Medicine Through Time Revisionguide
Medicine Through Time Revisionguide
Medicine Through Time Revisionguide
Through Time
RevisionGuide
Key Topics
• Medieval Medicine (c.1250‐1500)
• Renaissance Medicine (c.1550‐1750)
• Industrial Medicine (c.1750‐1900)
• Modern Medicine (c.1900 to present day)
1
Ideas on the cause of disease in the Middle Ages
Ideas on the cause of disease in the Middle Ages showed significant continuity. They were based on ancient ideas from the
Greek and Roman periods whilst the power of the church continued to influence medieval thinking.
Hippocrates was a Greek doctor & teacher who created the theory of the Four Humours.
He believed the body contained four humours (black bile, yellow bile, blood and phlegm).
• If you are healthy the humours are balanced.
• If you are ill, you have imbalanced humours (too much of it).
Hippocrates believed you saw evidence of this when you were sick
e.g. you would would have a nosebleed if you had too much blood.
The Four Humours
To cure this illness you needed to get rid of the humour that was
unbalanced, e.g. you would need to use leeches or cups to remove the excess blood.
Galen, a Roman doctor then developed the Four Humours by
creating the ‘Theory of Opposites’. His theory was very simple:
if you had too much of a humour, you needed to cure it with the
opposite. For example:
if you had too much phlegm, which is cold and wet, you were given
something spicy which is hot and dry to cure the sickness.
The church supported the idea of the Four Humours and all physicians
(doctors) were taught about it when educated by the Church.
Physicians also used urine charts linked to the Four Humours to check the
colour, smell and taste to check for illness e.g. white = too much phlegm.
People blamed bad stinking air, called ‘Miasma’, for causing disease. They believed
dirt/waste from the streets poisoned the air which caused illness – this seemed logical as
dirty places smelt bad.
Miasma
Even King Edward III said ‘The filth from the houses is infecting the air with contagious
sickness’ during the Black Death. The idea of miasma was also supported by Hippocrates
and Galen, making it more supported. It was also thought the air was sent from God
himself, or caused by the planets.
The bible taught people that diseases were a punishment from God for their sins (e.g.
gambling and drinking) or a way of God testing your faith (if you survived it was a
miracle!). A common disease linked to sin was leprosy.
God
The 1348–49 Black Death was thought to be a punishment for peoples’ sins. The Prior of
Christchurch Abbey wrote that the 1348 Black Death was caused by God who used
‘suffering to drive out the numberless sins of the people’.
Many people in the Middle Ages were superstitious – they believed in the supernatural
like witchcraft and astrology.
Supernatural
In the 14th Century, astrology (the study of the movement of stars and planets) was a key
part of medical training and physicians used planetary movements and zodiac signs in
their treatment. Physicians believed the stars and planets affected your health and
caused disease, for example the movement of Saturn and Jupiter was to blame from the
Black Death.
Other causes were witchcraft, bad luck or blaming minority groups such as Jews, who
were blamed for poisoning wells
A lack of progress
During the Middle Ages, no progress was made
towards understanding the cause of disease.
People knew nothing of the real causes of disease
A respect for tradition, a lack of education and
scientific knowledge coupled with the power of
the church caused continuity in ideas from the
ancient world. There was no desire to find the
2
real cause!
Prevention of Disease and Public Health in the Middle Ages
Although treatment of disease was common, there was a strong focus in the Middle Ages on prevention of disease.
This was common when there was little proof that many of the treatments actually worked.
Prevention of Disease
Many people thought ONLY God could cure diseases so they aimed to prevent it first.
Flagellants whipped People fasted, Many people simply followed
themselves to beg made offerings to a Christian lifestyle; praying, going to
God for forgiveness God and lit candles church and following the
during the Black to show they were commandments. The King ordered
Death. sorry for their sins. religious services during the Black Death.
Problem: Too many animals Problem: Leaking Latrines
Animals were butchered in Latrines and cesspits
streets and horses left dung in contaminated water supplies.
streets. Solution: Laws on locations for
Solution: 12 Rakers were private latrines. Cesspits built
employed to clean the streets of
The government ONLY spent to improve public with stone to stop leaks. Night
London by 1370. Cities like health in the Middle Ages during the Black carts were used for emptying
Newcastle paved their streets to Death. cesspits in towns like Hull.
make them easier to clean.
Progress?
There was little progress in the
Middle Ages (continuity) as a majority
of prevention remained based on
religious factors. However, the ideas
of regimin sanitis were healthy.
You could argue that public health improved with
rakers, fresh water and efforts to clean cities, 3
however it was still not enough to improve health.
Treatment of disease in the Middle Ages
Treatment of disease made little progress in the Middle Ages, simply due to the lack of understanding in the cause of disease.
Treatment
Treatments in the Middle Ages often followed the idea on the cause e.g. religion or the Four Humours.
Religious Four Humours
It was important to go through spiritual healing for illness. Continued use of ancient ideas by physicians using Four Humours.
Religious healing included:
Blood letting – The most common way to remove
• Healing prayers and incantations bad humours/blood. It included:
• Paying for mass to be said
• Cupping ‐ putting warmed cups onto open
• Fasting (going without food)
cuts to draw out blood into the cup.
Pilgrimages to tombs • Leeching – using leeches to suck out bad blood.
were popular and the Purging – swallowing a mixture of herbs and
sick would touch holy animal fat to make you sick, or taking
relics or pray at a shrine laxatives to empty your bowls and ‘cleanse’.
to cure their illness.
Bathing ‐ warm baths prescribed with herbs
Herbal Remedies to draw out the humours.
Herbal remedies to drink/sniff/bathe in
were given by wise women or apothecaries. Supernatural
Many remedies worked: honey was put on wounds to Specific treatment for illness, such as a magpies
fight infection whilst aloe vera for digestion. beak around your neck for toothache.
Barber surgeons ‘trepanned’ skulls to release
Most remedies used herbs, minerals and animal parts – demons making them ill but dangerous!
stye in the eye used onion, garlic, bulls bladder and wine.
Surgery in the Middle Ages
Surgery made some surprising progress in the Middle Ages.
Medieval surgeons could do In a time of frequent war,
some complex external surgery, surgeons' skills were much in
from removing eye cataracts or demand and as a result their skills
trepanning – the drilling of a hole increased – Prince Henry V was
into the skull to remove demons. saved by his surgeon John
Bradmore.
They used wine as an
antiseptic, natural substances
(opium or hemlock) as Surgeons still had no idea that
anaesthetics and honey to dirt carried disease so surgeries
clean wounds. and equipment were often filthy,
causing infection.
Surgeons were not trained
and knew little about anatomy.
Also, they could not prevent
They would use a ‘Wound Man’ infections or stop heavy bleeding,
illustrations which gave advice on therefore most deaths came from
how to deal with different this.
wounds.
Progress?
There was little progress in
the Middle Ages (continuity)
as a majority of treatments
remained based on religious
or humoural factors.
You could argue that surgery did make some
progress due to the constant warfare and experience 4
of surgeons in the Middle Ages.
Care during the Middle Ages
Treatment from illness depended on two things in the Middle Ages, who you were and how rich, and also
how ill you were. Those who cared for the sick and hospitals provided a range of care.
Who treated the sick?
Wise Women Apothecaries
• A local woman with medical • Like a pharmacist or chemist.
experience. Could be the ‘Lady of the
• Trained but had no medical
Manor’.
qualifications, highly experienced.
• They would use herbal remedies and
• Mixed various ingredients to produce
some charms/spells to help cure local
medicines for physicians.
villagers. They were cheap.
• Understood herbal remedies and
• Often helped with childbirth and they
healing power of plants/herbs.
could train to be a midwife with a
bishop‘s permission. • Cheaper than a physician.
• Not allowed to be physicians.
Physicians Barber Surgeon
• Medically trained at university for • Untrained but experienced surgeon
7 years using Hippocrates and Galen, but (quality of surgery better than
without dissection so little anatomical knowledge).
knowledge.
• Used a wound man diagram for advice.
• Only 100 male physicians in England.
• Could pull out teeth, let blood, lance
• They would diagnose illness and suggest boils and remove tumours.
treatment by surgeons or apothecaries. • Performed basic surgery such as
• Took clinical observation – took pulse and amputating limbs or removing
examined whole body. arrowheads.
• Used Four Humours, urine charts & • Used no anaesthetic or antiseptic– very
astrology to diagnose. Also carried a low success rate for surgery.
Vademecum (book of diagnoses). • Cheapest surgery available.
• Very expensive, only rich could afford.
