CH 01

IGCSE Computer Science 0984
Chapter 01
Data Representation
Steal This CS Notes

WHAT THEY WON’T TELL YOU ABOUT CS
Created by:
Mr. Mahmoud Moussa
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Outline
How and why computers use binary to represent all forms of data?
Convert between
Positive denary and positive binary
Positive denary and positive hexadecimal

Positive hexadecimal and positive binary
How and why hexadecimal is used as a beneficial method of data representation?

Add two positive 8-bit binary integers
Why overflow occurs in binary addition?

Perform a logical binary shift left and right on a positive 8-bit binary integer and
the effect this has on the positive binary integer
Use two’s complement to represent positive and negative 8-bit binary integers
3
Outline
How and why a computer represents text and the use of character sets, including
American standard code for information interchange (ASCII) and Unicode?
How and why a computer represents sound, including the effects of the sample
rate and sample resolution?
How and why a computer represents an image, including the effects of the
resolution and colour depth?
How data storage is measured?
Calculate the file size of an image file and a sound file, using information given
The purpose of and need for data compression
How files are compressed using lossy and lossless compression methods?
Binary System
Why we use binary to represent data in computers?
Binary System Consists of 1s and 0s only.
Computers contain millions of tiny ‘switches’ which

must be in the ‘ON’ or ‘OFF’ position.
A switch in the ON position can be represented by 1
A switch in the OFF position can be represented by 0
Binary Signifies voltage

Binary System
Converting from denary (base 10) to binary (base 2)
Example 1: Convert 2510 to binary
Repeated Division-by-2 Method
Solution: Quotient Remainder
25/2 = 12 1 LSB (least significant bit)
12/2 = 6 0
6/2 = 3 0
3/2 = 1 1
1/2 = 0 1 MSB (most significant bit)
Therefore, 2510 = 110012
Divide the decimal number by 2 repeatedly.

Keep track of remainder.
This process continues until the quotient becomes 0.

Remainders are written in reverse order to obtain the binary number.
Converting from Denary (Base 10) to Binary (Base 2)

25 - This method involves placing
Sum-of-Weights Method 1s in the appropriate position
24 23 22 21 20 so that the total equates to 25.
Solution:
16 8 4 2 1
- If weight > 25, place a 0,
otherwise a 1.
1 1 0 0 1
16 + 8 + 0 + 0 + 1= 25 Therefore, 2510 = 110012
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
52/2 = 26 0
26/2 = 13 0
13/2 = 6 1
6/2 = 3 0
3/2 = 1 1
Therefore, 10510 = 11010012
Example 3: Convert 10710 to 8 bit binary value
53/2 = 26 1
26/2 = 13 0
13/2 = 6 1
6/2 = 3 0
3/2 = 1 1
1/2 = 0 1
Therefore, 10710 = 011010112
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Sum-of-Weights Method 107
27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Solution:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1
0 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 2 + 1 = 107
Converting from Binary (Base 2) to Denary (Base 10)

Example 1: Convert 11011012 to denary
Solution:
- Determine the weight of each bit that is a 1.

- Find the sum of the weights to get the decimal number.
Weight: 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Binary number: 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
11011012 = 64+ 32 + 0+ 8+ 4+ 0+ 1 = 109

The process of converting the binary number 1101101 into a denary number
Write column headings (Powers of 2 ) (26, 25, 24,23,22,21,20)
Place a 1 or a 0 for each column in correct position
Identify the columns to be added

Add together the denary values identified this will give a
total which is the denary number
Answer is 109
By looking at the binary number, how can you determine if the

binary number is odd or even number in denary?
If the number to the far right in the binary number is 1

The denary number should be odd
Otherwise it should be even
Measurement of the Size of Computer Memories
A binary digit is commonly referred to as a BIT (0).

