A&P - PHYSIOLOGY - DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Part 2

PHYSIOLOGY
OF
GI SYSTEM
MRS.G.DEEPA M.Sc(N)
NURSING TUTOR
MACCON
FUNCTIONS OF
PANCREAS
FUNCTIONS OF PANCREAS
• Pancreas is a dual organ having two functions
• Endocrine function
• Exocrine function
• The endocrine function involves production of hormones
• The exocrine function involves secretion of digestive juice

Functional Anatomy of Pancreas:
Exocrine Part
Properties of Pancreatic Juice
• Volume: 500 to 800 ml / day
• Reaction: Highly Alkaline with a pH of 8 to 8.3
• Specific gravity: 1.010 to 1.018
• Composition : It contains 99.5 % water and 0.5 % solids

Pancreatic
juice
Water- Solids –
99.5 % 0.5 %
Water
Organic Inorganic
-
substances substances
Proteolytic enzymes:
Trypsin Lipolytic enzymes: Amylolytic enzyme:
Chymotrypsin Pancreatic Lipase Pancreatic amylase
PANCREATIC JUICE
FUNCTIONS
• Two functions of pancreatic juice are Digestive & Neutralizing
function.
• Digestive function
– Proteins
– Carbohydrates
– Lipids
Digestion of Proteins – Major proteolytic enzymes are Trypsin and
Chymotrypsin. Others are Carboxypeptidases, Nuclease, Elastase and
Collegenase.
PANCREATIC JUICE - Digestion of Proteins
• Trypsin – it is a polypeptide, it contains 229 amino acids. It is secreted as inactive
trypsinogen, which is converted into active trypsin by enterokinase and it is secreted by
the brush – bordered cells of duodenal mucous membrane.
• Actions of Trypsin
• Most powerful proteolytic enzymes
• Curdling of Milk (Converts caseinogen in the milk to casein)
• • Accelerates blood clotting
Chymotrypsin - It is secreted in an inactive form chymotrpsinogen which is
converted into an active form Chymotrypsin by trypsin.
• Action of Chymotrypsin
• Converts proteins into polypeptides
• It digests caseinogen faster than trypsin
• No action on Blood Clotting
Digestion of Lipids
• Pancreatic Lipase is a powerful lipolytic enzyme.
• It digests triglycerides into monoglycerides and fattyacids.
• Activity of pancreatic lipase is accelerated in the presence of bile.
• Digestion of fat by pancreatic lipase requires two more factors/
– Bile Salts: It is responsible for the emulsification of fat, prior to the digestion.
– Colipase: It is a coenzyme necessary for the pancreatic lipase to digest the dietary lipids.
About 80 % of the fat is digested by pancreatic lipase. Deficiency or absence of this enzyme leads to
excretion of undigested fats in faeces (Steatorrhea)

Digestion of Carbohydrates
• Pancreatic amylase is the amylotic enzyme present in pancreatic juice.
• Like pancreatic amylase also converts starch into dextrin and maltose.
SECRETION OF THE PANCREATIC JUICE :
Secretion of Enzymes :
•Pancreatic enzymes are derived from amino acids and
synthesized in ribosomes attached to Endoplasmic
reticulum of acinar cells in Pancreas
•After synthesis, enzymes are packed by Golgi
apparatus and stored in cytoplasm
•On stimulation, they are released from the acinar
cells into Pancreatic duct
Secretion of bicarbonates :They are secreted from
cells of pancreatic ductules and released into
pancreatic duct
REGULATION OF PANCREATIC SECRETION
• Stages of Pancreatic Secretion :
1. Cephalic Phase
2. Gastric Phase
3. Intestinal Phase
CEPHALIC PHASE
• Secretion of Pancreatic Juice by stimuli arising from the head region
is called as the cephalic phase
• This phase is purely under nervous control
GASTRIC PHASE
• Secretion of pancreatic juice when food enters the stomach is
known as the gastric phase
• This phase is under hormonal control
INTESTINAL PHASE
• Secretion of Pancreatic juice when chyme enters the intestine is
called as the Intestinal Phase
• This Phase is also under hormonal control
ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS OF PANCREAS ISLETS OF
LANGERHANS
• The endocrine function of Pancreas is performed by Islets of Langerhans
• Human Pancreas contain about 1-2 million islets
• Islets of Langerhans consist of four types of cells :
1. α cells – which secrete glucagon
2. β cells – which secrete insulin
3. δ cells – which secrete somatostatin
4. F or PP cells- which secrete Pancreatic Polypeptide
ACTIONS OF INSULIN
• ON CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM : Insulin is the only anti-diabetic
hormone secreted in the body
• Insulin reduces blood sugar level by following mechanisms :
1. Increasing transport and uptake of glucose by the cells
2. Promoting peripheral utilization of glucose
3. Promoting storage of glucose – glycogenesis
4. Inhibiting glycogenolysis
5. Inhibiting gluconeogenesis
• ON PROTEIN METABOLISM :
Insulin facilitates the synthesis and storage of Proteins and inhibits

cellular utilization of proteins
• ON FAT METABOLISM :
Insulin stimulates the synthesis of fats and storage in adipose tissue

• ON GROWTH :
Along with growth hormone , it promotes growth of the
body Anabolic action on proteins
GLUCAGON
• Actions of glucagon are antagonistic to those of insulin
• It increases the blood sugar level
• It increases peripheral utilization of lipids
• It facilitates conversion of proteins into glucose
• It inhibits secretion of gastric juice
• It increases secretion of bile from liver
CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM
• It increases glycogenolysis in liver
• It increases gluconeogenesis in liver
PROTEIN METABOLISM
• It increases transport of amino acids to liver which are essential for
gluconeogenesis
FAT METABOLISM :
• Lipolytic snd ketogenic action
SOMATOSTATIN
• It acts within islets of Langerhans and inhibits α & β cells
• It inhibits secretion of both insulin and glucagon
• It decreases the motility of stomach , duodenum and gall bladder
• It reduces secretion of gastrointestinal hormones , viz . Gastrin
• Hypothalamic somatostatin inhibits secretion of growth hormone

& TSH , hence also known as Growth Hormone Inhibitory
Hormone
FUNCTIONS OF
BILE
BILE
• PROPERTIES OF BILE
Volume – 800 – 1200 ml / day
Reaction – Alkaline
 pH – 8 to 8.6
Specific gravity – 1.010 – 1.011
Colour – Golden Yellow or
Green
BILE
• Composition of Bile
– Water – 97.6 %
– Salts – 2.4 % (Organic and Inorganic)

BILE
• Secretion of Bile
• Secreted by hepatocytes
• It contains bile acids, bile
pigments, cholesterol, lecithin and
fatty acids.
• Most of the bile are stored in the
gall bladder.
BILE
• Bile Salts are the sodium and potassium salts of bile acids.
• Functions of Bile Salts are
1. Emulsification of fats
2. Absorption of fats
3. Choleretic Action
4. Cholagogue Action
5. Laxative Action
6. Prevention of Gallstone Formation
BILE
Emulsification of fats – bile salts emulsify the fats by
reducing the surface tension due to their detergent
action.
Absorption of fats – bile salts combine with fats and
makes complexes of fat called micelles. The fat in the
form of micelles can absorbed easily/
Choleretic Action – Bile salts stimulates the secretion of
bile from the liver. This action is called choleretic
action.
BILE
Cholagogue Action– Cholagogue is an agent which
causes contraction ofgall bladder and release of bile
into the intestine. Bile salts acts indirectly by
stimulating the secretion of hormone Cholecystokinin.
This hormone causes contraction of gallbladder,
resulting in the release of Bile.
Laxative Action – Laxative is an agent which induces
defecation. Bile acts as laxatives by stimulating
peristaltic movements of the intestine.
BILE
Prevention of Gallstone Formation – Bile salts prevent
the formation of gallstone by keeping the cholesterol
and lecithin in solution. In the absence of bile salts,
cholesterol precipitates along with lecithin and forms
gallstone.
BILE PIGMENTS
• Bile pigments are the excretory products of bile.
• Bilirubin and Biliverdin are the two bile pigments

and bilirubin is the major bile pigment in human
beings.
BILE PIGMENTS
• Bile pigments are formed during the breakdown of haemoglobin,
which is released from the destroyed RBCs in the reticuloendothelial
system.
• Normal plasma levels of Bilirubin – Normal bilirubin (Total Bilirubin)
content in plasma is 0.5 – 1.5 Mg/dl.
Hyperbilirubinemia when it exceds 2 mg/dl Jaundice occurs.

BILE FUNCTIONS
• Most of the functions of the bile are due to the bile salts
1. Digestive function
2. Absorptive function
3. Excretory function
4. Laxative function
5. Antiseptic action
6. Choleretic action
7. Maintenance of pH in GI tract
8. Prevention of gallstone formation
9. Lubrication function
10. Cholagogue action
BILE FUNCTIONS
1. Digestive function – Refer bile salts function
2. Absorptive function - Refer bile salts function
3. Excretory function – bile pigments are the major excretory products of the bile.
Other substances excreted in the bile are
1. Heavy metals like copper and iron
2. Some bacteria like typhoid bacteria
3. Some toxins
4. Cholesterol
5. Lecithin
6. Alkaline phosphatase
4. Laxative action – Bile salts acts as laxatives
5. Antiseptic action – Bile salts inhibits the growth of certain bacteria in the lumen of
intestine by its natural detergent action.
BILE FUNCTIONS
6.Choleretic Action – with the help of bile salts, bile secretion is stimulated from the
liver.
7.Maintenance of pH in the GI – tract – As bile is highly alkaline, it neutrakizes

the acid chyme which enters the intestine from stomach. Thus an optimum pH is
maintained for the action of digestive enzymes.
8.Prevention of Gallstone Formation – Bile salts prevents the formation of

gallstone by keeping the cholesterol and lecithin in solution. In the absence of bile salts,
cholesterol precipitates along with lecithin and forms gallstone.
BILE FUNCTIONS
9.Lubrication Function – The mucin in bile acts as a lubricant for the chyme in the
intestine.
10.Cholagogue Action – Cholagogue is an agent which causes contraction of

gallbladder and release of bile into the intestine. Bile salts in bile acts as cholagogues
indirectly by stimulating the secretion of hormone cholecystokinin. This hormone
causes contraction of gallbladder resulting in release of bile.
FUNCTIONS OF
LIVER
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
Liver is the largest gland and one of the vital organs of the body. It performs
many vital metabolic and homeostatic functions, which are summarized
below
1.Metabolic function – In liver fats, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and

many hormones are metabolized.
2.Storage function – Substances like glycogen, amino acids, iron, folic acid
and vitamin A, B 12, and D are stored in liver.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
3. Synthetic function – Liver produce glucose by gluconeogenesis. It
synthesize all the plasma proteins and other proteins (except
immunoglobulins) such as clotting factors. It also synthesizes steroids.
4. Secretion of bile – liver secretes bile which contains bile salts, bile
pigments, cholesterol, fatty acids and lecithin.
5. Excretory function – liver excretes. Cholesterol, bile pigments, heavy

metals (like lead, arsenic and bismuth) toxins, bacteria and virus (yellow
fever virus) through bile.
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
6. Heat production – Enormous amount of heat is produced in the liver
because of metabolic reactions . Liver is the organ where maximum heat is
produced.
7. Hemopoietic Function – In fetus liver produces the blood cells, it stores

Vitamin B12 for the erythropoiesis and iron necessary for the synthesis of
hemoglobin. Liver produces thrombopoietin that promotes the production of
thrombocytes.
8. Hemolytic function – The senile RBC’s after the life span of 120 days are
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
9. Inactivation of Hormones and Drugs – Liver catabolizes the growth
hormones, parathormone, cortisol, insulin, glucagon and estrogen it also
inactivates the drug. The fat soluble drugs are converted into water
soluble substances, which are excreted through bile or urine.
10. Defensive and Detoxification function – Reticuloendothelial cells

(Kupffer cells) of the liver play an important role in the defence of the
body. Liver is also involved in the detoxification of the foreign bodies.
FUNCTIONS OF
GALLBLADDER
FUNCTIONS OF GALLBLADDER
• Bile secreted from liver is stored in gallbladder. The capacity of gallbladder is approximately 50
ml.
• Gallbladder is not essential for life and it is removed (Cholecystectomy) in patients suffering from
gallbladder dysfunction.
• Major functions of Gallbladder are as follows
 Storage of bile
 Concentration of bile
 Alteration of pH of bile
 Secretion of Mucin
 Maintenance of pressure in biliary system

 Storage of bile – Bile is continuously secreted by liver is stored in
the gallbladder, it is released in the intestine intermittently when it

is required.
 Concentration of bile – Substances like bile pigments, cholesterol,
lecithin helps to concentrate bile 5 to 10 times.
 Alteration of pH of bile – The pH of bile is decreased from 8 –
8.6 to 7 – 7.6 and it becomes less alkaline when it is stored in
gallbladder.
 Secretion of Mucin – Gallbladder secretes mucin. Mucin is added to

bile, when bile is released into intestine, mucin acts as lubricant for
movement of chyme in the intestine.
 Maintenance of pressure in biliary system – Due to the
concentrating capacity gallblader maintains pressure of about 7cm
H2ONin billiary system. This pressure in the billiary system is
essential for the release of bile into the intestine.
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS:
1. Caseinogen in the milk is converted to casein by
a. Chymotrypsin
b. Trypsin
c. Ptylain
d. Pancreatic Lipase

2. Pancreatic enzymes are released from the
e. Pancreatic lobules
f. Acinarcells
g. Enterocytes
h. Pavlov pouch
3. Secretion of Pancreatic juice when chyme enters the intestine is called as the
a. Cephalic Phase
b. Gastric Phase
c. Intestinal Phase
d. Nervous phase
4. __________ inhibits secretion of both insulin and glucagon.
a. Gastrin
b. Ketogens
c. Somatostatin
d. Glucose

5. The colour of the bile is
e. Green
f. Blue
g. White
h. Red
6. Hepatocytes secretes
a. Gastric juice
b. Pancreatic juice
c. Succusentericus
d. Bile

7. Bile salts emulsify the
e. Carbohydrates
f. Protein
g. Fat
h. Aminoacids

8. ____________is an agent which causes contraction of gallbladder and release of bile into the intestine.
i. Cholagogue
j. Cholesterol
k. Lecithin
l. Alkalinephosphatase
9. Thrombocytes are produced by the
a. Pancreas
b. Gallbladder
c. Liver
d. Stomach

10. Bile is stored in
e. Gallbladder
f. Hepatic duct
g. Bile duct
h. Pancreas

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PHYSIOLOGY

• The endocrine function involves production of hormones

• The exocrine function involves secretion of digestive juice

• Volume: 500 to 800 ml / day

• Reaction: Highly Alkaline with a pH of 8 to 8.3

• Specific gravity: 1.010 to 1.018

• Composition : It contains 99.5 % water and 0.5 % solids

• It digests triglycerides into monoglycerides and fattyacids.

• Activity of pancreatic lipase is accelerated in the presence of bile.

• Digestion of fat by pancreatic lipase requires two more factors/

excretion of undigested fats in faeces (Steatorrhea)

1. Increasing transport and uptake of glucose by the cells

2. Promoting peripheral utilization of glucose

3. Promoting storage of glucose – glycogenesis

Insulin facilitates the synthesis and storage of Proteins and inhibits

Insulin stimulates the synthesis of fats and storage in adipose tissue

• It acts within islets of Langerhans and inhibits α & β cells

• It inhibits secretion of both insulin and glucagon

• It decreases the motility of stomach , duodenum and gall bladder

• It reduces secretion of gastrointestinal hormones , viz . Gastrin

• Hypothalamic somatostatin inhibits secretion of growth hormone

– Salts – 2.4 % (Organic and Inorganic)

• Bilirubin and Biliverdin are the two bile pigments

Hyperbilirubinemia when it exceds 2 mg/dl Jaundice occurs.

7.Maintenance of pH in the GI – tract – As bile is highly alkaline, it neutrakizes

8.Prevention of Gallstone Formation – Bile salts prevents the formation of

10.Cholagogue Action – Cholagogue is an agent which causes contraction of

1.Metabolic function – In liver fats, carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and

5. Excretory function – liver excretes. Cholesterol, bile pigments, heavy

7. Hemopoietic Function – In fetus liver produces the blood cells, it stores

10. Defensive and Detoxification function – Reticuloendothelial cells

 Maintenance of pressure in biliary system

 Storage of bile – Bile is continuously secreted by liver is stored in

the gallbladder, it is released in the intestine intermittently when it

 Secretion of Mucin – Gallbladder secretes mucin. Mucin is added to

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