i∈I i∈I i∈I

Definition
Difference is the binary operation
\ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
by which to any two sets A and B one associates a new set, denoted
A \ B(or A − B), called their difference, formed by the elements which
belong to the first set, A, but not also to the second set, B:
A \ B = {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A) ∨ (x 6∈ B)} .
Remark
A \ B = A ∩ CT (B), (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ).

Definition
Difference is the binary operation
\ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
A \ B(or A − B), called their difference, formed by the elements which
belong to the first set, A, but not also to the second set, B:
A \ B = {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A) ∨ (x 6∈ B)} .
Remark
A \ B = A ∩ CT (B), (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ).

Proposition
For any sets A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) the following relations are true:
A \ A = ∅;
(A \ B) \ C = A \ (B ∪ C ) = (A \ C ) \ B ;
A \ (B \ C ) = (A \ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) ;
A \ (B ∩ C ) = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C ) ;
A \ (B ∪ C ) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C ) ;
(A ∩ B) \ C = (A \ C ) ∩ (B \ C ) ;
(A ∪ B) \ C = (A \ C ) ∪ (B \ C ) .
Remark
Diference is not a commutative operation. Moreover, for any two sets
A and B we have
(A \ B) ∩ (B \ A) = ∅ .

Proposition
For any sets A, B, C ∈ Set(T ) the following relations are true:
A \ A = ∅;
(A \ B) \ C = A \ (B ∪ C ) = (A \ C ) \ B ;
A \ (B \ C ) = (A \ B) ∪ (A ∩ C ) ;
A \ (B ∩ C ) = (A \ B) ∪ (A \ C ) ;
A \ (B ∪ C ) = (A \ B) ∩ (A \ C ) ;
(A ∩ B) \ C = (A \ C ) ∩ (B \ C ) ;
(A ∪ B) \ C = (A \ C ) ∪ (B \ C ) .
Remark
Diference is not a commutative operation. Moreover, for any two sets
A and B we have
(A \ B) ∩ (B \ A) = ∅ .

Definition
Symmetric difference is the binary operation
4 : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
A 4 B, called the symmetrice difference of the sets A and B, formed of
those elements which belong to exactly one of the two sets:
A 4 B := {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B) ∨ (x 6∈ A ∧ x ∈ B)} .
Remark
From the definition follows immediately that
A 4 B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) .

Definition
Symmetric difference is the binary operation
4 : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,
A 4 B, called the symmetrice difference of the sets A and B, formed of
those elements which belong to exactly one of the two sets:
A 4 B := {x ∈ T |(x ∈ A ∧ x 6∈ B) ∨ (x 6∈ A ∧ x ∈ B)} .
Remark
From the definition follows immediately that
A 4 B = (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A) = (A ∪ B) \ (A ∩ B) .

Proposition
The operation of symmetric difference has the following properties:
−asociativity: (A 4 B) 4 C = A 4 (B 4 C ) , (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T )

−commutativity: A 4 B = B 4 A , (∀)A, B ∈ Set(T ) ;
−unit element: A 4 ∅ = ∅ 4 A = A , (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;
−symmetric elements: A 4 A = ∅ , (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) .

Definition
If A ∈ Set(T ) is a set, we denote by P(A), and call the set of subsets(or
parts) of A the set whose elements are the subsets of the set A:
P(A) := {X ∈ Set(T )|X ⊆ A} .

Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be an arbitrary nonzero natural number such that n ≥ 2,
and a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ T arbitrary elements. The ordered system
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is defined by recursion in the following way:
(a1 , a2 ) := {{a1 }, {a1 , a2 }} ,

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ), {a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 , an }} .
Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be a nonzero natural number such that n ≥ 2, and
A1 , A2 , . . . , An ∈ Set(T ) arbitrary sets. The cartesian product of the sets
A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the set
A1 × A2 × . . . × An := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )|ai ∈ Ai , (∀)i = 1, n} .

Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be an arbitrary nonzero natural number such that n ≥ 2,
and a1 , a2 , . . . , an ∈ T arbitrary elements. The ordered system
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) is defined by recursion in the following way:
(a1 , a2 ) := {{a1 }, {a1 , a2 }} ,

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 ), {a1 , a2 , . . . , an−1 , an }} .
Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be a nonzero natural number such that n ≥ 2, and
A1 , A2 , . . . , An ∈ Set(T ) arbitrary sets. The cartesian product of the sets
A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the set
A1 × A2 × . . . × An := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )|ai ∈ Ai , (∀)i = 1, n} .

Relations
Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be a nonzero natural number and A1 , A2 , . . . , An n sets.

Relations
Definition
Let n ∈ N∗ be a nonzero natural number and A1 , A2 , . . . , An n sets. An
n−ary relation between the elements of the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An (in this
order) is an ordered system R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G ) formed by the n
sets and a subset G of the cartesian product A1 × A2 × . . . × An , called
the graph of the relation. The product A1 × A2 × . . . × An is called the
domain of the relation R.