A bit is abbreviated with a lower-case‘b’
1 NIBBLE = 4 bits (0000)

1 BYTE = 8 bits (0000 0000)
1 BYTE represents a character (e.g letter, number or symbole)

A byte is abbreviated with the capital letter ‘B’
Name of Memory Size Number of bytes Equivalent denary value

1 kilobyte (KB) = 1000B 210 1 kibibyte (KiB) = 1024 bytes
1 megabyte (MB) = 1000KB 220 1 mebibyte (MiB) = 1024KiB
1 gigabyte (GB) = 1000MB 230 1 gibibyte (GiB) = 1024MiB
1 terabyte (TB) = 1000GB 240 1 tebibyte (TiB) = 1024GiB
1 petabyte (PB) = 1000TB 250 1 pebibyte (PiB) = 1024TiB
1 Exabyte (EB) = 1000 PB 260 1 exbibyte (EiB) = 1024 PiB 11
Measurement of the Size of Computer Memories
Example 1
Q: If the data transfer rate using the internet is 32 megabits per second, how long
it will take to download a 40 MB file?
40MB = 320megabits
320megabits / 32megabits per second
It will take 10 seconds to download a 40MB file.
Example 2
Q: Each image taken requires 1MB of storage. If the camera captures an image
every 30 seconds over a 10 hour period, how much storage is required? Give your
answer in gigabytes and show all your working.
Convert hours to seconds = 10 * 60 * 60 = 36000 seconds

Number of photos = 36000 S / 30 S = 1200 photos
Memory requirement = 1MB * 1200 = 1200MB
Convert to GB = 1200 / 1000 = 1.2GB
Binary VS Denary
The differences between the binary number system and the denary number system
A denary number system is a base-10 system

A binary number system uses 0 and 1 values
A denary number system uses 0 to 9 values
A binary number system has column headings that

increase by the power of 2
A denary number system has column headings that increase by

the power of 10
Binary has more digit for the same value

Applications of Binary System
When computers (or microprocessors) are used to control devices (such as robots)
Registers and sensors are used as part of the control system.
What is meant by the term register?
Small piece of fast memory (eg: 16bits, 32bits, 64bits)

Part of the processor
Temporary storage of data
Data is about to be or has been processed
What is meant by the term sensor?
It is an input device
It measures/takes physical readings of the surrounding environment properties
Such as Temperature sensor, sound sensor, and proximity sensor

1 Mobile Trolley
Controlled devices usually contain registers which are made up of binary digits (bits). The
following example shows how these registers can be used to control a device.
The device on the left is a mobile trolley with 3 wheels. All three wheels
can turn left or right and each wheel has its own electric driving motor.
Sensors at the front and rear of the trolley detect an object in its path
which would subsequently stop all movement. An 8-bit register is used to
control the device. These represents the sensors
These represents the wheels
Front Backward Motor

Front Rear Error (object
Wheel Rear
Wheel Wheel Forward Direction (on/off) in the way
Turns right Wheel
Turns left Turns right Direction (on/off) =1, clear
(on/off) Turns left
(on/off) (on/off) (on/off) path = 0
(on/off)
(1 = ON and 0 = OFF)
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0

Wheel Rear
Turns right Wheel
(on/off) Turns left
(on/off)
What does this register mean? 10101010

- Front wheel turns left
- Back wheels turn left
- The direction is forward
- The motors are on
- Therefore the trolley is moving forward and turning left.

0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1

Wheel Rear
Turns right Wheel
(on/off) Turns left
(on/off)
What does this register mean? 00010111

- Front wheel not turning left or right
- Rear wheels turning right
- Going in backward direction
- Motors on
- Error – object in path
- So the vehicle is going nowhere.
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0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0

Wheel Rear
Turns right Wheel
(on/off) Turns left
(on/off)
How would the following be represented using the above register?
- Front wheel turning right

- Back wheels turning left
- Moving in a forward direction
- Motors on
- No object in its path
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2 A digital alarm clock
A digital alarm clock is controlled by a microprocessor. It uses the 24-hour clock
system (i.e. 6 pm is 18:00). Each digit in a typical display is represented by a 4-
digit binary code. For example:
is represented by:
(clock display)
(a) What time is shown on the clock display if the 4-digit binary codes are:
(b) What would be stored in the 4-digit binary codes if the clock display time was:
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1 0
(clock display)
1 0 0 1
(clock display)
3 Elevators
A large hotel uses eight lifts (elevators) to carry passengers between its sixty floors. A
computer is used to control and monitor the lifts. Each lift has three registers to represent
its state. 1
Register 1 UP/DOWN 1 = lift going up and 0 = lift going down
4 2 1
Register 2 Lift ID number 0 to 7
32 16 8 4 2 1
Register 3 Floor number 0 to 60
Thus:
1 4 2 1 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
lift going up lift ID number 4 lift presently on 27th floor

1
4 2 1
32 16 8 4 2 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(a) If the three registers contain the following data:
1 4 2 1 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
What information about the lift is shown?