Medieval Hospitals
The first hospital in England was created in 1123: St. Bartholomew's in London. At first hospitals were set up y the Church
and run by monks who cared for older people. They provided food, warmth and prayers. Over time, smaller hospitals
were set up by wealthy merchants to care for the sick and by 1400 there were over five hundred in England.
Management Treatments
• Majority run by the Church • Focus on ‘care not cure’
• Emphasis on Gods • Patients given food and
healing power warmth to make them
comfortable
• Monks believed it was up
Patients to God to cure you, so they
• Did not allow those would offer prayer and you
with infectious diseases could go to Mass 7 times a
• Mostly for the old or day
the poor, or travellers
Progress?
Doctors, Nurses and Carers Conditions
• Most did not have doctors Despite growth of churches, there was little • Kept very clean by monks
but a priest with monks treatment with the focus on care and God’s healing. • Had gardens, herb
and nuns who ran the A majority of people were cared for at home by and vegetable patches
hospital women and herbal remedies.
5
The Black Death, 1348 – 49
The Plague first broke out in China then spread to India, across Europe until it reached
Dorset in England in 1348. By 1349 it had spread around the rest of Britain, killing 40% of
the population. A higher number in towns and ports. At one point 200 people a
day were being buried in London. At the time is was called ‘the pestilence’ but historians
have called it the bubonic plague. Survivors and those
at the time felt it was the end of the world: ‘I waited
amongst the dead for death to come’ said Irish monk
Brother John Clynn.
Symptoms
Those unfortunate to catch the disease developed painful swellings under their
armpits/groin called buboes. Blisters appeared all over, followed by a high fever, severe
headaches, vomiting, fits, unconsciousness and then death.
Treatment of the disease
Ideas on the cause Followed methods common at the time:
Most ideas about the causes of the Rubbing onions, herbs or a chopped Drinking vinegar, eating crushed
’pestilence’ fitted existing ideas: up snake on the boils or rubbing a minerals, arsenic, mercury or
chickens bottom on the buboes. even ten‐year‐old treacle!
• The majority of people believed it was
caused by God as punishment for their
sins.
• It was blamed on he movements of
the planets (Mars, Saturn and Jupiter).
• Many people believed that Bad Air
(Miasma) caused by the poisonous
fumes released by a volcano were to
blame.
• Jews, a religious scapegoat, were Physicians would pop Sitting close to a fire or in a Praying to God in
blamed for spreading the disease by the buboes to release sewer to drive out the fever, the hope he
poisoning the wells. the pressure or try or fumigating the house with would cure illness.
No‐one had an idea that it was possibly bleeding or leeching. herbs to get out the bad air.
spread when fleas bit infected rats and
Prevention & Public Health
then passed the disease onto other rats
and humans. The government introduced ‘quarantine’ to stop
people moving around so much, whilst victims
Trade amongst ships brought the rats were stopped from leaving their houses. The
and fleas to England. hospitals would not accept sufferers either.
Living Conditions in 1340s However, King Edward ordered the cleaning of
the streets to stop! Believing the odour would
Large cities were perfect for the spread of the Black Death as
drive away the miasma.
people lived so close to each other – 60% of Londoners died!
Usual advice was to carry a posy of flowers
Cities helped spread the disease and increase the number of
or herbs around their neck or bathe to avoid
rats/fleas because:
the corrupted air.
• Animals – Horse waste was everywhere and the butchering
One of the most common methods was
of meat led to waste and blood on the streets.
escaping the plague and avoiding people.
• Medieval towns had no drainage, sewers or rubbish
Seeking gods forgiveness was the most
collections. In such conditions, rats lived and germs grew.
common way people attempted to prevent the
• The disposal of bodies was very basic and helped to spread Plague:
the disease still further.
• ‘Flagellants', whipped themselves for forgiveness
• Daily church services, prayers and
pilgrimages were common to ask God to stop.
6
What factors affected medical progress in medieval Britain?
There is little doubt that there was limited progress in medicine during medieval Britain.
There are a number of factors that hindered (limited) progress such as the church, the government and the
ideas of Hippocrates and Galen. During this period, there was virtually nothing that pushed medicine to
improve.
Factors limiting progress
The Church Hippocrates and Galen
The Catholic Church was extremely The ideas of Galen and Hippocrates (the Four
rich and powerful in the Middle Humours) were well respected as they were
Ages. It dominated the lives of all over 1000 years old and logical.
people who feared God.
The bible said that God sent Galen had written over 300 medical books.
diseases as punishment for sins and They were detailed and illustrated, so doctors
it was only he who could cure it believed everything to be correct.
(e.g. the Black Death).
To medieval doctors, the Four Humours
Therefore, there was no need to theory worked and you could see evidence.
look for other causes or treatments.
When someone was sneezing, they had too
The church said that anyone who dared much Phlegm. The sneezing was the body
challenge the church they would go to hell. rebalancing its humours – this made sense
Therefore, people dared not challenge them. to them, so they continued to follow it.
English scientist Roger Bacon was even jailed
All medieval training (from the
for challenging the church’s views on medicine.
church) focused on the work of
Lastly, the church controlled all education and Hippocrates and Galen.
libraries, so all ideas were from the church and no new
ones could spread. Linked They were taught that all they
The church trained all the physicians, who they taught the wrote was correct and not to
ideas of Galen and Hippocrates. If you challenged them, challenge it, instead to prove how
you were challenging God. Dissection was also banned, so Galen was right. This meant these
no inspecting anatomy could happen to challenge Galen. ideas were NEVER challenged.
A respect for tradition The King and Government
A majority of people had respect for the past, they wanted to The majority of tasks for the King of England
keep everything as it was. Plus, without any access to new were to defend the country and keep it
books or ideas, there was little opportunity for new ideas. peaceful: he was not interested in public
health.
Physicians were not encouraged
to challenge the past The government did not take any taxes to
(Hippocrates/Galen). The focus improve people’s health or medicine, so no
was on supporting old theories. money was spent to improve medicine.
As medicine was always done Only during the Black Death did the
this way, then why change it? government aim to tackle public health.
7
How much ‘change’ was there in the Middle Ages?
‘There was no progress in medicine during the Medieval Period (1250‐1500)’ How far do you agree? Explain your
answer. [16 marks]
You may use the following in your answer:
• Medieval Surgery
• The Four Humours
You must also use information of your own
The prevention of disease
Progress No progress
Public Health – Efforts were made in some cities Public Health – Medieval towns were still
to improve public health for example; in 1370 filthy places. This is why the Black Death
there were 12 rakers in London clearing the spread so quickly as there were rats. Also, the
streets of waste; in Hull aqueducts were built to government did little to help improve public
bring in clean water and in 1352 Edward III health, only when the Black Death was
passed a law banning littering in the streets. happening.
Prevention – Regimin Sanitatis was a medieval
common sense approach for the rich keeping People believed hanging sweet smelling herbs
healthy, through exercise and a balanced diet. or wearing amulets/charms would prevent
diseases like the Black Death – they didn’t!
Concluding Remarks
Life expectancy remained at 35 years
old. This is clear proof that medicine
had not progressed in the medieval
period.
Although the rich could access ‘better’ medical treatment
and care, it did little to improve their life expectancy.
8
Renaissance: Ideas of Cause of Disease
Renaissance means ‘rebirth’ and during this period, there was a rebirth of old ideas from Ancient Greece
and Rome, whilst people began to question, challenge and test traditions. Despite this, many things stayed
the same and there was large amounts of continuity, especially in the form of ideas on the cause of disease.
Change and Continuity
Change Continuity
The Four Humours The Four Humours
Scientists such as Sydenham and Paracelsus Despite scientists challenging the theory of the
rejected the theories of Galen and Hippocrates, Four Humours, most physicians and people
e.g. Four Humours, saying it could not explain still thought the Four Humours caused
epidemics like the Great Plague. disease. For example King Charles II was
However.. diagnosed using them in 1685.
Supernatural Astrology
Fewer people believed in supernatural causes of disease. Jupiter and Saturn aligning in 1664 was used
Religion to blame for the Great Plague by many
With the declining power of the common people.
church in the Reformation, less Religion
people believed God caused disease However, again during the Great Plague people blamed God!
and less believed in the Four
Humours Miasma
The idea that bad smells and evil fumes
New Scientific Thinking caused disease still continued. During
Scientific thinking spreads. Frascatoro the Great Plague it was believed the
theorised (1546) that seeds in air may main cause of disease.
spread disease. Whilst Thomas Sydenham
promoted ’direct observation’ of patients Medical Thinking
for diagnosis rather than using books Despite huge improvements in anatomical
Also discoveries into the digestive system knowledge, many physicians and healers
meant that physicians and scientists no still diagnosed using old ideas as they were
longer believed urine charts. respected.