Relations
Definition
domain of the relation R. If (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∈ G , we write
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) and say that a1 , a2 , . . . , an are related by the relation
R, or that a1 , a2 , . . . , an satisfy the relation R.

Relations
Definition
R, or that a1 , a2 , . . . , an satisfy the relation R. If
A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A, we call R a (homogenous) n−ary relation on
the set A.

Relations
Definition
R, or that a1 , a2 , . . . , an satisfy the relation R. If
A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A, we call R a (homogenous) n−ary relation on
the set A.

Definition
Let A1 , A2 , . . . , An be n arbitrary fixed sets.
The empty relation associated with the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the relation
∅A1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , ∅) ,
whose graph is the empty set.

Definition
∅A1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , ∅) ,

The total relation associated with the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the relation
TA1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 × A2 × . . . × An ) ,
whose graph is the cartesian product A1 × A2 × . . . × An .

Definition
∅A1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , ∅) ,

The total relation associated with the sets A1 , A2 , . . . , An is the relation
TA1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 × A2 × . . . × An ) ,
whose graph is the cartesian product A1 × A2 × . . . × An .

Definition
We call two relations R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G ) and
R0 = (B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn , G 0 ) equal if Ai = Bi , (∀)i = 1, n and G = G 0 . In
this case, we write R = R0 .
We say that the relation R implies the relation R0 , or that R is included
in R0 , and write R ⊆ R0 , if Ai ⊆ Bi , (∀)i = 1, n and G ⊆ G 0 (which
reduces to the validity of the implication
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =⇒ R0 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )).

Definition
We call two relations R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G ) and
R0 = (B1 , B2 , . . . , Bn , G 0 ) equal if Ai = Bi , (∀)i = 1, n and G = G 0 . In
this case, we write R = R0 .
We say that the relation R implies the relation R0 , or that R is included
in R0 , and write R ⊆ R0 , if Ai ⊆ Bi , (∀)i = 1, n and G ⊆ G 0 (which
reduces to the validity of the implication
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =⇒ R0 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )).

Definition
Let A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A. The relation ∆nA with the domain An and
the graph diag (An ) = {(a, a, . . . , a) ∈ An | a ∈ A} is called the n−ary
diagonal relation on the set A. In case n = 2, we denote ∆2A by idA , and
call it the identical relation(or the identity) on the set A.

Definition
Let A1 = A2 = · · · = An = A. The relation ∆nA with the domain An and
the graph diag (An ) = {(a, a, . . . , a) ∈ An | a ∈ A} is called the n−ary
diagonal relation on the set A. In case n = 2, we denote ∆2A by idA , and
call it the identical relation(or the identity) on the set A.

To most of the set operations correspond operations between relations.
For simplicity, we shall consider only operations with relations on the same
domain.
Definition
Let R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G ) be a relation. The opposite(or
complementary) of the relation R is the relation
R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 × A2 × . . . × An \ G ) .

domain.
Definition
R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 × A2 × . . . × An \ G ) .
Remark
For (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∈ A1 × A2 × . . . × An we have
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) .

domain.
Definition
R = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , A1 × A2 × . . . × An \ G ) .
Remark
R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ R(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) .

Definition
Let R1 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ) and R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G2 ) be two
relations on the domain A1 × A2 × . . . × An .
The intersection of the relations R1 and R2 is the relation
R1 ∩ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∩ G2 ) .
The union of the relations R1 and R2 is the relation
R1 ∪ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∪ G2 ) .

Definition
R1 ∩ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∩ G2 ) .
R1 ∪ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∪ G2 ) .
Remark
(R1 ∩ R2 )(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∧ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ;

(R1 ∪ R2 )(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∨ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) .

Definition
R1 ∩ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∩ G2 ) .
R1 ∪ R2 = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , G1 ∪ G2 ) .
Remark
(R1 ∩ R2 )(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∧ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ;

(R1 ∪ R2 )(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ⇐⇒ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) ∨ (R1 (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) .

Binary relations
Definition
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is called a binary relation between the
elements of the sets A and B.
Generaly, in the case of a binary relation we write aRb in stead of
R(a, b).

Binary relations
Definition
R(a, b). In case of a binary relation R = (A, B, G ), the set A is called
the domain of the relation R, denoted dom(R), respectively B is called
the codomain of the relation, denoted codom(R).

Binary relations
Definition
R(a, b). In case of a binary relation R = (A, B, G ), the set A is called
the domain of the relation R, denoted dom(R), respectively B is called
the codomain of the relation, denoted codom(R).

For binary relations there exist the following operations, which are not
defined for general n−ary relations:
Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a binary relation. The inverse(or symmetric) of R
is the relation
R−1 = (B, A, G −1 ) , where G −1 = {(b, a) ∈ B × A| (a, b) ∈ G } .

