DIGESTION &

ABSORPTION
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

★ The process of conversion of complex

food into simpler absorbable form is
called digestion and is carried out by
digestive system by mechanical and
biochemical methods.
★ Human digestive system includes
gastrointestinal tract (GI) or alimentary
canal, accessory organs.
★ Accessory organs are not part of tract but
secrete substances into it via connecting
ducts.
 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Steps

Ingestion: Defecation

Absorption: Elimination of feces

This process involves from the GI tract.
taking foods and
liquids into the Mixing and Passage of digested products
mouth (eating). propulsion Digestion
from the GI tract into the blood
Alternating and lymph.
Secretion contractions and
relaxations of
Cells within walls of GI smooth muscle in Mechanical Chemical
tract and accessory the walls of the GI Digestion Digestion
digestive organs secrete a tract mix food and Teeth cut and grind food Large carbohydrate,
total of about 7 liters of secretions and propel before it is swallowed, and
lipid, protein, and nucleic
water, acid, buffers, and them toward the then smooth muscles of acid molecules in food are
enzymes into the lumen of anus stomach and small intestine split into smaller molecules
the tract per day churn the food. by hydrolysis
 ALIMENTARY CANAL

★ It is a long tube-like (8 -
10m) structure extending
from mouth to anus.
★ It consists of several
organs, i.e., mouth,
pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, small intestine,
large intestine and anus.
 Mouth

★ The mouth includes the lips,

tongue, palate, gums, and teeth.
★ It is a transverse slit which is Hard
palate
bounded by two soft, movable
Soft palate
lips (upper and lower).
Uvula
★ The lips are covered with skin on Tonsil

the outer side and lined with

mucous membranes on the inner
side.
 Mouth

Hard
Palate
Tonsil
Nasopharynx
Soft Palate
Uvula
Bolus

Epiglottis
Larynx Glottis

Esophagus
 TONGUE

★ The tongue is a freely movable muscular organ attached to the floor of the oral cavity by the
frenulum.
★ The upper surface of the tongue has small projections called papillae, some of which bear taste
buds.
★ Taste is recognized with the help of circumvallate and fungiform taste papillae.

★ The anterior end

★ Sides feel sour taste
of tongue feels
★ Small part behind the
sweet taste
anterior end feel
★ Posterior part
salty taste.
feel bitter taste
 TEETH

★ Teeth are hard structures that are meant for holding, cutting, grinding, and
crushing the food. Four kinds of teeth present in the humans

Premolars (8) Incisors (8) For Molars (12) for Canines (4) for
for crushing & Cutting & Biting, crushing, grinding and tearing & piercing,
grinding masticating.
DENTITION: The nature and mode of arrangement of teeth is called
dentition.
Types of Dentition

Thecodont Heterodont Diphyodont

It means teeth appear
It means teeth are It means different kinds of
twice in lifetime.
placed in the jaw teeth are present. Incisors
sockets. (I), Canines, Premolars
(PM), Molars (M)

Primary dentition (20 teeth):

Milk Teeth Permanent Teeth
I 2/2, C 1/1, M 2/2 = 10
Milk [decidual] teeth: 20 in number.
Permanent dentition (32 teeth):
Develops at 6-7 months of birth. 32 in number.
I 2/2, C 1/1, P 2/2, M 3/3 = 16 They are replaced by permanent teeth at
the age of 6-7.
 Mastication

★ Mouth performs mastication which

refers to the mechanical breakdown of
food by chewing and chopping actions
of the teeth.
★ Mastication breaks up the food into
small particles, which provides a
greater surface area for digestion and
enables the food to pass through the
esophagus.
 Pharynx

★ Pharynx is a common passage for food

and air.
★ It is divisible into
○ Nasopharynx (lies behind nasal
cavities)
○ Oropharynx (lies behind the oral
cavity
○ Laryngopharynx (leads to
oesophagus from behind and
larynx in front).
 Oesophagus (Gullet)

★ It is a long (about 25cm), narrow,

muscular tubular structure which
connects pharynx with stomach.
★ Oesophagus extends posteriorly
passing through the neck, thorax and
diaphragm and leads to a ‘J’ shaped
bag like structure called stomach.
★ Actively moves a bolus through
peristalsis
 PERISTALSIS

★ Peristalsis (a series of waves

of contraction that passes
from one end to other and
is meant for pushing the
food) from the pharynx to
the stomach.
 Epiglottis

★ A cartilaginous flap
called epiglottis
prevents the entry of
food into the glottis –
opening of the
windpipe – during
swallowing.
 ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTERS

★ UPPER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER

consists of skeletal muscle, It
regulates the movement of food
from the pharynx into the
esophagus;
★ LOWER ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTER
(LES), which consists of smooth
muscle. Regulates the movement of
food from the esophagus into the
stomach.
 STOMACH

