PURE MATHEATICS 1

STRAIGHT LINE

• The distance between two points 𝐴 = (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝐵 = (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 )

𝐴𝐵 = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2

𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
• The midpoint of the line segment joining (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is given by ( , )
2 2

𝑦2 −𝑦1
• The gradient of the line joining (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is ( )
𝑥2 −𝑥1

• The equation of the line through (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 )with gradient 𝑚 is

𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )

• If two straight lines are perpendicular to each other, the product of their gradients is equal to −1
(𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1).

• If two straight lines are parallel they have the same gradient.

CIRCLE

General form of the equation of a circle is

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2

Where (𝑎, 𝑏) is the center and 𝑟 is the radius

Binomial theorem
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
The binomial expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 = ( ) 𝑎𝑛 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑏1 + ( ) 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + ( ) 𝑏 𝑛
0 1 2 𝑛

𝑛
The general term of the expansion of (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 is ( ) 𝑎𝑛−𝑟 𝑏 𝑟
𝑟
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛−1)
Note - ( ) = 1, ( ) = 𝑛, ( )=
0 1 2 2

Page 1 of 22
QUADRATICS

Roots of the quadratic equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are given by,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
When sketching graphs of quadratic functions 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 we can identify whether it has a
minimum or maximum using 𝒂

If 𝑎 > 0, it has a minimum point and

if 𝑎 < 0, it has a maximum point. To find the coordinates of either minimum or maximum we can
complete the square of the function.

Nature of roots;

• If roots of a quadratic equation are real and different, then 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0
• If roots of a quadratic equation are real and equal, then 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
• If roots of a quadratic equation are not real, then 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0

TRIGONOMETRY

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

DIFFERENTIATION
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛𝑎(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

To determine whether the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is increasing or decreasing

𝑑𝑦
• Find
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• If > 0 then the function is increasing and if < 0 then the function is decreasing
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Page 2 of 22
To find the coordinates of stationary points of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑦
• Find
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
• Equate to zero and solve for 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
• Substitute these 𝑥 values in the equation of the curve to get corresponding 𝑦 values.

To determine the nature of stationary points (minimum or maximum).

𝑑2𝑦
• Find at stationary points
𝑑𝑥 2
2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
• If 2
> 0 the point is a minimum and if < 0 the point is a maximum
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦
To find the equation of the curve when and a point on the curve is given
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
• Integrate with respect to 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥
• Substitute the coordinates of the given point to find the value of the constant, 𝑐

To find the equation of the tangent drawn to a curve at a given point

𝑑𝑦
• Find at the given point.
𝑑𝑥
• Use the above value as the gradient of the tangent
• Use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) to get the equation of the tangent

To find the equation of the Normal drawn to a curve at a given point

𝑑𝑦
• Find at the given point.
𝑑𝑥
• Use the result 𝑚1 . 𝑚2 = −1 to get the gradient of the normal
• Use 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) to get the equation of the normal

Page 3 of 22
INTEGRATION

𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑛+1

(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛+1
∫(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛 . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎(𝑛 + 1)

The area between the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝒙 axis, 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏, is given by
𝑏
∫ 𝑦. 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

The area between the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the 𝒚 axis, 𝑦 = 𝑎 and 𝑦 = 𝑏, is given by
𝑏
∫ 𝑥. 𝑑𝑦
𝑎

Note – if the curve is below the 𝑥 axis we get a negative value for the area. Ignore the sign when
writing the area

Volume of revolution

The volume of solid of revolution when the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), bounded by 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated
through 3600 about 𝒙 axis is given by,
𝑏
∫ 𝜋𝑦 2 . 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

The volume of solid of revolution when the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), bounded by 𝑥 = 𝑎 and 𝑥 = 𝑏 is rotated
through 3600 about 𝒚 axis is given by,
𝑏
∫ 𝜋𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑦
𝑎

Page 4 of 22
ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC SEQUENCES

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the sum of first 𝑛 terms of an arithmetic progression are given by,

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = {2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑} 𝑜𝑟 𝑆𝑛 = {𝑎 + 𝑙}
2 2

The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term and the sum of first 𝑛 terms of a geometric progression are given by,
𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 =
𝑟−1

𝑎
Sum to infinity of a geometric sequence when −1 < 𝑟 < 1 is given by
1−𝑟

RADIANS

𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1800

When 𝜃 is measured in radians

• Length of an arc is given by 𝑙 = 𝑟𝜃

𝑟 2𝜃
• Area of a sector is given by 𝐴 =
2

FUNCTIONS

The domain is the possible 𝑥 values of a function while range is the possible 𝑦 values.