Definition
is the relation
Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) and S = (B, C , H) be two binary relations, with the
property that codom(R) = dom(S). The composite of the two relations
is the relation
R · S = (A, C , G · H) , where
G · H = {(a, c) ∈ A × C |(∃)b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ G ∧ (b, c) ∈ H} .

Definition
is the relation
Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) and S = (B, C , H) be two binary relations, with the
property that codom(R) = dom(S). The composite of the two relations
is the relation
R · S = (A, C , G · H) , where
G · H = {(a, c) ∈ A × C |(∃)b ∈ B : (a, b) ∈ G ∧ (b, c) ∈ H} .

Remark
With the notations from the previous definitions, for a ∈ A, b ∈ B,
c ∈ C , the properties which define the inverse relation, respectively the
composite relation are:
bR−1 a ⇐⇒ aRb ;
a(R · S)c ⇐⇒ (∃)b ∈ B : aRb ∧ bSc .

Proposition
Let R = (A, B, G ), S = (B, C , H), R0 = (A, B, G 0 ), S 0 = (B, C , H 0 ) and
T = (C , D, K ) be arbitrary binary relations such that
codom(R) = codom(R0 ) = dom(S) = dom(S 0 ) and
codom(S) = dom(T ). Then the following properties are true:
−1
R−1 = R;
R = (R)−1 ;
−1
R ⊆ R0 ⇐⇒ R−1 ⊆ R0−1 ;
(R ∩ R0 )−1 = R−1 ∩ R0−1 ;
(R ∪ R0 )−1 = R−1 ∪ R0−1 ;

Proposition
(sequel)
idA · R = R · idB = R
R ⊆ R0 =⇒ R · S ⊆ R0 · S ;
S ⊆ S 0 =⇒ R · S ⊆ R · S 0 ;
(R ∩ R0 ) · S ⊆ (R · S) ∩ (R0 · S) ;
(R ∪ R0 ) · S = (R · S) ∪ (R0 · S) ;
R · (S ∩ S 0 ) ⊆ (R · S) ∩ (R · S 0 ) ;
R · (S ∪ S 0 ) = (R · S) ∪ (R · S 0 ) ;
(R · S)−1 = S −1 · R−1 ;
(R · S) · T = R · (S · T ) ;
R ⊆ R · R−1 · R .

Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a binary relation and x ∈ A. The set
xR := {y ∈ B| xRy }
is called the section of the relation R at the point x. If X ⊆ A,

[
X R := xR
x∈X
is called the section of the relation R with respect to the subset X .

Definition
xR := {y ∈ B| xRy }

[
X R := xR
x∈X

The section AR is called the second projection of the relation R, denoted
pr2 (R), respectively the section BR−1 is called the first projection of the
relation R and is denoted pr1 (R).

Definition
xR := {y ∈ B| xRy }

[
X R := xR
x∈X

The section AR is called the second projection of the relation R, denoted
pr2 (R), respectively the section BR−1 is called the first projection of the
relation R and is denoted pr1 (R).

Proposition
Let R = (A, B, G ), S = (B, C , H), R0 = (A, B, G 0 ) be binary relations,
and X , X1 , X2 ⊆ A. Then the following properties hold:
1) (X1 ∪ X2 )R = (X1 R) ∪ (X2 R);
2) (X1 ∩ X2 )R ⊆ (X1 R) ∩ (X2 R);
3) X (R ∪ R0 ) = (X R) ∪ (X R0 );
4) X (R ∩ R0 ) ⊆ (X R) ∩ (X R0 );
5) X (R · S) = (X R)S.
Proposition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a binary relation, X ⊆ A and Y ⊆ B. Then
X ⊆ pr1 (R) ⇐⇒ X ⊆ (X R)R−1

Y ⊆ pr2 (R) ⇐⇒ Y ⊆ (Y R−1 )R

Proposition
Let R = (A, B, G ), S = (B, C , H), R0 = (A, B, G 0 ) be binary relations,
and X , X1 , X2 ⊆ A. Then the following properties hold:
1) (X1 ∪ X2 )R = (X1 R) ∪ (X2 R);
2) (X1 ∩ X2 )R ⊆ (X1 R) ∩ (X2 R);
3) X (R ∪ R0 ) = (X R) ∪ (X R0 );
4) X (R ∩ R0 ) ⊆ (X R) ∩ (X R0 );
5) X (R · S) = (X R)S.
Proposition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a binary relation, X ⊆ A and Y ⊆ B. Then
X ⊆ pr1 (R) ⇐⇒ X ⊆ (X R)R−1

Y ⊆ pr2 (R) ⇐⇒ Y ⊆ (Y R−1 )R

Functional relations. Functions
Definition
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is called a functional relation if R−1 · R ⊆ idB .
Remark
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is a functional relation if and only if for any
a ∈ A there is at most one element b ∈ B such that aRb.

