CH 6

Chapter 6
Delivery, Forwarding,
and Routing of IP Packets
Objectives
Upon completion you will be able to:
• Understand the different types of delivery and the connection

• Understand forwarding techniques in classful addressing
• Understand forwarding techniques in classless addressing
• Understand how a routing table works
• Understand the structure of a router
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1

6.1 DELIVERY
The network layer supervises delivery, the handling of the packets by the
underlying physical networks. Two important concepts are the type of
connection and direct versus indirect delivery.
Connection Types
Direct Versus Indirect Delivery

6.1 Delivery
Connection Types

Connection Oriented Service – First connection established from
source to dst., then packets are sent after one another. When all
packets are delivered, connection is terminated.

Routers do not calculate route for each individual packet.

Connectionless Service – Each packet independent, no relationship
with other packets. Every packet may or may not travel the same
path.

Note:
IP is a connectionless protocol.

6.1 Delivery
Direct Vs Indirect Delivery

Direct Delivery – Dst is host connected to same physical Network.

Or the delivery is between last router and dst host.
The sender can easily determine if delivery is direct. (By checking

network address of dst. )

Sender finds dst. Physical addr. Done by Data-link layer.

This process is called mapping of IP to Physical addr. (ARP)

Figure 6.1 Direct delivery

6.1 Delivery
Direct Vs Indirect Delivery

Indirect Delivery – Dst is host connected to other network.

Packet goes from router to router.

Sender uses Dst. IP addr. And routing table to find IP addr of next
router.

Sender uses ARP to find physical addr. Of next router.

Figure 6.2 Indirect delivery

6.2 FORWARDING
Forwarding means to place the packet in its route to its destination.
Forwarding requires a host or a router to have a routing table. .
Forwarding Techniques
Forwarding with Classful Addressing
Forwarding with Classless Addressing
Combination

6.2 Forwarding
Next Hop Method – Routing table holds only the addr. Of next hop
instead of complete route.

See Fig.

Figure 6.3 Next-hop method

6.2 Forwarding
Network specific Method – To reduce the routing table and simplify

searching process.

Every entry defines address of destination network itself.

Ex. If 1000 hosts attached to same network only one entry exists
instead of 1000.

See fig.

Figure 6.4 Network-specific method

6.2 Forwarding
Host specific Method – Dst. Host address is given in routing table.


Efficiency sacrificed for other advantages as more control over routing.

Also used for checking the route or providing security measures.

See fig.

Figure 6.5 Host-specific routing

6.2 Forwarding
Default Routing Method – Host can have just one entry called default.

A can have default entry with network address 0.0.0.0

See fig.

Figure 6.6 Default routing

6.2 Forwarding
Forwarding with classful Addressing
Forwarding without subnetting – Forwarding designed using three

tables, one for each class. Three tables makes searching more efficient.

Each routing table has three columns
– Network addr. Of dst. Network. (We use network-specific
Forwarding.)
– Next hop address (Empty for direct delivery)
– Interface number (Defines outgoing port)

See fig.

Figure 6.7 Simplified forwarding module in classful address without subnetting

Example 1
Figure 6.8 shows an imaginary part of the Internet.

Show the routing tables for router R1.
See Next Slide

Figure 6.8 Configuration for routing, Example 1

Example 1 (Continued)
Solution
Figure 6.9 shows the three tables used by router R1.
Note that some entries in the next-hop address
column are empty because in these cases, the
destination is in the same network to which the router
is connected (direct delivery). In these cases, the next-
hop address used by ARP is simply the destination
address of the packet as we will see in Chapter 7.
See Next Slide

Figure 6.9 Tables for Example 1

Example 2
Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with

destination address 192.16.7.14. Show how the packet
is forwarded.

Example 2
Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with

destination address 192.16.7.14. Show how the packet
is forwarded.
Solution
The destination address in binary is 11000000 00010000
00000111 00001110. A copy of the address is shifted 28 bits to
the right. The result is 00000000 00000000 00000000 00001100
or 12. The destination network is class C. The network address
is extracted by masking off the leftmost 24 bits of the
destination address; the result is 192.16.7.0. The table for Class
C is searched. The network address is found in the first row.
The next-hop address 111.15.17.32. and the interface m0 are
passed to ARP.
Example 3
Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination

address 167.24.160.5. Show how the packet is forwarded.

Example 3
Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination

address 167.24.160.5. Show how the packet is forwarded.
Solution
The destination address in binary is 10100111 00011000
10100000 00000101. A copy of the address is shifted 28 bits to
the right. The result is 00000000 00000000 00000000
00001010 or 10. The class is B. The network address can be
found by masking off 16 bits of the destination address, the
result is 167.24.0.0. The table for Class B is searched. No
matching network address is found. The packet needs to be
forwarded to the default router (the network is somewhere else
in the Internet). The next-hop address 111.30.31.18 and the
interface number m0 are passed to ARP.
6.2 Forwarding
Forwarding with classful Addressing
Forwarding with subnetting – Subnetting happens inside organization.

If variable length subnetting, we need several tables otherwise we need

only one table

See fig.