To find the inverse function of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

• Make 𝑥 the subject of the function

• Interchange 𝑥 and 𝑦

Note – An inverse exists only when the function is one to one

To sketch the inverse of a function geometrically,

• Sketch the given function

• Sketch the line 𝑦 = 𝑥
• Take the reflection of given function in the line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

Page 5 of 22
Note - A composite function 𝑔𝑓(𝑥) can only be formed when the range of 𝑓(𝑥) is within the domain of
𝑔(𝑥). Similarly a composite function 𝑓𝑔(𝑥) can only be formed when the range of 𝑔(𝑥) is within the
domain of 𝑓(𝑥)

TRANSFORMATIONS

Translation

With respect to a function 𝑓(𝑥) ,

• 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑎 shifts the function 𝑎 units upward

• 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑎 shifts the function 𝑎 units downward.
• 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑎) shifts the function 𝑎 units to the left
• 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑎) shifts the function 𝑎 units to the right

Reflection

With respect to a function 𝑓(𝑥) ,

• −𝑓(𝑥) reflects the function in the 𝑥 axis

• 𝑓(−𝑥) reflects the function in the 𝑦 axis

Stretch

With respect to a function 𝑓(𝑥) ,

𝑎𝑓(𝑥) stretches the function along the 𝑦 axis by a stretch factor of 𝑎

1
𝑓(𝑎𝑥) stretches the function along the 𝑥 axis by a stretch factor of
𝑎

Page 6 of 22
PURE MATHEMATICS 3
POLYNOMIALS

• Remainder theorem
𝑏
When a polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) is divided by (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏), the remainder is given by 𝑓 (𝑎)

• Factor theorem
If (𝑥 − 𝑎) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) , then 𝑓(𝑎) = 0.

The modulus function

The modulus of 𝑥 is denoted by |𝑥|, is defined by,

|𝑥| = 𝑥 , if 𝑥 > 0

|𝑥| = −𝑥 , if 𝑥 < 0

Note - When solving a modulus equation, remove the modulus by squaring the equation. Remember to
check your solutions

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Properties of logarithms

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑎 = 1

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑏𝑐)

𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑐 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 ( )
𝑐

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏

Page 7 of 22
DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1
If 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥, then =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 , then = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 , then 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥

𝑑𝑦 1
If 𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 , then =
𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2

Conversely,
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑎𝑥+𝑏
𝑒 𝑎𝑥+𝑏
∫𝑒 . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑏

1
∫ . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑥

1 𝑙𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑎

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) . 𝑑𝑥 = − +𝑐
𝑎

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

Page 8 of 22
 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐

𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) . 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐
𝑎

1 1 𝑥
∫ . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐
𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑎 𝑎

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑙𝑛|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥| + 𝑐

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥| + 𝑐

BINOMIAL EXPANSION

When 𝑛 is rational, but not a positive integer, and |𝑥| < 1,

𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) 3

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 +⋯
2! 3!

Note – When expanding (𝑎 + 𝑥)𝑛 with 𝑎 ≠ 1, divide the expression by 𝑎 and turn it to (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 form.

TRIGONOMETRY

• Basic trigonometric ratios

1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 = =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 =
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

• Pythagorean identities
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 1

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝜃 + 1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃

Page 9 of 22
• Sum and Difference Identities

➢ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵

➢ 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝐴 − 𝐵) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐵 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
➢ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 + 𝐵) =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵
➢ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(𝐴 − 𝐵) =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐵

• Double angle identities

➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 1
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
➢ 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴
➢ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝐴 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝐴
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
➢ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝐴 =
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴

Also using double angle identities of 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴

1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
• 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝐴 =
2
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝐴 =
2

Above identities are used when integrating ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥

Page 10 of 22
 DIFFERENTIATION

• Product rule
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, and if 𝑦 = 𝑢𝑣, then

𝑑𝑦
= 𝑣𝑢′ + 𝑢𝑣′
𝑑𝑥

• Quotient rule
𝑢
If 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥, and if 𝑦 = 𝑣 , then,

𝑑𝑦 𝑣𝑢′ − 𝑢𝑣′
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑣2

Parametric equations

If a curve is given parametrically by equation for 𝑥 and 𝑦 in terms of a parameter 𝑡, then