Functional relations. Functions
Definition
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is called a functional relation if R−1 · R ⊆ idB .
Remark
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is a functional relation if and only if for any
a ∈ A there is at most one element b ∈ B such that aRb.

Definition
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is called a function, mapping or application if
R−1 · R ⊆ idB and idA ⊆ R · R−1 .
Remark
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is a function if and only if for any a ∈ A there
is exactly one element b ∈ B such that aRb.

Definition
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is called a function, mapping or application if
R−1 · R ⊆ idB and idA ⊆ R · R−1 .
Remark
A relation R = (A, B, G ) is a function if and only if for any a ∈ A there
is exactly one element b ∈ B such that aRb.

Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a function and a ∈ A an arbitrary fixed element.
The uniquely determined element b ∈ B with the property that aRb is
called the image of the element a and is denoted b = aR .
Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a function and X ⊆ A. The section X R is then
the set
X R = {aR | a ∈ X }
and is called the image of the set X with respect to the function R. In
particular, AR is called the image of the function R and is denoted
Im(R).

Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a function and a ∈ A an arbitrary fixed element.
The uniquely determined element b ∈ B with the property that aRb is
called the image of the element a and is denoted b = aR .
Definition
Let R = (A, B, G ) be a function and X ⊆ A. The section X R is then
the set
X R = {aR | a ∈ X }
and is called the image of the set X with respect to the function R. In
particular, AR is called the image of the function R and is denoted
Im(R).

Remark
If R = (A, B, G ) is a function, we generally write R : A −→ B in stead
of R = (A, B, G ) and usually indicate a rule to compute the images aR
of the elements a ∈ A, in stead of specifying the graph G . This graph is
most often denoted GR .

Surjective, injective, bijective functions. Cardinal numbers
Let f : A −→ B be a function. To any element x ∈ A corresponds a
unique element y ∈ B such that y = x f . On the other hand, to an
element y ∈ B may correspond either one, none, or more than one element
x ∈ A such that y = x f .
Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called surjective if for any y ∈ B the equation
x f = y has at least one solution x ∈ A.

Definition
Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called injective if for any y ∈ B the equation
x f = y has at most one solution x ∈ A.

Definition
Definition
Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called bijective if for any y ∈ B the equation
x f = y has exactly one solution x ∈ A.

Definition
Definition
Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called bijective if for any y ∈ B the equation
x f = y has exactly one solution x ∈ A.

Remark
A function is bijective if and only if it is surjective and injective.

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C be two functions. Then the following
properties hold:
1) If f and g are surjective, then the function f · g is surjective.
2) If f and g are injective, then the function f · g is injective.
3) If f and g are bijective, then the function f · g is bijective.

Proposition
properties hold:
4) If f · g is surjective, then the function g is surjective.
5) If f · g is injective, then the function f is injective.
6) If f · g is bijective, then g is surjective, and f injective.

Proposition
properties hold:
4) If f · g is surjective, then the function g is surjective.
5) If f · g is injective, then the function f is injective.
6) If f · g is bijective, then g is surjective, and f injective.

Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called invertible if there is a function
g : B −→ A such that f · g = idA and g · f = idB . In this case, the
function g is called the inverse of the function f and is denoted f −1 .
Proposition
A function f : A −→ B is invertible if and only if it is bijective.

Definition
A function f : A −→ B is called invertible if there is a function
g : B −→ A such that f · g = idA and g · f = idB . In this case, the
function g is called the inverse of the function f and is denoted f −1 .
Proposition
A function f : A −→ B is invertible if and only if it is bijective.

Remark
1) For a bijective(hence invertible) function f : A −→ B, the inverse
function f −1 : B −→ A represents ”the solving formula of the equation
x f = y with respect to the unknown x ∈ A, in terms of the parameter
y ∈ B”.
2) The inverse of a bijective function is also bijective.

Remark
1) For a bijective(hence invertible) function f : A −→ B, the inverse
function f −1 : B −→ A represents ”the solving formula of the equation
x f = y with respect to the unknown x ∈ A, in terms of the parameter
y ∈ B”.
2) The inverse of a bijective function is also bijective.

Definition
Let A and B be two sets. We say that A is equipotent or cardinal
equivalent with B, and write A ∼ B, if there is a bijective function
f : A −→ B.
Remark
1) Since for any set A, the function idA : A −→ A is bijective, we find
that A ∼ A for any set A.

Definition
f : A −→ B.
Remark
2) If A, B, and C are sets such that A ∼ B and B ∼ C , then there are
bijective functions f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C . Their composite
f · g : A −→ C is then also bijective, hence A ∼ C .

Definition
f : A −→ B.
Remark
3) If A and B are sets such that A ∼ B, then there is a bijection
f : A −→ B. Its inverse f −1 : B −→ A is then aslo bijective, so that
B ∼ A.