★ It is a thick-walled, J-shaped
organ.
★ Located on the left side of the
body beneath the diaphragm.
★ It stores food, initiates the
digestion of protein, and controls
the movement of food into the
small intestine
 STOMACH

★ Consist of four parts: Stomach has

four main regions: the cardia,

fundus, body, and pylorus
★ Cardia (uppermost region into

which oesophagus opens),

fundus (region next to cardia),
body (main central region) and
pylorus (last portion that
connects to duodenum).
 STOMACH

★ Pyloric stomach leads to small intestine

by an opening (Pylorus), Guarded by

the pyloric sphincter.
★ Inner wall of stomach bears

longitudinal folds (rugae)

★ Both cardiac and pyloric ends of
stomach are guarded by sphincters
(cardiac and pyloric sphincters
respectively), which regulate entry and
exit of food in and out of stomach.
 GASTRIC GLANDS

COMPONENT SOURCE FUNCTION

Chief cells of the gastric

Pepsinogen Inactive form of pepsin
glands

Formed from pepsinogen in

A protein-splitting enzyme that digests
Pepsin the presence of
nearly all types of dietary protein
hydrochloric acid

Parietal cells of the gastric Provides the acid environment needed

Hydrochloric acid
glands for production and action of pepsin

Provides a viscous, alkaline protective

Mucus Mucous cells
layer on the stomach’s inner surface

Parietal cells of the gastric

Intrinsic factor Aids in vitamin B12 absorption
glands
GASTRIC GLANDS

Surface
Mucous
Cells
Mucous
Neck
Cells
Parietal
Cells

Chief
Cells

G- Cells
 SMALL INTESTINE

★ It is the longest (6m) part

of alimentary canal
extending from the pyloric
sphincter of the stomach to
the ileocecal valve.
★ It is composed of
duodenum, jejunum and
ileum.
 SMALL INTESTINE

★ Duodenum is
★ Jejunum (middle
proximal C-shaped
part) beginning
section, Combines
of jejunum is
digestive secretions
marked by a
from the pancreas
sharp bend,
and liver with
duodenojejunal
contents expelled
flexure.
from stomach

★ Ileum, is the longest segment and empties into the caecum at the ileocaecal
junction.
 VILLUS
Villus

Lacteal

★ Small finger-like projections of mucosa

Blood
called villi are present along the entire Capillaries

length of the small intestine Mucus-

Producing
★ These villi increase the absorptive surface Cell

area of the small intestine.

★ Each villus has a brush-border columnar Lymph
Nodule
epithelial layer provided with microvilli. Venule
★ Villus consists of a capillary network and Lymphatic
Vessel
a small lymph vessel (lacteal).
Villi Arteriole
 SMALL INTESTINE: FUNCTION

★ Segmentations mix chyme with digestive

juices and bring food into contact with
★ the mucosa for absorption; peristalsis
propels chyme through the small intestine.
★ Completes the digestion of carbohydrates,
proteins, and lipids; begins and
★ completes the digestion of nucleic acids.
★ Absorbs about 90% of nutrients and water
that pass through the digestive system
 LARGE INTESTINE

★ It consists of appendix, caecum, colon (ascending, transverse,

descending and sigmoid) and rectum.

Caecum: It is well- Colon: The colon

developed in herbivores consists of ascending
but very small in man. colon, transverse colon
Arising from the caecum and descending colon.
is a finger-like vestigial Rectum: Pelvic colon
organ, the vermiform leads to rectum that
appendix. opens out by anus.

Anus is guarded by anal sphincter (circular voluntary muscles).

LARGE INTESTINE
SNAP SHOT
 LARGE INTESTINE: FUNCTION

★ Peristalsis, and mass peristalsis drive the contents of the colon into the
rectum.
★ Bacteria in the large intestine convert proteins to amino acids, break
down amino acids, and produce some B vitamins and vitamin K.
★ Absorbing some water, ions, and vitamins.
★ Forming feces.
★ Defecating (emptying the rectum).
LAYERS OF GASTROINTESTINAL (GI) TRACT

Lumen
Mucosa
Submucosa

Muscularis
Circular
Muscle
Longitudinal
Muscle
Serosa
 LAYERS OF GASTROINTESTINAL (GI) TRACT

★ Serosa
★ It is the outermost layer made up of squamous epithelium and areolar
connective tissue.
★ Muscularis
★ It is composed of outer longitudinal and inner circular muscle fibres. Muscles
fibres are smooth and network of nerve cells
★ Mucosa:
★ It is the innermost layer lining the lumen of the alimentary canal that secretes
mucus from goblet cells.
 LAYERS OF GASTROINTESTINAL (GI) TRACT

★ Submucosa:
★ It has irregular folding in stomach called
rugae and villi in small intestine.
★ Mucosa also forms glands in the stomach
(gastric glands) and crypts in between the
bases of villi in the intestine—crypts of
Lieberkuhn.
 LAYERS OF GASTROINTESTINAL (GI) TRACT

★ In the gastrointestinal tract, the muscular layer is

bounded in most cases by serosa.
★ However, at the oral cavity, thoracic esophagus,
ascending colon, descending colon and the rectum,
the muscular layer is instead bounded by adventitia
 SALIVARY GLANDS

★ Salivary glands secrete saliva.

