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Module 1 Differential Calculus

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
73 views

Module 1 Differential Calculus

Study material for 1 year 1 sem engineering student...

Uploaded by

praveenmesta1
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Module 1

Differential calculus
Polar curve:

Relation between the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and the polar coordinates (r, )

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑦
𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑥
Angle between radius vector and the tangent:

Let 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃) be any point on the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)

Let ∅ be the angle between the radius vector and the tangent.

Let 𝜑 be the angle made by the tangent with the initial line.

𝜑 =∅+𝜃
tan ∅+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅ + 𝜃) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 -------(1)

𝑑𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝜃
Also, slope of the tangent =𝑑𝑥 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝑑𝑥
⁄𝑑𝜃

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟
+ 𝑑𝜃 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑑(𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)⁄ 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
= −𝑟
𝑑(𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)⁄ 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃 −𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 + 1
+ 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
𝑑𝑟
+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑 = 1−
𝑑𝜃
𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
--------- (2)
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝜃
From (1) & (2)
𝒅𝜽 𝟏 𝒅𝒓
𝒕𝒂𝒏∅ = 𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒕∅ =
𝒅𝒓 𝒓 𝒅𝜽

➢ Working rule to find ∅ & 𝝋 hence slope


i. Given 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), take logarithm on both the sides and differentiate w.r.t. 𝜃
ii. Express both sides of the expression either in terms of tan or cot & find ∅
iii. 𝜑 = ∅ + 𝜃
iv. Slope= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜑

Problems:

1. Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the following curves
i. 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
Solution:𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
Diff w r t 𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠
= = 2 2
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜃
2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
𝜃 𝜽
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) ⇒ ∅ =
2 𝟐
𝟐𝒂
ii. = 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒓
2𝑎
Solution: = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟
2𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑟
𝑙𝑜𝑔(2𝑎) − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
− = = = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜃 2
2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2
𝜃 𝜽
−𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) ⇒ ∅ = −
2 𝟐

iii. 𝒓𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝜽 = 𝒂𝟐
Solution:
𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑎2
2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎2 )
2 𝑑𝑟 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
− =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝜋 𝝅
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − 2𝜃) ⇒ ∅ = − 𝟐𝜽
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2 𝟐
2. Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the following curves and
hence slope of the tangent.
𝝅
i. 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 = 𝟐
𝜋
Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ =
1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜋
𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
2
At 𝜃 = 2 , 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝜋 =0⇒∅= ⇒𝜑 =∅+𝜃 = 2+2 =𝜋
1+𝑠𝑖𝑛 2
2
Slope= 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝝅 = 𝟎
𝜽 𝟐𝝅
ii. 𝒓𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 ( ) = 𝒂 𝒂𝒕 𝜽 =
𝟐 𝟑
𝜃
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( ) = 𝑎
2
𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
2
𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (2)
− =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜃)
2
1 𝑑𝑟 𝜃
− 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( ) = 0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 2
𝜋 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − )
2 2
2𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋
At 𝜃 = 3 , ∅ = 6 ⇒ 𝜑 = ∅ + 𝜃 = 6
𝟓𝝅 𝟏
Slope= 𝒕𝒂𝒏 =−
𝟔 √𝟑

Practice problems:

Find the angle between the radius vector and the tangent for the following curves
𝜋
i. 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃) (Ans: ∅ = 4 + 𝑚𝜃)
𝑙 1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ii. = 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Ans: ∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ))
𝑟 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

Angle between two curves:

Angle of intersection of any two curves is equal to the angle between the tangents drawn at the
point of intersection of the two curves.

𝜋
If two curves intersect orthogonally, |∅2 − ∅1 | = 2
𝜋 𝜋
∅2 − ∅1 = ⇒ ∅2 = + ∅1
2 2
𝜋 1
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( + ∅1 ) = −𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = −
2 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 . 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 = −1

➢ Working rule to find angle between two curves:


• Given 𝑟 = 𝑓1 (𝜃) & 𝑟 = 𝑓2 (𝜃) find ∅1 & ∅2(as above)
• Acute angle of intersection is |∅2 − ∅1 |
Note:

i. If ∅1 & ∅2 contain 𝜃, find 𝜃 by solving the pair of equations to obtain the angle of
intersection independent of 𝜃.
ii. If ∅1 & ∅2 are not obtained explicitly, then find 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 & 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 and use the formula
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 −𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2
𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅1 − ∅2 ) =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2

Problems:

1. Find the angle of intersection for the following curves


i. 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽 = 𝟒 and 𝒓𝟐 = 𝟏𝟔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝜽
Solution: 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 4 ----------(1)
2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4
2 𝑑𝑟 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
+ =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 ⇒ ∅1 = −2𝜃---------(2)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑟 2 = 16𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ---------(3)
2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔16 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 𝑑𝑟 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑐𝑜𝑡2𝜃 ⇒ ∅2 = 2𝜃 ------(4)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
|∅1 − ∅2 | = 4𝜃
From (1) and (3)
4 𝜋 𝜋
= 16𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 ⇒ 4𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2𝜃 = 1 ⇒ 2𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 =
𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 6 12
𝝅
|∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 | = 𝟒𝜽 =
𝟑
ii. 𝒓 = 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 and 𝒓 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
Solution: 𝑟 = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 -----(1)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃 ⇒ ∅1 = 𝜃-----(2)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 -----(3)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃) ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( 4 + 𝜃) -----(4)
𝝅
|∅𝟐 − ∅𝟏 | =
𝟒
𝒂
iii. 𝒓 = 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝜽 and 𝒓 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝜽
Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃--------(1)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + log (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃)
1
1 𝑑𝑟 𝜃 1
= ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃--------(2)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝑎
𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃----------(3)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 1 1
= − 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = − 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃--------(4)
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
1 1
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 & 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = − 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 2𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅1 − ∅2 ) = =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 1 − (𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃)2
From (1) & (3)
𝑎
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃 = ⇒ (𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃)2 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑒
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜃
𝟐𝜽𝒍𝒐𝒈𝜽 𝟐𝒆
∴ 𝒕𝒂𝒏(∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = 𝟐
= = 𝟐𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝒆)
𝟏 − (𝜽𝒍𝒐𝒈𝜽) 𝟏 − (𝒆)𝟐
𝒂𝜽 𝒂
iv. 𝒓 = 𝟏+𝜽 and 𝒓 = 𝟏+𝜽𝟐
𝑎𝜃
𝑟 = 1+𝜃--------(1)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝜃 − log (1 + 𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑎 1 1 1 1
= − ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = − =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑎𝜃 1 + 𝜃 𝜃 1 + 𝜃 𝜃(1 + 𝜃)
𝑎
𝑟 = 1+𝜃2--------(2)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝜃 2 )
1 𝑑𝑟 2𝜃
=−
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + 𝜃2
2𝜃
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = −
1 + 𝜃2
(1+𝜃2 )
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 = 𝜃(1 + 𝜃) & ∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 = − 2𝜃
2
(1 + 𝜃 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 𝜃(1 + 𝜃) −
𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅1 − ∅2 ) = = 2𝜃
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 2
(1 + 𝜃 )
(1
1 + + 𝜃)
2𝜃
From(1) & (2)
𝑎𝜃 𝑎
= ⇒ 𝜃3 = 1 ⇒ 𝜃 = 1
1 + 𝜃 1 + 𝜃2
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛(∅1 − ∅2 ) = −3 = 3
∴ (∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = 𝒕𝒂𝒏−𝟏 (𝟑)
Practice problems:

2. Find the angle of intersection for the following curves


𝝅 𝟏 𝟏
v. 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 = 2𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Ans: (∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏 (𝟑))
𝝅
vi. 𝑟 = 6𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and 𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) (Ans: (∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = 𝟔 )
vii. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 sec (𝑛𝜃 + 𝛼) and 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 sec (𝑛𝜃 + 𝛽) (Ans: (∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = |𝜶 − 𝜷|
𝑎 𝝅
viii. 𝑟 = 𝑎𝜃 and 𝑟 = 𝜃 (Ans: (∅𝟏 − ∅𝟐 ) = 𝟐 )
3. Show that the following pair of curves intersect orthogonally
i. 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) and 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽)
𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 (1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 =
(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
=−
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = −
(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
(1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) (1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅2 = −
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
(𝟏+𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) (𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽) 𝟏−𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒕𝒂𝒏∅𝟏 . 𝒕𝒂𝒏∅𝟐 = − . =− = −𝟏
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽
𝜽 𝟐𝜽
ii. 𝒓 = 𝟒𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝟐 and 𝒓 = 𝟗𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝟐
𝜃
𝑟 = 4𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2
𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 + 2log (𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
2
1 𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 . 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
= 22
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝜃
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − ) ⇒ ∅1 = −
2 2 2 2 2
𝜃
𝑟 = 9𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
2
𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔9 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 )
2
1 𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 . 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2
= −2 2
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2

𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (− ) ⇒ ∅2 = −
2 2 2
𝝅
|∅𝟐 − ∅𝟏 | =
𝟐

iii. 𝒓 = 𝒂𝒆𝜽 and 𝒓𝒆𝜽 = 𝒃


𝑟 = 𝑎𝑒 𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒
1 𝑑𝑟 𝜋
= 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅1 = 1 ⇒ ∅1 =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 4
𝜃
𝑟𝑒 = 𝑏
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝜃𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏
1 𝑑𝑟 𝜋
+ 1 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅2 = −1 ⇒ ∅2 = −
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 4
𝝅
|∅𝟐 − ∅𝟏 | =
𝟐
Practice problems:

4. Show that the following pair of curves intersect orthogonally


iv. 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) and 𝑟 = 𝑏(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
v. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 and 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃
vi. 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 = 𝑎2 and 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑏 2
𝜃 𝜃
vii. 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2 = 𝑎 and 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 2 = 𝑏
2𝑎 2𝑎
viii. = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 and = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑟 𝑟

Length of the perpendicular from pole on to the tangent


𝑝
From ∆𝑂𝑃𝑁, 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟 ⇒ 𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
𝑝2 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅
1 1 1 2
1 2
1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 ∅ = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ∅) = (1 + ( ) ) = ( + ( ) )
𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 ∅ 𝑟 2 𝑟2 𝑟2 𝑟 2 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃

Pedal equations (p-r equations): The equation of the given curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃) expressed in terms
of p and r is called pedal equation or p-r equation of the curve 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃)

➢ Working rule to pedal equation or length of the perpendicular from pole to the
tangent:
• Given 𝑟 = 𝑓(𝜃), obtain ∅
• If explicit value of ∅ is obtained, substitute in 𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ otherwise substitute 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ in
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2
= (𝑟 2 + 𝑟 4 (𝑑𝜃) ) and eliminate 𝜃 to obtain the expression interms of p and r.
𝑝2

Problems:

1. Find the pedal equation for the following curves


i. 𝒓𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝜽 = 𝒂𝒎
Solution:
𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎𝑚 )
𝑚 𝑑𝑟 𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃
− =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚𝜃 = cot ( − 𝑚𝜃) ⇒ ∅ = − 𝑚𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝑎𝑚 𝒂𝒎
𝒑 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( − 𝑚𝜃) = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝒎−𝟏
2 𝑟 𝒓
𝜽
ii. 𝒓 = 𝒂𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝟐)
𝜃
Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( 2)
𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
2
1 𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 2 × 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2) 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (2) 𝜃 𝜃
=− = 0 ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 (− ) ⇒ ∅ = −
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝜃 2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 (2)
𝜃 𝜃 𝑎
𝒑 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− ) = −𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = −𝑟√ = −√𝒂𝒓
2 2 𝑟
iii. 𝒓 = 𝒂 + 𝒃𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽

Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑟 −𝑟𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
= ⇒ =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝟐 𝒓−𝒂 𝟐
𝟏 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 1 1 −𝑟𝑏𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 1 1 𝑟 2 𝑏 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝟏 𝟏 𝒃 [𝟏−( 𝒃 ) ]
= + ( ) = + ( ) = + = +
𝒑𝟐 𝑟2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃 𝑟2 𝑟 4 𝑎+𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟2 𝑟 4 (𝑎+𝑏𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 (𝒓)𝟐

iv. 𝒓 = 𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒉𝒏𝜽

Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑛𝜃
=−
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑛𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟
= −𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑟
= −𝑛𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝜃
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 1 1 1 1 1
2
= 2 + 4 ( ) = 2 = 2 + 4 (−𝑛𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ𝑛𝜃)2 = 2 + 4 𝑛2 𝑟 2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑛𝜃
𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑝 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
1 1 1 1 𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒓𝟐
= 2 + 2 𝑛2 𝑡𝑎𝑛ℎ2 𝑛𝜃 = 2 + 2 𝑛2 (1 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐ℎ2 𝑛𝜃) = 𝟐 + 𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝟐 )
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝒓 𝒓 𝒂
𝒍
v. = 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒓

𝑙
Solution: 𝑟 = 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑙 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
1 𝑑𝑟 −𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑟 𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
− = ⇒ =
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
1 1 1 𝑑𝑟 2 1 1 1 𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2 1 1 𝑒 2 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
= + ( ) = = + ( ) = +
𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 𝑑𝜃 𝑝2 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑟 2 𝑟 4 (1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)2
𝟐
𝟏 𝒍
𝒆𝟐 [𝟏 − 𝟐 (𝒓 − 𝟏) ]
𝟏 𝟏 𝒆
= 𝟐+ 𝟐
𝒓 𝒓 𝒍 𝟐
(𝒓)
Practice problems:

2. Find the pedal equation for the following curves


2𝑎
vi. = 1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Ans: 𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑟)
𝑟
vii. 𝑟(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 2𝑎 (Ans: 𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑟)
viii. 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 (Ans: 𝑎2 = 𝑝𝑟)
ix. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 (Ans: 𝑟 𝑛+1 = 𝑝𝑎𝑛 )
x. 𝑟 𝑛 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑛𝜃 = 𝑎𝑛 (Ans: 𝑟 𝑚+1 = √2𝑎𝑚 𝑝)
xi. 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑎2 (Ans: 𝑝2 = 𝑎𝑟)
xii. 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃) (Ans: 𝑟 𝑚+1 = √2𝑎𝑚 𝑝)
xiii. 𝑟 = 2(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) (Ans: 𝑟 3 = 4𝑝2 )
3. Find the length of the perpendicular from pole to the tangent for the following
curves
𝜽
i. 𝒓 = 𝒂𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 (𝟐)
𝜃
Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( 2 )
𝜃
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎2 + 2 logsec ( )
2
1 𝜃 𝜃
1 𝑑𝑟 sec (2) tan (2) 𝜃
= 22 = tan ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝜃 2
sec (2)
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = tan ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( − ) ⇒ ∅ = −
2 2 2 2 2
𝜋 𝜃 𝜃 𝑎
𝒑 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( − ) = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ) = 𝑟 = 𝒂√ 𝒓
2 2 2 √𝑟
𝝅
ii. 𝒓 = 𝒂(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) at (𝒂, 𝟐 )
Solution: 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)

1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜃
= = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( )
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 2
𝜃 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) ⇒ ∅ =
2 2
𝜃 𝒂
(𝑝)(𝒂, 𝝅) = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) =
𝟐 2 √𝟐
Curvature & radius of curvature (Cartesian, polar and pedal forms)

𝛿𝜑
Mean cuvature of the arc PQ= 𝛿𝑠
𝛿𝜑 𝑑𝜑
Curvature= K= lim = 𝑑𝑠
𝛿𝑠→0 𝛿𝑠
1 𝑑𝑠
Radius of curvature==𝐾 = 𝑑𝜑 provided K0
Note:

• Curvature of straight line is zero


• Curvature of a circle is a constant
• K and  are always considered to be positive
𝟑⁄
(𝟏+𝒚𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐
Radius of curvature in cartesian form: 𝝆 = 𝒚𝟐
𝟑⁄
(𝟏+𝒙𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐
If 𝒚𝟏 = ∞, (i.e. tangent is perpendicular to x-axis), 𝝆 = 𝒙𝟐

Problems

1. Find the radius of curvature for the following curves


𝒙
i. 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒔𝒆𝒄 (𝒂)
Solution:
3⁄
(1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 2
𝜌=
𝑦2
𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐 ( )
𝑎
𝑥
𝑦1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑎
1 𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 ( )
𝑎 𝑎
𝟑⁄
𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
𝟑⁄ (𝟏 + (𝒕𝒂𝒏 (𝒂)) )
(𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐 𝒙
𝝆= = = 𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒄 ( )
𝒚𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 (𝒙) 𝒂
𝒔𝒆𝒄
𝒂 𝒂
𝟑𝒂 𝟑𝒂
ii. 𝒙𝟑 + 𝒚𝟑 = 𝟑𝒂𝒙𝒚 𝒂𝒕 ( 𝟐 , )
𝟐

Solution:

𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦
𝑎𝑦−𝑥 2
𝑦1 = 𝑦 2 −𝑎𝑥 (𝑦1 )(3𝑎,3𝑎 ) = −1
2 2
(𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥) (𝑎𝑦1 − 2𝑥) − (𝑎𝑦 − 𝑥 2 )(2𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑎)
𝑦2 =
(𝑦 2 − 𝑎𝑥)2
32
(𝑦2 ) 3𝑎 3𝑎 = −
( ,
2 2
) 3𝑎
𝟑⁄
(𝟏 + 𝒚𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐 𝟑𝒂
𝝆= =
𝒚𝟐 𝟖√𝟐
𝟒𝒂𝟐 (𝟐𝒂−𝒙)
iii. 𝒚𝟐 = where the curve meets x-axis
𝒙
Solution:

4𝑎2 (2𝑎 − 𝑥)
𝑦2 =
𝑥
4𝑎2 (2𝑎 − 𝑥)
0= ⇒ 𝑥 = 2𝑎
𝑥
∴ (2𝑎, 0) is the point where curve meets x-axis
8𝑎3
𝑦2 = − 4𝑎2
𝑥
8𝑎3
2𝑦𝑦1 = − 2
𝑥
4𝑎3
𝑦𝑦1 = − 2
𝑥
4𝑎3
𝑦1 = − 2
𝑦𝑥
4𝑎3
(𝑦1 )(2𝑎,0) = − 2 = ∞
𝑦𝑥

𝑦𝑥 2
𝑥1 = −
4𝑎3
𝑦𝑥 2
(𝑥1 )(2𝑎,0) =− 3 =0
4𝑎
(𝑥 2 +2𝑥𝑦𝑥1 ) 1
(𝑥2 )(2𝑎,0) = − = −𝑎
4𝑎3

𝟑⁄
(𝟏 + 𝒙𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐
𝝆= =𝒂
𝒙𝟐
𝟐⁄
𝒂𝒙 𝟐𝝆 𝟑 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
iv. For 𝒚 = 𝒂+𝒙 , show that ( 𝒂 ) = (𝒚) + (𝒙)

Solution:
𝑎𝑥
𝑦=
𝑎+𝑥
𝑎2 𝑦2
𝑦1 = =
(𝑎 + 𝑥)2 𝑥 2
−2𝑎2 2𝑦 3
𝑦2 = = −
(𝑎 + 𝑥)3 𝑎𝑥 3
3⁄
(1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 2
𝜌=
𝑦2
3⁄
𝑥4 + 𝑦4 2
2𝜌 ( )
𝑥4
=
𝑎 𝑦3
− 3
𝑥
𝟒
𝟐⁄ 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟒
𝟐𝝆 𝟑 𝒙𝟒 𝒙 𝟐 𝒚 𝟐
( ) = = ( ) + ( )
𝒂 𝒚𝟐 𝒚 𝒙
𝒙𝟐
Practice problems:

2. Find the radius of curvature for the following curves


⁄ 3
2 (𝑦 2 +4𝑎2 ) 2
v. 𝑦 = 4𝑎𝑥 (Ans: 𝜌 = )
𝑦2
vi. 𝑥 2 𝑦 = 𝑎(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) 𝑎𝑡 (−2𝑎, 2𝑎 ) (Ans: 𝜌 = 2𝑎)
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑏2
vii. + 𝑏2 = 1 at (a, 0) (Ans: 𝜌 = )
𝑎2 𝑎
3𝑎
viii. 𝑥𝑦 2 = 𝑎3 − 𝑥 3 𝑎𝑡 (𝑎, 0) (Ans: 𝜌 = )
2
ix. √𝑥 + √𝑦 = 4 where it meets the line passing through origin making an angle 45o with x-
5
2 ⁄2
axis (Ans: 𝜌 = )
𝑎
𝑎2 (𝑎−𝑥) 𝑎
x. 𝑦2 = where the curve meets x-axis (Ans: 𝜌 = 2)
𝑥
𝟑

(𝒓𝟐 +𝒓𝟏 𝟐 ) 𝟐
Radius of curvature in polar form: 𝝆 = 𝒓𝟐 +𝟐𝒓 𝟐 −𝒓𝒓
𝟏 𝟐

𝒅𝒓
Radius of curvature in pedal form: 𝝆 = 𝒓 𝒅𝒑

3. Find the radius of curvature for the following


i. 𝒓𝒎 = 𝒂𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒎𝜽

Solution:

𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃

𝑚𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑚 + log (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃)

𝑚 𝑑𝑟 −𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚𝜃 𝜋 𝜋
= ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( + 𝑚𝜃) ⇒ ∅ = + 𝑚𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 2 2
𝜋 𝑟 𝑚 𝑟 𝑚+1
𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝑚𝜃) = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑚𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑚 = 𝑚
2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑑𝑝 (𝑚 + 1)𝑟 𝑚
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑚
𝒅𝒓 𝒂𝒎 𝒂𝒎
𝝆=𝒓 =𝒓 =
𝒅𝒑 (𝒎 + 𝟏)𝒓𝒎 (𝒎 + 𝟏)𝒓𝒎−𝟏

i. 𝒓𝟐 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐𝜽 = 𝒂𝟐

Solution:𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 = 𝑎2

2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎2

2 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃
+ =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( + 2𝜃) ⇒ ∅ = + 2𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝑟2 𝑟3
𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 2𝜃) = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑟 2 = 2
2 𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑑𝑝 3𝑟
= 2
𝑑𝑟 𝑎
𝒅𝒓 𝟑𝒓𝟐 𝒂𝟐
𝝆=𝒓 =𝒓 𝟐 =
𝒅𝒑 𝒂 𝟑𝒓
4. Show that for the curve 𝒓(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽) = 𝟐𝒂, 𝝆𝟐 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝟑

Solution: 𝑟(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 2𝑎


𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2𝑎
1 𝑑𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
+ =0
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜃 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = −𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( ) ⇒ ∅ = −
2 2
𝜃 𝜃 √𝑎
𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 (− ) = −𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) = −𝑟 = √𝑎𝑟
2 2 √𝑟
𝑑𝑝 1
= 𝑎
𝑑𝑟 2√𝑎𝑟
3
𝑑𝑟 2√𝑎𝑟 2𝑟 2
𝜌=𝑟 =𝑟 = ⇒ 𝝆𝟐  𝒓𝟑
𝑑𝑝 𝑎 √𝑎
5. Show that for the curve 𝒓𝒏 = 𝒂𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒏𝜽, 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒆𝒍𝒚 𝒂𝒔 𝒓𝒏−𝟏

Solution: 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃
𝑛𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑟 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑛 + log (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃)
𝑛 𝑑𝑟 −𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 𝜋 𝜋
= ⇒ 𝑐𝑜𝑡∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑡 ( + 𝑛𝜃) ⇒ ∅ = + 𝑛𝜃
𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 2 2
𝜋 𝑟 𝑛 𝑟 𝑛+1
𝑝 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( + 𝑛𝜃) = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑛
2 𝑎 𝑎
𝑛
𝑑𝑝 (𝑛 + 1)𝑟
=
𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑛
𝑑𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛 𝟏
𝜌=𝑟 =𝑟 𝑛
= 𝑛−1
⇒ 𝝆  𝒏−𝟏
𝑑𝑝 (𝑛 + 1)𝑟 (𝑛 + 1)𝑟 𝒓

Practice problems:

6. Find the radius of curvature for the following


𝑎𝑛
i. 𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑛𝜃 (Ans: 𝜌 = (𝑛+1)𝑟 𝑛−1 )
2
ii. 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) (Ans: 𝜌 = 3 √2𝑎𝑟)
𝑟3
iii. 𝑟 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 = 𝑎2 (Ans: 𝜌 = 𝑎2 )
𝑟4
iv. 𝑟 = 𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑐2𝜃 (Ans: 𝜌 = 3𝑝3)
3
2𝑎 2𝑟 ⁄2
v. = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Ans: 𝜌 = )
𝑟 √𝑎
⁄ 3
𝑙 𝑙(1+2𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+𝑒 2 ) 2
vi. = 1 + 𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Ans: 𝜌 = (1+𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)3
)
𝑟
𝜌2
vii. Show that for the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), is a constant
𝑟
viii. Show that for the curve 𝑟 = 𝑎(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃), 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑠 √𝑟
Taylor’s and Maclaurin’s series expansion for one variable:

Taylor’s series expansion of f(x) about the point a is given by

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 ′′′


𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯
2! 3!
In particular if a=0,
(𝑥)2 (𝑥)3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + (𝑥)𝑓 ′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′ (0) + 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯is called Maclaurin’s series expansion
2! 3!
of 𝑓(𝑥)

Problems:

1. Find Taylor’s series expansion of the following


𝝅
i. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 about the point 𝒙 = 𝟑

𝜋 1
𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦( 3 ) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 2

𝜋
𝑦1 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑦1 ( 3 ) = −√3

𝜋
𝑦2 = −𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = −(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥) = −(1 + 𝑦1 2 ) 𝑦2 ( 3 ) = −4

𝜋
𝑦3 = −2𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 ( 3 ) = −8√3

𝜋
𝑦4 = −2(𝑦1 𝑦3 + 𝑦2 2 ) 𝑦4 (3 ) = −80

(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 ′′′


𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + 𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯
2! 3!
𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟑
𝟏 𝝅 (𝒙 − 𝟑 ) (𝒙 − 𝟑 )
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 + (𝒙 − ) (−√𝟑) + (−𝟒) + (−𝟖√𝟑) + ⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟐! 𝟑!
𝝅 𝟑
ii. 𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 up to the term containing (𝒙 − ) and hence find an approximate value
𝟒
°
of 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟒𝟔
𝜋
𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑦( 4 ) = 1

