The document discusses subnetting, IP addressing, and network protocols. It explains that a subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network that allows devices to communicate directly without routing. Subnet masks divide IP addresses into network and host portions. Common subnet masks include /8, /16, and /24. The document also describes DHCP for dynamically assigning IP addresses, CIDR for improving routing efficiency, and NAT for mapping private to public IP addresses to conserve addresses. Finally, it discusses the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address limitations of IPv4 and introduces IPv6 features like larger address space and no fragmentation.
The document discusses subnetting, IP addressing, and network protocols. It explains that a subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network that allows devices to communicate directly without routing. Subnet masks divide IP addresses into network and host portions. Common subnet masks include /8, /16, and /24. The document also describes DHCP for dynamically assigning IP addresses, CIDR for improving routing efficiency, and NAT for mapping private to public IP addresses to conserve addresses. Finally, it discusses the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address limitations of IPv4 and introduces IPv6 features like larger address space and no fragmentation.
The document discusses subnetting, IP addressing, and network protocols. It explains that a subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network that allows devices to communicate directly without routing. Subnet masks divide IP addresses into network and host portions. Common subnet masks include /8, /16, and /24. The document also describes DHCP for dynamically assigning IP addresses, CIDR for improving routing efficiency, and NAT for mapping private to public IP addresses to conserve addresses. Finally, it discusses the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address limitations of IPv4 and introduces IPv6 features like larger address space and no fragmentation.
The document discusses subnetting, IP addressing, and network protocols. It explains that a subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network that allows devices to communicate directly without routing. Subnet masks divide IP addresses into network and host portions. Common subnet masks include /8, /16, and /24. The document also describes DHCP for dynamically assigning IP addresses, CIDR for improving routing efficiency, and NAT for mapping private to public IP addresses to conserve addresses. Finally, it discusses the transition from IPv4 to IPv6 to address limitations of IPv4 and introduces IPv6 features like larger address space and no fragmentation.
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Lecture 8: Network Layer Part 2
Slide: Subnets
What is a subnets?
A subnet is a logical subdivision of an IP network, and devices within the same subnet can communicate with each other directly without the need for routing through an intervening router.
A subnet mask is a 32-bit number that divides an IP address into network and host portions. It's used to delineate the network ID from the host ID within an IP address. The subnet mask contains a series of contiguous "1" bits followed by contiguous "0" bits.
Default Subnet Masks:
Class A: 255.0.0.0 or /8
Class B: 255.255.0.0 or /16
Class C: 255.255.255.0 or /24
IP Address: 192.168.1.0 / 24 (255.255.255.0)
The pink one is the network.
The blue is the host.
For this IP, only the blue will change in the network.
The maximum for this IP address is 192.168.1.255/24
Note: we can cannot use IP 192.168.1.0 and 192.168.1.255 for our network, they are reserved.
Usable IP addresses:
/8 – Total: 16,777,216 = Usable: 16,777,214
/16- Total: 65,536 = Usable: 65,534
/24- Total: 256 = Usable: 254
Custom Subnet Masks:
Subnetting allows for custom subnet masks to create smaller, more efficient subnets. Common examples include:
255.255.255.128 or /25
255.255.255.192 or /26
255.255.255.224 or /27
255.255.255.240 or /28 Subnetting is the process of dividing an IP network into sub-networks to improve performance and security. This segmentation is achieved by creating smaller, more manageable groups of devices within the larger network.
Subnetting is done to eliminate wastage to unassigned IP addresses.
It is calculated as shown below:
Step 1: Determine the number of hosts per network and convert to binary
For example, we have 60 hosts/devices for this 192.168.1.0 /24
60 = 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 1 1 0 0 = 6 bits to represent 60 hosts.
Step 2: Reserve bits in subnet mask and find your increment
/24 = 255.255.255.0
255.255.255.255. 00000000
255.255.255 . 11000000 = we must input six zero as we had 6 bits in the steps above and the remaining one become 1.
As seen in the screenshot above, the ones are 128 + 64 = 192.
255.255.255.192 / 26
Step 3: Use increment to find your network ranges
192.168.1.0 ----- 63 = as we must look at the last one in the above step which is 64.
192.168.1.64 --- 127 (63+64) = We must look for and use the range where there is the least wastage.
192.168.1.128 ----- 191
192.168.1.0 ----- 63 is the least wastage we can get IP address for our 60 hosts.
We have 62 usable IP address and 64 in total.
So, the answer is 192.168.1.0 / 26.
Another example where we have 20 hosts:
Step 1: 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0100
20 hosts = 5 bits
Step 2:
/24 = 255.255.255.0
255.255.255.255. 00000000
255.255.255 .11100000
128 +64+32 = 224
255.255.255.224 / 27
Step 3:
The answer if we consider the example of 60 hosts:
Last one = 32 (Increment)
192.168.1.64 ---- 95 (+ 32)
192.168.1.96 ---- 127
192.168.1.128 --- 159
Answer: 192.168.1.64 / 27
20 host
Total IP = 32
Usable = 30
Wastage = 10 The answer if we did not use the first 64 address in the 60 hosts
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is an IP address allocation method that improves data routing efficiency on the internet.