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= ×
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥

Curves defined implicitly

When differentiating an implicit function with respect to 𝑥, we have to differentiate 𝑦 terms with respect
𝑑𝑦
to 𝑦 and should multiply by
𝑑𝑥

Partial fractions

𝐴
✓ For a linear factor (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)we get a contribution of
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
✓ For a repeated linear factor, such as (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)3 , we get a contribution of
(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
+ (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)2 + (𝑎𝑥+𝑏)3

𝐴𝑥+𝐵
✓ For a quadratic factor 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 we get a contribution of
𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

Note – Before forming partial fraction check the powers of the numerator and the denominator. If the
degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the denominator, add a suitable
polynomial.

EX – When powers of the numerator and the denominator are equal add a constant

Page 11 of 22
 COMPLEX NUMBERS

• Cartesian form of a complex number

Complex number in Cartesian form is given by 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑥 is the real part and 𝑦 is the imaginary
part.

• Polar form of a complex number

Complex number in polar form is given by 𝑟(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃), where 𝑟 is the modulus and 𝜃 is the
argument, where −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

Note – If 𝑧1 and 𝑧2 are two complex numbers,

|𝑧1 . 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 ||𝑧2 |

𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 . 𝑧2 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) + 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )

𝑧1 |𝑧1 |
| |=
𝑧2 |𝑧2 |
𝑧1
𝑎𝑟𝑔 ( ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧1 ) − 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧2 )
𝑧2

• Exponential form of a complex number

Complex number in exponential form is given by 𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑖 , where 𝑟 is the modulus and 𝜃 is the argument,
where −𝜋 < 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

• Loci in Argand diagram

✓ Half straight line - 𝑎𝑟𝑔(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 𝛼

✓ Circle - |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = 𝑅

✓ Perpendicular bisector - |𝑧 − 𝑧0 | = |𝑧 − 𝑧1 |

INTEGRATION

Following methods can be used suitably when integrating complex functions

• Integration by substitution
When solving an integral using a substitution change the entire integral to the new variable. If it is a
definite integral change the limits also.

• Integration by inspection/Formula
𝑓′(𝑥)
∫ . 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛|𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
𝑓(𝑥)

Page 12 of 22
 • Integration by parts
∫ 𝑢 𝑣′. 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑢′. 𝑑𝑥

Can use ilate order when selecting the function 𝑢

• Integration using partial fractions

VECTORS
𝑥
The modulus of vector 𝑎 = (𝑦) is given by |𝑎| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑧
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑂𝐵
If 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are two position vectors, then vector 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is given by,

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 − 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐴

𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

If two vectors 𝑎 and 𝑏 are parallel, then 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑏 where 𝑘 is a scalar.

If 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two vectors, the scalar (dot) product of the two vectors is defined as 𝑎. 𝑏 = |𝑎||𝑏|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ,
where 𝜃 is the angle between two vectors.

Note - If two vectors are perpendicular to each other then 𝑎. 𝑏 = 0

Vector equation of a straight line

𝑎 𝑑
𝑟 = (𝑏 ) + 𝑡 ( 𝑒 )
𝑐 𝑓

𝑑
Here (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) denotes the coordinates of a point that lies on the line and ( 𝑒 ) denotes a vector parallel
𝑓
to the line/direction vector.

𝑎 + 𝑡𝑑
Note – Any point which lies on the straight line can be written as ( 𝑏 + 𝑡𝑒 )
𝑐 + 𝑡𝑓

➢ To show that two lines don’t intersect,

✓ Obtain the coordinates of a general point that lies on each line in terms of the variable of the line.
✓ Equate 𝑥 and 𝑦 coordinates and find the values of the two variables
✓ If the 𝑧 coordinates do not match for the value of the variable, lines don’t intersect.
✓ If lines are not intersecting and not parallel, then they are skew lines.

Page 13 of 22
STATISTICS 1
SUMMERIZING DATA

Measures of central tendency

Mean

Mean of discrete data

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 ∑ 𝑥

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = =
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑛

Mean of grouped data

∑ 𝑓𝑥
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
∑𝑓

Mean of coded data

∑(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = +𝑎
𝑛

Median

Median is the middle value of a data set

Before finding the median of a data set, data should be in order and the position of the median is given
𝑛+1
by
2

Selecting a suitable measure of central tendency

Mean is the most frequently used measure of central tendency and generally considered the best
measure of it. However, there are some situations where either median or mode is preferred.
Median is the preferred measure of central tendency when there are a few extreme scores (these are
known as outliers) in the distribution of the data.
Mode is the preferred measure when data are measured in a nominal scale.

