aerospace

Article
Assessment of Future Airframe and Propulsion Technologies
on Sustainability of Next-Generation Mid-Range Aircraft
Stanislav Karpuk 1, *, Rolf Radespiel 2 and Ali Elham 3
1 Institute of Aircraft Design and Lightweight Structures, Technical University Braunschweig,
38106 Braunschweig, Germany
2 Institute of Fluid Mechanics, Technical University Braunschweig, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
r.radespiel@tu-braunschweig.de
3 Computational Engineering and Design Group, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, UK; a.elham@tu-braunschweig.de
* Correspondence: s.karpuk@tu-braunschweig.de

Abstract: The present work demonstrates the impact of future airframe and propulsion technologies
on the sustainability of potential future medium-range commercial jets with design specifications
similar to the Airbus A320-200. Advanced airframe and engine technologies include laminar flow
control (LFC), active load alleviation, new materials and structures, and ultra-high bypass ratio tur-
bofan engines. Two aircraft configurations with various design options were compared to determine
potentially the best option for the mission profile, which tends to minimize the environmental impact.
Each configuration was designed to balance the equivalent CO2 emissions and Direct Operating
Costs. Technology sensitivity analyses were performed to investigate the significance of particular
technology combinations and determine the ones that improve aircraft sustainability the most. All
studies were performed at a conceptual design level using a multi-fidelity design approach to investi-
gate the system-level effects of the technologies. The open-source aircraft design environment SUAVE



was extended and integrated with other aircraft design and analysis tools to obtain all required


correlations. The aircraft with advanced technologies showed an average reduction in equivalent
Citation: Karpuk, S.; Radespiel, R.;
CO2 emissions of 36% and a 23% reduction in DOC compared to the reference aircraft for a similar
Elham, A. Assessment of Future
mission profile, although aircraft with future technologies may have a 43% higher production cost.
Airframe and Propulsion
The given results indicate that the application of technologies may be commercially successful if
Technologies on Sustainability of
technologies achieve expected performance values, despite high development costs. Finally, the tech-
Next-Generation Mid-Range Aircraft.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279. https://
nology sensitivity analysis demonstrated the most significant influence of engine-related technologies
doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9050279 and laminar flow control compared to other technologies considered in this research. Depending on
design and integration complexities, engine technologies can be more achievable in the near future
Academic Editor: Dieter Scholz
and can substantially reduce the overall emission level.
Received: 30 March 2022
Accepted: 16 May 2022 Keywords: aircraft design; sustainable aviation; multidisciplinary design optimization; aircraft
Published: 23 May 2022 performance
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations. 1. Introduction
Significant climate changes and potential environmental impacts due to increased
transportation in the near future have motivated many industries to reduce emissions.
As a major transportation method, the aviation industry has also established the goal of
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. reducing the emissions of new generations of aircraft. Improvements in current airframe
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and engine technologies continue, increasing aircraft efficiency and reducing their overall
This article is an open access article
emissions. However, a potential increase in air transportation may still lead to a substantial
distributed under the terms and
increase in overall emissions, even if existing technologies reach their maximum efficiencies.
conditions of the Creative Commons
Flightpath 2050 [1] proposed challenging emission levels that shall not exceed the reference
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
year of 2010 with the transportation volumes of the future. Given goals are unlikely to be
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
met using existing technologies and aircraft concepts, so the development of alternative
4.0/).

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace9050279 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 2 of 35

environmentally friendly energy sources, new aircraft concepts and technologies, and
more sustainable flight mission profiles are required to achieve significant reductions in
aircraft emissions.
Based on the results provided by Epstein and O’Flarity [2], single and twin-aisle
aircraft consume the most amount of fuel per year, so they create the majority of emissions.
Consequently, improvements in fuel burn for either middle or long-range aircraft segments
may significantly affect the aviation sector’s overall environmental impact.
Improvements in airframe technologies and novel aircraft concepts play an important
role in the overall system’s sustainability. Xu and Kroo [3] implemented load alleviation
and natural laminar flow (NLF) in Boeing 737-800 to demonstrate fuel savings of 18%
compared to the conventional aircraft version. The NASA-MIT D8 ’DoubleBubble’ concept
that featured boundary-layer ingestion (BLI) and active load alleviation showed fuel burn
reduction by 70% compared to the B737-800 [4,5]. Welstead and Felder [6] investigated
a single-aisle commercial aircraft that featured a turbo-electric propulsion system with
BLI for the aft-mounted engine. The new aircraft improved the design mission by 12%
compared to a conventional configuration. Seitz and Gologan [7] investigated a ’Propulsive
fuselage’ aircraft concept that featured three engines, one of which was aft-mounted and
utilized the BLI. The results showed an improvement in the energy-specific air range of
up to 20% compared to a conventional configuration. Under the TuLam project [8], DLR
designed a medium-range aircraft that featured an NLF wing and demonstrated a 12%
reduction in fuel burn compared to an A300-200 reference aircraft. The Truss-braced-wing
concept introduced by NASA and MIT with hybrid-electric propulsion has a 70% fuel
burn reduction at a very low range condition [9]. Saeed et al. [10], from Cambridge
University, have designed a flying wing concept with laminar flow control and concluded
that with 84% of the total wetted area being laminarized, they had achieved 70% fuel
savings when neglecting the system penalties. Karpuk et al. [11] demonstrated an initial
conceptual design of a Blended-wing-body (BWB) aircraft that featured hybrid laminar
flow control (HLFC), active load alleviation, BLI, and advanced materials and structural
concepts. The presence of novel technologies in the aircraft improved the fuel burn by 59%
compared to a reference B777 aircraft. Liu [12] provided initial estimations of the impact
of novel technologies for a range of aircraft from the short-range to the long-range, and
Karpuk [13] investigated the effects of airframe technologies on the feasibility of short-
range regional aircraft and assessed the emission and cost effects from applications of
airframe and propulsion technologies. The initial design with airframe technologies was
performed by Karpuk for a specific design with a conventional mission profile and the
aircraft that fully followed certification constraints and was designed for minimum fuel
burn [14]. Ma [15] performed a conceptual design of ultra-high aspect ratio strut-braced
and twin-fuselage aircraft with hybrid laminar flow control, load alleviation, and advanced
structures to investigate potential aircraft efficiency improvements of such aircraft. The
assessment was performed for various market categories starting from short-range regional
to long-range trans-Atlantic aircraft. The fuel burn reduction in the order of 30–40% relative
to reference aircraft in each category was achieved.
Although aircraft technologies play a significant role in the reduction of overall emis-
sions, the problem of flight altitude generates a significant difference between emissions
of aircraft and other means of transportation. Although aviation shares only 2.8% of total
emissions [16], the altitude at which the emission happens significantly affects the global
warming potential. Emission components, such as NOx and water vapor, which creates
contrail and cirrus clouds, highly depend on the altitude [17]. At the typical cruise altitudes
of modern commercial jets, the atmospheric forcing of these components significantly
surpasses the emission of CO2 [18], although such altitudes correspond to the most efficient
fuel flight levels with respect to costs for typical flight missions. Therefore, a combination
of aircraft technologies and flight mission profiles is essential to achieve a substantial
reduction in overall emissions and acceptable changes in aircraft operating costs.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 3 of 35

Under the Research Cluster of Excellence SE2 A (Sustainable and Energy Efficient
Aviation), several future technologies that may significantly improve aircraft energy ef-
ficiency have been considered for the design of future transport aircraft. The research
goal of the SE2 A project is to advance a selected set of airframe and propulsion technolo-
gies, investigate their combined influence on the emission reduction of civil aviation and
suggest potential aircraft configurations that minimize the environmental impact. The
following airframe technologies are identified in the SE2 A project for detailed investiga-
tion: laminar flow control (LFC), load alleviation, and advanced materials and structure
concepts. Further, ultra-high bypass ratio turbofan engines have been considered for the
present research.
The objective of the present research article is to investigate the potential effects of
those technologies on the overall energy efficiency of a medium-range commercial aircraft
similar to the Airbus A320. Multiple questions will be answered in the present work:
1. Given that technologies reach desired performance levels, what aircraft variant of a
conventional tube-and-wing aircraft may give the highest emission reduction with
acceptable changes of DOC?
2. What flight conditions for each of the considered configurations help achieve mini-
mum emission and applicable DOC with the account of future technologies?
3. How significantly does each technology affect the aircraft sustainability, and which of
them show the highest emission reduction?
The present work is divided into multiple sections. Section 2 describes future technolo-
gies implemented in the new mid-range aircraft and a range of technology assumptions
based either on existing studies or cluster goals. Section 3 describes the methodologies,
models, design assumptions, and software used to perform technology assessments to size
aircraft. Section 4 describes the conceptual design of two configurations and investigates
the potentials of each configuration with respect to emission reduction and DOC values.
Finally, Section 5 performs sensitivity analyses of aircraft emissions and operating costs to
technology deviations from desired goals.