- Lift 7
- Presently on 56th floor
- Going down
1
4 2 1
32 16 8 4 2 1
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(b) How would the following information be shown in the three registers:
lift 6 presently on the 45th floor and going down
1 4 2 1 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
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(c) A customer is on the 14th floor and wants to go to the 50th floor. She presses
the button to call the lift. What two pieces of information would the computer
check to identify which of the eight lifts should be made available?
- is lift in service? - is a lift already on the 14th floor?
- which lift is nearest 14th floor? - which lifts are going up?
- which floor is the lift on? - which lifts are below 14th floor
(d) Using your answers to part (c), which of the following lifts would be made
available to the customer?
32 16 8 4 2 1
A
D B
D
Example Use of Binary
Uses for a binary number stored in a register
Data
ASCII value or Unicode value
Number
Part of image or small image

A sound sample or small sound track
Instruction
An address in main memory
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The Hexadecimal System (Base 16)

Denary Binary Hex Based on 16 different digits [0-9] and [A-F]
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
A hexadecimal number system has column
2 0010 2
headings that increase by the power of 16
3 0011 3
4 0100 4 The typical headings for a hexadecimal
5 0101 5 number with five digits would be:
6 0110 6
65536 4096 256 16 1
7 0111 7
164 163 162 161 160
8 1000 8
9 1001 9 Each hexadecimal digit is equal to four
10 1010 A binary digits.
11 1011 B
Computers convert hexadecimal data into
12 1100 C
binary before processing it
13 1101 D
14 1110 E Table summarises the link between
15 1111 F denary, binary and hexadecimal.
Converting from Binary to Hexadecimal
Example 1: Represent binary 100111110101 in hex.
Solution:
- First the number is grouped into sets of 4 bits.
- Each group of 4 bits is replaced with its hex equivalent.
1001 1111 0101
9 F 5
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Represent binary 10000111111101 in hex.
Solution:
- First the number is grouped into sets of 4 bits.
- The left group contains only 2 bits, so add in 2 0s.
- Each group of 4 bits is replaced with its hex equivalent.
0010 0001 1111 1101
2 1 F D
Converting from Hexadecimal to Binary

Example 1: Convert hex 29B to binary
Solution:
2 9 B
0010 1001 1011

Dropping the leading zeros gives 1010011011
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Convert hex 45A to binary
Solution:
4 5 A
0100 0101 1010

Dropping the leading zero gives 10001011010
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Converting from Hexadecimal to Denary
Example 1: Convert hex 45A to denary
Solution:
4 5 A
162 161 160
(4x256) + (5x16)+ (10x1) Note: A=10
Denary Number = 1114
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Convert hex C8F to denary
Solution:
C 8 F
162 161 160
(12x256) + (8x16)+ (15x1) Note: C=12 F=15
Denary Number = 3215
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Converting from Denary to Hexadecimal

Example 1: Convert 4510 to hex
45/16 = 2 13 (hex D) LSB (least significant bit)
Therefore, 4510 = 2D16
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Example 2: Convert 62910 to hex
39/16 = 2 7
Therefore, 62910 = 27516
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Use of Hexadecimal System
Memory Dumps
Use of Notation for Colour in HyperText
Hexadecimal Mark-up Language (HTML)
System
Media Access Control (MAC) Address
Web Addresses
Assembly Code and Machine Code
Display Error Codes

1 Memory Dumps
Much easier to work with: B 9 A 4 1 A F C rather than:

1011 | 1001 | 1010 | 0100 | 0001 | 1010 | 1111 | 1100
Therefore, Hexadecimal is often used in developing new software or when trying
to trace errors in programs.
When the memory contents are output to a printer or monitor,
this is known as a MEMORY DUMP
A program developer can look at each of the hexadecimal codes and determine
where the error lies
Memory location
2 Notation for Colour in HyperText Mark-up Language (HTML)
Hex colour notations are normally six digits

Each hex notation represents a different colour
The first two digits are the red component
The second two the green component
The last two the blue component.
All three together create the colour
The different intensity of the three primary colours (red, green, blue) is
determined by its hexadecimal values.
Example 01:
#FF 00 00 represent primary colour red
#00 FF 00 represent primary colout green
#00 00 FF represent primary colout blue
#FF 80 00 represent primary colout orange

