Plane 2

Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci
Conceptual design of hybrid-electric transport aircraft

C. Pornet n,1, A.T. Isikveren 2
Bauhaus Luftfahrt, Ottobrunn 85521, Germany
art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The European Flightpath 2050 and corresponding Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) as
Received 20 April 2015 well as the NASA Environmentally Responsible Aviation N þ series have elaborated aggressive emissions
Received in revised form and external noise reduction targets according to chronological waypoints. In order to deliver ultra-low
15 September 2015
or even zero in-flight emissions levels, there exists an increasing amount of international research and
Accepted 16 September 2015
development emphasis on electrification of the propulsion and power systems of aircraft. Since the late
1990s, a series of experimental and a host of burgeouning commercial activities for fixed-wing aviation
Keywords: have focused on glider, ultra-light and light-sport airplane, and this is proving to serve as a cornerstone
Hybrid-electric transport aircraft for more ambitious transport aircraft design and integration technical approaches. The introduction of
Fuel-battery hybrid
hybrid-electric technology has dramatically expanded the design space and the full-potential of these
Aircraft design
technologies will be drawn through synergetic, tightly-coupled morphological and systems integration
Aircraft sizing
Integrated performance emphasizing propulsion – as exemplified by the potential afforded by distributed propulsion solutions.
With the aim of expanding upon the current repository of knowledge associated with hybrid-electric
propulsion systems a quad-fan arranged narrow-body transport aircraft equipped with two advanced
Geared-Turbofans (GTF) and two Electrical Fans (EF) in an under-wing podded installation is presented in
this technical article. The assessment and implications of an increasing Degree-of-Hybridization for
Useful Power (HP,USE) on the overall sizing, performance as well as flight technique optimization of fuel-
battery hybrid-electric aircraft is addressed herein. The integrated performance of the concept was
analyzed in terms of potential block fuel burn reduction and change in vehicular efficiency in comparison
to a suitably projected conventional aircraft employing GTF-only propulsion targeting year 2035. Results
showed that by increasing HP,USE, significant fuel burn reduction can be achieved; however, this also
proves to be detrimental in terms of vehicular efficiency. The potential in block fuel reduction diminishes
with increasing design range – especially for low battery gravimetric specific energies. In addition, the
narrow shape of the fuselage represents a volumetric constraint for the storage of the battery and typical
cargo. It was concluded that the short-range/regional market segment would be the most suited for the
application of such concepts. Concerning the influence of HP,USE on flight technique optimization, an
increasing HP,USE was found to have a tendency of decreasing the optimum flight speed and altitude.
Further investigation of more synergistic design and integration of the hybrid-electric motive power
system needs to be conducted in order to explore the full benefit of such technologies.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Aircraft morphologies and systems architectures for electro-mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1. Topological options, taxonometric conventions and algebraic descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2. Integrated propulsion and power for fixed-wing aviation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1. Experimental and commercial activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2. Synergy with distributed propulsion and survey of future concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3. Scope of investigative work in this article . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3. Sizing scheme for the hybrid-electric propulsion system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
n
Corresponding author.
1
Researcher, Integrated Hybrid-Energy Propulsion and Power Systems, Visionary Aircraft Concepts.
2
Head, Visionary Aircraft Concepts.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2015.09.002
0376-0421/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: C. Pornet, A.T. Isikveren, Conceptual design of hybrid-electric transport aircraft, Progress in Aerospace
Sciences (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2015.09.002i
2 C. Pornet, A.T. Isikveren / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎
3.1. Flow path sizing of the Turbofan and Electrical Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3.2. Turbofan model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3. Ducted fan model and sizing strategy of the electric motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.4. Discussion about the model and its limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.5. Electrical system characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4. Aircraft sizing and integrated performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1. Parametric descriptors and qualitative pre-design investigation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2. Aircraft Top-level Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3. Design mission. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4. Aircraft sizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4.1. Sizing guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.4.2. Electric motor critical sizing conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.5. Relative change in block esar versus relative change in block fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.6. Relative change in block COSAR versus relative change in block fuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.7. Relative change in MTOW versus the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.8. Relative change in point ESAR versus the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.9. Influence of Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power on the combustion-based propulsion system efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.10. Influence of the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power on take-off performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.11. Sensitivity study according to battery gravimetric specific energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5. Influence of the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power on flight technique optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
6. Aircraft characteristics and benchmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.1. Aircraft benckmark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.1.1. Aircraft main data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.1.2. Aircraft mass breakdown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2. Optimum flight technique analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.2.1. Reference aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
6.2.2. Hybrid-electric aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Appendix A. Supplementary material. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1. Introduction is a breakdown that recommends aircraft energy levels (for flight

including all on-board systems and services).