2. Advanced Airframe and Propulsion Technologies

2.1. Laminar Flow Control
The generation and extension of laminar flow over the aircraft surface significantly
affect the overall aircraft drag, reducing aircraft masses, fuel burn, and operating costs.
Preliminary estimations of an aircraft that features extended laminar flow along the wing,
empennage, and fuselage demonstrated significant reduction (up to 50%) in overall drag
and proved the importance of laminar flow control [19].
Two approaches can be applied to extend the laminar flow. Natural laminar flow
(NLF) uses only geometric shaping to extend the proverse pressure gradient as much
as possible and, as a consequence, the laminar flow. A significant amount of numerical
and experimental research regarding NLF technologies has been done over the last fifty
years [20]. Furthermore, Seitz [8] demonstrated a combination of the NLF airfoils and a
forward-swept wing to be able to maximize the NLF for commercial aircraft. However,
two significant disadvantages exist for the NLF. First, the surface quality needs to be
exceptionally high to avoid large gaps or excessive waviness, which may lead to early
transition [21]. Moreover, it is not always possible to maintain a sufficiently favorable
pressure gradient as much as desired due to geometric limitations. To extend the laminar
flow as much as possible, active flow control (AFC) techniques can be used. In this scenario,
suction of the boundary layer from the surface is applied, as shown in Figure 1a. Here,
the airfoil skin features micro-holes that suck the boundary layer from the surface and
prevent the transition. Ideally, if enough suction power is delivered to the porous surface,
the flow can maintain laminar until the control surface. Finally, to maximize the benefits
of both solutions, hybrid laminar flow control (HLFC) technology, where NLF and AFC
are combined, can be used. The present research focuses on assumptions related to the
application of the HLFC technology.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 4 of 35

(a) Suction skin (b) Suction system free body diagram

Figure 1. Schematic views of the active suction system. Adapted from [19].

The effect of HLFC was investigated by multiple researchers. Beck [19] demonstrated
simulations with the ability to achieve laminar flow until 80% chord and 50% of the fuselage.
Risse [22] applied HLFC technology estimation methods for the conceptual design of a
transonic aircraft and demonstrated an 11% reduction in fuel burn. The leading-edge
suction system managed to extend the laminar flow between 30% and 50% of the chord,
depending on the spanwise location. Sudhi [23] demonstrated applications and airfoil
optimization of an HLFC airfoil for subsonic speeds with the ability to extend the laminar
flow until 80% chord if suction is applied. Suction is applied closer to the middle of the
airfoil while the front portion is treated as an NLF surface. A similar HLFC technology
was applied for the multidisciplinary design optimization of the wing by Mosca [24] to
deeper investigate the HLFC effect on the aircraft design. For transonic aircraft, Sudhi [25]
demonstrated an application of the HLFC at the leading edge, which is potentially capable
of extending the laminar flow until the location of the shock (which may reach up to 65%
chord) for the airfoil’s upper surface and until 60% chord for the bottom surface.

2.2. Load Alleviation

Load alleviation introduces various techniques to reduce the wing bending moment
using passive or active approaches. The reduction of maximum bending moment en-
ables the design of lighter wings for lower limit load factors, which will improve aircraft
fuel efficiency.
Passive load alleviation solutions consider a nonlinear stiffness material design [26],
viscoelastic damping design, new structural concepts [27,28], and local morphing struc-
tures [26]. Nonlinear stiffness materials may improve the load distribution on the wing
under low load cases and improve performance efficiency under those conditions.
For viscoelastic damping composites, the viscoelastic layer experiences shear deforma-
tions under vibration loads due to gusts or flight maneuvers. Consequently, some vibration
energy is dissipated so that the structure can be designed for lower limit loads. Finally,
both aeroelastic tailoring and local morphing structures aim to extend the aeroelastic de-
sign space. Morphing is considered in two scenarios: deliberate structural non-linearity
that affects the wing deformation and reduces the wing section’s effective angle-of-attack
under the load and change in airfoil shape to achieve load reduction. The wing active
load alleviation uses different types of flow control over the wing to achieve a more
favorable wing load distribution and reduce the wing bending moment. Previously, re-
searchers have approached the design of active load alleviation systems in different ways.
Sun et al. [29] looked at active load alleviation from the control system perspective, and
Zing et al. [30] demonstrated experimental results of a high aspect-ratio wing wind-tunnel
test with active load alleviation while using piezoelectric control. The work of Fezans et
al. focused on novel sensors and control systems technologies to enable rapid and robust
active load alleviation [31,32]. Finally, active load alleviation could also be achieved by
fluidic or micro-mechanical flow actuators that change the load distribution along the wing
and reduce the bending moment [33].
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 5 of 35

2.3. New Materials and Structure Concepts

Novel structural concepts and materials are being developed to improve the aircraft
structure in terms of stiffness and mass. Materials may include carbon nanotube (CNT).
Further, tow-steered composites may be considered for further research. The forecast
of the NASA N+3 project [4] reported the potential reduction of the airframe mass by
30% if the desired composite performance is reached. Brooks [34] performed an aero-
structural optimization to investigate potential improvements in the aircraft mass if tow-
steered composites are used. The structural mass reduction could be 24% compared to
conventional composite materials. For structure concepts, Bishara [35] describes advanced
structural design with the integration of active flow control, which is directly applicable to
the presented research.

2.4. Ultra-High Bypass Ratio Turbofan Engines

To improve the Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC), an engine with an ultra-high bypass
ratio (UHBPR) was considered. The potential capabilities of such engines were shown by
Giesecke [36], where the one was designed for a short-range regional aircraft. Engine sizing
demonstrated the capability of achieving a 21% reduction in SFC compared to a conven-
tional turbofan engine, which gives significant potential to this technology. Therefore, this
engine type will be considered in the present work as well.

3. Implementation of Novel Technologies in Aircraft Analysis and Design

3.1. Initial Aircraft Sizing
The aircraft sizing process is divided into two major steps, as shown in Figure 2.
The first step performs the initial sizing of aircraft by combining the constraint analysis
implemented in SUAVE and the default SUAVE mission analysis routine. After the aircraft
is initially sized, the analysis and optimization block is used for aircraft refinements. The
present section describes the methodology used in both design modules.

3.2. Initial Sizing Block

An initial sizing block was developed as a separate analysis capability to strengthen de-
fault SUAVE mission analysis capabilities. The initial sizing block consists of the constraint
and mission analyses combined together in one sequence. Multiple steps are required to
size the aircraft. First, the user specifies top-level requirements necessary for the constraint
diagram, such as the cruise altitude and speed, turn angle, take-off ground roll, and climb
rate. In addition, the designer specifies the initial aircraft configuration and important
metrics, such as the wing aspect ratio, wing sweep, taper ratio, average thickness, and
the type and relative size of high-lift devices. However, the fuselage needs to be sized
according to the required cabin volume before the initial sizing. Initial parameters for the
empennage could be obtained using classical recommendations from Refs. [37–40]. The
initial aerodynamic and mass inputs, such as maximum take-off mass (MTOM) and the
maximum zero-fuel mass (MZM), can also be estimated using classical textbook estimates
or based on known parameters of similar aircraft. Finally, the mission profile is defined
by the designer. After the initial input is created, SUAVE performs the first calculation of
the constraint diagram. After the constraint diagram is created, the code searches for the
minimum thrust-to-weight ratio for a user-specified wing loading ratio with respect to the
maximum feasible one. After the design point is selected, the SUAVE mission analysis
is initiated to calculate the total mission fuel. The new MTOM is calculated based on
obtained fuel mass and calculated empty mass, which depends on geometry. The difference
between the old and the new MTOM is checked for tolerance. If the tolerance value is
not achieved, then the new geometry is updated using the given design point and basic
geometric relations. Moreover, physics-based take-off and landing analyses using the
methods of Gudmundsson [38] are used to calculate the field performance more accurately
and extract the information about the low-speed aerodynamics. Then, the new geometry
with aerodynamic values obtained during the mission analysis is passed to the constraint
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 6 of 35

analysis block to update the constraint diagram and search for the new design point. The
new design point is then used to resize the aircraft geometry again and repeat the iteration.
The sizing is finished when the difference between the masses reaches the tolerance.