Example 02:
The following code shows HTML ‘tag’ pairs on either side of the text stating the colour that
each creates.
 RED 
 GREEN 
 BLUE 
 YELLOW 
 MAGENTA 
 CYAN 
Yellow is a combination of red and green, magenta a combination of red and blue and
cyan a combination of green and blue. State what 6-digit hexadecimal values should
replace X, Y and Z in the above code.
X FF FF 00 Y FF 00 FF Z 00 FF FF
Describe how other colours, such as a darker shade of blue, are created.
Hex values between 00 to FF are combined together to create a hex code

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Different combinations in hex codes will create different colours
3 Media Access Control (MAC) Address
Hardware or physical address

MAC address refers to a number which uniquely identifies
each device on a network
Usually 48 or 64 bits (12 or 16 hex digits)
First 6 or 8 digits = manufacturer code of device (NIC)
Last 6 or 8 digits = serial number of device (NIC)
It is manufactured into every network card and rarely changed
Example:
00 – 1C – B3 – 4F – 25 - EE
Manufacturer Serial Number

Code Of the device

Types of MAC address
Universally Administered MAC Address (UAA)

Most common type of MAC address
Set by the manufacturer at the factory
It is rare for a user to want to change this MAC address
It will cause big problems if the changed address isn’t unique
Locally Administered MAC Address (LAA)

Reasons why the MAC address needs to be changed using LAA
Certain software used on mainframe systems needs all the MAC
addresses of devices to fall into a strict format
It may be necessary to bypass a MAC address filter on a router or a firewall
Only MAC addresses with a certain format are allowed through, otherwise the
devices will be blocked
4 Web Addresses
There are two systems commonly

used for character (text, numbers
and symbols) representation
ASCII
(AMERICAN STANDARD CODE
FOR INFORMATION
INTERCHANGE)
Unicode
ASCII TABLE

Differences between the ASCII and Unicode character sets
UNICODE has greater range of characters than ASCII

UNICODE gives 65,536 possible characters
ASCII gives 256 possible characters
UNICODE represents most written languages in the world
ASCII used for English only
ASCII uses 7bits per character (0-127)
Extended ASCII uses 8bits per character (0-255)
UNICODE uses up to 4 bytes per character

UNICODE uses 16 or 32 bits
How characters are represented using the ASCII character set
Each character is represented by a unique corresponding binary code
Example
When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the computer stores the ASCII representation of
the character typed into main memory. The ASCII representation for A is 65 (denary), for B
is 66 (denary), etc. There are two letters stored in the following memory locations:
Show the contents of Location 1 and Location 2 Location 1 A

as binary using 8 bits. Location 2 C
Location 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
Location 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1

Representation of a web address:
Use of ASCII codes to represent a web address /Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
The % sign is used to denote that hexadecimal is being used
Sometimes the URL contains the characters %20 WHY??
Because <space> not allowed in a URL, %20 is the coding for a space (32 in denary)
www.hodder.co.uk
w w w .
%77 %77 %77 %2E
h o d d e r .
%68 %6F %64 %64 %65 %72 %2E
c o . u k
%63 %6F %2E %75 %6B
5 Assembly Code and Machine Code
Benefits of using hexadecimal numbers in computer science:

Can represent 16 bit words as only 4 hexadecimal digits/ Less digits to use
It is easy to convert hex digits back to binary if necessary
More can be displayed on a screen for addresses
Smaller amount of memory needed to store the hex error messages than text based
Easier to find errors
Easier for programmers to read and understand
Faster than binary for entering numbers
Less likely to make error

Example:
STO FFA4 (Assembly code assigns mnemonic codes)
A5E4 FFA4 (Machine code using hexadecimal values)
1010 0101 1110 0100 1111 1111 1010 0100 (Machine code using binary)
Machine code and assembly code are examples of low level languages
Why software developers use hexadecimal system rather than

binary at the development stage of software writing?
Help software developers to locate errors in the code
Easier for software developers to identify values in hexadecimal than binary
Drawbacks of using true machine code (which uses binary)
Very cumbersome and it takes a long time to key in the values
It is also very easy to mistype the digits in a ‘sea of 1s and 0s’
Programs are hard to maintain and debug
6 Display Error Codes
One of the most common errors you can come across while browsing the
Internet is a #404 or Page Not Found error.
This error often occurs when you follow a broken link or if you type in a website
address that doesn't exist.
A #404 page is a page that explains that a 404 error has occurred.
This error code #404 is written in hexadecimal
42
Addition of Binary Numbers