Definition
f : A −→ B.
Remark
3) If A and B are sets such that A ∼ B, then there is a bijection
f : A −→ B. Its inverse f −1 : B −→ A is then aslo bijective, so that
B ∼ A.

Definition
The cardinal number or cardinal of a set A is the class of all sets which
are equipotent with A, denoted |A| or card(A):
|A| = card(A) := {B| B − set, B ∼ A} .
Remark
A ∼ B ⇐⇒ |A| = |B| .

Definition
The cardinal number or cardinal of a set A is the class of all sets which
are equipotent with A, denoted |A| or card(A):
|A| = card(A) := {B| B − set, B ∼ A} .
Remark
A ∼ B ⇐⇒ |A| = |B| .

Definition
Let A and B be two sets. We say that the cardinal of the set A is less or
equal then the cardinal of the set B, and denote |A| ≤ |B|, if there is an
injective function f : A −→ B.
Remark
1) |A| = |B| =⇒ |A| ≤ |B|.

Definition
Remark
1) |A| = |B| =⇒ |A| ≤ |B|.
2) |A| ≤ |A|, for any set A.

Definition
Remark
1) |A| = |B| =⇒ |A| ≤ |B|.
3) If A, B, and C are sets such that |A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |C |, then there
are injective functions f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C . Their composite
f · g : A −→ C is then also injective, hence |A| ≤ |C |.

Definition
Remark
1) |A| = |B| =⇒ |A| ≤ |B|.
3) If A, B, and C are sets such that |A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |C |, then there
are injective functions f : A −→ B and g : B −→ C . Their composite
f · g : A −→ C is then also injective, hence |A| ≤ |C |.

Lemma
Let A be a set, and B ⊆ A a subset of A such that there is an injective
function f : A −→ B. Then |A| = |B|.
Proposition
(Cantor-Bernstein’s theorem) Let A and B be two sets such that
|A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |A|. Then |A| = |B|.

Lemma
Let A be a set, and B ⊆ A a subset of A such that there is an injective
function f : A −→ B. Then |A| = |B|.
Proposition
(Cantor-Bernstein’s theorem) Let A and B be two sets such that
|A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |A|. Then |A| = |B|.

Definition
A set A is called (Dedekind-)infinite if there is a proper subset B ⊂ A
such that |A| = |B|.
Definition
A set is called finite if it is not infinite.

Definition
A set A is called (Dedekind-)infinite if there is a proper subset B ⊂ A
such that |A| = |B|.
Definition
A set is called finite if it is not infinite.

Remark
1) A set A is finite if and only if there is some natural number n ∈ N
such that A ∼ {1, . . . , n}. In this case we write |A| = n and call n the
number of elements of the set A.
2) Any finite union of finite sets is finite.

Remark
1) A set A is finite if and only if there is some natural number n ∈ N
such that A ∼ {1, . . . , n}. In this case we write |A| = n and call n the
number of elements of the set A.
2) Any finite union of finite sets is finite.

Definition
A set is called countable or countably infinite if it is equipotent to the
set N of natural numbers. A set is called at most countable if it is finite
or countably infinite.

Homogenous binary relations
Definition
Let R = (A, A, G ) be a homogenous binary relation on a set A. We call
the relation R
def
- reflexive ⇐⇒ idA ⊆ R;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
- transitive ⇐⇒ R · R ⊆ R;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
- symmetric ⇐⇒ R ⊆ R−1 ;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
def
- antisymmetric ⇐⇒ R ∩ R−1 ⊆ idA ;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
def
def
- a preorder relation ⇐⇒ R is reflexive and transitive;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
def
def
def
- an equivalence relation ⇐⇒ R is a symmetric preorder relation;

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
def
def
def
def
- an order relation ⇐⇒ R is a symmetric preorder relation.

Definition
the relation R
def
def
def
def
def
def
def
- an order relation ⇐⇒ R is a symmetric preorder relation.

Remark
Let R = (A, A, G ) be a homogenous binary relation on a set A. Then R
is
- reflexive ⇐⇒ [(∀)a ∈ A =⇒ aRa];

Remark
is
- transitive ⇐⇒ [(∀)a, b, c ∈ A : aRb ∧ bRc =⇒ aRc];

Remark
is
- symmetric ⇐⇒ [(∀)a, b ∈ A : aRb =⇒ bRa];

Remark
is
- antisymmetric ⇐⇒ [(∀)a, b ∈ A : aRb ∧ bRa =⇒ a = b].

Remark
is
Notation
If A is a nonempty set, we denote by Eq(A) the set of equivalence
relations defined on the set A, respectively by Ord(A) the set of order
relations defined on A.

Remark
is
Notation
If A is a nonempty set, we denote by Eq(A) the set of equivalence
relations defined on the set A, respectively by Ord(A) the set of order
relations defined on A.