𝜋
𝑦1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑦1 ( 4 ) = 2

𝜋
𝑦2 = 2𝑦𝑦1 𝑦2 ( 4 ) = 4
𝜋
𝑦3 = 2(𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦1 2 ) 𝑦3 ( 4 ) = 16

𝝅 𝟐 𝝅 𝟑
𝝅 (𝒙 − 𝟒 ) (𝒙 − 𝟒 )
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 = 𝟏 + (𝒙 − ) (𝟐) + (𝟒) + (𝟏𝟔) + ⋯
𝟒 𝟐! 𝟑!
2. Find Maclaurin’s series expansion of the following
i. 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1


𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −1

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 0

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 1

𝑓 𝑣′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑓 𝑣′ (0) = 0

𝑓 𝑣′′ (𝑥) = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑓 𝑣′′ (0) = −1

(𝒙)𝟐 ′′ (𝒙)𝟑 ′′′


𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) + (𝒙)𝒇′ (𝟎) + 𝒇 (𝟎) + 𝒇 (𝟎) + ⋯
𝟐! 𝟑!

𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟓 𝒙 𝟕
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙 = 𝒙 − + − +⋯
𝟑! 𝟓! 𝟕!
ii. 𝒆𝒙

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 𝒆𝒙 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 1

(𝒙)𝟐 ′′ (𝒙)𝟑 ′′′


𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) + (𝒙)𝒇′ (𝟎) + 𝒇 (𝟎) + 𝒇 (𝟎) + ⋯
𝟐! 𝟑!

𝒙
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
𝒆 =𝟏+𝒙+ + + +⋯
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒!
iii. 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙

𝑦 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑦(0) = 0

𝑦1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑦 2 𝑦1 (0) = 1

𝑦2 = 2𝑦𝑦1 𝑦2 (0) = 0

𝑦3 = 2(𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑦1 2 ) 𝑦3 (0) = 2

𝑦4 = 2(𝑦𝑦3 + 𝑦2 𝑦1 + 2y1 𝑦2 ) = 2 𝑦𝑦3 + 6y1 𝑦2 𝑦4 (0) = 0

𝑦5 = 2(y1 𝑦3 + y. 𝑦4 ) + 6(y1 𝑦3 + y2 . 𝑦2 ) = 2(3𝑦2 2 + 4𝑦1 𝑦3 + 𝑦𝑦4 )

𝑦5 (0) = 16

𝑦6 = 2(10𝑦2 𝑦3 + 5𝑦1 𝑦4 + 𝑦𝑦5 )


𝑦6 (0) = 0
(𝑥)2 ′′ (𝑥)3 ′′′
𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦(0) + (𝑥)𝑦 ′ (0) + 𝑦 (0) + 𝑦 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝟐𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟔𝒙𝟓
𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒙 = 𝒙 + + +⋯
𝟑! 𝟓!

iv. √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥

𝑦 = √1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦(0) = 1

𝑦1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑦1 (0) = 1

𝑦2 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦2 (0) = −1

𝑦3 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑦3 (0) = −1

𝑦4 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑦4 (0) = 1

(𝑥)2 ′′ (𝑥)3 ′′′


𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦(0) + (𝑥)𝑦 ′ (0) + 𝑦 (0) + 𝑦 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝒙 𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
√1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 = 𝟏 + 𝒙 − − + +⋯
𝟐 𝟔 𝟐𝟒
v. 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑦(0) = 0
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥
𝑦1 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑥 𝑦1 (0) = 0
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥
𝑦2 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑦1 2 𝑦2 (0) = 1

𝑦3 = 2𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0) = 0

𝑦4 = 2(𝑦1 𝑦3 + 𝑦2 2 ) 𝑦4 (0) = 2

𝑦5 = 2𝑦1 𝑦4 + 6y2 𝑦3 𝑦5 (0) = 0

𝑦6 = 2(3𝑦3 2 + 4𝑦2 𝑦4 + 𝑦1 𝑦5 ) 𝑦6 (0) = 16

(𝑥)2 ′′ (𝑥)3 ′′′


𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦(0) + (𝑥)𝑦 ′ (0) + 𝑦 (0) + 𝑦 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟔
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 = + + 𝟏𝟔 + ⋯
𝟐! 𝟒! 𝟔!
vi. 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)

𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) 𝑦(0) = 0


𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑦1 = 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑦1 (0) = 1

1
𝑦2 = − 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 𝑦2 (0) = −1

𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
𝑦3 = (1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥)2 = −𝑦1 𝑦2 𝑦3 (0) = 1

𝑦4 = −(𝑦2 2 + 𝑦1 𝑦3 ) 𝑦4 (0) = −2

𝑦5 = −(𝑦1 𝑦4 + 3y2 𝑦3 ) 𝑦5 (0) = 5

(𝑥)2 ′′ (𝑥)3 ′′′


𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦(0) + (𝑥)𝑦 ′ (0) + 𝑦 (0) + 𝑦 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝟐𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟓
𝑙𝑜𝑔(1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥) = 𝒙 − + − +𝟓 +⋯
𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟒! 𝟓!
vii. 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥

𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑦(0) = 0
1
𝑦1 = √1−𝑥 2

√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦1 = 1

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 2 = 1 𝑦1 (0) = 1
(1 − 𝑥 2 )2𝑦1 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦1 2 = 0 𝑦2 (0) = 0

2[(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 𝑦3 + (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦1 𝑦2 − (𝑦1 2 + 2𝑥𝑦1 )] = 0 𝑦3 (0) = 1

2[(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 𝑦4 + (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 𝑦3 − (1 − 𝑥 2 )2𝑦2 𝑦3 − 2𝑥𝑦2 2 − 2(𝑦1 𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦2 𝑦2 + 𝑥𝑦1 𝑦3 )


− (2𝑦1 𝑦2 + 2𝑥𝑦2 + 2𝑦1 )] = 0

𝑦4 (0) = 0

Similarly 𝑦5 (0) = 9

(𝑥)2 ′′ (𝑥)3 ′′′


𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑦(0) + (𝑥)𝑦 ′ (0) + 𝑦 (0) + 𝑦 (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

−𝟏
𝒙𝟑 𝟑𝒙𝟓
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒙 = 𝒙 + + +⋯
𝟔 𝟒𝟎
−𝟏 𝒙
viii. 𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏
−1 𝑥
𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝒚(𝟎) = 𝟏
−1 𝑥
𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛
𝑦1 =
√1 − 𝑥 2
−1 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 𝑦1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛

−1 𝑥 2
(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 )

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦1 2 = 𝑎2 (𝑦)2 𝒚𝟏 (𝟎) = 𝒂

(1 − 𝑥 2 )2𝑦1 𝑦2 − 2𝑥𝑦1 2 = 𝑎2 2𝑦𝑦1

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦2 − 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑦 𝒚𝟐 (𝟎) = 𝒂𝟐

(1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑦3 − 2𝑥𝑦2 − (𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑦1 ) = 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝒚𝟑 (𝟎) = 𝒂𝟑 + 𝒂

(𝒙)𝟐 ′′ (𝒙)𝟑 ′′′


𝒚(𝒙) = 𝒚(𝟎) + (𝒙)𝒚′ (𝟎) + 𝒚 (𝟎) + 𝒚 (𝟎) + ⋯
𝟐! 𝟑!

−𝟏 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑
𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒏 = 𝟏 + 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐 + (𝒂 + 𝒂𝟑 ) + ⋯
𝟐! 𝟑!
Practice problems:

Find Maclaurin’s series expansion of the following

𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥 𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙𝟑 𝟏 𝒙𝟓
ix. (Ans: 𝑒 𝑥 +1 = 𝟐 + 𝟒 − 𝟖 + 𝟒 𝟓! + ⋯ )
𝑒 𝑥 +1 𝟑!
𝑥 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝒙𝟒
x. log (1 + 𝑒 ) (Ans: log(1 + 𝑒 𝑥)
= 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 + +
𝟐 𝟒 𝟐!

𝟖 𝟒!
+ ⋯)
𝑥2 3𝑥 4 𝑥5
xi. 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 (Ans: 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + − − 8 5! + ⋯ )
2! 4!
𝝅 𝒙 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟓
xii. 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1 + 𝑥) (Ans: 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (1 + 𝑥) = 𝟒 + 𝟐 − 𝟐 −𝟐 − 𝟑 𝟓! + ⋯ )
𝟐! 𝟑!
1+𝑥 1+𝑥 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟓
xiii. 𝑙𝑜𝑔√(1−𝑥) (Ans: 𝑙𝑜𝑔√(1−𝑥) = 𝑥 + + + ⋯)
𝟑 𝟓

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