Facts when carrying out addition of two binary digits
Binary Addition Carry Sum

0+0= 0 0
0+1= 0 1
1+0= 0 1
1+1= 1 0
1+1+1= 1 1
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Example 1 Add 00100111 + 01001010
111 Carry Values
00100111
+
01001010
01110001 Sum Values
44

Example 2 Add 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 and 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 (using 8 bits)
1 1 11 1 1 1 Carry Values
01101110
+
11011110
9th bit
1 01001100 Sum Values
This addition has generated a 9th bit.
The 8 bits of the answer are 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 – this gives the denary value of 76
which is incorrect because the denary value of the addition is 110 + 222 = 332.
The maximum denary value of an 8-bit binary number is 255 (28 -1)
The generation of a 9th bit is a clear indication that the sum has exceeded this value.
This is known as an overflow error
45
Why overflow error occur in binary addition?
Will occur if the value is greater than 255 in an 8-bit register

A computer or a device has a predefined limit that it
can represent or store, for example 16-bit
Occurs when a value outside this limit should be returned
Note
The larger the number of bits which can be used to represent a number
then the larger the number that can be stored.
Example
A 16-bit register would allow a maximum denary value of 65,535
(216 – 1) to be stored
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Logical Binary Shifts

Logical Shift
Means moving the binary number to the left or to the right
Each shift left is equivalent to multiplying the binary number by 2
Each shift right is equivalent to dividing the binary number by 2
Example 1
The denary number 21 is 00010101 in binary. If we put this into an 8-bit register:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
If we now shift the bits in this register one place to the left, we obtain:
Note how the empty

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
right-most bit position
is now filled with a 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
The value of the binary bits is now 21 × 21 = 42.

Example 2
The denary number 21 is 00010101 in binary. If we put this into an 8-bit register:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1
If we now shift the bits in this register two places to the left, we obtain:
Note how the empty

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
right-most bit position
is now filled with a 0
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
The value of the binary bits is now 21 × 22 = 84.

Example 3
Let us consider what happens if we shift the binary number 00010101 four places
left:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1 Losing 1 bit following

a shift operation will
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 cause an error
The left-most 1-bit has been lost

In our 8-bit register the result of 21 × 24 is 80 which is clearly incorrect
This error is because we have exceeded the maximum number of left shifts
possible using this register

Example 4
A computer uses an 8-bit register. The 8-bit register contains binary integers.
Write the denary (base 10) value represented by:
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
112
The original number is shifted three places to the right. Show the new binary number
00001110
Write the equivalent denary number.

14
State the effect the shift to the right had on the original denary number
51
Divided by 8
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Describe the problems that could be caused if the original binary number is shifted
five places to the
Run out of places to the right of register
Right-most 1 would be lost
Number would become 3 instead of 3.5

Loss of precision
Two’s Complement (Binary Numbers)

Two’s complement
Used to allow the possibility of representing negative integers

In two’s complement to a binary number that the left-most bit always determines
the sign of the binary number
A 1-value in the left-most bit indicates a negative number and a 0-value in the left
most bit indicates a positive number.
For example
00110011 Positive = 51 in denary
11001111 Negative = -49 in denary
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Example 1
Using two’s complement, show how 114 in base 10 could be stored in an 8-bit
register:
0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
114/2 57 0
57/2 28 1
28/2 14 0
14/2 7 0
7/2 3 1
3/2 1 1
1/2 0 1

Example 2
Using two’s complement, show how -93 in base 10 could be stored in an 8-bit
register:
93/2 46 1 Complement the bits

46/2 23 0
01011101
23/2 11 1
11/2 5 1 101000 10
5/2 2 1 Add one to the result
2/2 1 0 101000 10
1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1+
1010001 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
Example 3
Using two’s complement, show how -77 could be stored in an 8-bit register
77/2 38 1 Complement the bits

38/2 19 0
01001101
19/2 9 1
9/2 4 1 101100 10
4/2 2 0 Add one to the result
2/2 1 0 101100 10
1/2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1+
1011001 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1