Page 14 of 22
Measures of spread

Inter quartile range

This is the difference between upper quartile and the lower quartile of a data set

For discrete small data sets, we use the following methods which depend on whether 𝑛 is odd or even.

If 𝑛 is even,

- Divide the data set into two equal parts

- Lower quartile is the middle value of the lower half
- Upper quartile is the middle value of the upper half

If 𝑛 is odd,

- Divide the data set into two equal parts excluding the median
- Lower quartile is the middle value of the lower half
- Upper quartile is the middle value of the upper half

𝑛
For continuous data we draw the cumulative frequency curve to estimate quartiles. Here we just use
4
𝑛
and 3 × ( ) to find the positions of lower and upper quartiles respectively.
4

Variance (𝜎 2 )

∑(𝑥 − 𝑥̅ )2
𝜎2 =
𝑛
Where 𝑥̅ is the mean. Above formula can be simplified to,
∑ 𝑥2
𝜎2 = 𝑛
− 𝑥̅ 2

Standard deviation / 𝜎

This is the square root of the variance.

∑ 𝑥2
𝜎=√ − 𝑥̅ 2
𝑛

Page 15 of 22
Variance of grouped data

2
2
∑ 𝑓𝑥 2 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 ∑ 𝑓𝑥 2
𝜎 = −( ) 𝑜𝑟 𝜎2 = − 𝑥̅ 2
∑𝑓 ∑𝑓 ∑𝑓

Variance of coded data

A coding in the form (𝑥 − 𝑎) or (𝑥 + 𝑎) does not effect on the variance. That means coded variance is
same as the actual variance.

2
2
∑(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ∑(𝑥 − 𝑎)
𝜎 = −( )
∑𝑓 ∑𝑓

DATA REPRESENTATION

Stem and leaf diagrams

A Stem and Leaf diagram is a special table where each data value is split into a "stem" (the first digit or
digits) and a "leaf" (usually the last digit)

Stem and leaf diagrams are constructed for discrete data

Histogram

A diagram consisting of rectangles whose area is proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose
width is equal to the class interval. Therefore we use frequency density for the vertical axis.

Histograms are drawn for continuous data

𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ

Page 16 of 22
Box and whisker plot

A box and whisker plot also called a box plot displays the five-number summary of a set of data. The
five-number summary is the minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum.

A cross is used to mark any outliers

PROBABILITY

Probability is the chance that something will happen - how likely it is that some event will happen.

The complement of an event A is the set of all outcomes in the sample space that are not included in the
outcomes of event A. The complement of event A is represented by 𝐴′

𝑃(𝐴′) = 1 − 𝑃(𝐴)

Also, If A and B are two events ;

𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵) − 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)

Mutually exclusive events

If there are no common simple events in two or more events in a sample space, then the events are
considered as mutually exclusive events. For any two events 𝐴 and 𝐵 if, 𝑃(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 0 Then 𝐴 and 𝐵 are
mutually exclusive events. A and B are mutually exclusive events then,

𝑃 (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑃(𝐴) + 𝑃(𝐵)

Independence

Two events 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be independent if , 𝑃 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝑃 (𝐴) × 𝑃 (𝐵)

Conditional Probability

The probability that event 𝐴 happens given that event 𝐵 has occurred is defined and denoted by

𝑃(𝐴∩𝐵)
𝑃(𝐴/𝐵) =
𝑃(𝐵)

Page 17 of 22
DISCRETE RANDOM VARIABLES

A discrete random variable has a countable number of possible values.

Sum of the probabilities of all the possible outcomes of a discrete random variables adds up to 1 /
Total probability is 1

Expectation

The expectation/expected value (mean) of 𝑋, where 𝑋 is a discrete random variable, is a weighted

average of the possible values that 𝑋 can take

𝑬(𝑿) = ∑ 𝒙 × 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙)

Variance

𝑽𝒂𝒓(𝑿) = ∑ 𝒙𝟐 × 𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒙) − [𝑬(𝑿)]𝟐

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

The binomial distribution describes the behavior of a count variable X if the following conditions
apply:

• The number of observations 𝑛 is fixed.