The process
– Extract dst. Addr. Of packet.
– Use mask to extract subnet address.
– Search table using subnet addr. To find next-hop addr. & interface
– Number.
– Next-hop addr and interface addr. Are given to ARP.
Figure 6.10 Simplified forwarding module in classful address with subnetting

Example 4
Figure 6.11 shows a router connected to four subnets.
See Next Slide

Figure 6.11 Configuration for Example 4

Note several points. First, the site address is

145.14.0.0/16 (a class B address). Every packet with
destination address in the range 145.14.0.0 to
145.14.255.255 is delivered to the interface m4 and
distributed to the final destination subnet by the
router. Second, we have used the address x.y.z.t/n for
the interface m4 because we do not know to which
network this router is connected. Third, the table has
a default entry for packets that are to be sent out of
the site. The router is configured to apply the
mask /18 to any destination address.
Example 5
The router in Figure 6.11 receives a packet with

destination address 145.14.32.78. Show how the
packet is forwarded.

Example 5
The router in Figure 6.11 receives a packet with

destination address 145.14.32.78. Show how the
packet is forwarded.
Solution
The mask is /18. After applying the mask, the subnet
address is 145.14.0.0. The packet is delivered to ARP
with the next-hop address 145.14.32.78 and the
outgoing interface m0.

Example 6
A host in network 145.14.0.0 in Figure 6.11 has a

packet to send to the host with address 7.22.67.91.
Show how the packet is routed.

Example 6
A host in network 145.14.0.0 in Figure 6.11 has a

packet to send to the host with address 7.22.67.91.
Show how the packet is routed.
Solution
The router receives the packet and applies the mask
(/18). The network address is 7.22.64.0. The table is
searched and the address is not found. The router
uses the address of the default router (not shown in
figure) and sends the packet to that router.

Note:
In classful addressing we can have a

routing table with three columns;
in classless addressing, we need at
least four columns.

6.2 Forwarding
Forwarding with classless Addressing

Whole address space is one entity; no classes.

Table searched based on network address.

Mask is included in the table.

Fig. Shows simple forwarding module for classless addressing.

Figure 6.12 Simplified forwarding module in classless address

Example 7
Make a routing table for router R1 using the

configuration in Figure 6.13.
See Next Slide
Solution
Table 6.1 shows the corresponding table.
See the table after the figure.

Figure 6.13 Configuration for Example 7

Table 6.1 Routing table for router R1 in Figure 6.13

Example 8
Show the forwarding process if a packet arrives at R1

in Figure 6.13 with the destination address
180.70.65.140.

Example 8

180.70.65.140.
Solution
The router performs the following steps:
1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination
address. The result is 180.70.65.128, which does not
match the corresponding network address.

2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the

destination address. The result is 180.70.65.128,
which matches the corresponding network address.
The next-hop address (the destination address of the
packet in this case) and the interface number m0
are passed to ARP for further processing.

Example 9

201.4.22.35.
Solution
The router performs the following steps:

1. The first mask (/26) is applied to the destination address.

The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not match the
corresponding network address (row 1).
2. The second mask (/25) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 201.4.22.0, which does not match the
corresponding network address (row 2).
3. The third mask (/24) is applied to the destination address.
The result is 201.4.22.0, which matches the corresponding
network address. The destination address of the package and
the interface number m3 are passed to ARP.

Example
10
18.24.32.78.

Example
10
18.24.32.78.
Solution
This time all masks are applied to the destination
address, but no matching network address is found.
When it reaches the end of the table, the module gives
the next-hop address 180.70.65.200 and interface
number m2 to ARP. This is probably an outgoing
package that needs to be sent, via the default router,
to some place else in the Internet.
Example
11
Now let us give a different type of example. Can we
find the configuration of a router, if we know only its
routing table? The routing table for router R1 is given
in Table 6.2. Can we draw its topology?

Table 6.2 Routing table for Example 11

Example 11(Continued)
Solution
We know some facts but we don’t have all for a
definite topology. We know that router R1 has three
interfaces: m0, m1, and m2. We know that there are
three networks directly connected to router R1. We
know that there are two networks indirectly connected
to R1. There must be at least three other routers
involved (see next-hop column). We know to which
networks these routers are connected by looking at
their IP addresses. So we can put them at their
appropriate place.
See Next Slide
We know that one router, the default router, is

connected to the rest of the Internet. But there is some
missing information. We do not know if network
130.4.8.0 is directly connected to router R2 or through
a point-to-point network (WAN) and another router.
We do not know if network140.6.12.64 is connected to
router R3 directly or through a point-to-point network
(WAN) and another router. Point-to-point networks
normally do not have an entry in the routing table
because no hosts are connected to them. Figure 6.14
shows our guessed topology.
See Next Slide
Figure 6.14 Guessed topology for Example 6

6.2 Forwarding
Address Aggregation

Figure 6.15 Address aggregation

Figure 6.16 Longest mask matching

Example
12
As an example of hierarchical routing, let us consider Figure

6.17. A regional ISP is granted 16384 addresses starting from
120.14.64.0. The regional ISP has decided to divide this block
into four subblocks, each with 4096 addresses. Three of these
subblocks are assigned to three local ISPs, the second subblock
is reserved for future use. Note that the mask for each block
is /20 because the original block with mask /18 is divided into 4
blocks.
See Next Slide