Figure 2. Initial aircraft sizing framework using SUAVE.

3.2.1. Constraint Diagram

The equations defined by Gudmundsson [38] and Loftin [41] are used to calculate the
constraint diagram. Within the constraint analysis script, the estimation of high-lift devices’
aerodynamics is performed using the methods of Torenbeek and Roskam [39,40] to have
the capability to use various types of high-lift devices. Various models to simulate the
effect of altitude on the turbofan thrust are also implemented into the constraint analysis
to enable more flexibility for the model calibration with respect to reference aircraft. The
Oswald efficiency required for the constraint diagram is estimated using the method
introduced by Nita and Scholz [42] to account for the wing sweep, taper, and aspect ratio.
To enable a wide range of applications, the factor responsible for the compressibility drag
adjusted for modern aircraft was ignored, and the compressibility drag method of [43]
was used.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 7 of 35

3.2.2. Wing Planform Definition

Two planform definitions are possible within the sizing algorithm. If the kink is not
expected for the designed wing, classical formulations for a straight tapered wing can be
used to fully define the planform. If the wing features the kink, and its location along the
wingspan is prescribed by the designer, the planform with the kink can be full-sized using
the methodology described in Appendix B. The present research utilizes both methods
depending on the aircraft configuration.

3.2.3. Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic analysis was performed using a combination of semi-empirical methods
for the parasite, compressibility, and miscellaneous drag, while the vortex-lattice AVL
software [44] was used for the induced drag estimation. The parasite drag model uses the
laminar-turbulent flat plate analogy described by Gudmundsson [38], while compressibility
drag is defined using the method of Shevell [43].

3.2.4. Mass Estimation

The FLOPS [45] method is used to calculate the aircraft’s empty mass. In addition,
to account for unconventional aircraft wing geometric characteristics, such as high aspect
ratios, a physics-based EMWET method [46] was implemented within SUAVE. Further,
possible cases of wing folding and corresponding wing mass penalties were taken into
account using the method of Yarygina [47]. The method accounts for the masses of the
folding insert, the pin that connects two wing parts, and the mechanism that performs
the folding.

3.2.5. Propulsion
The gas turbine energy network is modeled using a physics-based approach, where
each engine component features particular characteristics and a cycle analysis is performed.
Ref. [48] describes the definition of the turbofan energy network in more detail.

3.3. Design Refinement Block

After the initial sizing is finished and the design point is selected, the obtained aircraft
characteristics are passed to the design refinement block, where all required performance
analyses, tail sizing, emission analysis, and aircraft balancing are performed. Moreover,
the design refinement using multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) can also be
used. Performance analyses include take-off and landing time-marching analysis using the
method of Gudmundsson [38], climb performance, the cruise flight envelope, descent, and
a payload-range diagram.

3.3.1. Tail Sizing

The tail sizing is based on the fixed tail volume ratio selected using typical values
for a given aircraft type. The refinement of the tail sizing after the SUAVE initialization is
performed manually and accounts for required trim and CG envelope requirements. The
aerodynamic analysis for the tail sizing refinement is performed using AVL [44].

3.3.2. Costs Analysis

The cost analysis is performed to estimate the aircraft’s Direct Operating Costs (DOC)
and compare them with the reference aircraft. The DOC estimation is performed using
relations used by Hoelzen [49]. The DOC is divided into energy, maintenance, capital, crew
costs, and fees and is defined by

DOCTotal = DOCEnergy + DOCCrew + k g DOC Ma + DOCCap + DOCFees (1)

where k g is the maintenance gain factor that accounts for the maintenance complexities
of advanced aircraft with new technologies. At the moment, it is uncertain how large
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 8 of 35

k g can be. In addition, it is unclear what load alleviation and structure concepts will
be used to maximize aircraft performance. These factors may significantly increase the
aircraft maintenance cost and must be considered when more information about potential
maintenance complexities becomes available. However, at the moment, a cost gain factor
of 2.0 was assumed, so maintenance costs are twice as expensive as conventional aircraft
maintenance costs. A total of 2000 flight cycles per year were assumed for the aircraft
being investigated. To have a valid comparison of both aircraft, the target year 2050 and
the reference year 2020 were used for all rates used in the DOC estimation equation. Fuel
cost was estimated using forecasts of 2050 from Ref. [50] for conventional Jet-A fuel and a
potential extra carbon tax of 0.42 EUR/kg [51] that may reach the value up to 1.07 EUR/kg,
while labor costs and fees were taken from the reference year of 2010 and were corrected by
the inflation factor with respect to the year 2020. The airframe price used for the capital
cost estimation was calculated using the method of Roskam [40], where all parameters
related to design complexity and material cost gains were maximized to model the design
difficulty of new aircraft development.

3.3.3. Emission Analysis

Emission analysis is an additional block that was implemented into SUAVE to increase
its capabilities. The analysis is performed using methods defined by Scholz [52]. The
overall effect of the emission on global warming is estimated using the equivalent CO2
emission mCO2,eq , which accounts for the effect of NOx , contrails, and cirrus clouds. Since
the emission of gas turbine engines highly depends on the altitude at which the emission
takes place, the emission model was integrated into the SUAVE mission analysis to calculate
local emissions at each point during the mission. The equivalent gas turbine emission for
an incremental distance is defined by

mCO2,eq,GT i = ( EICO2 f km + EINOx f km CFmid,NOx + CFmid,AIC )∆Rkm (2)

where EICO2 is the emission index equal to 3.16 and EINOx is calculated using the Boeing
Method 2 [53]. ∆Rkm represents the incremental range in km, f km is the local fuel flow rate
in kg per km, and CFmid is the correction factor to convert the value into the equivalent
CO2 emissions defined by

SGTPO3s,100 SGTPO3L,100 SGTPCH4,100

CFmid,NOx = sO3s + sO3L + s (3)
SGTPCO2,100 SGTPCO2,100 SGTPCO2,100 CH4

SGTPcontrails,100 SGTPcirrus,100
CFmid,AIC = scontrails + s (4)
SGTPCO2,100 SGTPCO2,100 cirrus
where SGTP is the sustained global temperature potential, and s is the forcing factor, which
depends on the altitude. The values of SGTP and s are provided by Dallara [17] and are
shown in Table 1 and Figure 3, respectively.
After calculating the equivalent emissions for each mission increment, the total gas
turbine emission is computed by adding all increments together.
It is important to note that the aircraft-level emission does not represent the com-
plete environmental impact picture since the fuel needs to be obtained and delivered to
the destination to be used. According to Pavlenko [54], the equivalent CO2 emission of
petroleum-based jet fuel ranges between 85 to 95 grams per megajoule of fuel, with about 73
g CO2e/MJ attributable to fuel combustion and the remainder to fuel extraction, processing
at refineries, and transportation. That gives around 22% extra emission level if the complete
life cycle is considered. Therefore, the overall equivalent CO2 emission for the whole
mission with the additional correction for production and transportation becomes

NR
mCO2,eq,GT = 1.22 ∑ mCO2,eq,GT i (5)
i =1
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 9 of 35

Figure 3. Forcing factor as a function of altitude. Adapted from [17].

Table 1. SGTP indeces. Adapted from [17].

Component Parameter Units

CO2 3.58 × 10−14 K/kgCO2
O3s 7.79 × 10−12 K/kg NOx
O3L −9.14 × 10−13 K/kg NOx
CH4 −3.90 × 10−12 K/kg NOx
Contrails 1.37 × 10−13 K/km
Cirrus 4.12 × 10−13 K/km

3.3.4. Multidisciplinary Design Optimization Module with MATLAB

The Multidisciplinary Design Optimization MATLAB package was connected to
SUAVE to perform all required design optimization studies. The choice of MATLAB was
motivated by a relative ease of methods implementation and robustness of its methods.
For all optimization studies in the present work, the Genetic Algorithm was used for the
optimization to avoid difficulties with potential design space discontinuities. To account
for the constraints in GA, the penalty function similar to one defined in [55] was used. The
penalty function is defined by
 3
y
f p = µ(y − yc ) (6)
yc

where y is the design variable, yc is the design variable constraint, and µ is the unit step
function equal to zero for y ≤ yc . With the introduction of the penalty function, the objective
function becomes
N
f = f + ∑ fp (7)
i =1

where N is the total number of design variables. The number of species for each optimiza-
tion study depends on the optimization problem and the number of design variables.