viation today represents 2% of anthropometric carbon dioxide As shown in Fig. 2, the NASA Environmentally Responsible
(CO2) emissions [1]. Objectives for Vision 2020 of the Advisory Aviation N þ series targets [7] apply to technology freeze year as
Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) target an 80% opposed to YEIS espoused by SRIA and Flightpath 2050. A tech-
and 50% reduction in nitrous oxide (NOx) and CO2 respectively [2]. nology freeze year infers attainment of Technology Readiness Le-
Even more ambitious goals outlined in Flightpath 2050 [3] by the vel [10] (TRL) 6, i.e. primed for a product development pro-
European Commission (EC) for year 2050 is a 75% reduction in gramme, and generally, an interval of at least 5 years would
CO2-emissions per passenger kilometer (PAX.km) relative to the characterize technology freeze and YEIS milestones. If one peruses
capabilities of conventional aircraft of the year 2000. Furthermore, the various targets set by N þ3, the stated fuel/energy consump-
a 90% reduction of NOx-emissions and a 65% perceived noise re- tion (proxy for CO2-emissions) reduction of 60% is synonymous
duction is advocated. Finally, aircraft movements on the ground with the goal set by SRIA 2035. This means the N þ3 target can be
have to be emission-free when taxiing. The scope of the Flightpath considered to be somewhat aggressive compared to the European
2050 assessment comprises total emissions between leaving the goal in a temporal sense. A similar conclusion can be drawn when
parking position at an origin airport (off-block) and the arrival at conducting a comparison of Landing–Takeoff cycle (LTO)
position at the final destination (on-block). From an international NOx-emissions targets.
perspective one can compare and contrast these EC objectives to In keeping with the review conducted by Isikveren and
those espoused by the International Air Transport Association [4] Schmidt [11], focusing on the SRIA goals, in order to realize a total
by way of the Air Transport Action Group [5], the International 60% reduction in fuel burn and corresponding CO2-emissions per
Civil Aviation Organization [6] and the US National Aeronautics PAX.km for target YEIS 2035, SRIA 2035 [9] suggests 51% from
and Space Administration [7]. Irrespective of the agenda or gov- combined Airframe and PPS, and, 9% from improved ATM and
ernmental office in question the conclusion is that all these targets operational efficiency. If one extends beyond year 2035 in order to
call for a dramatic reduction in emissions over the interim-to-long consider a plausible strategy for Flightpath 2050, according to SRIA
term. 2050 a possible breakdown for the total 75% reduction in
Targets for CO2-emissions as originally defined in Vision 2020 CO2-emissions would be 68% from Airframe and PPS combined,
and AGAPE 2020 [8] were categorized into Airframe, Propulsion and, the remaining 7% of this 75% total from improvements
and Power System (PPS), Air Traffic Management (ATM) and Air- through ATM and Operations. Data compiled from various in-
line Operations. As exemplified by Fig. 1, the Strategic Research vestigations have shown the PPS category demands an efficiency
and Innovation Agenda (SRIA) goals [9] have been re-calibrated to improvement of approximately 80% over the reference year 2000
reflect the achievements assessed by the AGAPE 2020 report and a [12]. Advanced gas-turbine concepts, such as those based upon the
new medium-term goal for Year Entry-into-Service (YEIS) 2035, classic Joule-Brayton cycle through intercooling and recuperation
which is a significant point for aircraft fleet renewal. A further is expected to lead to thermal efficiencies of around 50% or even
elaboration of the chronologically assigned CO2-emissions targets slightly higher, and, a further overall gain might be realized
C. Pornet, A.T. Isikveren / Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎ 3
Nomenclature ATM Air Traffic Management

BCU Battery Controller Unit
Symbols
BHL Bauhaus Luftfahrt e.V.