★ There are three pairs of major salivary
glands:
○ Parotid
○ Submandibular
○ Sublingual glands

ambikasharmavedan
 SALIVARY GLANDS

GLAND LOCATION AND DUCT

★Near ear
★Largest gland
PAROTID
★Secretes saliva into the oral cavity via a parotid duct (Stenson’s
duct)

★Medium sized gland

SUBMANDIBULAR/ ★Present at the Floor of the mouth
SUBMAXILLARY ★They release their secretion through Submandibular ducts
(Wharton’s duct)

★Smallest salivary gland

★Present beneath tongue
SUBLINGUAL
★They release their secretion through sublingual ducts (Duct of
Rivinus)
 LIVER

★ Liver is the largest and four

lobed gland of about 1.5 kg
weight and nearly 1/40 of total
body weight.
★ It is Reddish brown
★ Located in the upper right
quadrant of the abdominal
cavity, inferior to the
diaphragm.
 LIVER

★ It has four lobes: left, right,

caudate, and quadrate.
○ Right lobe is Large and left
lobe is small
○ Quadrate lobe, near the
gallbladder
○ Caudate lobe, close to the
vena cava
 LIVER

★ GLISSON'S CAPSULE, characteristic feature of mammalian liver, is a thin

layer of dense connective tissue which surrounds the liver lobules.
 LIVER

★ Liver lobe is formed of structural and functional units called

hepatic lobules
★ A lobule has many hepatic cells arranged as cords around a
central vein.
★ They secrete alkaline bile juice.
★ Hepatic lobules have many fine bile canaliculi,
★ They carry secretions from hepatic cells to bile ductules.
★ Ductules of neighboring lobules unite to form larger bile ducts
★ Larger bile ducts converge to hepatic ducts.
 Gall bladder

★ Gall bladder is the small sac-

shaped organ beneath the liver, in
which bile is stored after secretion
by the liver and before release into
the intestine.
★ The main purpose of the
gallbladder is to store bile, needed
for the digestion of fats in food.
★ Contraction of the gallbladder is
stimulated by Cholecystokinin
LIVER
 LIVER
Canaliculi
↓
Bile ductules
↓
Larger bile ducts
↓
Hepatic duct
↓
Gallbladder
↓
Cystic duct
↓
Common bile duct
↓
Common hepato-pancreatic duct
↓
Duodenum
 LIVER

★ KUPFFER CELLS: Large phagocytic cells fixed to the inner lining

(endothelium) of the hepatic sinusoids. Remove bacteria from
the blood by phagocytosis.
★ BILE COMPOSITION:
○ Bile has no enzymes
○ alkaline (pH 7.8 - 8.6).
○ Bile mainly contains water; bile salts, bile pigments (bilirubin
and biliverdin), fatty acids, cholesterol and lecithin.
○ Bile salts contain sodium bicarbonate, sodium glycocholate
and sodium taurocholate.
 FUNCTIONS OF LIVER

★ Metabolism of carbohydrate
★ Digestion of fat
★ Formation of bile
★ Removes bilirubin, a breakdown product of hemoglobin from the blood, and
excretes it in bile, a liver product
 Pancreas

★ Second largest gland.

★ Lobular, pinkish-grey organ situated in the limbs of the U-shaped
duodenum.
★ Pancreas consists of a head, a body, and a tail
★ Connected to the duodenum by two ducts
★ Heterocrine gland: has both exocrine and endocrine parts.
★ Exocrine part - Acinar cells (secretes pancreatic juice)
★ Endocrine part - Islets of langerhans(secretes hormones-
insulin and glucagon).
Pancreas
 Pancreas

★ Pancreatic acinar cells

produces pancreatic juice
★ It has a pancreatic duct
that opens into duodenum
along with bile duct
(hepato-pancreatic duct).
★ Hepato-pancreatic duct is
guarded by sphincter of
Oddi.
 Pancreatic juice

★ Pancreatic juice is
colorless, watery fluid,
slightly alkaline
(approximately 8.4) due
to the presence of sodium
bicarbonate.
★ Neutralizes acidic chyme
from stomach.
 Pancreatic juice

Carbohydrates Pancreatic amylase

Fat Pancreatic lipase
Protein Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, &
Carboxypeptidase.
Nucleic acid Ribonuclease and
deoxyribonuclease
 MECHANISM OF DIGESTION
★ In buccal cavity, teeth and tongue help in mastication and mixing of food.
★ Mucus in saliva is mixed with masticated food to form bolus.
★ Bolus is passed to pharynx and then into oesophagus by swallowing or deglutition.

Mastication Deglutition Peristalsis

● Wave-like movement of food bolus through

● Chewing ● Swallowing the gut by muscular contraction
 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Food Enzymes Site of Actions Path of Absorption

➢ Glucose and galactose
Starch and other polysaccharides are absorbed via
cotransport with sodium
Salivary Amylase Mouth ions.
Small Intestine ➢ Fructose passes via
Pancreatic Amylase facilitated diffusion.
Oligosaccharides and ➢ All monosaccharides
Disaccharides leave the epithelial cells
via facilitated diffusion,
enter the capillary blood
in the villi, and are
Lactose Maltose Sucrose
Lactase, Maltase, Small Intestine transported to the liver
Sucrase via the hepatic portal
vein.

Galactose Glucose Fructose

 DIGESTION OF PROTEINS

Food Enzymes Site of Actions Path of Absorption

Proteins ➢ Amino acids are absorbed via
cotransport with sodium
Pepsin
Stomach ions.
(in presence of Hcl)
➢ Some dipeptides and
tripeptides are absorbed via
Large Polypeptides cotransport with H+ and
Pancreatic enzymes hydrolyzed to amino acids
(Trypsin, chymotrypsin, Small Intestine within the cells.
Carboxypeptidase) ➢ Amino acids leave the
Small Polypeptides, small epithelial cells by facilitated
peptides diffusion, enter the capillary
Aminopeptidase and Small Intestine blood in the villi and are
dipeptidase transported to the liver via
the hepatic portal vein,
Amino acids (some
dipeptides and tripeptides)
 DIGESTION OF FATS

Food and Enzyme Site of Actions Path of Absorption

Unemulsified Triglycerides ➢ Fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the
intestinal cells via diffusion. Fatty acids and
monoglycerides are recombined to form
Gastric Lipase Stomach triglycerides and then combined with other
lipids and proteins within the cells.
➢ The resulting chylomicrons are extruded by
Emulsification by the exocytosis. The chylomicrons enter the lacteals
detergent action of bile salts Small Intestine of the villi and are transported to the systemic
circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct.
➢ Some short-chain fatty acids are absorbed,
move into the capillary blood in the villi by
Pancreatic lipases diffusion and are transported to the liver via
Small Intestine
the hepatic portal vein.

Monoglycerides ( Or diglycerides
with gastric lipase) and fatty acids
 DIGESTION OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
Food and Enzyme Site of Actions Path of Absorption

DNA and RNA

➢ Units enter intestinal cells by
Pancreatic ribonuclease
and deoxyribonuclease active transport membrane
Small Intestine
carriers.
➢ Units are absorbed into
capillary blood in the villi and
Nucleotides, nucleosidases
and phosphatases transported to the liver via the
Small Intestine
hepatic portal vein.
Pentose sugars, N containing
bases, phosphate ions
 DISORDERS OF DIGESTION

★ Jaundice: It is a disease of liver. In jaundice, the skin and the eyes turn
yellow due to large quantities of bilirubin pigments in the extracellular
fluid.
★ Vomiting: It is the ejection of stomach content through the mouth. This
reflex action is controlled by the vomit centre in the medulla.
★ Diarrhoea: Frequent defecation of liquid faeces is known as Diarrhoea. It
reduces the absorption of food.
★ Constipation: In constipation, the faeces are retained within the rectum
as the bowel movements occur irregularly.
★ Indigestion: Incomplete digestion usually accompanied by one or more
of the following symptoms- pain, nausea, vomiting, heartburn, acid
regurgitation, accumulation of gas and release of gas from the stomach.
 Protein-energy malnutrition

★ (PEM) : PEM affects infants and children to produce marasmus and

kwashiorkor.
★ Marasmus : Produced by simultaneous deficiency of proteins and
calories.
★ Kwashiorkor : Produced by protein deficiency only.
 Protein-energy malnutrition

Kwashiorkor Marasmus

★ Occurs in children who have normal calorie ★ Occurs in children who have an overall
intake but the diet is severely deficient in deficiency in energy intake which includes
proteins. even proteins.

★ Bilateral peripheral pitting edema due to ★ Severe muscle wasting and loss of
fluid retention and distended abdomen. subcutaneous fat in the whole body.

★ Symptoms include thinning of hair, ★ Symptoms include dehydration, total muscle

dermatitis, loss of teeth, and loss, anemia, dry skin, and brittle hair, children
depigmentation of skin are more irritable.

★ Kwashiorkor occurs after 18 months of age. ★ Marasmus occurs before 1-year of age.