Example 4
Using two’s complement, show how to convert the binary value 1001 0011 to denary
-128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
-128 + 16 + 2 + 1 = - 109
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Representation of sound
Difference between analogue and digital data
Analogue data
Continuous data
Non-discrete data
e.g. data such as a sound wave
Digital data
Discrete data that has only two values
e.g. binary data (1’s and 0’s)
Representation of Sound
Soundwaves are vibrations in the air
The human ear senses these vibrations and interprets them as sound
High Frequency Wave
The amplitude specifies

the loudness of the sound
Low Frequency Wave
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Sound waves vary continuously
This means that sound is analogue.
Computers cannot work with analogue data.
So sound waves need to be sampled in order to be stored in a computer
This is done using an analogue to digital converter (ADC)
Sampling
Measurement of value of analogue signal at regular time intervals
Sampling Rate
The number of samples taken per unit time
Effect of Sampling Rate on Sound Quality

Increasing the sampling rate will increase the accuracy of the digitised sound
Sampling Resolution
Number of distinct values available to encode each sample

Number of bits used to store each sample
Sometimes referred to as bit depth
The higher the sampling resolution, the smaller the quantization error
A higher sampling resolution results in less distortion of the sound
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Usually 8 bit, 16 bit, 24 bit or 32 bit
The benefits and drawbacks of using a larger sampling resolution when recording
sound
Benefits
Larger dynamic range
Better sound quality
Less sound distortion
Drawbacks
Produces larger file size
Takes longer to transmit
Requires greater processing power

62
How sampling is used to record the sound clips?
The height of the sound wave is determined
At set time intervals
To get an approximation of the sound wave
And encoded as a sequence of binary numbers
Increasing the sampling rate will improve the accuracy of the recording
63
Representation of Bitmap Images
Bitmap Image
Made up of pixels
Made up of a two-dimensional matrix of pixels
Each pixel has one colour
Colour of each pixel stored as a binary number
Colour depth
The number of bits per pixel

With 1 bit we can have just 2 colours, black or white, for example
With 2 bits we can have 4 colours
With 3 bits we can have 8 colours
With 8 bits will give us 256 colours

So the more the bits per pixel, the greater range of colours in the image, we achieve
Representation of Bitmap Images

Image Resolution
The number of pixels in an image
The number of pixels wide by the number of pixels high
File Header
Data about the bitmap image

Examples of data stored in a file header
Dimensions of the image in pixels (Image Resolution)
Colour Depth (Number of bits in each pixel)
Type of compression used, if any
Note
The file size and quality of the image increases as the resolution and colour depth increase
65
Calculation of File Size
The file size of an image is calculated as:
Image Resolution (in pixels) × Colour Depth (in bits)
The size of a mono sound file is calculated as:

Sample rate (in Hz) × Sample Resolution (in bits) × Length of Sample (in seconds)
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Example 1
The image is scanned with an image resolution of 1024 × 512 pixels, and a colour
depth of 8 bits per pixel. Calculate an estimate for the file size, giving your answer in
mebibytes. Show your working.
1024 x 512 x 1B / 1024 = 512KiB
512 / 1024 = 0.5MiB
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Example 2
The icon in below is represented in a computer's memory as a bitmap image.

Four different colours have been used in the icon. Row 1 of the icon is represented in the
computer's memory as the bit pattern:
What are the bit patterns that have been used to

represent a grey pixel and a white pixel?
Grey pixel: 00 White pixel: 11
68

State one possible 20-bit representation for Row 4 of the icon
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Calculate the number of bytes required to represent

all the pixel data in the icon as a bitmap. Show your
working.
10 x 10 x 2 = 200bits
200 / 8 = 25Bytes
OR
Each row contains 20bit which is equal 2.5B
We have 10 rows so 10 x 2.5B = 25B
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Example 3
A camera detector has an array of 2048 by 2048 pixels and uses a colour depth of
16 bits per pixel. Find the size of an image taken by this camera in MiB.
2048 x 2048 x 2 / 1024
2 x 2048 x 2 / 1024
2 x 2x 2 = 8MiB
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Example 4
An audio CD has a sample rate of 44100 Hz and a sample resolution of 8bits. The
music being sampled uses two channels to allow for stereo recording. Calculate the file
size for a 10 seconds recording. Give your answer in MiB
Sample Rate (in Hz) × Sample Resolution (in bits) × Length of Sample (in seconds)
44100 × 8 × 10
44100 × 1 × 10
441000 B
441000 / 1024 / 1024 = .4MiB
Multiply by 2 since there are two channels being used .4 X 2 = .8MiB