Figure 6.17 Hierarchical routing with ISPs

The first local ISP has divided its assigned subblock into 8
smaller blocks and assigned each to a small ISP. Each small
ISP provides services to 128 households (H001 to H128), each
using four addresses. Note that the mask for each small ISP is
now /23 because the block is further divided into 8 blocks.
Each household has a mask of /30, because a household has
only 4 addresses (232−30 is 4).
The second local ISP has divided its block into 4 blocks and
has assigned the addresses to 4 large organizations (LOrg01 to
LOrg04). Note that each large organization has 1024 addresses
and the mask is /22.
See Next Slide
The third local ISP has divided its block into 16 blocks and
assigned each block to a small organization (SOrg01 to
SOrg15). Each small organization has 256 addresses and the
mask is /24.
There is a sense of hierarchy in this configuration. All routers
in the Internet send a packet with destination address
120.14.64.0 to 120.14.127.255 to the regional ISP. The regional
ISP sends every packet with destination address 120.14.64.0 to
120.14.79.255 to Local ISP1. Local ISP1 sends every packet
with destination address 120.14.64.0 to 120.14.64.3 to H001.

6.3 ROUTING
Routing deals with the issues of creating and maintaining routing tables.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Static Versus Dynamic Routing Tables

Routing Table

Figure 6.18 Common fields in a routing table

Example
13
One utility that can be used to find the contents of a
routing table for a host or router is netstat in UNIX or
LINUX. The following shows the listing of the
contents of the default server. We have used two
options, r and n. The option r indicates that we are
interested in the routing table and the option n
indicates that we are looking for numeric addresses.
Note that this is a routing table for a host, not a
router. Although we discussed the routing table for a
router throughout the chapter, a host also needs a
routing table.
See Next Slide
Example 13 (continued)
$ netstat -rn
Kernel IP routing table
Destination Gateway Mask Flags Iface
153.18.16.0 0.0.0.0 255.255.240.0 U eth0
127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U lo
0.0.0.0 153.18.31. 254 0.0.0.0 UG eth0.
See Next Slide

Example 13 (continued)
More information about the IP address and physical address of

the server can be found using the ifconfig command on the
given interface (eth0).
$ ifconfig eth0
eth0 Link encap:Ethernet HWaddr 00:B0:D0:DF:09:5D
inet addr:153.18.17.11 Bcast:153.18.31.255 Mask:255.255.240.0
....
From the above information, we can deduce the configuration

of the server as shown in Figure 6.19.
See Next Slide

Figure 6.19 Configuration of the server for Example 13

6.4 STRUCTURE OF A ROUTER
We represent a router as a black box that accepts incoming packets from
one of the input ports (interfaces), uses a routing table to find the
departing output port, and sends the packet from this output port.
The topics discussed in this section include:
Components

Figure 6.20 Router components

Components of Router
Input Ports – Performs physical and Data Link layer functions.

Bits constructed from Received signal.
Buffer
Output Ports – same as Input port in reverse order.
Routing processor – Performs functions of Network layer.

Finds address of next hop and o/p port number.
Performs Table Lookup
Switching Fabric – Speed affects the delivery.

Input port

Output port

Crossbar switch
Connects n inputs to n outputs in a grid.

A banyan switch

A banyan switch
Multistage switch with microswitches at each stage.

For n inputs and n outputs we have log2(n) stages with n/2
microswitches.

Examples of routing in a banyan switch

Batcher-banyan switch
Possibility of internal collision.

Sort arriving packets based on their destination port.
Trap module prevents duplicate packets from passing to the
banyan switch simultaneously.

THE END...!


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Chapter 6

• Understand the different types of delivery and the connection

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 1

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 2

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 4

Direct Vs Indirect Delivery

The sender can easily determine if delivery is direct. (By checking

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 5

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 6

Direct Vs Indirect Delivery

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 7

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 8

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 9

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 10

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 11

Network specific Method – To reduce the routing table and simplify

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 12

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 13

Host specific Method – Dst. Host address is given in routing table.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 14

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 15

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 16

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 17

Forwarding with classful Addressing

Forwarding without subnetting – Forwarding designed using three

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 18

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 19

Figure 6.8 shows an imaginary part of the Internet.

See Next Slide

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 20

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 21

See Next Slide

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 22

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 23

Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 24

Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with

Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26

Router R1 in Figure 6.8 receives a packet with destination

Forwarding with classful Addressing

Forwarding with subnetting – Subnetting happens inside organization.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 29

Figure 6.11 shows a router connected to four subnets.

See Next Slide

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 30

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 31

Note several points. First, the site address is

The router in Figure 6.11 receives a packet with

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 33

The router in Figure 6.11 receives a packet with

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 34

A host in network 145.14.0.0 in Figure 6.11 has a

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 35

A host in network 145.14.0.0 in Figure 6.11 has a

TCP/IP Protocol Suite 36

In classful addressing we can have a