Equivalence relations. Partitions. Factor sets
Definition
Let A be a nonempty set, ρ = (A, A, G ) an equivalence relation on A,
and a ∈ A an arbitrary fixed element. The set
[a]ρ := {b ∈ A| aρb}
is called the equivalence class of the element a with respect to the

equivalence relation ρ.

Definition
[a]ρ := {b ∈ A| aρb}

Proposition
If ρ = (A, A, G ) is an equivalence relation on the nonempty set A, then
1) a ∈ [a]ρ , (∀)a ∈ A ;
2) b ∈ [a]ρ ⇐⇒ a ∈ [b]ρ ⇐⇒ [a]ρ = [b]ρ ;
3) [a]
Sρ =6 [b]ρ =⇒ [a]ρ ∩ [b]ρ = ∅ ;
4) [a]ρ = A .
a∈A

Definition
[a]ρ := {b ∈ A| aρb}

Proposition
If ρ = (A, A, G ) is an equivalence relation on the nonempty set A, then
1) a ∈ [a]ρ , (∀)a ∈ A ;
2) b ∈ [a]ρ ⇐⇒ a ∈ [b]ρ ⇐⇒ [a]ρ = [b]ρ ;
3) [a]
Sρ =6 [b]ρ =⇒ [a]ρ ∩ [b]ρ = ∅ ;
4) [a]ρ = A .
a∈A

Definition
If ρ = (A, A, G ) is an equivalence relation defined on the nonempty set
A, the set denoted A/ρ of all equivalence classes with respect to the
equivalence relation ρ is called the factor set(or quotient set) of A with
respect to the equivalence relation ρ.

Definition
Let A be a nonempty set and Π ⊆ P(A) a family of subsets of A. Π is
called a partition of the set A if it satisfies the following conditions:
1) M 6= ∅, (∀)M ∈ Π ;
∩ M, (∀)L, M ∈ Π, L 6= M ;
2) LS
3) M = A.
M∈Π
We denote by Part(A) the set of all partitions of a nonempty set A.

Definition
Let A be a nonempty set and Π ⊆ P(A) a family of subsets of A. Π is
called a partition of the set A if it satisfies the following conditions:
1) M 6= ∅, (∀)M ∈ Π ;
∩ M, (∀)L, M ∈ Π, L 6= M ;
2) LS
3) M = A.
M∈Π
We denote by Part(A) the set of all partitions of a nonempty set A.

Proposition
Let A be a nonempty set, and ρ = (A, A, G ) an equivalence relation
defined on A. The set Πρ := A/ρ is then a partition of the set A.
Proposition
Let A be a nonempty set, andSΠ ∈ Part(A) a partition of the set A. The
binary relation ρΠ := (A, A, M × M) is then an equivalence relation on
M∈Π
the set A.

Proposition
Proposition
M∈Π
the set A.
Proposition
Let A be a nonempty set. The applications
ρ 7−→ Πρ : Eq(A) −→ Part(A) and Π 7−→ ρΠ : Part(A) −→ Eq(A)
are then bijective and inverse to each other.

Proposition
Proposition
M∈Π
the set A.
Proposition
Let A be a nonempty set. The applications
ρ 7−→ Πρ : Eq(A) −→ Part(A) and Π 7−→ ρΠ : Part(A) −→ Eq(A)
are then bijective and inverse to each other.

Definition
Let A be a nonempty set and ρ = (A, A, G ) ∈ Eq(A). The function
πρ : A −→ A/ρ : a 7−→ [a]ρ
is called the canonical projection of the set A onto the factor set A/ρ.
Remark
aρb ⇐⇒ [a]ρ = [b]ρ ⇐⇒ aπρ = b πρ .

Definition
Let A be a nonempty set and ρ = (A, A, G ) ∈ Eq(A). The function
πρ : A −→ A/ρ : a 7−→ [a]ρ
is called the canonical projection of the set A onto the factor set A/ρ.
Remark
aρb ⇐⇒ [a]ρ = [b]ρ ⇐⇒ aπρ = b πρ .

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a function and ρ = (B, B, G ) ∈ Eq(B) an equivalence
relation on the set B. The relation ρf = f · ρ · f −1 is then an equivalence
relation on the set A.
Definition
The relation ρf defined in the previous proposition is called the relation
induced by ρ on A through the function f , or the preimage of the relation
ρ through f .

Proposition
Let f : A −→ B be a function and ρ = (B, B, G ) ∈ Eq(B) an equivalence
relation on the set B. The relation ρf = f · ρ · f −1 is then an equivalence
relation on the set A.
Definition
The relation ρf defined in the previous proposition is called the relation
induced by ρ on A through the function f , or the preimage of the relation
ρ through f .