71
File Formats
MPEG-3 (MP3)
MPEG-3 (MP3) uses technology known as AUDIO COMPRESSION to

convert music and other sounds into an MP3 file format.
This compression technology will reduce the size of a normal
music file by about 90 %
For example, 80MB file will become 8MB using MB3)
How can the original music file be reduced by 90%

whilst still retaining most of the music quality?
This is done using file compression algorithms

which use PERCEPTUAL MUSIC SHAPING
This essentially removes sounds that the
human ear can’t hear properly.
File Formats
MPEG-4 (MP4)
This format allows the storage of multimedia files rather than just sound
Music, videos, photos and animation can all be stored in the MP4 format
MP3 and MP4 files use what is known as a LOSSY FORMAT. WHY??
Since part of the original file is lost following the compression algorithm
File Formats
MP3 file Features
MP3
Digital recording of sound
Produced by recording software and a microphone
Used when distributing sound files
Compressed file format
File Formats
Joint Photographic Experts Group (jpeg) files
Resolution of the photographs is reduced from A to E

Photographs A and B are very sharp D is very fuzzy and E is almost unrecognisable
This is the result of reducing picture resolution.
JPEG is an example of lossy file compression
TIFF (Tagged Image File Format ) and BMP (bitmap) are the highest image
quality because, unlike jpeg, they are not in a compressed format
TIFF Lossy Compression Algorithm JPEG

File Formats
Example The following 2 pictures are images of the letter ‘R’ stored as bitmap files:
Why is picture X fuzzy?
Low resolution
Low bit map image
Insufficient pixel density (picture has less pixels)
Even the sharp image in picture Y would become fuzzy if enlarged. Why would this happen?
As picture is enlarged covers larger area
So pixel density gets smaller and sharpness of image is lost
Pixels become too big

State a drawback of storing sharp quality bitmap image files.
Uses up large amount of Download or upload takes longer time
memory storage space
File Formats
Text and number file formats
Examples of text file formats
.doc File extension for Word Document
.docx File extension for Word Document
.odt File extension for Word Document
.txt File extension for Text file
.rtf File extension for Rich Text Format
.csv File extension for Comma Separated Values
.pdf File extension for Portable Document Format
Note ASCII format is used to store text on a file

File Compression
What is meant by data compression?
Reducing the file size
Types of File Compression
Lossless file compression
Lossy file compression
File Compression
Lossless file compression
File size is reduced
No information is lost
The process can be reversed to re-create the original file
Used to compress text files
.bmp (bitmap) and .png (Portable Network Graphics) use lossless encoding
Lossy file compression
With this technique, the file compression algorithm eliminates unnecessary
bits of data as seen in MP3 and jpeg formats
It is impossible to get the original file back once it is compressed.
This is why it is chosen for files where removing certain bits doesn’t detract
from the quality
File Compression
Benefits of compressing a large file to send it over the internet
Smaller file to transmit
The file is transmitted quicker
Uses less bandwidth
Benefits of using lossy rather than lossless to compress sound file.
The file size will be smaller than lossless

Requires less storage space
Requires less time to transmit
File Compression
How a text file is compressed using lossless compression.
A compression algorithm is used
No data is lost in the process
Repeated words can be indexed
The indexed words can be replaced with numerical values
How lossless compression reduces the size of a sound file.
Uses a compression algorithm

Does not permanently remove any data
Repeated patterns of notes are identified and are grouped, with an index
File Compression
Example of using lossless compression in a text file
Consider the phrase ‘THIS SECTION SHOWS YOU HOW THIS WOULD
WORK’ which consists of 35 memory units (ignoring spaces)
Repeated words, such as ‘THIS’ could be put into Word Value
a data dictionary and be replaced by ‘1’. THIS 1
Repeated word sections, such as ‘HOW’ and ‘OU’ HOW 2
could be replaced by the numbers ‘2’ and ‘3’. OU 3
Our phrase then becomes ‘1 SECTION S2S Y3 2 1 W3LD WORK’.
Ignoring spaces, this compressed form now uses only 23 memory units.
This is about a 33% saving in file size.
File Compression
How to reduce the file size of a video as much as possible.
Best compression would be lossy
Use compression algorithm
This would remove all the unnecessary data from the file, removes the pixels
the human eye may not see and sound that the human ear may not hear
Reduce colour palette so each pixel requires fewer bits
Reduce resolution Reduce sample rate
Reduce sample resolution
Only store what changes between frames (temporal redundancy)

