2 Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts @ 1.1 Basic concepts Geometry is divided into two kinds, synthetic and analytic. Synthetic geometry employs the straight edge and compass as its basic tools, while analytic geometry uses algebra as its main tool. In 1637, however, a French mathematician and Philosopher, Rene Descartes ( 1596-1650) published his La Geometrie, which introduced a device that is now called analytic geometry, It is interesting to note, however, that there are differences between the original Coordinate system Descartes devised and today’s Cartesian coordinates system, which was named in his honor, Descartes used a single horizontal axis and only positive values. At each point on the axis, he imagined the Construction of line segment whose length represented the value of the related second coordinate, These segments were not always perpendicular to the axis, but they were parallel to each other. The basic feature of analytic geometry is the use of coordinate system in the graphical representations of algebraic equations. Notice that algebra contribute to the study of geometry, but geometric interpretation of algebraic equations and manipulations results in a fuller comprehension of. many phases of algebra. Q 1.1.1 Directed Line Segments Let the endpoints of a line segment be designated by 4 and B, which we BA is We specify that the distance from A to 8, measured in the positive direction is Positive; i to A, measured in the negative direction, is negative. We call these two distances as directed distances, If the length of the line segment is 5, then AB BA directed line segment satisfy the equation 4B Figure 1.1. Directed Line Segments,(1.12 Cartesian Coordinates System ‘A number line is a directed line with its points corresponding to real numbers (see Figure 1.2). The number corresponding to a point on the line is called the coordinate of a point. The positive numbers correspond to points in the chosen positive direction from the origin 0 and the negative numbers correspond to points in the opposite or negative direction from the origin. 543 2 4 4 Figure 1.2, Number Line, Let the horizontal number line be called the x-axis and the vertical number line the y-axis, If the x-axis and the y-axis are intersected at right angles at the origin, together they are called the Cartesian coordinate axes and the plane determined by the coordinate axes is called the Cartesian coordinates system. Points on the Cartesian coordinates system are located by means of ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y). An ordered pair of coordinates is a set in which the order of the elements is significant. In the ordered pair (x, y), x is called the first coordinates (or abscissa) and y is called the second coordinates (or ordinate) of the point. Together they are called coordinates of a point. The coordinate axes divide the plane into four parts, called quadrants. Figure 1.3 shows the signs of x and y in the corresponding quadrants. Figure 1.3 Quadrants on the Cartesian Coordinates System.4 Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts Mustration In Figure ia, set of points‘are plotted on the Cartesian coordinates system. yap ARMC3 1,25 1), 2, 3), (4, -2)} Figure 1.4. Points on the Cartesian Coordinates System. ) 1.1.3 Distance Between Two Points . The distance between any two points or the length of a line segment connecting them, can be determined when we know the coordinates of the endpoints. Now, we will derive a formula for finding the distance between any two points, Let Pi(x1,y1) and P2(%2,2) be the endpoints of a line segment, respectively. As shown in Figure 1.5, we introduce the third point P3(2,y1). Pike WD [oy] Pie yd Pa) Figure 1.5. Distance Between Two Points. 4 : 4 “We construct a triangle connecting the endpoints. Then, the triangle PiP2P3 is a right triangle. Using the Pythagorean theoreri for right triangles, which states that, "In a right triangle the square of the length of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the, squares of the lengths of the legs”. . 7 :In our triangle the legs are PP, with length 1x:—zil and mt PSPi ly2—yi|. So, ifd is the length of the hypotenuse P:P2, we obtain @ [x2 — x11? + ba -yil? = 2x +02)" Taking the square roots, we obtain the desired result. Since the length of the liné segment ‘joining P; and P2 is the same as the distance between P| and P2, the formula is referred to as the distance formula. : 2-2 + 02-1 Remarks . ‘Notice that for any real number a, [al? = a. In the distance formula, it makes no difference which point is labelled (1,92) and which is (%2,92)- : Example 1 Find the distance between (-2,~1) and (4,3). Solution Let (x1,91) =(-2,-1), (2.92) = (4,3), atid d be the distance between the two points (see Figure 1.6). Substituting these values into the distance formula, we get d= {@—m)+02-W d= {@-Cay+6-CyY ‘d= {52 Figure 1.6. Distance Between (-2, -1) and (4, 3). a k6 Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts Example 2 If (1,—2) is equidistant with (4,4) and (x, 4), find x. Solution Our goal is to find the x-coordinate of the third point (x,4) equidistant from (4,4)and (1,-2). First, we find the distance between (x),y\)=(4,4) and (%2,32) = (1,2). Hence, | d={2-m)P+Q2-y)) => d= (1-4)? +(2-4) d= [45 Substituting (x2,y2) =(1,-2), (3,3) =(%,4), and d= /45 into the distance formula to find x, we get ' d={@s-n¥+0s-yy =: 15 = {6-1 +G-Cy 45=x?-2x41436 => x -2r-8=0 (x-4)(@@+2)=0 x=4 and x=-2 We take x = —2, since x = 4 is the abscissa of the first point (4, 4). See Figure 1.7. (2,4) (4,4) (2) Figure 1.7. Point Equidistant with the Other Two Points.1.1 Basic Concepts 7 Example 3 A triangle is a closed three-sided geometric figure. The perimeter of a triangle is equal to the sum of the lengths of its three sides. Find the perimeter of the triangle with vertices A(4,—1), B(3, 1), and C(-4,—2). Draw the triangle. Solution To find the perimeter of a triangle, we only find the length of its sides or the distance between the vertices of the triangle (see Figure 1.8). Let (1,91) =(4,-1), (2,92) =G,1), and (x3,y3)=(-4,-2); d(4,B) be the length of side AB, d(B, C) be the length of side BC, and d(4,C) be the length of side AC, Substituting these values into the distance formula, we obtain d4,B) = [02 —m)+02-1 = {O-4? +0-Ca? = {EC +@? = 3 B,C) = {03—m)+Qs—y2)? = {4-3 + 2-1 = JEN? + CY = 58 4,0) = [a —mP +0s—n = {4-4 + 2- Cy = {Car FY = V5 If P is the perimeter of a triangle, then P=d(A,B)+dB,O+d4,C) > P= {5 +/38 +65 P= 2.236 +7.618 + 8.062 P=17.92 units BGI) Figure 1.8, Triangle with Vertices: 4(4, -1), B(3, 1), and C(-4, -2).8 Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts Example 4 A square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides. The area of a square is equal to the square of its side. The diagonal of a square is a line segment joining any ‘wo non-consecutive side. Find the area of a square and the length of its diagonal whose vertices are (3, 1), (1,5), (-5,1), and (-1,-3). Draw the square. Solution Let s be the length of the side of the square (see Figure 1.9) which is just the length of the line segment whose endpoints are 1,91) = G,1) and (x2, y2) = (1,5). Hence, S=G2—ml+O2-n) => 8? =1-3)2 45-1)? s? = 32 square units Let 4 =s? (where s is the side of the square) be the area of the square, so that 4-32 square units The length of either diagonal can be calculated by multiplying the length of a side by the square root of 2 (i.e. d=s,/2 ). Let s= 32 , so that d=J32-J2 =f + a=sunits Figure 1.9. Square. ~ Remarks A square is a polygon with four sides equal and four right angles. The diagonals of a square are equal. The area of a square is also equal to one-half the square of its diagonal (e.g, A = dd),