Slide: IP addresses: how to get one?
Hard‐coded by systerm admin in config file (e.g., /etc/rc.config in UNIX)
DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get address from as server (Home Router do this)
Slide: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network protocol used to automatically assign and manage IP addresses and other network configuration information to devices on a network. DHCP simplifies the process of IP address management and helps prevent conflicts caused by manual IP address assignment. The WIFI router works like this at home. It will give all people at home an IP address from its pool of addresses. How DHCP assign the IP:
Host broadcasts DHCP discover msg [optional]
DHCP server responds with DHCP offer msg [optional] Host requests IP address: DHCP request msg DHCP server sends address: DHCP ack msg
Slide: DHCP Client-Server Scenario
Slide: DHCP: More than IP Addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address on subnet:
address of first‐hop router for client
name and IP address of DNS sever network mask (indicating network versus host portion of address)
Slide: Hierarchical Addressing: Route Aggregation
Hierarchical addressing and route aggregation are concepts used in networking to efficiently organize and manage IP addresses and routing information.
These concepts play a crucial role in reducing the size of routing tables and improving the scalability and performance of the Internet. Slide: IP Addressing: Last Words
These institution are given IP addresses and they sell them to local ISP and we buy it from them. Slide: NAT: Network Address Translation
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique used in networking to map private IP addresses within a local network to a single public IP address, or a small range of public IP addresses, when accessing resources on the Internet.
NAT allows multiple devices in a private network to share a common public IP address, providing a layer of security and conserving public IP address space (Conserving IPv4).
Advantages of NAT:
Conservation of Public IP Addresses:
NAT allows multiple devices in a local network to share a single public IP address, which conserves the limited pool of available public IP addresses.
Security:
NAT acts as a basic firewall by hiding the internal network structure. It prevents direct access to devices with private IP addresses from the Internet. Address Space Flexibility:
Private IP addresses can be used within a local network without conflicting with public IP addresses on the Internet.
NAT is implemented on the Router.
NAT is a bit controversial:
A router should only process up to layer 3. (Changing ports number is transport layer jobs.)
NAT will not be used as much as IPv6 is going to resolve the IPv4 shortage.
Slide: IPv6 Motivation
32-bits IPv4 address space would be completely allocated.
Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 = New equipment is needed. Costly (need new switches)
IPv4 and IPv6 is not compatible.
Slide: IPv6 Datagram Format
IPv6 Datagram Header Fields:
Version (4 bits):
Indicates the version of the IP protocol. For IPv6, this field is set to 6.
Traffic Class (8 bits):
Similar to the IPv4 Type of Service (ToS) field. It is used to differentiate and prioritize traffic. It includes the Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) and Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN) fields.
Flow Label (20 bits):
Used to identify a flow, which is a sequence of packets sent from a source to a destination. The flow label helps routers and switches to provide special handling for packets belonging to the same flow.
Payload Length (16 bits):
Specifies the length of the payload in octets (8-bit units), excluding the length of the IPv6 header. The maximum payload length is 65,535 octets.
Next Header (8 bits):
Identifies the protocol used in the payload, similar to the IPv4 Protocol field. For example, it might indicate TCP, UDP, ICMPv6, or another protocol.
Hop Limit (8 bits):
Similar to the IPv4 Time-to-Live (TTL) field. It limits the number of hops a packet can take in the network, helping to prevent packets from looping indefinitely. Source Address (128 bits):
The 128-bit IPv6 address of the source node.
Destination Address (128 bits):
The 128-bit IPv6 address of the destination node.
Slide: Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
Transition is not quickly. It takes time for company to invest and some won’t invest for the time being.
How to use tunnelling to allow IPv4 network to communicate with an IPv6 network? IPv6 tunneling is a technique used to enable the transmission of IPv6 packets over an IPv4 network infrastructure. This is necessary when either the source or destination network does not natively support IPv6. IPv6 tunneling encapsulates IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets, allowing them to traverse IPv4 networks.
Slide: Tunneling and Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of adding a header (and possibly a trailer) to the data (payload) of a higher-layer protocol. The encapsulated data is then transmitted as the payload of a lower-layer protocol. Router B and E is hybrid. (understand both IPv4 and IPv6)
For the router A to send data to router F, it needs to send the IPv6 packet to Router B. Then, it will encapsulate the IPv6 packet in a IPv4 packet which can be sent to Router E. Router E will then decapsulate it for router F.
This process is like tunnel where the IPv6 is hidden in a IPv4 packet.
Slide: IP fragmentation/reassembly
IP fragmentation and reassembly are mechanisms used in the Internet Protocol (IP) to handle the transmission of large packets across networks with smaller Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes. When a packet is too large to be transmitted over a network with a lower MTU, IP fragmentation breaks it into smaller fragments before transmission. The destination host then reassembles these fragments to reconstruct the original packet.
Take resources and time to do this. This is why there is not this feature in IPv6.