• Each observation is independent.
• Each observation represents one of two outcomes ("success" or "failure").
• The probability of "success" 𝑝 is the same for each outcome.

If these conditions are met, then X has a binomial distribution with parameters 𝑛 and 𝑝,

𝑷(𝑿 = 𝒓) = 𝒏𝑪𝒓 𝒑𝒓 𝒒𝒏−𝒓

Expectation and Variance

𝐸(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝 , 𝑉𝑎𝑟(𝑋) = 𝑛𝑝𝑞

 GEOMETRIC DISTRIBUTION

There are three main characteristics of a geometric experiment.

• There are one or more trials with all failures except the last one, which is a success.
• In theory, the number of trials could go on forever. There must be at least one trial.
• The probability, 𝑝, of a success and the probability, 𝑞, of a failure is the same for each trial.

𝐼𝑓 𝑋~𝐺𝑒𝑜(𝑝)

𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑟) = 𝑞 𝑟−1 × 𝑝

𝐼𝑓 𝑋~𝐺𝑒𝑜(𝑝)

𝑃(𝑋 ≥ 𝑟) = 𝑞 𝑟−1
𝑃(𝑋 < 𝑟) = 1 − 𝑞 𝑟−1

Expectation

𝐼𝑓 𝑋~𝐺𝑒𝑜(𝑝)

1
𝐸(𝑋) =
𝑝

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

Normal distribution is a probability distribution that is symmetric about the mean, showing that
data near the mean are more frequent in occurrence than data far from the mean. In graph
form, normal distribution will appear as a bell curve.

𝑋~𝑁(𝜇, 𝜎 2 )

𝜇 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛

𝜎 2 = 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
Standard normal distribution

The standard normal distribution is a normal distribution with a mean of zero and standard
deviation of 1. The standard normal distribution is centered at zero and the degree to which a
given measurement deviates from the mean is given by the standard deviation.

𝒁~𝑵(𝟎, 𝟏)

𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈

Normal Approximation

A binomial distribution can be approximated by a normal distribution if the following conditions

are satisfied

𝑛𝑝 > 5 and 𝑛𝑞 > 5

Then,

𝑿~𝑩(𝒏, 𝒑 ) ≈ 𝑿~𝑵(𝒏𝒑, 𝒏𝒑𝒒)

MECHANICS 1
Motion

If an object is moving with constant velocity its motion is described using the equation 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡

If an object is moving with constant acceleration its motion is described using the following
equations,

𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡

1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
𝑢+𝑣
𝑠=( )𝑡
2

𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠

When solving problems using the velocity-time graphs, following points are important

• Acceleration = Gradient of the graph

• Displacement = Area of the region under the graph

When an object moves freely under gravity its acceleration is always 10𝑚𝑠 −2 downwards

Force

If the net force acting on an object is zero, then the object is said to be in equilibrium. Therefore
when an object is in equilibrium both 𝑋 any 𝑌 should be 0

When there is an unbalanced force acting on the object, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

Resolving forces

To find the net/resultant/𝑅 force acting on a particle, resolve all the forces in two perpendicular
𝑦
directions. Then 𝑅 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 . The angle made by the resultant with the 𝑥 axis is 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥 )
Friction

Friction force always act in a direction to oppose the motion.

The maximum friction force a surface can exert is given by 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑅, where 𝜇 is the coefficient of
friction and 𝑅 is the normal reaction

Friction force is maximum when the object is about to move [we call this as limiting equilibrium]
or when the object is moving

Generally, when the object is in equilibrium, 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ≤ 𝜇𝑅

Work energy and power

If an object moves through a distance 𝑠 along a line under the action of a force of magnitude 𝐹 at
an angle 𝜃 to the line, the work done by the force is 𝐹𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Work energy method

𝑊𝐷𝑑 − 𝑊𝐷𝑓 = 𝐺𝐾𝐸 + 𝐺𝑃𝐸

Power is the rate at which work is done

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

Also, the power developed by an engine is 𝐹𝑣, where 𝐹 is the driving force.

When an object travels with maximum speed it acceleration is 0. Therefore at maximum speed
forces are balanced.

Momentum

Momentum, product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Momentum is a vector quantity, it
has both magnitude and direction.

For a collision occurring between object 1 and object 2 in an isolated system, the total momentum
of the two objects before the collision is equal to the total momentum of the two objects after the
collision.