File Compression
Run Length Encoding (RLE) Algorithm
Lossless method of compression
Reduces the physical size of a string of adjacent, identical characters or pixels
The repeating string (a run) is encoded into two values
One value represents the number of identical characters in the run (the run count)
The other value is the code of the character or colour code of pixel in the run (the
run value)
The run value and run count combination may be preceded by a control character
Note
RLE is only effective where there is a long run of repeated bits.
84
File Compression
RLE on Text Data Example 1
Consider the following text string: aaaaabbbbccddddd

ASCII code is being used a = 97
Assuming each character requires 1byte then this string needs 16 bytes
Show how RLE will compress this string.
a a a a a b b b b c c d d d d d
5 97 4 98 2 99 5 100
Note
Assuming each number in the second row requires 1 byte of memory, the
RLE code will need 8 bytes. This is half the original file size
85
File Compression
RLE on Text Data Example 2
Consider the following text string:

aaaaaaaabbbbbbbbbbcdcdcdeeeeeeee
ASCII code is being used a = 97
Assuming each character requires 1byte then this string needs 32 bytes
Show how RLE will compress this string.
86
File Compression
String aaaaaaaa bbbbbbbbbb c d c d c d eeeeeeee
Code 8 97 10 98 1 99 1 100 1 99 1 100 1 99 1 100 8 101
The coded version contains 18 values and would require 18 bytes of storage
Introducing a flag (255 in this case) produces
255 08 97 || 255 10 98 || 99 100 99 100 99 100 || 255 08 101
This has 15 values and would, therefore, require 15 bytes of storage.
Note
This means that 255 is the flag and the other two numbers
255 08 97 indicate that there are eight items with ASCII code 97
1 99 This means one character with ASCII code 99 follows
Using the flag reduced the file size from 18 bytes to 15bytes
87
File Compression
RLE on Image Data Example 2
Colour Colour
The following diagrams show: Symbol (denary)
 The denary colour code that represents each colour B 153
 The first three rows of a bitmap image
W 255
Show how RLE will compress the first three rows of this image.
Row 1: 10 153 3 255 3 153 Row 3: 7 153 9 255
Row 2: 9 153 6 255 1 153 88

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IGCSE Computer Science 0984

Steal This CS Notes

Positive denary and positive hexadecimal

How and why hexadecimal is used as a beneficial method of data representation?

Why overflow occurs in binary addition?

Binary System Consists of 1s and 0s only.

Computers contain millions of tiny ‘switches’ which

A switch in the OFF position can be represented by 0

Binary Signifies voltage

Divide the decimal number by 2 repeatedly.

This process continues until the quotient becomes 0.

Converting from Denary (Base 10) to Binary (Base 2)

Converting from Binary (Base 2) to Denary (Base 10)

- Determine the weight of each bit that is a 1.

11011012 = 64+ 32 + 0+ 8+ 4+ 0+ 1 = 109

Write column headings (Powers of 2 ) (26, 25, 24,23,22,21,20)

Place a 1 or a 0 for each column in correct position

Identify the columns to be added

By looking at the binary number, how can you determine if the

If the number to the far right in the binary number is 1

Measurement of the Size of Computer Memories

A binary digit is commonly referred to as a BIT (0).

1 NIBBLE = 4 bits (0000)

1 BYTE represents a character (e.g letter, number or symbole)

Name of Memory Size Number of bytes Equivalent denary value

Convert hours to seconds = 10 * 60 * 60 = 36000 seconds

A denary number system is a base-10 system

A denary number system uses 0 to 9 values

A binary number system has column headings that

A denary number system has column headings that increase by

Binary has more digit for the same value

Small piece of fast memory (eg: 16bits, 32bits, 64bits)

What is meant by the term sensor?

Applications of Binary System

Front Backward Motor

Front Backward Motor

What does this register mean? 10101010

Applications of Binary System

Front Backward Motor

What does this register mean? 00010111

Front Backward Motor

How would the following be represented using the above register?

- Front wheel turning right

Applications of Binary System

lift going up lift ID number 4 lift presently on 27th floor

Applications of Binary System

What information about the lift is shown?

Applications of Binary System

Part of image or small image

The Hexadecimal System (Base 16)

0010 0001 1111 1101

Converting from Hexadecimal to Binary

0010 1001 1011

0100 0101 1010

Converting from Denary to Hexadecimal

Therefore, 62910 = 27516

Display Error Codes

Use of Hexadecimal System

Much easier to work with: B 9 A 4 1 A F C rather than: