EARTH SURFACE PROCESSES, VOL.

1, 43-62 (1976)

A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL

IAN STATHAM
Department of Geography, Trinity College Dublin, Ireland

SUMMARY
Certain observed characteristics of scree slopes; namely concavity of profile, straight slope angle less than the angle
of repose, and good size sorting of particles, are not consistent with an angle of repose model for accumulation.
An alternative model is proposed based upon rockfall and surface stone movement and is tested against experimental
data of particle movement in the field. It is found that the mechanical model of stone movement generated adequately
explains the motion of particles on scree slopes and that it is in keeping with the characteristics of many screes.
The static features of some Isle of Skye screes were also measured and the straight-concave slope form with good
downslope sorting of material, characteristic of the rockfall process, was found to be present.

INTRODUCTION
Scree formation is probably one of the most important processes acting upon newly exposed hard
rocks in mountainous regions. Whenever cliff faces are influenced by processes which tend to produce
detached blocks of relatively coherent bedrock, rather than by processes which promote deep weathering
or grain-by-grain disintegration, scree-like debris will be produced. Whether this material is ever allowed
to accumulate as a significant slope-facet in the landscape depends as much on conditions in the accumu-
lation zone as on the headwall itself. However, scree slopes themselves are prominent features of the
landscape in many temperate and cold climate mountain regions, representing an important first stage
in the sequential development of slopes from a hard rock face. Because of their abundance in such
areas, scree slope form, material characteristics, and the way in which the material behave on weathering,
are all of prime importance in the subsequent development of mountain slopes.
Hitherto, theoretical work on slope development, involving scree accumulation as a fundamental
stage, has used assumptions concerning scree slopes which are not based on detailed observation and
which are not justifiable. It is the intention of this paper to present a model for scree slope accumulation
which relates slope characteristics and form to process, and to test the model predictions against field
data. The discussion of slope form is extended to cover a general discussion on mountain slope develop-
ment and the ways in which it is influenced by scree accumulation.

TRADITIONAL CONCEPTS OF SCREE DEVELOPMENT

Traditionally, models concerning scree slope development have been assumed, rather than deduced.
A frequently quoted and, at one time, largely accepted theory is that screes are straight slopes at
the angle of repose for their constituent material. This point of view has been expressed or inferred
by many workers, including Marr (1900), Hobbs (1932), Wood (1942), King (1942) and Ward (1945).
Other workers have implicitly assumed the angle of repose condition as a basis for generating mathemati-
cal models of rockslope evolution beneath an accumulating scree surface (Fisher (1866), Lehman (1933),
Bakker and Le Heux (1946), (1947), (1950), (1952)). The theory is based partly upon the observation
that many scree slopes require only slight disturbance to initiate relatively large mass movements and
so must be close to their stability angle.
Some confusion exists as to the precise meaning of the term ‘angle of repose’. Often it is never
defined and frequently different workers apply varied definitions to the same term. However, angle
Received 25 June 1974
Revised 25 M a y 1975
@ 1976 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

43
44 IAN STATHAM

of repose is usually taken to refer to the angle at which a sliding mass of debris will just come to
rest after tipping from a low height of fall (Carson and Kirkby (1972), Carrigy (1970)). Thus it is
a dynamic angle, being a critical angle at which moving debris will just keep moving, rather than
an angle related to the initiation of movement. The angle of repose has more correctly been termed
‘angle of residual shear’ (4J by Allen (1969). Implicitly, then, the angle of repose model of scree slope
form requires continual avalanching of the debris as the dominant slope-process, since a straight form
and repose angle are consistent only with this process.
An angle of repose model is, however, inadequate to explain all the observable characteristics of
many scree slopes. Firstly a repose slope must be straight, provided that the material is cohesionless
and homogeneous throughout. Screes, though, usually show some degree of basal concavity (Andrews
(1961), Howarth and Bones (1972), Statham (1973a), (1973b)) and so cannot be at the angle of repose
throughout the entire slope length. Marr (1900) has pointed out that the characteristic lower concave
section of a scree slope must be due to some control other than repose conditions, though his explanation
of concavity being formed by the slow spreading of the boulder pile under its own weight is not
consistent with the known mechanical behaviour of a dry cohesionless aggregate.
Secondly, the suggestion that even the upper straight section of a slope is at the angle of repose
is also open to question. The instability of scree slopes has been exaggerated by many workers, since
most failures are confined to small scale deformations at the point of disturbance. For example, a
person walking across a scree slope tends to sink slightly into the surface and to cause small avalanches
on the downslope side of his footprints. This is caused by the relatively high at-a-point loading caused
by the person’s weight and is not indicative of the stability of the scree mass as a whole. Usually
this disturbance effect is more noticeable in small sized material since with larger particles the load
is spread over a greater depth of scree and becomes less significant.
Jeffreys (1932) drew attention to the fact that scree slopes normally possess some margin of stability
and that large scale avalanching of the material is comparatively rare. He argued that a scree slope
was in dynamic equilibrium with supply and if the amount of energy lost by a boulder in moving
downslope was greater than that gained by gravity it would tend to stop, thereby steepening the slope.
If the reverse were true the particle would tend to accelerate off the slope and decrease its angle.
Jeffreys was perhaps the first to point out the possibility that scree slope angles might be related to
the input energy of particles and not simply to the mechanical properties of the accumulated mass.
From field observations, considerable variation in the slope angles of Lake District screes has been
noted by Andrews (l961), who concluded that many were quite stable and rested at angles well below
that of repose. Chandler (1973) summarized many previous measurements of scree slope angles and
found that the most commonly occurring angles were between 32-37 degrees, with the majority falling
at 35 degrees or below. Chandler’s own shearbox measurements of +iU on scree material and those
of Blight (1969) on rockfill material are 40 degrees or more (& is the angle of internal shearing resistance
for the material, when no net volume change occurs in the sample. In this condition the material
is in its loosest state). &, is approximately equal to the angle of repose (angle of residual shear, &)
(Skempton (1945), Bishop (1966)). Thus, most scree slopes are 5 degrees or more below the repose
angle for the material from which they are made. In fact Chandler (1973) concluded that the
angles would only reach the repose angle with basal removal or very high rates of supply, and
Howarth and Bones (1972) have also reported a steepening and straightening of scree profiles with
basal removal.
To summarize, the angle of repose model for scree slope development is inadequate because :
(i) Most scree slopes have a straight upper slope and a basal concavity.
(ii) The straight scree slope angles are usually lower than the angle of repose.
In addition to these two major factors in opposition to the repose model, there are other commonly
occurring scree slope characteristics reported by many workers which need to be explained by any
model of scree slope accumulation. In particular:
(i) Well developed sorting of particles into small at the top and large at the base of the slope (Andrews
(1961), Gardner (1968), Statham (1973a), (1973b), Rapp (1960), and Bones (1973)).
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 45

(ii) A well developed fabric (particle alignment) in a downslope direction (Statham (1973a), McSavenny
(1973), Taylor (1971)).

A MODEL FOR SCREE SLOPE DEVELOPMENT BASED ON ROCKFALL

Most scree slopes accumulate by discrete rockfall events, delivering one or a few particles at a time,
and so most particles supplied to the slope are spatially or temporally distinct from one another. Large
scale events involving mass avalanching of great quantities of material are relatively infrequent (Gardner
(1968)), and so it was thought reasonable to base the model on rockfall alone. This is not to deny
the existence of other processes; snow avalanches for example have been shown to be important in
the development of debris slope form (Luckman (1971), Gardner (1970), Rapp (1959)) and Caine (1969)
has produced a model for slope development based on rockfall supply and redistribution by slush
avalanching. Rockfall is, however, the simplest process of scree accumulation and it was thought that
an examination of the extent to which field forms are explained by this process would be of value.
The theoretical model of particle movement on scree slopes and its application to the generation
of a sequential model for slope development is discussed more fully in another paper (Kirkby and
Statham (1975)), though a brief review is required here. The rockfall model proposes that the form
and characteristics of scree slopes are controlled by the movement of individual fallen particles down
the slope. On a scree accumulating by rockfall alone the processes of input and redistribution can
be treated as continuous, and input energy can be equated with work done on the scree. This energy
is dissipated in the following ways:
(i) Transporting the input particle.
(ii) Transporting pre-existing particles on the slope.
(iii) Loss due to friction and to a low coefficient of restitution.
The balance between these three energy losses and the form of the scree itself are related in a complex
positive feedback system whereby changes in the energy balance induce changes in the slope form
and vice versa.
The movement of fallen particles over a scree surface
Assuming that a particle falls freely through space after leaving the headwall, and neglecting air
resistance, as a first approximation its final velocity on impact with the scree surface is given by
u2 - uf2 + 2gh (Newton’s Law) (1)

where v f = final fall velocity, uf = initial fall velocity, g = acceleration due to gravity and h = height
of fall of the particle. Since uf is zero for a particle dislodged from a face, equation (1) simplifies
to
vj = 2gh; or vs = J(2gh) (2)
Employing the velocity formula once again for the motion of the fallen particle down the scree surface,
we have
vf = uf + 2fx (3)
where u, and v, are the initial and final velocities on the scree surface, f = rate of acceleration on
the surface (in fact negative, since it is a deceleration) and x = the distance travelled downslope by
the particle. Since in this case u, = downslope component of v f , and v, is zero because the particle
ultimately comes to rest, equations (2) and (3) may be combined accordingly

h/x = ~
f (4)
g.sin2 u
46 IAN STATHAM

On the scree surface the particle is subject to a force equal to the downslope component of its own
weight (equal to mg. sin a, where m = particle mass and g = acceleration due to gravity and a frictional
force of mg.cos a tan +Ld. If a is less than + L d : -
f = g (cos a tan q$! - sin a) (5)
where q& = dynamic angle of plane sliding friction, or the slope angle at which a moving particle
will just come to rest. From (4) and ( 5 ) we obtain
(cos a tan +i,d - sin a)
llx = (6)
h sin’ a
or
tan &, = (h/x sin a + 1) tan a (7)
It must be stressed that this is an oversimplification of the real situation in that particle motion is
assumed to be controlled by a simple frictional retardation. In fact, examination of the probability
distributions of particle downslope distances from laboratory experiments (Kirkby and Statham (1975))
indicates that the frictional process really consists of a series of impacts with finite obstacles. Thus,
in addition to a gradual retardation, any given particle may be brought to a sudden halt by an impact.
The overall effect of this process is, in terms of mean particle travel distances, similar to a simple
frictional model.
The important relationships to note from equations (6) and (7) are:
(i) The relationship of x to h is linear.
(ii) As hlx tends to zero, a approaches #,d.
(iii) Lower values of +Ld give greater values of x, given a constant height of fall.
These relationships are of importance in the application of particle movement theory to the development
of scree form.
The relationship of particle movement to the development of scree slope form
Let us now consider the development of a scree slope beneath a headwall. Initial impact velocities
will be very high from the new headwall and, after a small accumulation has occurred, downslope
particle velocities will also be high. A large range of downslope travel distances will exist due to particles
falling from different heights on the headwall as well as to random factors of particle impact on the
slope. The distribution of particle travel distances has been found, from small scale laboratory exper-
iments of stone movement, to be empirically exponential (Kirkby and Statham, (1975)), and it is this
form of the input distribution which is responsible for the concavity of scree slopes frequently reported
from the field. An exponential wedge of material builds up on the accumulation surface, which in
turn influences the motion of particles travelling down the scree surface. As the headwall is slowly
buried the range of particle velocities is diminished and this effect, coupled with the increasing length
of the scree slope itself, ensures that progressively more particles are brought to rest higher on the
scree. Thus the basal concavity decreases in overall importance on the slope and the upper slope tends
to a uniform gradient, which approaches more and more closely to &d in angle through time. In
fact when the height of fall of the particles becomes zero and the headwall is completely buried, particles
will possess no input energy and the slope will become a straight repose slope. Until that point is
reached however, the angle of the upper straight section will always be less than the angle of repose.
Particle size sorting
As previously mentioned, sorting by particle size has been noted by many workers on scree slopes
and any general model for slope development on screes should seek to incorporate this characteristic.
Let us consider the factors which control the motion of a particle travelling down a smooth, frictional
surface. From equation (6) it is clear that the downslope distance of travel for any particle is directly
proportional to the height of fall and slope angle of plane sliding friction, @fid. Similarly, the movement
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 47

of a block from a position of rest is only dependent on the balance between frictional forces and
the downslope component of the block-weight. None of these controls is related to the particle size
and consequently none may be invoked to explain size sorting on screes. A scree is not, however,
a simple inclined plane as the model assumes, but is a very rough surface consisting of alternating
peaks and depressions. If a moving particle is very much smaller than the scale of surface irregularity
it will tend to be trapped quickly in the depressions and hence brought to rest closer to the top
of the slope. Conversely, a particle very much larger than the slope irregularities will bridge the depres-
sions and the surface will be effectively smooth. In the latter case Cpld for the large particle will be
equal to the true angle of plane sliding friction for the material. However, for progressively smaller
particles @ldwill also contain an element due to the interlocking of the particle with the surface, which
is size dependent (Statham (1973b)). Drewry (1973) has also suggested a similar mechanism for sorting
on scree slopes and has demonstrated that the pattern of sorting produced by this process is very
different from that produced by debris slides or avalanches. Bones (1973) has noted that the pattern
of sorting generated by rockfall is destroyed by the operation of other surface processes.
Rapp (1960a), Gardner (1968) and Bones (1973) have suggested that fall sorting by rockfall is due
to larger particles having greater mass and therefore greater kinetic energy. Although this is true, kinetic
energy is not strictly relevant since particle mass does not enter into the equation for sliding movement
on a scree surface (equation (6)).It is possible that kinetic energy has some effect, in that larger particles
can remove obstacles from their path more easily than small, but it is thought that the size-dependent
effect discussed above is overall more important.

FIELD EVIDENCE FOR A ROCKFALL MODEL OF SCREE DEVELOPMENT-

A STUDY O F SOME ISLE O F SKYE SCREE SLOPES
The theoretical development of scree slope characteristics discussed above has been tested using field
and laboratory techniques. The results of the laboratory studies have been reported elsewhere (Kirkby
and Statham, (1975)) and will only be referred to when directly relevant to' the interpretation and
clarification of field results.
The jield area
The area chosen for field work was the Cuillin and Red Hills districts of the Isle of Skye, Western
Scotland, which possesses extensive scree development over wide areas of relatively homogeneous bed-
rock. Geologically, the area falls into two distinct regions, namely the gabbroic rocks of the Cuillins
and the granitic rocks of the Red Hills. These rocks are intrusive in origin and form part of the
Tertiary igneous province in the North Atlantic (Bennison and Wright (1969)). In detail, many different
rock types have been reported from the two regions: eucrites, gabbros and peridotites from the gabbroic
region (Weedon (1961)), while granites, epigranite and granophyres occur in the granitic zone (Wager
et a1 (1964), Stewart (1965)). The rock types are however petrologically similar enough within each
area for them to be considered homogeneous for the purposes of this study. The geology of the area
is summarized simply in Figure 1, which also shows field site locations.
Topographically, the distinction between the Cuillins and Red Hills is striking. Although there is
little difference in elevation between the two areas, the Cuillins form an impressively rugged range
of mountains whereas the Red Hills are smooth and rounded in appearance. Bare rock slopes are common
in both areas-perhaps more so in the Cuillins-but are usually at 70 degrees or more in the Cuillins
whereas they are closer to 50 degrees in the Red Hills. Both areas show evidence of glacial modification
and subsequent slope development has largely been confined to mechanical disintegration of free-faces
to produce scree.
The scree slopes themselves are most commonly found in the corries beneath headwalls, though
there is also a marked tendency for screes to occur as flanking deposits to isolated hills in the Red
Hills district. Screes rarely extend as far as the ridge crest in the Cuillins, though this is quite common
on the granitic rocks and gives the impression that scree formation is further advanced in that area.
48 IAN STATHAM

Figure 1. The field area

This greater development of scree slopes on the Red Hills is also in part responsible for the topographic
distinction between the two regions and is discussed more fully later.

Field measurements in the Isle of Skye

Field work carried out in the Isle of Skye is divisible into two methods of approach:
(i) Mechanical experiments of particle movement.
(ii) Static measurements of scree slope characteristics.
(i) Mechanical experiments on particle movement. Experiments on the dynamics of particle movement
were undertaken to test the validity of the simple theoretical model for particle movement derived
in equation (6). Pebbles were dropped from a known height onto a test section of scree slope, whose
mean grain size and slope angle were measured. The procedure was repeated 100 times for many indivi-
dual pebbles on several test slopes in the Cuillin and Red Hills. This experiment permitted not only
an evaluation of the applicability of the mathematical model for particle movement proposed earlier
but also allowed &, to be calculated and its relationship to particle size evaluated.
It is an important feature of the theoretical model that the relationship between particle height of
fall (h) and its distance of travel downslope (x) is linear with a zero intercept (that is, a simple propor-
tionality). The results of eleven field tests, each utilizing pebbles dropped from four different heights
of fall are listed in Table I, together with zero intercept regression coefficients and slopes for the x
to h relationship. The data show clearly that deviations from a zero intercept linear relationship of
x to h for fallen particles are small.
Since the relationship of x to h is a simple proportionality, the value of x/h is a unique coefficient
for each particle and its relationship to slope angle (a) may be used to test the validity of equation
(6). The field data are, unfortunately, inadequate to test rigidly this relationship since the range of
slope angles on the field screes was too narrow. Some indication that equation (6) is realistic in explaining
particle movement can, however, be obtained from two sources. Firstly, Figure 2, in which the results
of the field dropped stone experiments are plotted as h/x against slope angle (a), shows that particles
of similar proportional size (i.e. the ratio did*, where d is the moving particle size and d , the mean
scree particle size, is constant) lie close to the same &f, curve calculated from equation (6). Secondly,
results of laboratory experiments performed in an ehctly comparable way (Figure 3), though over
a greater range of slope angles, show a good fit with the model expressed in equation (6) (Kirkby
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 49

Table I. Zero intercept regression coefficients, correlation coefficients + F-scores for

field dropped stone experiments

Slope Regression Correlation Level of

angle" d coefficient coefficient F score significance

36 1.96 1.92 0.997 331.3 0.01

36 1.12 1.63 0.994 164.6 0.01
36 1-69 0.49 0.999 998.0 0.01
36 2.00 1.12 0.998 498.0 0.01
36 3.14 1.76 0.988 81.3 0.05
35 1.61 0.52 0.968 29.7 0.05
32 0.83 1.74 1~OOO - -
38 146 2.35 0.985 64.6 0.05
25 2.95 0.39 0.996 248.0 0.01
25 1.21 0.34 1~OOO - -
25 0.96 0.19 0.992 123.0 0.05

and Statham (1975)). These two sources of evidence suggest that the theoretical model provides a satisfac-
tory first approximation to particle movement on screes.
A second major factor investigated by mechanical experiments in the field was the extent to which
size sorting might develop from the rockfall process. To this end, experiments were carried out to

xd/d, = 1 -1.5
+ d/d,,, = 1.5 - 2.5
A d/d, = 2.5 - 3.5

L theoretical relationships
\,&from equation 6

\ \

4 1
3-

= 60'
2-
\ ++
1 - = 50'

20 25 30 35 40 45"
s l o p e angle (a)

Figure 2. Relationship between h/x and slope angle for dropped stone experiments in the field
50 IAN STATHAM

slope

I h’x - 9
215 3’0 3’5 4‘0 4‘5 5’0 515 a n g l e s l o p e

Figure 3. h/x against board angle for some laboratory dropped stone experiments

ascertain the influence of proportional particle size (d/d*) on the effective dynamic and the effective
static angles of plane sliding friction (#p,, and & respectively). The influence of proportional size on
the effective dynamic angle of plane sliding friction (#p,,) was deduced by the same dropped stone
technique described above. Particles of many different sizes were used, and their calculated from
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 51

equation (7). This procedure implicitly assumes that the theoretical model adequately explains particle
motion on the scree surface, the justification for which has been mentioned above. The effective static
angle of plane sliding friction, &, (the angle at which a particle at rest will just begin to move) was
measured in the field by slowly pulling particles parallel to the slope from a position of rest with
a spring balance and recording the pull necessary to set them in motion. This was done 20 times
for each experiment on a test section of scree whose grain size and slope angle were known and qPS
calculated from
f + m sin u
tan +Is =
m cos u
where m = particle mass and f = maximum pull registered on the spring balance. The results of these
field experiments are plotted in Figure 4 as tan +Ld and tan 4LSagainst d/d* and the range of results
for the laboratory equivalent experiments are also shown. Both (pis and gPdshow a marked increase
with increasing d/d* and over the range of experiments performed the relationship is approximately
+ +
linear (y = 0.17 x 0.67, r = 0.74, f score = 43.6, for tan & vs d/d*; y = 1.15 x 0.72, r = 0.86
f score = 28.5, for tan 4 l d vs d/d*).
It is interesting to compare the static and dynamic tan &, relationships to d/d*. Both will tend
to tan 4,, (that is, the value for a planar rough slab of rock moving over a similar slab) for the
rough scree material as d/d* tends to zero, since the motion approximates more and more closely
to a body sliding down a planar surface with the same surface roughness as the particle. There is
little difference between the y-intercepts of tan qPs and tan r&d in Figure 3 (tan qPS= 0.72, tan q P d = 0-67,
an angular difference of only 2 degrees) though at higher values of d/d* the difference between the
static and dynamic sliding angles increases progressively. This observation applies equally to laboratory
experiments and implies that once a particle is in motion, its movement is less governed by slope
microtopography than when starting from rest.
The increased stability of small particles, whether in motion or at rest, is due to a greater interlocking
with the slope surface which increases the probability of particle impacts. Thus as d/d* increases the
amount of interlocking to be overcome to set a static particle in motion, or to keep a moving particle
in motion, also increases. At rest particles are in much closer contact with the slope surface and interlock-
ing is at a maximum. In contrast, a moving particle tends to skip from peak to peak on the slope,
which reduces the probability of it being stopped by any given impact.
The importance of proportional particle size in the generation of size sorting on scree slopes is
readily appreciated. Effectively, the sliding friction angles of scree particles increase with proportional
size and, other things being equal, smaller particles will come to rest more quickly after falling onto
a scree. A progressive particle size increase downslope is consistent with this observation.
(ii) Static measurements of scree slope characteristics. The following scree slope characteristics were
measured in the field:
1. Particle sorting (by size and shape).
2. Slope form and straight slope angles.
1. Particle sorting on Isle of Skye screes
Particle size distribution was measured by sampling surface material at equally spaced intervals down
the scree profile. One hundred particles were sampled for a-(long), b-(intermediate) and c-(short) axes
at a total of 80 stations on 21 different slopes. See Appendix for the results. A t-test showed that
the mean b-axis dimensions of 15.2 cm and 10.5 cm, from Red Hill and Cuillin slopes respectively,
were significantly different at the 0.05 level of significance and hence required separate analysis. Thus
in Figure 5 the data from the two geologically distinct areas are plotted on separate graphs of grain
size against proportional distance upslope. Regressions fitted to the graphs have correlation coefficients
of -0.77 and -035 for the Cuillin Hills and Red Hills respectively, which are significant at the 0.001
and 0 1 levels of significance using an F-test. Thus, mean particle size generally declines upslope in
the study areas even though the relationship is poor in the Red Hills. This relationship is predicted
by the theoretical discussion. Laboratory simulated scree slope accumulations also showed a marked
52 JAN STATHAM

tan#;

0 .
1.2

1.1

1.0 0
0
0

0.9
0.8

0.1 0 . 1 7 ~ 0.67+
0 r -0.74
0.6

0.5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 d/d*

2.0

y = 1.08 x + 0.72

Figure 4. Influence of particle size on tan FWS

and tan I##,, from field experiments

inverse relationship between grain size and upslope distance (Kirkby and Statham (1975)) which was
stronger in fact than the field relationship described above. Indeed, the correlation coefficients for the
field relationship are deceptively low, largely because of actual scree-to-scree variations in mean size.
Each scree originated from a different source-area and so had its own input size distribution. For
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 53

m e a n b-axis
(cm)

. Cu i I lins
16
-
:I
10

6 -4

Oil
::

012
--\

Ob
0 .
.
0:4 015 0!6 017 0!8 019 l!O
..
:.
0
:

..
\

22- . f r a c t i o n a l d i s t a n c e upslope

20 -
1. R e d Hills

l2
.-
1' .. .
10 - .
Oll 012 O$ 0:4 015 0:s 017 O h 019 IlO
fractional d i s t a n c e upslope

Figure 5. Variation of mean particle size with distance upslope on Skye screes

convenience, the data was grouped into the two geological regions to obtain enough points for regression
analysis. If the data is examined in the Appendix it can be seen that 14 out of the 21 slopes show
a progressive size decline upslope, 4 show an overall decline, and three show no trend. None shows
a relationship in the other direction. Processes other than rockfall are probably responsible for the
lack of trend on a few slopes.
Earlier work (Statham (1973)) has also found a similar relationship between size and distance upslope
on some screes in Cader Idris, Central Wales, and the variation was attributed to the sorting of particles
travelling over the sieve-like surface of the scree. Andrews (1961) observed a tendency towards larger
particles at the base of scree slopes in the English Lake District and a similar observation has been
made by many other workers (notably Hay (1937), Rapp (1960), Dutkiewecz (1967), Tinkler (1966) and
Behre (1933)) on scree slopes in many different environments. Gardner (1967), (1972) has specifically
associated the presence of good downslope sorting with rockfall processes (a conclusion also reached
54 IAN STATHAM

by Bones (1973)) and further showed that no sorting was discernible on debris slopes influenced by
snow and slush avalanching.
Rapp (1960), Gardner (1968) and Bones (1973) have attributed sorting on screes to particle kinetic
energy because larger particles have greater kinetic energy and so may travel further. Reference to
equation (6) demonstrates that this suggestion is not strictly correct since particle-mass does not feature
in the equation for the motion of a particle over a debris surface. It is more in keeping with the
dynamics of the rockfall process to consider sorting to be the result of variations in (b',d from particle
to particle, dependent on particle size (Drewry (1973), Statham (1973)).
Gardner's (1968) relationship between particle size and distance upslope on the screes was semilogarith-
mic and on theoretical grounds Drewry (1973) expected an exponential size decline, given the input
size distribution were Gaussian. In this study, however, and in that of Statham (1973), there is no
evidence for anything other than a linear relationship between size and distance. Thus it is thought
that the nature of the relationship is closely controlled by the actual input distribution of material
supplied and in fact, if particles come to rest approximately in material of their own size, the size/distance
curve for the scree will approximate to the cumulative grain size distribution for the material input
from the headwall (provided grain shattering on impact is not prevalent). Hence the sorting present
on a rockfall scree may be a useful measure of the grain size distribution of loose blocks supplied
from the face.
A discussion of particle sorting on screes would not be complete without some mention of instances
where no observable relationship between size and distance has been measured. Caine (1967) found
no significant size sorting on some Tasmanian scree slopes and a similar lack of sorting has been
reported by Luckman (1971) and Gardner (1968) from the Rocky Mountains, and by Thornes (1971)
in Iceland. It is significant to note that in at least the last three mentioned studies surface processes
other than rockfall were operating on the slopes. In particular, snow avalanching has been reported
as a common debris slope process and Gardner (1968) has also remarked on the occurrence of debris
flows on some slopes. Bones (1973) has shown that fall-sorting tends to become obliterated by the
action of other processes, such as basal erosion which initiates mass avalanching throughout the slope
length, meltwater gullying and slush avalanching on debris slopes. Drewry (1973) has also concluded
that quite a different organization of particles on the slope is to be expected from dry avalanching
than the steady increase of particle size downslope, resulting from rockfall alone. He has shown that
pronounced lobes of coarse material with fines in the centre tend to develep from avalanches. There
is little available information concerning the influence of debris flow activity upon particle sorting,
although Statham (1973b) has found a slight tendency towards sorting in the reverse direction to that
observed from rockfall screes on some slopes undergoing rapid reworking by debris flow activity in
the Black Mountain, Carmarthenshire.
It is fairly clear, then, that the simple sorting observed by many workers on scree slopes is indicative
of supply and reworking on the slope by rockfall alone. Other surface processes will tend to destroy
the simple sorting pattern and hence the arrangement of material on the slope is a fairly sensitive
measure of process-environment.
Particle sorting by shape. The field particle size data were also examined for any significant sorting
by sphericity downslope, since more spherical particles should be capable of rolling further downslope
than flatter ones. Sphericity was calculated for each pebble using the formula

sphericity = I(:) (Krumbein (1941))

where a, b and c are the long-, intermediate- and short-axes of the pebble. Mean sphericity was calculated
for each sample point (see Table 11) and the mean values used for analysis. Again it was found that
the Red Hills and the Cuillin Hills had significantly different mean particle sphericities (Cuillins = 0.63,
Red Hills = 0.59) and so the data from the two areas were treated separately.
When regressed against distance, both areas showed a tendency for particle sphericity to increase
downslope, indicating that more spherical particles will roll further, although in both cases this tendency
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 55

was slight and not significant at the 0.05 level. Accordingly, sphericity was regressed against slope
angle at the sample point, since it was thought that slope angle would be a more sensitive measure
of particle stability. Although slope angle does generally decrease downslope on the screes, the rate
and manner in which it does so is not consistent from scree to scree. The results showed an inverse
relationship between slope angle and sphericity in both areas, the correlation coefficients being x -057
and -0.55 for the Cuillins and Red Hills respectively, both being significant at greater than the 0.05
level using an F-test. There is then a tendency for sphericity to decrease on higher angled slopes,
reflecting the greater stability of flat particles on steeper slopes. Thus some downslope sorting by shape
is demonstrated on Skye screes, though the effect is not pronounced and is largely masked by the
more prominent size sorting. Since size sorting is attributable to a sliding motion coupled with random
impact with slope-particles, and shape sorting is relatable to rolling motion, these results suggest that
rolling motion is overall less important than sliding on the particular slopes in question.
Scree fabric on the Isle of Skye screes. Scree fabric is a measure of the degree of alignment of pebble
long-axes on the scree slope and was measured on some of the slopes used in this study by Taylor
(1971).Taylor (1971)found that almost all sample points measured for particle alignment had a significant
degree of pebble orientation and that all had a significant pebble dip. Many stations also showed
a good correlation between the direction of orientation and slope aspect, though mean pebble dip
was almost without exception lower than local slope angle at the measuring site. Similar results to
these were found by Statham (1973a) on Cader Idris scree slopes.
In detail Taylor’s fabric diagrams for the Isle of Skye screes showed a bimodal distribution of preferred
particle orientation, one mode being parallel to the direction of slope and one normal to it. These
two modes, also present on the Cader screes, were attributed to different types of particle movement-the
mode oriented parallel to the slope resulting from sliding motion and that across the slope from rolling
particles-and reflects an attempt by moving particles to present the least resistance to the type of
motion to which they are subjected. McSavenney (1972), in a discussion of the fabric of rockfall talus,
has identified similar modes from fabric diagrams and also ascribes them to rolling and sliding motion.
McSavenney has also drawn attention to the frequency of particle dips lower than the slope angle
within the parallel-oriented group of pebbles and this is similar to the imbrication of pebbles reported
by Andrews (1961) from the Lake District.
Allen (1 970) has suggested that prolate spheroids are the most appropriate model sedimentary particle
and this is certainly true for most screes, whose particles are commonly elongate. Allen has shown
that the angle of initial yield or upper angle of repose of packed elongate spheroids is lowest when
particle long axes are sub-parallel to the direction of sliding. It is probable that the orientation of
elongate particles has a similar effect on c& (dynamic angle of sliding friction) and that sliding pebbles
align themselves in such a way during motion that &ud is at a minimum.
The absence of any significant particle orientation on debris slopes subject to snow avalanches
(Gardner (1968), Luckman (1971)) suggests that such rapid movements tend to obliterate fabric and
indicates that it is a characteristic of debris slopes undergoing little surface modification by rapid mass
movements.

2. Projile form of the Isle of Skye screes

Analysis of profile ,for.rn.Forty profiles of screes and mountain slope assemblages were measured
in the Isle of Skye, of which twenty-two were simple scree-headwall systems. The profiles were surveyed
using a Suunto Hypsometer, which consists of a clinometer and fixed distance split image rangefinder
combined. When used in conjunction with a special staff, the instrument provides an exceedingly rapid
method for measuring slope angle over a set distance, which may be varied from 5 metres to 40 metres.
Doe (1973) has compared the use of this instrument to other commonly used methods of profiling
and has found that it compares favourably in both speed of operation and accuracy (less than 2 per
cent error in both horizontal and vertical distance measured). In this study a fixed base length of
5 metres was used throughout.
56 IAN STATHAM

The profiles themselves were first divided subjectively into straight segments and convex or concave
slope elements (Young (1971)). The statistical significance of the subjectively defined units was then
tested by the method proposed by Young (1972) who advocated the use of the coefficient of variation
to specify the degree of variation within a slope unit. The best units technique of Young (1971) was
not used in this instance because overlapping slope segments are automatically ascribed to the longest
slope unit by this method. Thus a fairly long and constant straight slope segment might be capable
of incorporating a small basal concavity and the whole slope would be generalized as straight, provided
the acceptable levels of variability are not exceeded. Thus the subjectively defined units were tested
for variation and if the set levels for the coefficient of slope angle variation (K, in the case of a straight
segment) and radius of curvature variation (K, in the case of a curved element of slope) the divisions
between the units were adjusted. The process was continued until the whole slope was divided into
units whose V , or V , did not exceed 5 per cent or 25 per cent respectively. The units defined are
used for subsequent investigation of scree profile form.
Scree concaoity and general form. All the scree profiles measured in Skye showed some degree of
basal concavity and a straight upper slope-section, as suggested from the theoretical discussion above.
The theoretical model further proposes that concavity length is dependent on the headwall height,
tending to zero as the headwall disappears. Although it is difficult to make comparisons from scree
to scree, because of the uniqueness of each accumulation zone, some evidence that scree concavity
decreases with declining headwall height may be seen in Figure 6. In the graph a dimensionless measure
of headwall height is plotted against the proportion of the scree slope falling into a concave element
for 15 slopes (the number of scree systems where headwall height could be assessed accurately) and
it is apparent that the concavity length declines with headwall height.
The field measurements of profile form suggest that screes in this area have an upper straight slope
and frequently some degree of basal concavity which tends to decline as the headwall disappears. Both
of these observations are in agreement with the theoretical discussion of slope form above and also
with other work which has been completed in different areas. Statham (1973a) also found that Cader
Idris scree profiles were frequently straight-concave in form and that the longest concavities were beneath
the highest headwalls. Other workers have noted the presence of concavities at the base of screes,
though there have been few attempts to relate observed form to actual processes operating on the

%c o n c a v i t y

701 \
80

60 . y - 79.2 X 4- 77.5
r = 0.697

401 \. 0

30 -

20 -
10 -
. \;
.
_____

Figure 6. Influence of headwall height on concavity

 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 57

slope. Howarth and Bones (1972), in a study of several high arctic debris slopes, have shown that
the presence of some concavity in the profile is specifically associated with rockfall. However, it must
be pointed out that other workers, including Rapp (1959), Luckman (1971) and Caine (1969), have
demonstrated that concavity of profile may develop from the action of rapid processes such as snow
avalanching. The distinction here appears to be that prolonged avalanche activity increases the length
of the concavity through time, whereas rockfall activity gives a steadily declining concavity because
input velocities decline. In fact, Rapp (1959) suggests that a low angled, entirely concave slope form
is the final landform resulting from slush avalanching alone (a form also reported by Gardner (1970a)
resulting from rapid snow movements). Furthermore, the highly complex and irregular microtopography
of slopes undergoing snow avalanching (see for example Luckman (1971), Figure 11) is not present
on screes where rockfall is dominant, and is another indicator of process environment. Little work
has been done on the slope forms resulting from prolonged debris flow activity, though Winder (1965),
Johnson and Rahn (1970) and Statham (1973b) have all observed low angled entirely concave forms
developing from the activity of this process.
Straight slope angle. The theoretical discussion of rockfall accumulation suggested that screes should
have some degree of straight slope in their profile, that its slope is consistently less than 4; (lower
angle of repose, or angle of residual shear) and that the straight slope angle increases through accumu-
lation until it is equal to the repose angle (4;) at zero headwall height. All the profiles measured
had some significant straight slope segment in the upper part of the scree and that it increases in
length with declining headwall height has been demonstrated in Figure 6. Figure 7 shows maximum
straight slope angle plotted against a dimensionless measure of headwall height, and it indicates that
the maximum angle increases with declining headwall height.
Red Hills profiles and Cuillin profiles were tested for significant difference in straight slope angles
of screes developed from the two rock types using a t-test. No significant difference was found at
the 0-05 level and so the distribution of maximum straight slope angles from profiles in both areas
is plotted as a single distribution in Figure 8(a). Rotating drum determinations of angle of repose
(4,) (see Carrigy (1970)) on small size fractions gave mean values of 39.3 degrees and 39.6 degrees
respectively (means of 40 observations taken in rotating drum using less than 1 cm size material collected
from screes). Direct shear tests were also performed on the samples which were packed in the loose
state into the apparatus. The results of these tests are shown in Figure 8(b), where all values have
been corrected for expansion of the sample during shear (small in all cases) in order to obtain a measure
of 4:" (angle of internal shearing resistance at zero volume change). 4;" as measured in the shearbox
is roughly equivalent to measured in the rotating drum (see Skempton (1945), Bishop (1966)). From

38-

37 - ./
36 -

35-

34 -

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 H,/Hi

Figure 7. Influence of headwall height on straight slope angle

58 IAN STATHAM

20

10

e angle

Figure 8(a). Distribution of maximum straight slope angles on Isle of Skye screes

the tests &iu for the Cuillin and Red Hill materials are 4003 degrees and 4056 degrees respectively,
and both these figures and the measurements of angle of repose on the materials are greater than
the straight slope angles (Figure 8(a)) actually measured on the screes. This observation is in agreement
with the theoretical model of scree accumulation discussed earlier. Chandler (1973) has also found
that scree slope angles in Spitzbergen are commonly less than 4;" and that only slopes with basal
erosion show slope angles near to &. He suggests the lower angles may be attributable to some
sort of settling process through time. Further, observations by Jeffreys (1932) and Andrews (1961), that
screes show some degree of stability and that their straight slope angles vary from scree to scree on
the same rock type, are in keeping with slope angles being lower than the angle of repose.
From preceding discussions we have seen that (static angle of plane sliding friction) is roughly
36 degrees (tan $,s = 0.72) and that the range of maximum straight slope angles recorded from the
screes is 32 degrees-38.5 degrees. (tan a = 0.62-0.79). From these figures it is fairly apparent that
particle impact energy is capable of overcoming not only all the loose state particle interlocking but
also some of the plane frictional strength of the material, since straight slope angles are frequently
less than the static angle of plane sliding friction. Evidently, straight slope angles on screes, whilst
being a function of frictional strength of the material, are controlled by the balance of dynamic particle
supply and removal on the surface (which is dependent on particle input energy) and not by internal
instability adjustments of the scree mass until heights of fall are very low. According to Figure 7 a
straight slope of 36 degrees is not achieved until H,/Hi is about 0.7, or nearly threequarters of the

shear load (s)

80-
-.-
y-0.845X
Cuillins
- 0.14 /
/

60- i (6;. - 40.0s)

50-
40-

Red H i l l s
y-0.856X - 1.56

1'0 i0 3b $0 $0 S'O j 0 S'O 9'0 normal Ioad(o3

Figure 8(b). Direct shearbox determinations of 4:" for Skye small size scree material
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 59

headwall has disappeared due to accumulation. At this point impact energy is no longer sufficient
to overcome all the loose state particle interlocking, which becomes progressively more important as
accumulation proceeds. It is tentatively suggested that dry avalanching of the scree material, such as
that proposed by Drewry (1973) where particle impact initiates a slide by dilation of the surface layers,
is only possible when this point is passed. Although void production may be possible on slopes lower
than 4,,s by impact, movement by sliding cannot be maintained for any distance. Consequently, an
impact can only hope to dislodge material of roughly the mass of the falling particle a distance propor-
tional to its impact energy. As headwall height declines below a critical value slope angle becomes
greater than 4,,s,and so once a slide is initiated it may travel downslope independent of the initial
impact, provided a perfectly planar shear surface is maintained. However, perfectly planar slide surfaces
in a granular mass are unstable and thus cannot exist for very long, and so the distance of travel
of the sliding wedge is, in practice, proportional to its kinetic energy (a conclusion also reached by
Drewry (1973)).The fact that scree slopes are almost always less than q$ effectively excludes self-propagat-
ing slides from occurring because retardation by particle interlocking begins as soon as the slide com-
mences. This may explain why dry avalanches have usually been observed to travel fairly short distances
down scree surfaces (Rapp (1960)) and seldom reach the base of the slope. Naturally, as the slope
angle approaches 4, the slides are capable of travelling increasingly far, until at zero height of fall
they should be able to travel the full length of the slope and will become the dominant process in
terms of profile form development. Until that time, however, we may expect screes to reflect the occur-
rence of rockfall events as the dominant process.

CONCLUSIONS
The characteristics of many scree slopes studied by previous workers, and those considered in this
paper, are not consistent with an angle of repose model for the scree accumulation. They do fit tolerably
well with the expected characteristics of a debris accumulation developing by rockfall and by the move-
ment of the fallen particles individually over the scree surface, and it is proposed that this is an acceptable
model for scree development in many areas.
Scree slopes developing by rockfall show the following features :
1. A basal concavity of profile-the basal concavity of rockfall screes is due to the exponential distribu-
tion of particle travel distances, producing an exponential wedge of material on the accumulation slope.
The relative importance of the concavity declines through time due to the reduction in input velocities
and increasing length of slope, which cause progressively more particles to accumulate as a straight
slope beneath the headwall. Field observations and laboratory experiments have demonstrated the exist-
ence of a concavity due to rockfall and that it declines in importance as accumulation proceeds.
2. A straight slope angle less than the repose angle-the straight slope angle of screes develobing
by rockfall is less than the repose angle because of movement of fallen particles, and others with which
they are in collision, downslope. Straight slope angles on the Isle of Skye were consistently lower
than the measured angle of repose for the material.
3. Sorting into fine particles at the top and coarse at the base-particles moving over a scree become
sorted since small particles experience greater resistance to motion on the rough surface. Thus, smaller
particles are more readily trapped in depressions, and effectively there is a size component in the angle
of sliding friction of the particles.
60 IAN STATHAM

APPENDIX
Table 11. SIZE AND SPHERICITY ON ISLE OF SKYE SCREES

Location
Fractional distance Mean Mean (B = Cuillins)
upslope size sphericity (R = Red Hills)

0 13.6 0.66
0.21 11.7 0.62
0.42 9.7 0.62 B
0.64 9.2 0.62
0.86 7.4 0.64
1.oo 4.5 0.60

0 13.1 0.64
0.25 11.5 0.64
0.5 9.4 0.6 1 B
0.75 6.1 0.62
1*oo 11.4 065

0.08 12.1 0.65

0.3 1 11.6 0.65
0.54 100 064 B
0.77 10.3 0.67
1.oo 9.4 0.65

0 8-3 0.61
020 7.8 0.62
0.40 6.4 0.60
0.60 65 0.58 B
0.80 7-1 0-62
1.oo 6-1 0.57

0 15.7 063
0.50 12-8 0.63
1.oo 8.3 060

0.2 21.6 0.66

0.8 12.3 0,63
1.o 11.0 0.62
0 21.6 0.66
0.33 12.2 0.60
0.66 10.9 0.57
1.oo 9.3 0.56

0 12.2 0.58
0.33 15.5 0.55 R
066 11.9 0.62
100 12.5 0.58

0 13.7 0.62
05 11.5 0.65
1.o 102 0.62

0 10.6 0.62
0.33 9.6 0.63
0.66 6.6 0.58
1.oo 5.3 0.60
0 10.0 0.59
0.5 6.8 0.60 B
1.o 8.0 061
 A SCREE SLOPE ROCKFALL MODEL 61
Table 11. (Contd)

Location
Fractional distance Mean Mean (B = Cuillins)
upslope size sphericity (R = Red Hills)
0 16.7 0.66
0.5 9.6 0.63 B
1 .o 7.2 0.62
0 9.5 0.64
0.5 8.6 0.67 B
1.o 8.5 0.64
036 14.2 0.63
0.73 12.4 0.63 B
1 .o 5.9 0.62
0.2 7.6 059
0.6 11.2 0.63 B
1 .o 6.2 0.58
0 19.5 063
0.5 13.4 0.57 B
1.o 10.5 0.61
0 16.3 0.66
0.33 17.9 0.63 B
066 14.3 0.65
1 9.0 0.60
0 21.8 0.64
0.33 16.2 0.59
0.66 11.0 0.57 R
1 13.1 056
0 17.1 0.66
0.5 13.3 063
0.75 100 0.60 B
1 .o 9.3 064
0 19.9 058
0.5 20.03 0.61 R
I .O 18.00 0.59
0 17.4 0.59
0.33 125 0.67 R
0.66 12.3 0.58
1-0 13.6 0.56

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