Definition
If f : A −→ B is a function, the preimage (idB )f of the identical
relation idB through f is called the kernel of the function f and is
denoted ker (f ).
Remark
1) (∀)a, a0 ∈ A, a ker (f )a0 ⇐⇒ af = a0f ;

Definition
denoted ker (f ).
Remark
1) (∀)a, a0 ∈ A, a ker (f )a0 ⇐⇒ af = a0f ;
2) ker (f ) = f · f −1 .

Definition
denoted ker (f ).
Remark
1) (∀)a, a0 ∈ A, a ker (f )a0 ⇐⇒ af = a0f ;
2) ker (f ) = f · f −1 .

Proposition
Let R = (A, A, G ) be a preorder relation on the set A. The relation
ρR = R ∩ R−1 is then an equivalence relation on the set A.
Definition
The relation ρR defined in the previous proposition is called the
association relation with respect to R.

Proposition
Let R = (A, A, G ) be a preorder relation on the set A. The relation
ρR = R ∩ R−1 is then an equivalence relation on the set A.
Definition
The relation ρR defined in the previous proposition is called the
association relation with respect to R.

Order relations
Definition
Let A be a set and R = (A, A, G ) an order relation on A. The pair
(A, R) is called an ordered set.
Remark
Let A be a set and R = (A, A, G ) an order relation on A. The inverse
R−1 of the relation R is then also an order relation.

Order relations
Definition
Remark
Notation
Generally we shall denote by ≤ an order relation on a set, respectively
by ≥ the inverse ≤−1 of the relation ≤.

Order relations
Definition
Remark
Notation
Generally we shall denote by ≤ an order relation on a set, respectively
by ≥ the inverse ≤−1 of the relation ≤.

Definition
Let(A, ≤) be an ordered set and M ⊆ A a subset of A. An element
m ∈ M is called
def
- the least element(or minimum, or first element)of M ⇐⇒
m ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;

Definition
m ∈ M is called
def
m ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
- the greatest element(or maximum, or last element)of M ⇐⇒
x ≤ m, (∀)x ∈ M;

Definition
m ∈ M is called
def
m ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
x ≤ m, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
- a minimal element of M ⇐⇒ x ∈ M ∧ x ≤ m =⇒ x = m;

Definition
m ∈ M is called
def
m ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
x ≤ m, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
def
- a maximal element of M ⇐⇒ x ∈ M ∧ m ≤ x =⇒ x = m.

Definition
m ∈ M is called
def
m ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
x ≤ m, (∀)x ∈ M;
def
def
- a maximal element of M ⇐⇒ x ∈ M ∧ m ≤ x =⇒ x = m.

Remark
1) If the set M contains a minimum, respectively a maximum, then this
is unique and is denoted min(M), respectively max(M).
2) A set M may contain one, none, or more than one minimal,
respectively maximal elements.

Remark
3) If a set M has a minimum, respectively a maximum, then min(M) is
the unique minimal element, respectively max(M) is the unique
maximal element of M.

Remark
3) If a set M has a minimum, respectively a maximum, then min(M) is
the unique minimal element, respectively max(M) is the unique
maximal element of M.

Definition
Let (A, ≤) be an ordered set, M ⊆ A a subset of A, and a ∈ A an
element of A. The element a is called
def
- a minorant of M ⇐⇒ a ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M;

Definition
def
def
- a majorant of M ⇐⇒ x ≤ a, (∀)x ∈ M;

Definition
def
def
- a majorant of M ⇐⇒x ≤ a, (∀)x ∈ M;
def a ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M ,
- the infimum M ⇐⇒
(∀)b ∈ A : b ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M =⇒ b ≤ a ;

Definition
def
def
def a ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M ,
(∀)b ∈ A : b ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M =⇒ b ≤ a ;

def x ≤ a, (∀)x ∈ M ,
- the supremum of M ⇐⇒
(∀)b ∈ A : x ≤ b, (∀)x ∈ M =⇒ a ≤ b ;

Definition
def
def
def a ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M ,
(∀)b ∈ A : b ≤ x, (∀)x ∈ M =⇒ b ≤ a ;

def x ≤ a, (∀)x ∈ M ,
- the supremum of M ⇐⇒
(∀)b ∈ A : x ≤ b, (∀)x ∈ M =⇒ a ≤ b ;

Remark
1) If a set M has an infimum, respectively a supremum, then this is
unique and is denoted inf (M), respectively sup(M).
2) a = inf (M) ⇐⇒ a is the greatest minorant of M.

Remark
3) a = sup(M) ⇐⇒ a is the least majorant of M.

Remark
4) If there exists min(M)(respectively max(M)), then
inf (M)(respectively sup(M)) also exists and
inf (M) = min(M)(respectively sup(M) = max(M)).

Remark
4) If there exists min(M)(respectively max(M)), then
inf (M)(respectively sup(M)) also exists and
inf (M) = min(M)(respectively sup(M) = max(M)).