3.4. Validation of the Initial Sizing Block

To ensure that the initial sizing methodology is working correctly, a validation case
was performed for the reference A320-200 aircraft. The harmonic range (the range at the
maximum possible payload) mission was simulated in SUAVE using a limited amount
of information: the mission profile, wing sweep, taper ratio, kink spanwise ratio, engine
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 10 of 35

characteristics, wing loading, and field performance. Geometric characteristics and essential
masses of A320-200 were obtained from Ref. [56], while important characteristics of the
CFM56-5B engine were obtained from the EASA certification data sheet [57]. Figure 4
shows the mission profile used for the A320-200 simulation. The validation is performed
using multiple important criteria: the wing planform shall converge to the one similar to the
reference aircraft, aircraft masses shall be similar to reference masses, the field performance
shall be similar to the one reference aircraft, and the design thrust-to-weight ratio for the
given wing loading shall be within the design space computed with the constraint analysis.

Figure 4. A320-200 mission profile.

Figure 5 shows the constraint diagram calculated using the initial sizing capability im-
plemented into SUAVE, the reference design point of A320, and the design point calculated
using SUAVE. Figure 6 compares the calculated and reference planforms and Table 2 com-
pares aircraft masses, thrust, and field performance. Observing the constraint diagram, the
design space is limited by three lines: the take-off line, the landing field length constraint,
and the wingspan constraint line, which appears as constraint based on ICAO Annex
14 regulations [58] of 36 m. For a given aircraft wing loading, a combination of aircraft
weight and wingspan for a given aircraft aspect ratio may reach an unacceptable value that
prevents the applicability of this design point. Therefore, although the original design space
excluding the wingspan constraint is substantially larger, the span constraint significantly
limits the actual design space. Regarding the planform, weights, and performance results,
minor differences were observed. The only tangible difference is related to the landing
distance, which may be the consequence of the landing analysis simulation methodology.
For the landing analysis, the time-marching solution with recommended constant values
provided by Gudmundsson [38] was used. Assumptions of reverse thrust, as well as the
touch-down and flare distances, may significantly affect the overall landing field length.
Consequently, minor analysis deviations from the reference aircraft are expected and need
to be taken into account during the conceptual design phase. Overall, a good agreement
was reached for the reference aircraft sized using SUAVE.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 11 of 35

Figure 5. Constraint diagram and comparison against A320-200 reference data.

Figure 6. Planform comparison between reference and sized configurations of A320-200.

Table 2. Comparison between reference and calculated values of A320-200.

Parameter Reference SUAVE % Error

Maximum take-off mass, kg 78,000 77,840 −0.2
Operating empty mass, kg 42,600 42,497 −0.2
Payload mass, kg 19,900 19,900 0.0
Fuel burn, kg 15,500 15,447 −0.3
Wing loading, kg/m2 629 629 0.0
Thrust-to-weight ratio, N/N 0.314 0.315 0.3
Take-off field length (MTOM, SL, ISA), m 2100 2091 −0.4
Landing field length (MLM, SL, ISA), m 1500 1603 6.87
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 12 of 35

3.5. Technoology Modeling

To model the effect of advanced airframe and propulsion technologies within the
design environment, several modifications based on either available research outcomes
of previous studies or cluster design goals were performed. The present subsection will
describe the key assumptions of each implemented technology.

3.5.1. Laminar Flow Control

The modeling of laminar flow was performed using existing flight test data and several
numerical studies of previous and current research projects. Figure 7 shows a summary
provided by Hepperle [20] and also includes data from the TuLam project [8] and recent
numerical results of Sudhi [25] for the HLFC airfoils. Hepperle also provides approximate
trend lines for the bounds of NLF and HLFC transition Reynolds number as a function
of the wing leading-edge sweep. The curve fit of this data was used within SUAVE to
calculate the transition location on the wing and empennage during the aircraft sizing
process. Both trend lines were can be described using the following relation
(
ReT −4.444 · 10−6 Λ4LE + 3.855 · 10−4 Λ3LE − 1.888 · 10−2 Λ2LE + 3.519 · 10−2 Λ LE + 29.965, HLFC bound
= (8)
106 −1.141 · 10−2 Λ2LE − 0.139Λ LE + 22.212, NLF bound
where Λ LE is the wing leading edge sweep.

Figure 7. Summary of experimental and numerical analyses of wings and airfoils. Adapted from [20].

The fuselage laminarization was assumed to be provided by the porous skin until the
wing-body fairing, so the fuselage surface upstream of the wing has laminar flow. The
amount of the fuselage laminar flow depends on the wing positioning, which is determined
during the sizing, estimation of the CG envelope, and allocation of all critical aircraft
components and systems.

3.5.2. Advanced Materials and Structure Concepts

Given the existing approximations of the effect of advanced materials, an assumption
of 19% airframe mass reduction with respect to current metallic designs was assumed.
Such assumption includes the wing, fuselage, and empennage. However, in the case of the
forward-swept configuration, a more conservative consideration of 9% airframe reduction
was considered since studies of the LamAir project [59] showed that a CFRP forward-swept
wing has masses similar to a metallic one. Given further advancements in materials, the
assumption of 9% was derived.
An additional consideration was taken to estimate the effect of the suction system
mass on laminar flow. Kalarikovilagam [60] and Iyer [61] performed preliminary sizing
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 13 of 35

of vertical and horizontal stabilizers of mid-range and long-range commercial jets using
the physics-based approach and also performed design trade studies with respect to the
number of compressors required for the suction system. Studies showed that horizontal
and vertical stabilizers correspond to 0.11% and 0.16% of the empty mass, respectively, for
two airplanes of different classes. Given the existing information, the wing suction system
weight can be estimated by using the following proportion
msuc,wing msuc,empennage
= (9)
Ssuc,wing Ssuc,empennage

where msuc,wing and msuc,empennage represent the suction system weight for the wing and
the empennage, respectively, while Ssuc,wing and Ssuc,empennage are wetted areas where the
suction is applied for the wing and the empennage. Knowing the empennage suction
system weight and the area covered by the suction system, the wing suction system weight
can be found.
Suction systems mass estimations for fuselages of sizes of commercial aircraft have
currently not been reported. Consequently, it can be assumed that the suction system mass
is proportional to the suction system wetted area ratio and then can be used for the fuselage
suction system mass estimation. However, a high-fidelity aerodynamic simulation of the
fuselage with suction performed by Beck [19] and a two-dimensional simulation of the
airfoil with the leading-edge suction performed by Sudhi [25] demonstrated significant
differences in the suction coefficient requirement. Observing the fuselage suction simulation
in Figure 8, a rather conservative constant suction coefficient of 1 × 10−4 can be assumed
if the fuselage suction profile is assumed as a uniform profile instead of the one with the
lower suction velocity ratio downstream of the fuselage. Note that for a typical airfoil with
the leading-edge suction, the suction coefficient is 4.5 × 10−4 . That leads to the preliminary
conclusion that the suction ratio between the fuselage and wing is in the order of 0.22 and
will affect the compressor, tubing, and electrical system masses. An additional simplifying
assumption of the suction system mass being proportional to the ratio of suction velocities
coefficient was considered along with the area ratio. Knowing the wetted area covered
on the wing and its corresponding mass, the fuselage suction system mass was scaled
with respect to the wing system mass according to the wetted area ratio and the suction
coefficient ratio, so
Ssuc, f use
msuc, f use = K F m (10)
Ssuc,wing suc,wing
where Ssuc, f use represents the wetted area of the fuselage covered by the suction system,
and K F is the suction velocity ratio between the fuselage and the wing equal to 0.22.

Figure 8. Fuselage suction profile at Mach = 0.8. Adapted from [19]. The red line represents the
selected conservative value for the analysis.

An additional mass estimation must be provided to estimate the potential mass penalty
of the fuselage suction skin. The fuselage must have two shells: the porous shell, which is
responsible for the boundary layer suction, and the structural shell, which carries loads
and covers the cabin. To account for extra skin mass, the fuselage skin mass was increased
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 14 of 35

by 15% with respect to its metallic analogy to account for a potential range of mass gains
between 10% and 20%. The skin mass is found by
h i
mskin, f use = Ksuc tskin m f use ρmat πD f use Lsuc, f use (11)

where Ksuc represents the skin-mass gain equal to 0.15, ρmat is the fuselage material density,
D f use is the fuselage equivalent diameter, Lsuc, f use is the length of the fuselage portion
covered by the suction system, and t/c is the fuselage skin thickness, which can be estimated
as a function of the fuselage mass. This way, the skin thickness is proportional to the aircraft
size. Fuselage skin thickness is based on information found in the textbooks of Niu and
Obert [62,63] where A320, B757, and B747 were defined as a function of the fuselage mass,
as shown in Figure 9. Skin thickness as a function of the fuselage weight is then defined by

tskin = 3.2468 · 10−8 m f uselage + 7.5938 · 10−4 (12)

where m f uselage is the fuselage mass.