Was there any progress?
The key issue was that despite better understanding of the body and
scientific findings, no‐one still could find the cause
of disease and it remained slow for new ideas to
spread or traditions to decline.
9
Renaissance: Treatment and Prevention of Disease
Whilst knowledge of the body was improving and scientific thoughts began to challenge traditional ones,
treatment and prevention of disease in the Renaissance showed significant continuity.
Treatment of Disease
Change Continuity
Chemical Cures Bleeding and purging
Alchemy, ‘medical chemistry’, was This technique remained
becoming a new treatment, popular to rid the the Four
inspired by Paracelcus. Also called Humours. Even King Charles
iatrochemistry Herbal Remedies II was bled and purged.
Herbal remedies
Rhubarb was used to purge the
remained very popular in
bowels during the Great Plague but it
the Renaissance.
weakened patients and did not work.
Remedies now used to match Religious
colour of illness, e.g. drinking red Many believed the King’s royal touch
The College of Physicians suggested over wine to cure smallpox. could cure as he was close to God. Over
122 chemicals to treat 2140 illness. 92,000 visited Charles II believing he
Antimony was used to purge illness by Exploration of the New World could cure the skin disease, scrofula.
encouraging sweating and sickness, brought new herbs/spices like
quinine which Sydenham used to Also many still
however they did not understand it was
cure Quinine which worked. prayed during
poisonous! Mercury, also poisonous, was
the Great
used for smallpox.
Books used to spread ideas on Plague.
Transference herbal remedies, such as Mary
A new idea that an illness Doggett's scurvy cure.
Supernatural
could be transferred from a
patient to something else if The New London Dispensary suggested
you rubbed an object on it magic to cure malaria: ‘cut off hair, feed
e.g. rubbing an onion on to birds in an egg and put inside
warts would transfer the a tree’. Whilst during the Great
wart to the onion. Plague, magical charms
continued to be used.
Prevention of Disease
Preventing disease was considered to be the best way to avoid dying and many medical ideas continued with slight changes.
The practice of staying clean and The idea of avoiding areas with disease and checking
healthy to avoid illness through the weather to do this using new instruments such as
Regimin Sanitatis continued. This
Change thermometers. However, bathing was less popular
included you and your home. due to spread of Syphilis in bath houses.
People still believed in More effort was now made to remove Miasma from
miasma and wearing sweet Change the air such as removing sewage, draining bogs and
smelling herbs. cleaning up rubbish from the streets.
Superstitious ideas and The idea of moderation spread, avoiding exhaustion,
prayer remained Change fatty foods, drinking too much or being too lazy.
popular. Superstition of your birth health rose: being a weak
child would explain later illness.
Progress?
Overall, there was partial progress in the
Renaissance for treatment and prevention
of disease.
Whilst some natural treatments and
common sense ideas were growing, there
was a large amount of continuity and we
were no closer to stopping or treating
disease effectively! 10
Renaissance: The Scientific Revolution
The Renaissance included the Scientific Revolution which started in the sixteenth century. It became an age of logic, reasoning
and experimentation which has a significant impact on medical thinking.
The Royal Society
The Royal Society was founded in 1660 at Gresham College in London.
It had its own labs and equipment and was set up as a place where
scientists could share their ideas, experiments and discoveries.
Aims:
‘Nullius in Verba’ • To carry out experiments to further the understanding of science.
The Royal Society's • To encourage debate, challenge old ideas and search for new theories and ideas.
motto. It means “Take Importantly, in 1662, Charles II gave the society a Royal Charter (he was very interested in science)
nobodies word for it”, which mean it had support from high places and was respected from the start. Oooh, I
which shows its aims love a bit
of science
1665 1665 me
Key Events Robert Hooke uses microscopes to
They published their
The Royal Society first scientific journal study and draw
played an important ‘Philosophical small animals and
part in publishing key Transactions’ plants in very clear
developments from detail
the Scientific
Revolution.
1665 1683
Richard Lower Anthonie Van Leeuwenhoek
completes the sees animalcules (bacteria)
first ever under a microscope for the
experimental first time, but doesn’t
blood transfusion understand them!
Why was the Royal
Society so important? 1. The Royal Society printed scientists books and journals like ‘Philosophical Transactions’, they
even translated foreign medical and scientific books, this helped spread new ideas.
2. Journals like ‘Philosophical Transactions’ contained clear ‘evidence’ of science and challenged
existing ideas
3. The best scientists of the time worked together to share research and ideas, encouraging enquiry
and experimentation.
The Importance of Thomas Sydenham
Thomas Sydenham, was called the English Hippocrates, and the father of English medicine.
In 1676 Sydenham released Observationes Medicae – a groundbreaking book which was used for over
200 years in training and treatment. It contained his key ideas:
• Doctors must rely on their own observation and practical experience rather than just reading
books. They should visit the sick take their pulse and make detailed notes on the patient’s health
and symptoms to ensure the correct diagnosis is made.
• He stated that the Four Humours was completely wrong and that God did not disease.
Biography Sydenham also argued that there were ‘species’ of disease that needed to be classified (e.g. measles and
Born: 1624 scarlet fever). When they are classified, it would make the correct treatment easier. However, Sydenham
Studied: Oxford still believed that disease was caused by 'atmospheres’ and did not know the real cause of disease.
Experience: Fought
in Civil War, Doctor Lastly,Sydenham is known for introducing quinine to treat malaria and iron to to treat anemia.
Did this scientific revolution really improve medicine?
These discoveries did However, it had long term effects which eventually helped improve
LITTLE to improve medicine and understanding of the human body.
medicine in the • Sydenham’s Observationes Medicae was used for medical
Renaissance as it led to training for 200 years, challenging traditional ideas.
no wide changes in what
• The Royal Society and printing press allowed the growth of ideas
caused disease, how it
that led to eventual medical change.
was prevented or even
• It simply opened the doors to challenge ideas with science!
11
treated.
Renaissance: Care & Hospitals
Some change had been made in hospital care since the Middle Ages. Rather than visiting
hospitals for shelter and prayer, they now went for treatment of wounds and sicknesses.
A patient in the 16th century could expect some form of ‘treatment’ in a hospital
1. A good diet of healthy foods
2. A visit from a physician who would observe and suggest treatment
3. Medication, provided from the hospital apothecary
However, the Dissolution of the Monasteries from 1536 dramatically changed the
availability of hospital in England.
Impact of the dissolution of the Monasteries
When Henry split from As most hospitals were As a result, smaller
the Catholic Church, he attached to the church, charity run hospitals
closed monasteries, very few were able to sprung up, with more of
convents and stay open, hundreds a focus on cure not care.
confiscated their lands vanished around the But, it still took until the
which had a negative country, only St. 1700s time for numbers
effect on hospital care. Bartholomew's survived! of hospitals to increase.
Change and Continuity in Hospital Care
Change Continuity
Specialist hospitals grew that focused
Most sick people continued to be cared for
on one disease such as the plague.
at home or in the local community as
These were known as physicians remained too expensive.
pest houses, pox houses
or plague houses. Women continued to play an
These were a big change from the Middle Ages, important role in the care of the
as previously the contagious were not admitted. sick, even rich women like Lady
Also they now focused on treating the sick! Grace of Mildway who kept notes of
her treatment.
Small spread of charity hospitals
after the Dissolution of the Overall, there was little
Monasteries wiped out many significant change in
of the church run hospitals. hospital care between
the periods.
Renaissance Healers
The same group of medical healers took care of the sick in the Middle Ages: apothecaries, surgeons and physicians with some
changes to their role.
12
Renaissance: The work of Andreas Vesalius
The most famous anatomist (those who studied the human body) of the Renaissance was Andreas
Vesalius. He had a strong interest in the human body and sharing his findings. His role in changing the
understanding of the human body and medical training was significant for hundreds of years.
Who was Vesalius?
• He studied medicine throughout Europe, including
Paris and taught surgery at the University of Padua.
• He was a graverobber, stealing dead bodies to dissect
to improve his anatomical knowledge. He was the
first to dissect a human brain, doing so in front of
audiences to demonstrate to his students.
• Vesalius openly challenged Galen’s ideas on human
anatomy. This had never been done in 1000s of years!
The work of Vesalius
‘Six Anatomical Tables’ ‘Fabric of the Human Body’
• In 1537 Vesalius published ‘Six Anatomical Tables’. • In 1543 Vesalius released his
• This book showed detailed, labelled drawings of the groundbreaking book ‘The
human body which Vesalius himself had worked on. Fabric of the Human Body’.
• It was written in 4 languages and became popular in the • It was based on his dissection
training and teaching of human anatomy. of humans.
Galen’s Mistakes
• Vesalius noted that Galen's
idea were mistaken as he
had used animal instead of
human for dissection.
• In total, Vesalius found 300
mistakes in Galen’s work.
• These included:
1. The human jaw
What factors aided Vesalius? was in one part not
Attitudes two (Galen used a pig!).
Decline of the church’s power allowed 2. Blood does not flow into the
Vesalius to Vesalius to acquire and heart through invisible holes.
dissect dead human bodies and challenge • The book contained many images of the body in stages of
Galen. This was during the ’Scientific dissection, to show as perfect a representation as possible.
Revolution’.
Technology and Art
The Printing Press allowed thousands of
copies of his books to the made, whilst
the new Renaissance artists meant
anatomical drawings were more realistic.
The importance of Vesalius
His books were printed, copied & His work on Vesalius had confronted the
widely spread. By 1560, his books veins was church and had proven that the
were used to train doctors at developed by world famous Galen wrong: this
Cambridge University in England. others, like encouraged others to do so!
Fabricus who
taught William
Vesalius was a trailblazer who Harvey. Harvey However, many were
encouraged other doctors to went onto still reluctant to
dissect human bodies themselves discover blood challenge Galen and
to improve their knowledge. As a circulation. support Vesalius.
result, in 1565 the first anatomical
Whilst the work of Vesalius
dissection happened in England.
actually did NOTHING to
Eventually doctors even began to
improve health, medicine and 13
correct his own mistakes.
treatment in the Renaissance.
Renaissance: The importance of William Harvey
English doctor and lecturer, William Harvey, made one of the most important medical breakthroughs
when he discovered the circulation of blood. Whilst it had little short term impact on Renaissance
medicine, it laid the foundations of the understanding of blood, surgery and physiology.
Who was William Harvey?
• Harvey was born in 1578 and went on to study
medicine at Cambridge, later training at Padua’s
medical school and then becoming lecturer of
anatomy at the Royal College of Physicians.
• By 1618 he was one of the Royal doctors for James I
and Charles I, meaning he had royal support for his
ideas (similar to the Royal Society).
• He, like Sydenham, suggested direct observation.
Harvey was interested in blood, having been taught at Padua about Vesalius’s theories and he waned to continue the progress.
and pneuma (the breath of
Progress
The impact of William Harvey
Harvey had a considerable impact on medicine, even if not immediately during the Renaissance:
Harvey added to the voice arguing for more Progress on blood was slow until 1901
dissection and experimentation, showing it with transfusions.
worked!
Harvery's ideas were slow to Understanding of
Harvey had proven Harvey had proven blood take on. Galen's ideas circulation did little to
Galen wrong on blood circulation. This was vital to continued in books until 1651. improve medical
anatomy, encouraging the later improvements in It took 50 years for Harvey's treatment. Doctors
further challenges. surgery and blood transfusions. work to appear in universities! disliked Harvey's ideas.
Exam Tip: You need to know the similarities and differences between The Black Death (1348 and
the Great Plague (1665) as it could be a 4 mark question, or examples to your 12/16 mark answers.
Ideas on the cause of the Plague
Most people believed the same things for the Great Plague 1665 as they did for the Black Death 1348.
Therefore there was a lot of similarity between the two epidemics.
A contemporary • Astrology: The alignment of Jupiter and Saturn,
view on the causes October 1664, and the sight of a comet suggested
of the Plague trouble was coming.
• God: Many believed it was another punishment from
God for man's wickedness and sin.
• Miasma: The most popular theory was that the plague
was caused by bad air (miasma). Many blamed the stinking
dunghills and warm weather for causing a vapour bringing the Plague.
• Four Humours: Despite being less popular, some still blamed an imbalance of the
humours for the Plague.
• Passing it on: A new (and correct) idea spread that the disease could be passed from
person to person. They did not know why but as a result victims were quarantined,
even whole villages like Eyam in Derbyshire!
Treatment of the Plague
Treatments for the Great Plague were also similar to those used against the
Unfortunately, many of the Black Death, with some new ideas from the Renaissance period.
physicians of London fled to
• Bleeding and purging: Continued advice to do this.
the countryside themselves
Physicians suggested sweating out the disease by
to avoid getting ill.
wearing woolly clothes by the fireside.
Quack Doctors (untrained • Herbal Remedies: Called ‘Great Medicines’ were
individuals who sold common. For example London Treacle contained
medical cures/advice) were wine, herbs, spices, honey and opium.
popular. • Transference: A new and popular idea, for
example strapping a live chicken to the
They wore waxed cloaks buboe to transfer the plague to the bird.
with bird shaped beak like • Prayer: Remained common but no flagellants this time.
masks (to attract the
As people did not understand the cause of the Great Plague and therefore
disease away) filled with
could not treat it effectively, the most common advice was: avoid catching
sweet smelling herbs to
it in the first place!
ward off the miasma.
Prevention of the Plague
The most significant change came in attempts to prevent the Plague. This time people and the government made much more
effort showing both similarity and difference in the prevention of the Black Death.
Government Actions Advice from Healers and Physicians
Charles II and the government made more effort this time The rich took advice from the College of Physicians and most
around, doing the following to help stop the spread: people followed suggestions from local healers, such as:
• Public meetings, fairs and large funerals were • Carrying a pomander (a ball of stuffed
banned whilst theatres were closed. perfumed items) to ward away the miasma.
• Barrels of tar or sweet smelling herbs were burnt on • Dieting and fasting, or eating a diet of garlic.
newly cleaned streets to drive away the miasma. • Prayer and repenting your sins.
• Over 40,000 dogs and 20,000 cats were slaughtered • Plague Water was sold by apothecaries which
as they were blamed for spreading the disease. included mint, rosemary, nutmeg and sugar.
• The mayor appointed searchers and wardens • Smoking tobacco (a product of the New World)
looking for those with the disease. Households was encouraged to ward off miasma.
with it were marked with a red cross and ‘Lord have
• Others were told if you catch syphilis (a similar
mercy upon us’ written on it. They were quarantined
for 28 days, and the dead were collected daily.
disease) it would prevent you catching the 15
plague, which it evidently did not.
How much ‘progress’ was there in the Renaissance?
‘There was little progress in medicine during the Renaissance Period (1500‐1750)’ How far do you agree? Explain your
answer. [16 marks]
You may use the following in your answer:
• William Harvey
• Transference
You must also use information of your own
However – the simple fact that many of the ordinary population still believed in God and followed the
Church meant that the ideas on cause, treatment and prevention were still influenced by religion. For
example, during the Great Plague people still thought it was a punishment by God.
Science and Technology
The Scientific Revolution of the Renaissance helped the development of the medicine as it was an age
where the Royal Society, Thomas Sydenham and William Harvey all made new discoveries and
challenged the 2000 year old ideas of Galen. The very motto of the Royal Society was ‘take nobody’s
word for it’, which shows their wish to improve medicine and science.
They were also aided by new technologies which allowed new discoveries, such as the microscope
which allowed Anthonie Van Leuwenhoeke to first see bacteria (despite not linking it to disease) or the
water pump which inspired William Harvey to theorise that blood circulated around the body.
Invention of the printing press in the late 1440s led to widespread production of books and as a result
increasing literacy. As printing became quicker and cheaper, scientists and medical books could now be
printed and slowly became the basis of medical training and therefore improved knowledge
The first scientific journal (Philosophical Transactions) was released by the Royal Society in 1665, whilst
books by individuals helped spread their discoveries. For example, Vesalius’ ‘Fabric of the Human Body’
helped improve anatomical knowledge and Syndeham's ‘Observations Medicae’ became a medical
training book for over 200 years.
However, we must not overestimate the impact of science and technology on medicine during the
Renaissance, as it did LITTLE to actually improve treatment, prevention or diagnosis at the time and
for the majority of people, these discoveries meant nothing and many could not even read the books!
The Government
The Royal Charter of Charles II was crucial to the Royal Society. This gained them support, money and
publicity which helped their work. Without him, the discoveries of Robert Hooke, Van Leuwenhoek
and other scientists may not have been recognised. Even Charles I supported William Harvey.
However, the closing of the monasteries by Henry VIII had a significant impact on hospital care as most
hospitals were attached to the church. It was only during the Great Plague when the government acted
to prevent the spread (quarantine, street cleaning and burning herbs) and improve public health.
Respect for Tradition
Despite the discoveries and scientific developments in medical knowledge, a continued respect for
tradition still caused medicine to lack progress – this is a major cause for a lack of change.
Physicians still respected the 2000 year old methods of Galen and traditional methods of treating
disease (purging, bleeding, balancing humours), and even King Charles II was treated this way.
Ordinary people still continued to use traditional medicines passed down over the years.
It took over 50 years for Harvey's ideas about blood circulation to be taught in university, many
doctors argued he was wrong as he was contradicting Galen.
Individuals
If it was not for individuals like Vesalius, Harvey and Syndenham seeking improvement, the Four
Humours would not have been challenged, anatomical knowledge would have remained basic and the
discovery of blood circulation would not have been made.
If Vesalius had not proven Galen wrong about anatomy, then Harvey would not have been
encouraged to do the same regarding blood circulation. Sydenham, ‘The English Hippocrates’, pushed
medical progress through developing the idea of ‘direct observation’ of patients and arguing the Four 17
Humours were wrong – again arguing Galen's ideas were wrong.
Ideas on the cause of disease
Until 1700, there had been significant continuity in the ideas on the cause of disease. People believed that disease was caused by
either God, miasma or the Four Humours. However, during the Industrial Revolution many old ideas were abandoned due to the
continued decline in power of the church and continued scientific breakthroughs.
Ideas that stopped
The Four Humours Supernatural and With the decline in the
theory was no superstitious ideas, church, people no
longer believed as a such as astrology, longer believed God was
cause of disease. were no longer used in the cause of illness.
diagnosis.
Ideas that continued
Miasma theory remained popular amongst
the population, even Florence Nightingale
and Edward Chadwick supported it.
Miasma
Cities in Industrial Britain were filthy, with
poor sanitation. People could see and smell
it, so they thought it caused disease. The Great Stink of 1858 highlighted miasma theory.
New Ideas (Change)
Spontaneous Generation The Gem Theory
In the 1700s a new theory called Spontaneous In 1861, Pasteur was able to prove Spontaneous
Generation grew, as new microscopes allowed Generation was wrong. He showed that
scientists to see bacteria on decaying items e.g. fruit. bacteria/germs in the air CAUSED decay.
This was developed by Koch, who proved that
Scientists then thought these germs bacteria/germs caused disease e.g. TB and Cholera.
were spontaneously (automatically) The Germ Theory became basis for identifying bacterial
generated (created) by the decay disease, even now, and had a significant impact.
and then spread the disease further.
However, at the time most doctors and the
This idea was ONLY believed by scientists although it government did not accept this theory immediately. It
was wrong, and proved so by the Germ theory. took until 1900 for it to be widely believed.
18
The Germ Theory
Scientists in the early 18th century
no longer believed in the Four Humours or Miasma but
with new powerful microscopes they could now see microbes (tiny organisms like bacteria)
and they began to think of new ideas such as Spontaneous Generation.
Simply the idea that microbes were the product of
Spontaneous decay (e.g. rotting food/waste) and they caused disease.
Generation They did not think that it was actually microbes in the air that
caused decay – it was wrong but still progress!
19
How did surgery change in the Industrial Revolution?
Surgery in the 18th Century
At the start of the 18th century, surgery was dangerous due to three main problems; bleeding, pain and infection.
There was no anaesthetic There were no effecting Despite some talented
to stop pain, although some ways to stop bleeding out surgeons, most surgery was
surgeons did use opium. on the surgery table. completed in dirty conditions,
with the tools and clothing
Pain caused death by This problem continued never being cleaned. This
shock, or by bleeding out throughout the period. spread infection and death.
after quick surgery.
As a result of this, surgery was basic and the most common type was amputation as other types were too risky.
Surgery in the 19th Century
Surgery made some considerable progress during the Industrial Revolution, largely due to the invention of antiseptics and
anaesthetics. Despite this, there was plenty of progress left to make
Anaesthetics In 1847 James Simpson Simpson promoted it and However. chloroform
During the 1800s discovered even Queen Victoria gave it had some serious risks
attempts had been Chloroform. It could her blessing after the birth of ‐ it was not perfect.
made to find a make patients her son in 1853.
suitable anaesthetic. unconscious in surgery. • Overdoses could kill e.g. Hannah
He was even Greener.
knighted for • It led to more complex surgeries
his work. but these often carried infection
further into the body.
Chloroform now allowed • The problems of bloodloss
doctors to perform deeper continued, especially during
Ether was used from and more complex surgery complex surgery.
1846, but it was risky (e.g. first heart surgery 1896)
and highly flammable. and solved the issues of pain. • Many refused to use chloroform.
How much progress was there in surgery?
The major problems of pain and infection had been ‘solved’
and, as a result surgery, became more complex surgery. It Aseptic Surgery
was still not perfect: there was plenty still to go in the Aseptic surgery is where bacteria was prevented from getting
twentieth century. into the wound in the first place through having clean
equipment and operating theatres.
The focus on aseptic surgery led to changes:
• From 1887 all instruments were steam‐cleaned
and sterilised
• Surgeons wore rubber gloves, surgical
However, the problem of blood loss had still not been fixed gowns and masks.
and patients still continued to die during/after surgery. 20
Prevention: Edward Jenner and Vaccinations
Edward Jenner was the first to make a discovery that successfully prevented people from catching the deadly disease, smallpox.
He created the first vaccine, a method to prevent disease. It was the first breakthrough of the Industrial age that started huge
improvements in the prevention of disease Edward Jenner
Smallpox • Edward Jenner was born in 1749.
In the 18th century
smallpox killed more • He trained in London as a surgeon and apothecary
children than any other before working at St George’s hospital.
disease. Thousands of • He then returned to his birthplace in Gloucestershire
adults died too and to work as a GP.
survivors were often left • It was here where he made his discovery that
with terrible scars. milkmaids who caught cowpox never caught
Epidemics were common smallpox. He decided to test and experiment the
during the 18th century. idea, even though he did not fully understand it.
Opposition to Jenner/Vaccinations
Many people opposed Jenner’s work because:
In the 1790s, Jenner
used scientific methods • They thought it was wrong to give people an animal’s
to test his theory. disease and it interfered with God’s plan for humans.
He infected local people • Doctors who inoculated lost money when the
with cowpox and then government offered vaccination free.
tried to infect them with • The government and scientists could see no scientific
smallpox. None of them proof and therefore were reluctant.
caught smallpox. Impact of Jenner and Vaccines
Short Term:
In 1798, he wrote up his findings but he did now know how •The smallpox vaccine saved many lives. Over 100,000
to explain it (this was before the Germ Theory!). people around world were vaccinated by 1800, even
Unfortunately, the Royal Society refused to publish it, so he Napoleon's army!
paid to print it himself and his ideas began to spread. •Slow uptake of vaccinations at first due to opposition,
incorrect use of vaccines and lack of government support.
Long Term
In 1802, the Royal Jennerian Society was set up
•Jenner had shown vaccines worked, he inspired Pasteur and
to promote vaccinations and by 1804 it had
Koch to search for more vaccines but the method could not
vaccinated 12,000 people. But it took time to
be used for other diseasea, so no new vaccines until 1900s.
become popular in Britain due to opposition.
•Led to eventual government enforcement of vaccinations
and smallpox was wiped out by the 1970s!
By 1979, the World Health organisation announced 21
that smallpox had been wiped out.
Prevention: Public Health
Living Conditions in the Industrial Revolution In 1842, Government official Edwin Chadwick completed a
During the Industrial Revolution, Britain's population report on the living conditions in British cities.
boomed to 20m by 1850.
‘Report on the Sanitary Conditions of the
The greatest change was the growth Labouring People'
of towns, where 85% of people now lived • Life expectancy in cities was lower than in the
which caused overcrowding and poor countryside at 38 years! In Liverpool it is 15 years.
sanitation with no running water, shared
• Unhealthy living conditions in cities through
toilets and few sewage systems.
overcrowding, no sewage disposal and poor diet
were causing poor health amongst the poor.
• The rotting sewage and filth was causing bad
air (miasma), which was making people ill.
• He recommended the government force local
councils to do something about public health
One result of these living conditions by building new sewer systems, remove
was the frequent outbreaks of waste & supply water
epidemics like cholera, notably in
Was Edwin Chadwick important?
1854.
In the early 1800s, the government followed a ‘Laissez Faire’
1848 Public Health Act (hands off) approach to public health, which meant it did not
1. National Board of Health set up feel it was its role to improve living conditions or public health:
it did not want to interfere
2. The government could force some town
councils to improve water/sewerage However, when Chadwick’s report was published it helped create
awareness of the need for the government to do something.
3. Local councils were told to collect taxes
to pay for public health improvements
As a result they passed the first Public Health Act in 1848.
4. Councils were allowed to appoint medical The aim was to improve sanitary conditions within towns in England and
officers Wales. However, as it was not compulsory and this was pre‐germ theory,
many local councils did nothing and public health did not improve.
A turning point in public health
From the 1850s the The 1854 and 1866/7 cholera Pasteur's Germ Theory in 1861 proved
government's policy outbreaks killed thousands with the that bacteria/germs caused disease.
towards public heath government hopeless to prevent it This ended the idea that Miasma
took a drastic turn due to a until John Snow identified (but could caused disease. Scientific proof made
number of events and not prove) the link between water and people want public health reform.
factors. cholera
. Changes in Public health
The government’s attitude to public health changed The government took its biggest ever steps to improve public health
over time and after several epidemics of diseases such and improve the prevention of disease in the Public Health Act of
as cholera they began to realise that they must take 1875. As a result Cholera did not outbreak again in London.
further responsibility for public health.
Furthermore, when working class men got the vote 1875 Public Health Act
from 1867, politicians now had to appeal to voters City authorities must provide:
who wanted better living conditions. 1. Clean water to stop diseases spreading from dirty water
From the 1860s onwards the government began to 2. Sewers to dispose of waste properly
take more action to improve living conditions in cities: 3. Public toilets
• 1,300 miles of sewers were built in London after 4. Street lighting
the Great Stink of 1858. 5. Public parks for exercise
• Slums were demolished in Birmingham. As well as
• In Leeds, dumping sewage into the river was 1. Public Health officers to inspect; lodging houses, the building of
banned. new homes and check the quality of food sold
22
Care during the Industrial period
Hospitals in the 18th century
In 1700, there were only 5 hospitals in Britain but during Industrial Period (18th to 19th Centuries) new hospitals began to appear.
Whilst there was a move towards treatment in hospitals, by the 1800s the increasing population put pressure on a system that
was unprepared and remained unhygienic as they still did not understand germs cause disease, which often led to more deaths!
Early industrial hospitals had a variety of problems
and dangers as shown in this diagram.
• High death rates from infection
• Few toilets and sewage systems
• Untrained nurses
• Unclean equipment, wards and operating
theatres
• Doctors/nurses did not wash their hands
As a result, hospitals in the early part of the Industrial
Period (18thc) experienced a large amount of
continuity.
The Significance of Florence Nightingale
Florence Nightingale was a nurse who As a result of her efforts in the Crimea, she was able to have a
worked at King's College Hospital, London. big impact on two areas of medicine:
In 1854, during the Crimean War, she 1. The design of hospitals
persuaded the government to send her 2. The training of nurses
and 38 nurses to help in the hospitals. The design of hospitals The training of nurses
When she arrived, she was appalled at She said hospitals needed : In 1859, she wrote Notes
the dirty hospitals and high death rates • Sanitation: clean water, on Nursing and in 1863
amongst injured soldiers. sewage systems and toilets Notes on Hospitals. Both
books provided the basis
She focused on cleaning the hospitals, improving hygiene • Ventilation: fresh clean air
and importance for training
(scrubbing dirt away from patients) and eating good food. as she believed in miasma
nurses.
• Supplies: food & clothing
She promoted pavilion plan She also established the
hospitals with large rooms, Nightingale School for
more windows, tiled floors Nurses in 1860, to train
for easy cleaning and nurses. As a result, nursing
As a result, the death rate dropped from 40% to 2% over 6 isolation wards for infectious
months at the Scutari Hospital. She was called a national became a more respectable
patients. The Birmingham profession.
hero and this allowed her to encourage changes at home. hospital was built like this.
Changes to hospitals
By 1900, hospitals looked very different to the start of the Industrial Period (1700) with a key focus on treatment of the sick in
clean and sanitised hospitals, which now used aseptic surgery after the discovery of bacteria in the Germ Theory. Patients could
also receive greatly improved surgery by trained doctors which ended pain and infection due to anaesthetics and antiseptics.
There were also 18 voluntary hospitals in • Hospitals remained expensive &
London with 4,000 beds where local doctors small for the working classes to
worked for free. Working people used these afford, so many were still treated at
only if they paid into a fund each week, like home.
medical insurance. Pharmacies and new medicines
Apothecaries were now known as pharmacies and the
From 1867, Infirmaries were built in
famous Boots pharmacy opened in 1849, selling cures.
workhouses where the poor old, sick, blind,
The first ‘pill machine’ was invented in 1844.
deaf or disabled lived. Local taxes paid for
New ‘alternative’ cures began to include electrical shocks,
these to have treatment, the first time ever.
injection with animal hormones, and a range of harmful
substances including cocaine, mercury, and creosote.
Specialist hospitals like asylums for the
There remained continuity as ‘quack’ remedies remained
mentally ill and fever houses for those with 23
popular, for example ‘Lily the Pink's medicinal compound’
infectious diseases were built.
Case Study: Cholera
Background
Cholera was a feared disease in Cholera was nicknamed the “blue Most people that caught
Industrial Britain. death” as it turned the skin of its cholera died at this time as
victims blue with dehydration. there was no known cure to
The first outbreak occurred in treat the disease.
1831, with further outbreaks in
1849 and 1854. Cholera mainly affected the
poorest people as the
During the 1854 epidemic, disease was most present in
over 20,000 Londoners the overcrowded slum areas,
died. It was usually fatal. workhouses and prisons of
towns and cities.
Ideas on the cause
With no known cure or accurate knowledge on the causes of cholera, people believed it was caused by miasma or spontaneous
generation which were the widely accepted theories at that time. This was BEFORE the Germ Theory (1861).
Examples of prevention of cholera:
• To combat the impact of miasma, people tried to keep
their homes clean and tar was burnt on the streets.
• Some towns and cities attempted to clean the streets of
rubbish and employed people to maintain this. However
this wasn’t the case in all areas.
• The Public Health Act of 1848 expected councils to be
responsible for providing clean water. This was not a legal
requirement however so many councils chose to ignore
this! So it failed to help.
Prevention (Public Health) Prevention (Public Health)
The Public Health Act of 1875, combined with the work of Public Health wasn’t a priority until later in this period (1860s
John Snow in preventing cholera, improved the prevention of onwards) and acts like the 1848 Public Health Act did little to
disease. Changes included clean water, creating new sewers, improve public health as it was not enforced.
building regulations and the monitoring of diseases. Public Many people, such as Snow, faced opposition for their
Health was now the government’s responsibility. ideas until Germ Theory linked disease to poor living
conditions.
Treatment Treatment
Surgical improvements in the industrial period were rapid, Surgery was still dangerous ‐ anaesthetics like chloroform
ending the problems of pain and infection for the first time. caused deaths as doses were not fully understood, causing the
• Antiseptics such as carbolic acid (1866) discovered by surgery black period and the stopping of chloroform.
Joseph Lister dramatically reduced infections, reduced Many opposed the use of carbolic acid as it caused a burning
surgical deaths and led to aseptic surgery (removing sensation to doctors. Some thought it opposed God whilst
bacteria from operating theatre/hospitals). others mistrusted the Germ Theory so refused to use it.
• Anaesthetics like ether, chloroform, laughing gas and The third problem of surgery was still not solved: blood loss.
cocaine meant that more complex surgery was possible With increasingly complex surgery, patients could still die due
(first heart surgery 1896). to the loss of blood.
Care and Hospitals Care and Hospitals
Hospital care was drastically improved by Florence Many of the poorest could not afford hospital care, whilst the
Nightingale with greater emphasis on cleanliness, training for poorest and disabled were forced into workhouses to ‘pay’ for
nurses and the use of wards to treat specific diseases. As a their treatment.
result, hospitals were designed to improve cleanliness & care. A good majority of people, especially the rich, continued to be
Specialist hospitals were set up for infectious diseases treated at home.
and asylums for the mentally ill, whilst the first
hospitals (infirmaries) for the poor were opened.
25
What factors helped and limited change in the Industrial Period?
Science and Technology
New inventions, such as improved microscopes and the use
of agar jelly to grow microbes directly led to the creation of
Germ Theory as Pasteur/Koch could see the bacteria.
The development of syringes allowed improved vaccination.
Meanwhile, surgical improvements including antiseptics,
Government Attitudes
aseptic surgery and anesthetics led to reduced death rates
and more complex procedures. The changing attitude of the government was crucial
Improvements in engineering and construction allowed the to medical progress in the Industrial period,
building of sewer systems e.g. the 1100 miles built in London. particularly in public health and the prevention of
disease. The government were now directly
However, the experimental nature of the new technologies responsible for the health of the public.
like chloroform caused deaths, leading to the surgery ‘black
period’ and risky surgery inside the body. The introduction of the Public Health Acts of 1848
and later 1875 improved the prevention of disease
Work of Individuals drastically. Councils were expected to provide clean
Many individuals affected great change in medical water, build sewers and provide public toilets. They
care, treatment and prevention. They pushed the were also expected to maintain building regulations
breakthroughs of the period. and monitor diseases. As a result, cholera epidemics
Florence Nightingale’s work revolutionized hospital ended.
care and the profession of nursing, whilst Koch, Snow The government even gave £30,000 to Jenner to
and Pasteur radically changed ideas on causes of develop his work on vaccinations, later paying for all
disease for good even in the face of opposition! vaccinations in 1840 and making them compulsory
The tenacious (persisting) attitudes of Jenner, Pasteur from 1852.
and Simpson led them to make discoveries sometimes But, we must remember that the government was
by chance. slow to acknowledge changes should be made,
However, these individuals often faced huge resistance especially to public health until the Germ Theory.
from others in society, such as religious conservatives
who believed they were working against God’s will.
26
Causes of illness – Genetics & DNA (1900‐present day)
The discovery It actually took a series of discoveries to ‘find’ DNA, beginning with the late 1800s
of DNA when scientists knew DNA existed and that it controlled what we are like.
The vast improvements in science and technology of the 1900s allowed scientists
to first photo human cells and then work out that every cell in the human body
contains DNA, codes that control the genes of people.
In 1953, two scientists, Francis Crick and James
Watson, discovered the structure of DNA. They also
proved DNA was in every human cell and was passed
down from parents to children through their genes.
They then worked with Rosalind Franklin, who
developed a technique to photograph DNA. She was
also the first person to x‐ray photo DNA.
The Human Genome Project
In 1986, The Human Genome Scientists could use the
Project began to identify the blueprint of human DNA to look
purpose of each gene in the for mistakes or mismatches in
human body – completing a the DNA of people suffering
complete map in 2001. from hereditary diseases.
Scientists have now been able to
Mapping DNA was vital to identify a gene that is
helping scientists understand sometimes present in women
the causes of genetic diseases. who suffer from breast cancer.
DNA and causes of disease • Doctors can now identify specific genetic
The impact after the Germ Theory disorders such as Down’s Syndrome, Parkinson's
was significant. The Germ Theory disease, Diabetes, Cystic fibrosis and Alzheimer's
only helped doctors/scientists disease.
identify bacterial causes of disease.
Doctors could now identify genetic
causes of disease that have been
Impact
inherited from the sufferer’s genes.
It would also let them work out how
to help sufferers and also prevent • Doctors can also predict that some people have
these diseases. a higher risk of developing some cancers.
Importance of the DNA discovery
Future Medicine Treatment Prevention
DNA’s discovery and it’s impact Gene Therapy can help Doctors can now screen for
on medicine is still ongoing. We sufferers of diseases like sickle genetic diseases or those with
don’t know where it will take us cell anaemia. HOWEVER, there hereditary traits such as breast
in 5 years – it may be the most is still not a cure or effective cancer. Simply, parents can be
important breakthrough of all treatment for genetic offered an abortion for
time. conditions such as Downs embryos which highlight early
Syndrome. signs of Downs Syndrome. 27
Causes of illness – diagnosis & lifestyle (1900‐present day)
Science and technology have vastly improved the opportunities to diagnose (find the cause) a disease. The
benefits of this improved diagnosis has been that doctors can now treat patients better using more specific
treatment for their disease whilst other instruments can now be used at home by patients to monitor
illness.
Blood Tests Blood Sugar Monitoring CT Scans
From the 1930s, doctors Allows those with diabetes Advanced x‐rays which can be
have used blood tests to to check their blood used to diagnose
test for a huge range sugar levels to keep tumours and other
of conditions such on top of their growths such
as anaemia. condition. as cancer.
X‐Rays Endoscopes
From the 1890s, these helped Small, thin flexible cameras are used to see
see inside the human body inside the human body. They are used to look
without cutting into it. They at digestive system problems. They can also
help diagnose broken bones. take a biopsy (sample) of human tissue to test.
Lifestyle & causes of disease
During the 20th century
we also have a much
better understanding of
how lifestyle choices
affect our body and how
they link to disease .
These lifestyle factors all play a significant role in
the health and potential illnesses of a person.
Smoking
Doctors have linked smoking to a Diet
variety of conditions, most Drinking alcohol
commonly lung cancer. Diet has a huge impact on
health (something they did Alcoholism or binge drinking can
They also now recognise smoking is know in the Middle Ages!). lead to liver disease and kidney
associated with high blood problems.
pressure, heart disease, Sugar and fat are the biggest
throat/mouth cancer and gum concerns, as too much sugar
Tanning
disease or tooth decay. can cause Type 2 diabetes (an
incurable condition) whilst too The fashion for tanning on beds or
Even second hand smoke increases much fat can lead to heart in the sun has been linked to an
asthma cases amongst children. disease. increase in cases of skin cancer. 28
Preventing illness in Modern Period (1900‐present day)
The government has now taken significant action to improve the public’s health since 1900.
There are two reasons for this:
1. Increased understanding of Now we know what causes disease, the government recognizes
causes of disease that its intervention can have an impact on public health.
2. Increased understanding of Now causes are understood, methods of prevention can now be
methods of prevention tested and introduced to improve public health.
Once the causes of disease and health problems were understood, the government were able to introduce
new methods of prevention:
• Compulsory vaccinations – Vaccination campaigns launched for measles, polio and diphtheria.
• Screening for genetic diseases – Downs Syndrome during pregnancy or testing genes for breast cancer.
• Communicating health risks – During times of global epidemics (Ebola 2014‐15), government tracked
travelers and put quarantine measures in place. Communicating risks is now key in preventing disease.
• Charities – British Heart Foundation creates adverts encouraging people to protect their heart by giving
up smoking, eating less fat and exercising.
Vaccination Campaigns
The first national vaccination
campaign against diphtheria was
launched in 1942. Over 3000 children Government Legislation (Passing Laws)
died a year from diphtheria, so in The government began to pass laws to provide a
WW2 the government finally took healthy environment for the population.
total control. Children were
immunized and diphtheria died out. Clean Air Act of 1956 and 1968
Other significant vaccination campaigns included This was passed due to bad smog
those against contagious disease, polio. The first (heavy fog pollution) in London
vaccine was introduced by 1956 and there has not caused by burning coal.
been a case of polio since 1984! The law aimed to reduce air pollution.
Other recent government acts have
Key vaccinations have been introduced ever since included:
• Smoking ban inside all public
buildings 1 July 2007.
• Limiting car emissions (taxing cars
that cause more pollution).
New methods: Government lifestyle campaigns
The government now aims to help people prevent diseases
like cancer, heart disease and HIV/AIDs themselves by
promoting healthier lifestyles. This has included:
• Advertising campaigns which warned against the dangers of
smoking, binge drinking, drug use and unprotected sex.
• ’Stoptober’ to encourage people to not smoke for a month.
• ‘Sugar Smart’ and ‘5 a day’ to encourage families to eat
well and move more.
Everyone over the age of 40 is given the opportunity to have a health
check every 5 years focussing on blood pressure, weight and 29
cholesterol levels and it also includes lifestyle advice.
Treatment in the Modern Age (1900‐present day)
Continuity Even in the early 1900s, at home people still
from the relied on herbal remedies, treatments passed
1750‐1900s down through families and medical books made
for home use. But, huge change to treatment was coming.
Companies such as Beecham’s sold medicines.
Medicine and Drug Treatment
’Cure all’ medicines were now New custom drugs can now target
replaced by new medicines such as specific health problems due to
Aspirin which was now used as a genetic conditions such as
painkiller and remedy for fevers. Huntington's disease.
New antibiotics such as magic
bullets and penicillin were also
developed to treat infections
and disease.
Changes in Surgical Treatments Modern Treatments
In the 1900s, the three major problems of Treatment has developed significantly since 1900.
surgery – pain, infection and bloodloss ‐ had now X‐Rays
been solved. The use of new modern science and X‐rays can now be used to target and
technology allowed medicine to treat illness, shrink tumours growing inside the
injury and any medical issues. body – this is called Radiotherapy
Keyhole Surgery which is used to treat cancer.
Keyhole surgery (laparoscopic) Blood Transfusions
uses tiny cameras and minute From 1900, scientists could now store
instruments to operate. This blood for transfusions due to solving the
means quicker healing and less problem of blood clotting in WW1.
impact on the human body.
Microsurgery Machines
The first kidney transplant was in 1956, Dialysis machines keep kidney patients
and heart transplant in 1967. alive until a transplant is available. Heart
Microsurgery makes it possible as tiny bypass machines and pacemakers
nerve endings and blood vessels can perform the functions of a heart.
now be reattached after surgery.
Gene Therapy
Robotic Surgery Gene Therapy takes normal genes from a
Surgeons can now use healthy donor and puts them into the DNA
computers to control of someone suffering from a genetic
instruments for precision disease such as cystic fibrosis. Stem cells
surgery – this is often are being trialed to reverse blindness.
used in brain surgery.
Robotics
Anaesthetics Improved prosthetic limbs are now
From the 1930s, anaesthetics could be used to help amputees, especially
injected into the blood stream allowing those injured in Iraq or Afghanistan.
precise doses and safer surgery.
Extent of change in Treatment
From 1900s, medical treatment has • New diseases are constantly appearing
made significant change – deaths without immediate cures/treatment.
from infectious disease have However… • People still rely on ‘alternative remedies’
such as herbal medicines and homeopathy.
30
dropped from 25% to less than 1%.
Antibiotics in the Modern Age (1900‐present day)
Early 20th In the late 19th Century, more microbes responsible for specific diseases were being
century discovered due to Koch proving the Germ Theory. This meant that vaccines could be made.
The hunt was on to make artificial or chemical antibodies that would attack the infection
without harming the body.
The first Magic Bullet – Salvarsan 606
Paul Ehrlich, who worked with Robert Koch reasoned that, if certain dyes could stain
bacteria, perhaps certain chemicals could kill them.
Ehrlich said this would be like a Magic Bullet.
The chemical would ‘shoot’ the infection, not the patient.
Ehrlich set up a private laboratory and a team of scientists and by 1914 they had
discovered several 'magic bullets' – compounds (chemical mixtures) that would
target and kill specific bacteria.
The most effective and well Salvarsan 606 could now be used to treat
known compound was Salvarsan the STD Syphilis. It was the first treatment
606 (it was the 606th attempt!). of disease using chemicals!
This was a major step in the progress of medicine as it was the first chemical that
Importance of could be used to kill infection inside the body.
Salvarsan 606
However, as Salvarsan 606 was made from arsenic, it was also poisonous!
The second Magic Bullet ‐ Prontosil
In 1932 Gerhard Domagk found the second magic bullet after years of research.
This was a red dye called Prontosil and killed the bacteria causing BLOOD POISONING.
At first he trialed on mice which proved to be a success.
Domagk soon had the chance to trial it on a human – his own daughter who had blood
poisoning which could not be cured. He injected her with Prontosil and she recovered!
Doctors discovered that sulphonamide was the key ingredient which attacked disease and
were able to then create new drugs which cured gonorrhea, pneumonia, and scarlet fever.
This helped mothers dying from post‐natal infection drop from 20% to 5% ‐ a huge impact!
Penicillin
The most important antibiotic discovered was penicillin. It was the first
antibiotic made using microbes and not chemicals.
Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered Penicillin after leaving petri dishes
with bacteria on and then noticed the mould that grew killed the bacteria.
Fleming then diluted this penicillin and found it could kill bacteria but only on
the outside of the body but not inside the body.
In 1938, two oxford scientists, Florey and Chain, managed to create a pure penicillin
which could kill bacteria inside the body like septicemia.
During WW2, the US government funded and mass‐produced penicillin so that it could
be used by the army (over 2.3 million doses). After 1948, the NHS made it free for all to
use and it became an important ‘wonder‐drug’ to treat illness.
Impact of For the first time in history, doctors could now treat bacteria‐based diseases e.g.
antibiotics pneumonia and deaths by disease significantly dropped from the 1940s onwards.
However, superbugs like MRSA are becoming resistant/immune to antibiotics which 31
proves a continuing problem for scientists.
Care on the Modern Age (1900‐present day
Early 1900s The major problem in 1900 was the cost of medical treatment. The 1911 National Insurance
Act did provide help for workers who fell ill but it was a long way from including all the
population such as the elderly, families or unemployed. From 1912, clinics in schools did
begin to give children free medical treatment.
The NHS
In 1948, the government set up
the National Health service
(NHS).
The idea came from the 1942 Beveridge
Report that said treatment should be available
to the rich and the poor.
The NHS provides medical care for all the
population, paid for by British taxes. Medical
care (as shown to the right) was to be free for
all the population regardless of background.
The NHS is responsible for over 2500 hospitals and GPs surgeries in the UK
Early problems with the NHS From the 1960s, the
government began to spend to
In the short term beginnings of the NHS, the improve the NHS.
government faced a number of problems:
• More hospitals were built
• Hospitals throughout the country needed around Britain, even
updating desperately and most were in the specialist like Alder Hey
South East – there were not enough around 1960s
children's hospital.
England. improvements
• The Quality Care
• Britain had very little money after Commission was set up to
WW2 to pay for the NHS. monitor hospital quality.
• GP’s surgeries needed modernizing and GPs • The GPs Charter, 1966 – This
themselves were suspicious of the NHS, many of gave incentives to GPs who
them were not interested in medical research. kept up with medical
• There were large appointment waiting research and encouraged GPs
times and delays. to work in practices together.
Impact of the NHS
The NHS was the biggest ever intervention by the
government to improve the health of the British public and
it had significant effects:
• Medical care/treatment ‐ Anyone, regardless of social
background, could receive the same level of service.
• The NHS offered high‐tech medical treatment and care –
specialist doctors and nurses treat patients, and patients Problems with the NHS today
can now access a range of treatments such as blood and • Waiting times and appointment delays.
lung transplants and chemotherapy for cancer patients.
• Increasing lifestyle problems which cause
• Life expectancy ‐ The NHS has played an important part disease (drinking, smoking & drugs).
in increasing people’s life expectancy (83 in 2015).
• Rising Cost – The NHS costs the
• Training – Nurses have developed specialist skills in the government a significant amount. 32
care of patients. Some can now prescribe medicine.
Lung Cancer Depth Study (1900‐present day)
Lung cancer has become more common since 1900 with over 40,000 new cases
a year. It had become the second most common cancer and the leading cancer
amongst women today. The rise of lung cancer deaths has also risen, peaking at
26,000 deaths in 1973.
The link between In 1950, the British Medical Research Council proved that
Lung Cancer and lung cancer was directly linked to smoking. Indeed 85% of
smoking those getting lung cancer are people who do or have
smoked.
How diagnosis have improved in the modern age
Lung cancer is Modern diagnosis
particular deadly. Only Patients are given a CT scan, often after being injected with
1/3 live a year after a dye to create a more detailed picture. As of 2015, there is
their diagnosis so the currently no national
focus is on improving Doctors then do one of two things
screening
this. 1. A PET‐CT scan which uses radioactive material to programme as the
Originally, X‐rays were identify specific cancerous cells. technology simply
used to identify 2. A bronchoscope takes a sample (biopsy) from the lungs. does not exist to pick
tumours but these up the early signs of
This allows the doctor to work out the type of cancer, how cancer.
were often inaccurate.
advanced it is and what treatment is best.
Modern treatment of Lung Cancer Modern prevention of Lung Cancer
Treatment has developed since the 1930s into four The government were slow to intervene until lung
broad types: cancer deaths grew too high and smoking related
Surgery
deaths cost the NHS £165m yearly.
The earliest method which has
developed with microsurgery. Changing Behaviour
Lungs can also be transplanted but The government passed laws to force people to
this leaves ethical questions. change their smoking behaviour:
Radiotherapy • In 2007, smoking in public
places was banned. This was
Aims to kill the cancer cells using
extended to cars in 2015 as
beams of radiation to target the
there was evidence passive
cancer precisely.
smoking had a negative impact
Chemotherapy on health.
Used since the 1970s if surgery and • Taxes on tobacco were increased.
radiotherapy have not been • You must be 18 to buy cigarettes, which
successful. Chemical medicines are cannot be on display
used to shrink tumours or prevent Influencing behavior
the cancer returning. It can have
The government also aims to influence people’s
negative side effects.
behaviour to improve their lifestyle to reduce the
Immunotherapy chances of cancer.
Cancer can resist the body’s • Advertisement was banned
immune systems’ attempts to fight entirely from 2005 and packaging
it, so scientists are researching into now contains warnings.
boosting a patient’s immune
system to fight cancer. • The NHS produce campaigns to advertise the
dangers of smoking. This includes for campaigns
However, as of 2016, there is NO cure for cancer. for schools to stop young people smoking. 33