Definition
An ordered set (A, ≤) is called totally(or linearly) ordered if for any
x, y ∈ A one has either x ≤ y or y ≤ x.
Definition
An ordered set (A, ≤) is called well ordered if any nonempty subset of A
has a least element.

Definition
Definition
Remark
Any well ordered set is totally ordered.

Definition
Definition
Remark
Any well ordered set is totally ordered.

Proposition
(Zermelo’s axiom) Any set may be well ordered(i.e., for any set A there
exists some order relation ≤ on A, such that (A, ≤) is well ordered).

Remark
As a consequence of Zermelo’s axiom, the method of mathematical
induction may be used as a proof method for statements obtained
by universal cuantification of some predicat over any set in the
following way:
Let A be a set, which we may assume well ordered with respect to some
order relation ≤ defined on A. Also, let P be a predicat defined on A.
If M = {x ∈ A| P(x)},

Remark
following way:
If M = {x ∈ A| P(x)}, the statement (∀x ∈ A)P(x) is true(i.e., M = A)
if and only if

(V) min(A) ∈ M ,
(I) (∀a ∈ A)(x ≤ a =⇒ x ∈ M) =⇒ a ∈ M .

Remark
following way:
if and only if

(V) min(A) ∈ M ,
(I) (∀a ∈ A)(x ≤ a =⇒ x ∈ M) =⇒ a ∈ M .
Indeed, the necesity of this condition is obvious, whereas to prove

sufficiency we can observe that from the given condition follows that
there is no min(CA (M)). Since A is well ordered, this means that
CA (M) = ∅, hence M = A.

Remark
following way:
if and only if

(V) min(A) ∈ M ,
(I) (∀a ∈ A)(x ≤ a =⇒ x ∈ M) =⇒ a ∈ M .
Indeed, the necesity of this condition is obvious, whereas to prove

sufficiency we can observe that from the given condition follows that
there is no min(CA (M)). Since A is well ordered, this means that
CA (M) = ∅, hence M = A.

Definition
An ordered set (A, ≤) is called inductively ordered if any totally ordered
subset of A has a majorant.

Proposition
(Zorn’s lemma) Any nonempty inductively ordered set has at least a
maximal element.
Proposition
(Zorn’s lemma - ”strong variation”) Let (A, ≤) be a nonempty
inductively ordered set and a ∈ A an element of A. Then there is a
maximal element ma ∈ A such that a ≤ ma .

Proposition
(Zorn’s lemma) Any nonempty inductively ordered set has at least a
maximal element.
Proposition
(Zorn’s lemma - ”strong variation”) Let (A, ≤) be a nonempty
inductively ordered set and a ∈ A an element of A. Then there is a
maximal element ma ∈ A such that a ≤ ma .

Proposition
Let R = (A, A, G ) be a preorder relation defined on a set A, and ρR the
association relation with respect to R. The relation R defined on the
factor set A/ρR by
[a]ρR R[b]ρR ⇐⇒ aRb
is then well defined and represents an order relation on A/ρR .

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Sets. Relations. Equivalence relations. Factor set.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 1 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 1 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 1 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 1 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 2 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 2 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 2 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 3 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 3 / 67

by which we associate to any set A the complementary set of the set A

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 4 / 67

by which we associate to any set A the complementary set of the set A

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 4 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 5 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 5 / 67

∩ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 6 / 67

−idempotence: A ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 7 / 67

−idempotence: A ∩ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 7 / 67

∪ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

by which to any two sets A and B one associates a new set A ∪ B,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 8 / 67

−idempotence: A ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 9 / 67

−idempotence: A ∪ A = A, (∀)A ∈ Set(T ) ;

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 9 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 10 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 11 / 67

\ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 12 / 67

\ : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 12 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 13 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 13 / 67

4 : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 14 / 67

4 : Set(T ) × Set(T ) −→ Set(T ) ,

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 14 / 67

−asociativity: (A 4 B) 4 C = A 4 (B 4 C ) , (∀)A, B, C ∈ Set(T )

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 15 / 67

P(A) := {X ∈ Set(T )|X ⊆ A} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 16 / 67

(a1 , a2 ) := {{a1 }, {a1 , a2 }} ,

A1 × A2 × . . . × An := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )|ai ∈ Ai , (∀)i = 1, n} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 17 / 67

(a1 , a2 ) := {{a1 }, {a1 , a2 }} ,

A1 × A2 × . . . × An := {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an )|ai ∈ Ai , (∀)i = 1, n} .

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 17 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 18 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 18 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 18 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 18 / 67

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 18 / 67

∅A1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , ∅) ,

whose graph is the empty set.

Lect.dr. M.Chiş () Lecture 1 6.X.2008 19 / 67

∅A1 ,A2 ,...,An = (A1 , A2 , . . . , An , ∅) ,