Figure 9. Fuselage skin thickness for medium and long–range aircraft.

3.5.3. Load Alleviation

Load alleviation possibilities were taken into account via reducing the limit load
factor from 2.5 obtained using CS 25.337 [64] to 2.0. These numbers assume that load
alleviation can counter gust and maneuver loads by at least 20%, while flight safety in
the case of load alleviation system failure is retained by assuming safety factors similar to
conventional aircraft.

3.5.4. UHBPR Engines

To model the UHBPR engine, the conventional physics-based engine model of SUAVE
was used. However, to include the benefits of a higher bypass ratio, the engine SFC gain of
21%, similar to results obtained by Giesecke [36], was implemented. Moreover, according
to the final results of Giesecke, the nacelle diameter was increased by 30% compared to a
conventional engine.

4. Design of the SE2 A MR Aircraft

The goal of the present study is to evaluate the potential of a new-generation aircraft
with advanced airframe and propulsion technologies to minimize its environmental im-
pact. Aircraft emissions can be reduced using two approaches: by improving the overall
aircraft efficiency and minimizing the fuel burn and by modifying the mission profile
such that emission components, such as contrails, are reduced. Several researchers [18,65]
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 15 of 35

emphasized that contrails significantly affect the overall equivalent emission. Therefore,
the present work considers a different flight altitude and cruise speed as a design point for
low emission while sufficient flexibility of aircraft operation must be maintained. For the
present design, the altitude margin of 7650 m was assumed to ensure that the aircraft is
capable of flying above the majority of clouds. The aircraft shall also be able to climb to
higher altitudes to be operationally flexible. The true cruise speed at the reduced altitude
was assumed to be 5% lower than a typical cruise speed at the altitude of 10500 m and
the Mach number of 0.78. The constraint on the cruise speed of an eco-design mid-range
aircraft was driven by the assumption that the turnaround time between the flight could be
optimized by future technological advances in aircraft operations.
Finally, current ICAO Annex 14 [58] category C regulations for aircraft of a similar
class have a strong limit on the aircraft wingspan of 36 m, which limits the application of
aircraft to a particular set of airports. The present study, therefore, considers cases with a
wing folding mechanism as well as an optimistic scenario of a relaxed wingspan regulation.
For the remaining design requirements, such as the harmonic range, reserve require-
ments, and field performance, values similar to the reference Airbus A320-200 were used.
Table 3 shows the summary of the SE2 A MR top-level requirements.

Table 3. SE2 A MR top-level requirements.

Requirement Value Units

Harmonic range 4000 km
Maximum payload 19,650 kg
Cruise Mach number 0.71
Design cruise altitude 7650 m
Take-off field length 2100 m
Landing distance 1500 m
Mission reserve CS-25 [64]

4.1. Concept Definition

For the present study, two tube-and-wing concepts were considered: the forward-
swept wing with NLF and the backward-swept wing with HLFC. Both configurations
have a significant difference in their capabilities for applying advanced technologies. The
forward-swept concept has a low leading-edge sweep, which enables the possibility of in-
cluding NLF instead of the leading-edge suction. At the same time, a high half-chord sweep
enables a reduction of compressibility drag. Moreover, the wing-body fairing is located
further downstream of the fuselage, which enables more fuselage laminarization. Note
that the forward-swept wing is prone to aeroelastic divergence, which increases its mass.
However, studies of the LamAir project [59] demonstrated that it is possible to tailor the
wing such that its mass does not exceed the metallic one. Therefore, given the assumption
of advanced technologies, the structural mass reduction of 9% instead of 19% was assumed
for the given aircraft. The backward-swept configuration, on the other hand, generally
needs a relatively high leading-edge sweep to minimize compressibility drag. On the other
hand, a high sweep prevents laminar flow due to cross-flow instabilities. Therefore, the
leading-edge suction with a corresponding mass penalty was applied. Contrary to the
forward-swept configuration, a structural mass reduction of 19% was used due to the lack
of the divergence problem.
Both configurations initially feature under-the wing-mounted engines as a conven-
tional variant, as shown in Figure 10a. However, a potential option of an over-the-wing
engine is also considered due to the possibility of having a cleaner wing and a reduced
engine noise [36]. The engine location trade study is presented in a separate subsection.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 16 of 35

(a) Backward-swept configuration (b) Forward-swept configuration

Figure 10. Aircraft configurations considered for the design study.

4.2. Aircraft Pre-Sizing

The initial pre-sizing using SUAVE constraint and mission analyses were used to
investigate potential sensitivities of key design parameters, such as DOC, emissions,
maximum take-off mass, and wingspan to the aircraft wing loading and aspect ratio.
Knowing design sensitivities, bounds used for the refinement using MDO can be defined.
Figure 11 demonstrates the analysis summary for a sample design case. For each discrete
point displayed by the contour plot, the design point that corresponds to the maximum
wing loading is determined iteratively. Then, depending on the wing loading ratio with
respect to the maximum allowable wing loading and the given aspect ratio, the design
point is found along the constraint bound. Finally, all important parameters of sized
configurations are obtained and collected for sensitivity analysis.

Figure 11. Sensitivity study of the aircraft to wing loading and aspect ratio (Mach = 0.71,
Altitude = 7600 m, Sweep = +20 deg, Taper ratio = 0.25).
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 17 of 35

Based on the obtained results, multiple trends were observed. First, the minimum
emission point approaches high aspect ratios and higher wing loading. On the other hand,
the wingspan increases significantly for the minimum emission point. On the contrary,
the minimum DOC point approaches rather low aspect ratios due to lower aircraft mass
that affects several DOC components. Therefore, the best combination between DOC and
emission is located for aspect ratios between 9 and 17.

4.3. Aircraft Refinement

Aircraft refinement is divided into two main steps. First, a refined sizing using a
multi-objective MDO, as described in Section 3.3.4, was used to select the design that
corresponds to the best design trade-off. Then, manual refinements to satisfy sizing and
performance requirements not covered by the MDO were performed. Moreover, additional
trade studies based on MDO refinements were completed at this design stage.

4.3.1. Refinement Using MDO

The MDO refinement was performed for a number of design cases: a forward-swept
wing with NLF, a forward-swept wing with NLF and wing folding, a backward-swept
wing with HLFC, a backward-swept wing with HLFC and wing folding, and a backward-
swept wing with NLF. The reason for such a large set of design cases is motivated by the
desire to understand the sensitivity of concepts to the folding mechanism for all concepts
and the possibility of having a combination of HLFC and NLF for the backward-swept
configuration. The folding mechanism location depends on the aircraft’s wingspan. If the
wingspan is up to 10% larger than the ICAO limit of 36 m, then tip folding is possible.
However, a larger span will force the mechanism to intersect the aileron, so in the case of a
significantly larger wingspan, the folding mechanism is located at the inboard end of the
aileron. Table 4 summarizes the MDO problem specified for all cases. The objective of the
study is to find the combination of the emission level and DOC to have a balance between
emissions and operating costs. Design variables include wing planform parameters, as well
as the thrust-to-weight ratio. Constraints include the field performance, maximum possible
throttle at all mission segments, minimum tip chord length to ensure that its length is not
excessively short, and the wingspan to avoid excessively large wingspans.

Table 4. SE2 A MR aircraft optimization problem definition.

Parameter Lower Upper Units

minimize 1. CO2,eq
2. DOC
wrt Aspect ratio 8.00 18.00
Taper ratio 0.2 0.5
Root chord 3.00 8.00 m
Root thickness 0.13 0.15
Tip thickness 0.10 0.12
Thrust-to-weight ratio 0.20 0.35 N/N
subject to Take-off field length 2100 m
Landing field length 1500 m
Wingspan 45.0 m
Tip chord 1.35 m

Pareto fronts for all design cases are shown in Figure 12. Several trends were observed.
First, the presence of the folding mechanism divides the Pareto front into two regions: the
region where there may be no folding or a tip folding and the region where the folding is
located at the boundary between the aileron and the flap. The trend mostly affects the DOC
and limits the possible gains in the overall emission due to the folding mechanism mass
penalty. Folding mechanisms also have a strong influence on the emission level and costs,
especially for the backward-swept configuration, due to the larger overall masses of the
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 18 of 35

backward-swept configurations. The general increase in the backward-swept configuration

masses was obtained due to a significantly lower fuselage portion with laminar flow (44%
for the backward-swept versus 52% for the forward-swept). This fact created a snowball
effect, which increased the fuel burn, which affected both DOC and the emission level.
Another interesting outcome deals with the fact that the NLF version without folding has
similar values of emissions and DOC as the HLFC version with folding. That demonstrates
that the reduction of laminar flow in the case of NLF is comparable to the introduction of
the folding mechanism with the leading-edge suction.

Figure 12. Summary of MDO studies for several design cases.

Figures A1–A5 summarize the results for each MDO study and presents several
planforms from Pareto fronts. In the case of the forward-swept NLF optimization without
folding, relatively modest increases in the wingspan were observed. The wingspan ranges
from 39 to 44 m. Changes in emission between the best DOC design and the best emission
design are equal to 2%, while the DOC difference equals 1.2%. Therefore, the aircraft
is more sensitive to emissions rather than DOC. Aspect ratios are generally higher than
conventional ones and range from 11 to 13.5. The leading-edge wing sweep ranges from
−14 to −17.5 degrees, which enables a 65% laminar flow along the chord for almost the
whole wing except for a small portion near the root, where the laminar flow reaches the
range of 40–50%.
Similar trends were observed for the case with NLF and a folding wing. However,
the optimization trends fall more towards the lower wingspan and aspect ratio to avoid
an excessive mass penalty due to folding. However, these planforms suffer from higher
DOC values. The range of emissions between extreme cases is 1.5%, while the DOC range
is 3%. The best design case features a maximum possible wing aspect ratio while having
a tip folding. In this case, the aspect ratio of 12 is a good compromise between the costs
and emissions.
The optimization of the backward-swept configuration showed a lower wing sweep
compared to the conventional aircraft wing sweep range, from 15.5 to 16.5 degrees. The
sweep was reduced due to a reduced cruise Mach number, which reduced the compress-
ibility drag and attempts of the solver to maximize laminar flow at the kink section where
the Reynolds number is higher than for the outer wing. The range of emissions between
extreme cases equals 1.0%, while the DOC changes equal 2.5%. Therefore, for this case, the
range is a lot more sensitive to DOC rather than emissions. Maximum wingspan equals
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 19 of 35

45 m for the minimum emission case. Given Pareto front results, the design case approaches
the minimum emission cases.
In the case of the folding wing with LFC, a clear differentiation between tip folding
cases and cases with the folding before the aileron was observed. The emission range equals
1%, while the DOC range equals 2%. Consequently, the folding case is more sensitive to
DOC changes rather than emissions, similar to the forward-swept folding case. The best
design combination is reached for the folding tip case with minimum possible emissions.
The leading-edge sweep ranges from 17.5 to 19 degrees for the case of the folding wing.
Finally, a special case of the backward-swept NLF wing was carried out to determine
how much different optimal configurations are and if a compromise between the fully
LFC case and the NLF case is possible to reach a large laminar flow portion with the
lower suction system mass. After the optimization, wing sweeps of optimal configurations
range from 14.5 to 16 deg, so it is not much different from the LFC case. Therefore, there
is a capability of having a mixture of LFC and NLF where the inner portion with the
kink can be laminarized using LFC, while the outer wing can exploit NLF. The emission
level has a range of 1.5%, while the DOC range equals 1.1%, so differences in optimal
configurations are minor. Any configuration can be selected given such small differences in
objective functions.
If forward-swept and backward-swept wing configurations are compared within each
Pareto front, relatively minor changes in both emissions and DOC are observed. However,
if the backward and forward-swept configurations are considered, changes in DOC are less
than 2%, while the emission change equals 2.6%. Differences in emissions are motivated
by a higher fuel burn of the backward-swept configuration due to a lower percent of
the fuselage laminarization, which also causes a snowball effect on overall masses. The
difference between the fuel burn rates for both forward and backward-swept configurations
equals 4.8%.

4.3.2. Over-the-Wing Engine Trade Study

An important trade study is related to opportunities to further improve aerodynamic
efficiency by positioning the engines. The studies by Hooker [66,67] and Tsagi [68] demon-
strated the potential of improving the aerodynamic efficiency by 3–5% compared to the
conventional configuration by putting engines above and aft of the wing. On the other hand,
two design considerations on the overall aircraft level are unclear: how will an aft-mounted
engine affect the CG envelope, and how heavy will the pylon for the over-the-wing engine
be? Two configurations shown in Figure 13a for the forward-swept configuration were
modeled in SUAVE to investigate the effect of the engine position on masses and to deter-
mine the new CG envelope. An average value of 4% increase in L/D was assumed for the
over-the-wing engine configuration. The wing planform, however, remained constant and
equal to the one obtained after the set of MDO studies.

(a) Under-the-wing engine (b) Over-the-wing engine

Figure 13. The two engine configurations considered for the trade study.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 20 of 35

Multiple trends were observed after the updated aircraft sizing for the over-the wing
configuration. First, an opportunity to have a shorter landing gear became available, which
reduced the landing gear mass, as shown in Table 5. A relatively small reduction in the
landing gear height saved 230 kg. Moreover, the increase in the aerodynamic efficiency
improved the fuel burn, which was also strengthened by lighter landing gear and created
a snowball effect. Overall, the fuel burn was reduced by 7.5% compared to the initial
configuration. Note that the horizontal tail dihedral angle was increased to make sure
that the engine exhaust did not meet the tail, so the configuration became similar to the
Fokker 614. However, uncertainty regarding high angle-of-attack behavior still remains
and needs to be checked. In the worst case, a cruciform tail option will be applied, which
will create minor losses in masses due to structural mass and interference drag. The CG
envelope shifted towards the rear of the aircraft, as expected, but it did not affect the
aircraft significantly.

Table 5. Comparison between two forward-swept wing configurations with under and over-the-wing
engines. Fuel mass is specified for the maximum payload scenario.

Parameter Under-the-Wing Engines Over-the-Wing Engines Units

m MTOM 62,744 61,921 kg
mempty 35,499 34,998 kg
mengine 3461 3297 kg
mnacelles 333 314 kg
mlandinggear 2640 2413 kg
m f uel 7595 7272 kg
mwing 6240 6178 kg
m f uselage 6931 6931 kg
mempennage 1274 1274 kg
msystems 14,197 14,172 kg
m paint 418 418 kg

The present analysis assumed that the pylon mass is not affected by the engine location,
which may not be true since the over-the-wing engine may introduce static loads and
dynamic instabilities that are not covered by SUAVE’s semi-empirical approach. Therefore,
it is important to quantify how much additional pylon mass and mass required to stabilize
wing dynamics is acceptable to ensure that the engine location remains beneficial for
the aircraft. Additional studies with the pylon mass penalty as a set of constants were
performed in SUAVE. A mass penalty of 900 kg, which is equivalent to the mass of the
A320 pylon [63] was added to the empty mass to model a twice as heavy pylon. The
results showed that the fuel burn changed from 7272 to 7346 kg (an increase of the mass by
1%), although the empty mass increased from 34,998 to 36,043 kg, which increased DOC
from 29,848 EUR/flight to 30,214 EUR/flight, which is equivalent to 1.2%. Consequently,
changes in both fuel burn and DOC are equivalent, while the fuel burn remains lower
than for the under-the-wing configuration. Therefore, the over-the-wing configuration is
preferred since there is also an acoustic benefit by shielding the fan noise during take-off of
the aircraft. However, the difficulty of providing access for engine maintenance must yet
be solved for such an engine position.
The selected engine location configuration was hence used for both configurations.
The backward-swept configuration had to enlarge its kink to ensure that the landing gear
could be retracted, but such differences were relatively minor and did not significantly
affect the overall performance.

4.3.3. Aircraft Design Summary and Performance Comparison

Figure 14 shows a comparison between the forward and the backward swept wing
configurations. Table 6 compares the masses of both configurations, while Figure 15 shows
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 21 of 35

the extent of laminar flow for both designed wings, and Table 7 compares the geometric
characteristics of both aircraft.

Figure 14. Comparison between two aircraft planforms.

(a) Forward-swept configuration

(b) Backward-swept configuration

Figure 15. Boundary layer transition profile for designed configurations.

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 22 of 35

Table 6. Final masses summary of two configurations. Fuel mass is specified for the maximum
payload scenario.

Parameter Forward-Swept Backward-Swept Units

m MTOM 61,921 62,715 kg
mempty 34,998 34,705 kg
mengine 3297 3293 kg
mnacelles 314 313 kg
mlandinggear 2413 2421 kg
m f uel 7272 8359 kg
mwing 6178 5898 kg
mempennage 1274 1138 kg
m f uselage 6931 6922 kg
msystems 14,172 14,272 kg
m paint 418 428 kg

Table 7. Final design summary of two configurations.

Parameter Forward-Swept Backward-Swept Units

Wing
Aspect ratio 12.4 12.11 -
Span 42.46 43.4 m
Taper ratio 0.31 0.26 -
Leading-edge sweep −16.7 16.0 deg
Dihedral 6.0 3.0 deg
Root thickness 0.13 0.13 -
Tip thickness 0.104 0.105 -
Root incidence 1.0 2.0 deg
Tip incidence 1.0 −1.0 deg
Flap chord ratio 0.2 0.2 -
Flap span ratio 0.6 0.6 -
Aileron chord ratio 0.25 0.25 -
Aileron span ratio 0.25 0.25 -
Vertical tail
Aspect ratio 1.89 1.89 -
Span 7.45 7.45 m
Taper ratio 0.3 0.3 -
Leading-edge sweep 36.0 36.0 deg
Root thickness 0.09 0.09 -
Tip thickness 0.09 0.09 -
Rudder chord ratio 0.25 0.25 -
Rudder span ratio 0.9 0.9 -
Horizontal tail
Aspect ratio 6.02 4.86 -
Span 15.6 13.0 m
Taper ratio 0.4 0.4 -
Leading-edge sweep 30.0 30.0 deg
Dihedral 8.0 8.0 deg
Root thickness 0.09 0.09 -
Tip thickness 0.09 0.09 -
Elevator chord ratio 0.25 0.25 -
Elevetor span ratio 0.9 0.9 -

As mentioned earlier, the forward-swept configuration features NLF along the com-
plete wingspan, while the backward-swept configuration has LFC at the inner portion
of the wing, as shown in Figure 14, and the outer wing uses NLF. Based on obtained
results, multiple trends are observed. The portion of laminar wing flow for both con-
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 23 of 35

figurations reaches the maximum values at the middle of the wing and further towards
the tip, while the root segment has a reduced laminar region. Since the backward-swept
configuration features LFC, the transition position is slightly further downstream compared
to the forward-swept one, but the differences are not significant. It must be mentioned
that the analysis did not consider three-dimensional effects at the wing root and tip that
would reduce the overall laminarization of the wing. However, major trends in laminar
flow improvements can be captured with a simplified assumption of the absence of those
effects. The empty mass of the forward-swept configuration is slightly larger than the
backward-swept one, which is the outcome of the penalty on the wing structure compared
to the backward-swept configuration. Although the backward-swept configuration features
the leading-edge suction, it is considered only for the inner wing portion, which does not
add mass significantly and makes the overall suction system weigh 1742 kg compared to
1810 kg for the forward-swept configuration. Moreover, the forward-swept wing is heavier
than the backward-swept one according to the wing mass reduction assumption due to
technologies (9% for the forward-swept wing and 19% for the backward-swept wing).
The empennage of the backward-swept configuration is smaller than the forward-
swept one due to the CG envelope trend. The CG range for the backward-swept con-
figuration equals 19%, while the forward-swept configuration has the CG range of 25%.
While the backward-swept CG envelope has a CG range close to the quarter chord of
the mean aerodynamic chord, the forward-swept one is located more aft, with the empty
mass CG being at 56%, which is similar to the Tu-154 [39]. That leads to the larger hori-
zontal tail to ensure a sufficient static margin and a sufficient elevator deflection for the
landing configuration.
On the other hand, the forward-swept configuration has a more efficient wing due to
a higher half-chord sweep angle and a slightly lower compressibility drag of this configura-
tion. Moreover, the fuselage of the forward-swept configuration is more laminar, which
also improves the aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft overall. That leads to the reduction
of the fuel burn by almost 13% compared to the backward-swept configuration.
Although the aircraft was designed for a rather low altitude, sufficient operational
flexibility needs to be proven to ensure that the aircraft can adapt to variations of the
atmospheric requirements around the globe and is flexible with respect to requirements
from air traffic management. Figure 16 shows the flight envelope and the payload-range
diagram, while Figure 17 shows the range, DOC, and emission sensitivities to the flight
Mach number and the cruise altitude. Based on the given airframe and propulsion char-
acteristics, the forward-swept configuration is capable of reaching an absolute ceiling of
11,800 m and the maximum operating Mach number of 0.77, while the backward-swept
configuration can reach an altitude of 11,200 m and the maximum operating Mach of 0.76.
However, the stall line of the backward-swept configuration is located further to the left
compared to the forward-swept one, which indicates better low-speed performance due to
its lower trailing edge sweep. Payload-range diagrams show almost similar trends for both
configurations and have a larger range with full fuel compared to the A320-200 reference
aircraft. However, the ferry range does not have a significant difference compared to the
reference aircraft.
Sensitivities to the Mach number and flight altitudes show similar trends but with
different magnitudes that come from the benefits and drawbacks of each configuration.
As was previously shown for the A320, minimum DOC and maximum range are reached
at typical flight altitudes between 9500 and 10,500 m, while similar altitudes are also
responsible for the highest emission amount.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 24 of 35

(a) Flight envelope (b) Payload-range diagram

Figure 16. Aircraft performance for optimized mid-range aircraft.

(a) Forward-swept design

(b) Backward-swept design

Figure 17. Emission, DOC, and range sensitivities to cruise Mach number and altitude.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 25 of 35

Table 8 shows that the forward-swept and the backward-swept aircraft are 44% and
43% more expensive than A320, respectively, which is a significant difference in price. On
the other hand, the DOC for those aircraft is lower than for the reference aircraft. Both
aircraft are 22–25% cheaper to operate than the reference aircraft due to a substantially
lower fuel burn. Moreover, the emissions of designed aircraft are 31–34% lower at the
altitude of 10,500 m and 37–42% lower at the altitude of 7600 m, which is achieved by
advanced technologies.

Table 8. Design-point summary and an off-design comparison of sized aircraft to A320.

Parameter Forward- Backward- A320 Units

Swept Swept
Acquisition price 130.6 129.8 90.6 mil EUR
Mach 0.71, 7600 m
DOC 29,848 31,197 39,773 EUR/flight
CO2 ,eq 57.4 × 103 62.4 × 103 98.9× 103 kg
L/Dcruise 25.6 21.75 16.25 -
Mach 0.71, 10,500 m
DOC 29,509 30,599 40,182 EUR/flight
CO2 ,eq 145.7 × 103 150.6 × 103 224.1 × 103 kg
L/Dcruise 29.5 25.6 17.0 -
Mach 0.76, 10,500 m
DOC 29,824 31,230 39,816 EUR/flight
CO2 ,eq 148.3 × 103 154.9 × 103 224.4 × 103 kg
L/Dcruise 25.8 21.8 16.4 -

5. Influence of Technologies on the Emission Reduction Potential

Although aircraft configurations have been proposed and significant changes in overall
emissions are observed, all technologies are subject to significant uncertainties. To under-
stand the influence of technology deviations on the equivalent CO2 emission of the aircraft,
a technology deviation trade study was performed. The forward-swept configuration was
used for the technology sensitivity analysis. The laminar flow ranges from 0% to 100% of
the initially obtained laminar boundary layer, the limit load factor ranges from 1.5 to 2.5,
the structural mass reduction factor ranges from 0% to 19% for all aircraft components, and
the engine can have a typical bypass ratio of 5 and an ultra-high bypass ratio, according to
the technology assumption. The planform of the aircraft remains constant, and only masses
are updated based on available capabilities of technologies. Figure 18 summarizes obtained
emission trends.
Multiple trends have been observed. Table 9 summarizes the applications of each
technology separately for the design mission profile shown in Figure 4. Based on the
obtained results, laminar flow control has the highest influence on emission reduction
compared to all other technologies. Then, engine technologies have the second-highest
influence, and load alleviation and advanced materials and structures have the lowest
emission influence. On the other hand, reaching laminar flow parameters for the aircraft is
exceptionally challenging, especially for the fuselage. Therefore, although the increase of
the engine bypass ratio is also challenging, its implementation may not be as demanding
as the flow laminarization, which makes this technology as promising as the laminar flow
control. In addition, since both engine technologies and the flow laminarization give the
highest impact on the emission level, their combination covers the majority of the emission
reduction compared to all other technology combinations. Finally, it is important to note
that the aircraft version without technologies shows a lower emission level compared to
the A320 since the reference aircraft was calculated at the off-design condition.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 26 of 35

(a) Normal turbofan engine (BPR = 5)

(b) Ultra-high bypass ratio engine

Figure 18. Technology sensitivity summary for the equivalent CO2 emissions for the designed flight
mission (Mach = 0.71, Altitude = 7600 m, maximum payload).

Table 9. Equivalent CO2 emissions for each technology applied separately at their maximum capabil-
ities for the designed flight mission.

Parameter CO2,eq Emission Units

No technologies 90,953 kg/flight
Load alleviation 89,433 kg/flight
Advanced materials and structures 89,057 kg/flight
UHBPR engines 76,706 kg/flight
Laminar flow control 68,857 kg/flight

6. Conclusions
The present work demonstrates the influence of advanced airframe and propulsion
technologies on the design of a medium-range commercial aircraft similar to the Airbus
A320, designed for reduced emissions. Multiple airframes and propulsion technologies
were considered: hybrid laminar flow control, load alleviation, advanced materials and
structure concepts, and ultra-high bypass ratio turbofan engines.
Multiple tools were used and improved to design the aircraft. Initial pre-sizing
was performed using SUAVE, which featured a developed iterational sizing algorithm to
determine the design point based on the top-level requirements and the mission profile.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 27 of 35

The multi-fidelity approach using tools such as EMWET and AVL was used for masses,
aerodynamics, and aircraft stability analysis. The coupled MDO environment between
MATLAB and SUAVE was used to perform the optimization studies.
During the design process, a dedicated mission profile was adopted to further mitigate
the environmental impact. Moreover, various configurations with different wing sweeps
and the presence or absence of the wing folding mechanism were studied. Finally, an
engine configuration trade study was performed to find a more advantageous configu-
ration. The best possible configuration features an extended wingspan of 7 m compared
to the ICAO Annex 14 category C span regulation, a forward-swept wing with NLF, and
over-the-wing mounted engines. The aircraft was proven to have a rather wide range of
airspeeds and altitudes to be flexible enough for operations, although maximum speeds
are lower than the reference A320. The average equivalent CO2 emissions reduction of 39%
compared to the reference A320 for the similar low-speed and low-altitude mission profile
was demonstrated, while the high-altitude and high-speed mission showed an emission
reduction of 33%. Moreover, although the price of such an aircraft is 43% higher than the
reference, Direct Operating Costs are 23% lower, which gives a possibility of this aircraft
to be economically viable if all technologies reach expected performance levels and cost
increases match expected assumptions.
The technology sensitivity analysis demonstrated a significant influence of engine tech-
nologies and laminar flow control compared to other technologies. The strongest influence
was observed for the laminar flow control, while the UHBPR engines became the second
most important technology to minimize emissions. Moreover, given the complexities of
the laminar flow control technology implementation, UHBPR engine technologies may be
more achievable in the near future.
Future research steps will include a more detailed conceptual design of the SE2 A
MR aircraft with both forward and backward-swept configurations. Particularly, an intro-
duction of higher-fidelity aerodynamic analysis, such as high-fidelity CFD and FEA, will
help design the wing appropriate for all studied technologies. Moreover, the aeroelastic
assessment of composite structures with future technologies will be performed to investi-
gate potential wing mass penalties that were not covered in the present research in detail.
Finally, system sizing and more detailed mass estimations for all advanced technologies
will be performed to determine their mass contributions and resize the aircraft.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.K.; methodology, S.K.; software, S.K.; validation, S.K.;
formal analysis, S.K.; investigation, S.K.; resources, A.E.; data curation, A.E. and R.R.; writing—
original draft preparation, S.K.; writing—review and editing, S.K., A.E. and R.R.; visualization, S.K.;
supervision, A.E. and R.R.; project administration, A.E.; funding acquisition, A.E. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Re-
search Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy-EXC 2163/1-Sustainable and Energy Effi-
cient Aviation-Project-ID 390881007.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study were generated using an open-source
publicly-available software SUAVE (https://suave.stanford.edu/, accessed on 18 May 2022). The
final data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: We would like to acknowledge the funding by the Deutsche Forschungsge-
meinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy-EXC 2163/1-
Sustainable and Energy Efficient Aviation-Project-ID 390881007.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 28 of 35

Abbreviations
The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
Λ Sweep angle
λ Taper ratio
AIC Aviation-induced cloudness
AR Aspect ratio
b Wingspan
C0 Kink chord
Cr Root chord
Ct Tip chord
S Area
CO2 ,eq Equivalent CO2 emission
DOC Direct Operating Costs
HLFC Hybrid laminar flow control
ISA International Standard Atmosphere
Kf Suction velocity ratio
L/D Lift-to-drag ratio
LFC Laminar flow control
MDO Multidisciplinary design optimization
MLM Maximum landing mass
MTOM Maximum take-off mass
m Mass
msuc Suction system mass
NR Number of flight segments
NLF Natural laminar flow
OEI One engine inoperative
ReT Transition Reynolds number
Ssuc Wetted area covered by the suction system
SL Sea-level
tskin Skin thickness
T/W Thrust-to-weight ratio
UHBPR Ultra-high bypass ratio
v0 /U∞ Suction speed ratio
W/S Wing loading

Appendix A. MDO Summary for All Considered Configurations

(a) Equivalent CO2 emission (b) Aspect ratio

Figure A1. Cont.

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 29 of 35

(c) Pareto optimal planforms

Figure A1. Optimization results for the forward-swept NLF aircraft.

(a) Pareto front (b) Aspect ratio

(c) Pareto optimal planforms

Figure A2. Optimization results for the forward-swept NLF aircraft with a folding wing.
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 30 of 35

(a) Pareto front (b) Direct Operating Costs

(c) Pareto optimal planforms

Figure A3. Optimization results for the backward-swept LFC aircraft.

(a) Pareto front (b) Aspect ratio

Figure A4. Cont.

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 31 of 35

(c) Pareto optimal planforms

Figure A4. Optimization results for the backward-swept LFC aircraft with a folding wing.

(a) Pareto front (b) Aspect ratio

(c) Pareto optimal planforms

Figure A5. Optimization results for the backward-swept NLF aircraft.

Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 32 of 35

Appendix B. Derivation of the Wing Planform for the Initial Sizing and Optimization
Figure A6 shows the half of the wing planform that features an arbitrary kink having
the trailing edge sweep angle Λ TE and a local span b0 from the aircraft center line. The
wing aspect ratio, taper ratio, and kink span ratios provided as sizing inputs are defined by

b2
AR = (A1)
Swing

Ct
λ= (A2)
Cr
2b0
kb = (A3)
b
The total planform area is defined by splitting the wing into the inboard segment with
the kink and the outboard segment without the kink and calculating corresponding areas
of two trapezoidal segments

b
Swing = Sinb + Soutb = [Cr k b + C0 + Ct − Ct k b ] (A4)
2

Figure A6. Trapezoid planform definition with a kink.

The chord length at the end of the kink is defined by

C0 = Cr − b0 (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE ) (A5)

The planform definition depends on the sizing procedure. If the sizing is performed
using the constraint analysis, then the wing planform area is known and the goal is
to find find the root chord, which is then used to fully define the wing. Combining
Equations (A4) and (A5) with an implementation of Equations (A2) and (A3) obtains the
following representation of the wing area
 
b b
Swing = Cr k b + Cr − k b (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE ) + λCr − λCr k b
2 2
Cr k b b k b b2 tan Λ LE k b2 tan Λ TE λCr b λCr k b b Cr b
= − − b + − + (A6)
2 4 4 2 2 2
k b b2
 
k b b λb λk b b b
=Cr + − + − (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE )
2 2 2 2 4
Aerospace 2022, 9, 279 33 of 35

Solving Equation (A6) for Cr and using Equation (A1), we obtain the following relation

AR · Swing
 
2 Swing + k b (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE )
4
Cr = q (A7)
(k b + λ − λk b + 1) AR · Swing

Finally, the rest of the geometry can be obtained using the root chord, initial conditions,
and definitions defined by Equations (A1)–(A3).
On the other hand, if the wing planform information is unavailable but the wing root
chord is given, which may be the case of the optimization algorithm, then the wingspan
needs to be obtained. Combining Equations (A1) and (A4), the wing aspect ratio becomes

2b
AR = (A8)
b
Cr k b + Cr − k b (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE ) + λCr − λCr k b
2
Combining common elements and solving for the wingspan, the final expression
becomes
Cr AR[(1 + k b ) + λ(1 − k b )]
b= (A9)
k AR
2+ b (tan Λ LE + tan Λ TE )
2
Finally, the planform can again be fully defined using initial inputs and
Equations (A1)–(A3).

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