BLI Boundary Layer Ingestion
a local sonic velocity (m/s) CO2 carbon dioxide
COSAR Cost Specific Air Range (nm/USD) CU Cranfield University
CDo zero-lift drag coefficient (dimensionless) DEAP Distributed Electrical Aerospace Propulsion
dCD/dCL2 vortex-induced drag factor (dimensionless) DESPPS Dual-Energy Storage-Propulsion-Power System
e battery gravimetric specific energy at cell-level (Wh/ DF Ducted-Fan
kg); Euler's number DisPURSAL Distributed Propulsion and Ultra-high By-pass Ro-
E energy (Wh) tor Study at Aircraft Level
ESAR energy Specific Air Range (nm/kWh) DoH Degree-of-Hybridization
g acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) DWB Discrete Wing and Body (“tube-and-wing”)
HE Degree-of-Hybridization for energy (dimensionless) EC European Commission
HP Degree-of-Hybridization for power (dimensionless) EF Electric Fan
L/D lift-to-drag ratio (dimensionless) EM Electric Motor
M Mach number (dimensionless) FL flight Level, hundreds of feet pressure altitude
N number of propulsors (dimensionless), corrected fan GTF Geared-Turbofan
speed (dimensionless) GW Gross Weight
P power (W) HTS High Temperature Superconducting
SW reference wing area (m2) ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
T thrust (N); time (min) IGW Increased Gross Weight
TSFC Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (g/kNs) IATA International Air Transport Association
TSPC Thrust Specific Power Consumption (W/N) ISA International Standard Atmosphere
W instantaneous gross weight (kg) LERC Long ESAR Range Cruise
η overall power plant efficiency (dimensionless) LRC Long Range Cruise
ηM rate change of overall power plant efficiency w.r.t. LTO Landing-Takeoff cycle
Mach number (dimensionless) MCRC Maximum COSAR Range Cruise
s local density lapse ratio (dimensionless) MERC Maximum ESAR Range Cruise
ϕ Activation ratio (dimensionless) MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight
Φ Supplied Power Ratio (dimensionless) MLW Maximum Landing Weight
MRC Maximum Range Cruise
Subscripts NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NOx nitrous oxide
EF Electric fan OEI One Engine Inoperative
ELEC electrical OEW Operating Empty Weight
INS installed [Power] PAX Passengers
LRC Long Range Cruise PMAD Power Management and Distribution
MRC Maximum Range Cruise PPS Propulsion and Power System
rel relative SAR Specific Air Range
TF Turbofan SL Sea Level
TOC Top-OF-Climb SRIA Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda
TOT Total SSPC Solid State Power Controller
USE Useful [Power] TeDP Turbo-electric Distributed Propulsion
TF Turbofan
Acronyms and abbreviations TOFL Take-Off Field Length
TOC Top-Of-Climb
ACARE Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation TRL Technology Readiness Level
in Europe USD US Dollars
AEO All-Engines Operational USG US Gallons
ATAG Air Transport Action Group YEIS Year Entry-into-Service
ATLeRs Aircraft Top-Level Requirements
through ultra-high by-pass ratio ducted fans and the Open Rotor. Fundamentally, ideas first proposed by Sir George Cayley [16] in
Other published advanced studies indicate the reduction due to the turn of the 19th Century have been the principles governing
Airframe will not offer more than around 25% [13–15] of this 68% aerospace vehicle design up to this point in time. The synthesis of
total. Even factoring in an aggressive development strategy for a complex mechanical, airborne transportation system typified by
combustion based PPS something like a 10–15% CO2-emissions is multiple interactions and often conflicting requirements were, and
still left unaccounted for. Tellingly, it can be concluded that elec- still are, successfully approached by breaking the system up into
trification of PPS could have the potential to deliver the target for disparate, weakly coupled entities. In an effort to promote further
year 2035. Beyond this, in order to achieve ultra-low or even zero improvement in product development outcomes, contemporary
in-flight emissions levels of energy hybridity tending towards a design teams in industry comprise individuals who serve in multi-
much higher proportion of electrification appear necessary. disciplinary sub-groups; for instance amongst others, wing-
Fig. 1. Chronologically defined CO2 and NOx-emissions reduction goals as recommended by ACARE in the SRIA document [9].
fuselage, airframe-engine and integrated utilities. Although proven undertaken for PPS. In order to ensure the continued relevance
beneficial, this approach is hampering any significant potential for and success of all such research activities the realization of ultra-
further optimization because it is curtailing what is now con- low emissions systems infers it should be treated as a tightly-
sidered to be a restrictive design space. Advanced concepts require coupled multi-faceted problem, with the implication any activities
treatment of the design problem in a holistic sense, with emphasis dealing with new architectural approaches should cover:
placed upon maximizing synergy in the global system. Synergy is 1. [Hybrid-] Electrical energy generation and/or storage, in-
conception of a particular system that serves to benefit or ame- cluding synergy with airframe;
liorate other vehicular systems in a cross-disciplinary manner. 2. Fully Integrated Power Management and Control (including
In the context of transport aircraft design, it was argued earlier actuation and Flight Control System); and,
that future aircraft product development will rely on significant 3. Integrated Utilities, i.e. major-systems like Environmental
strides in PPS research – and there exists growing evidence hy- Control System, Landing Gear and Avionics.
brid-electric, or even so-called universally-electric (fully-electric As a further requirement, due to the inter-disciplinary nature of
propulsion with All Electric Aircraft major systems) solutions are such investigative work understanding and evaluating localized
the logical options. This means any research activity addressing systems attributes at aircraft level becomes essential.
questions related to emissions and noise reduction for aviation Another aspect that is of prime importance is a set of tenets
should to some extent exhibit synergy or complement initiatives that govern the acceptance and longevity of new technologies
Fig. 2. Chronologically defined CO2 and NOx-emissions, as well as community noise reduction targets as recommended by NASA in the Environmentally Responsible Aviation
document [7].
utilized for transport aircraft. Aside from complexities related to case at any point in time, e.g. as in the case for More-Electric or
certification and overcoming the inertia associated with adopting All-Electric Aircraft components, sub-systems and architectures;
new practices by suppliers and airworthiness authorities alike, it Possess attributes where scope for performance improvement
can be argued that any technology for YEIS 2025 þ requires four exists over an intermediate-to-long-term period even after in-
prime considerations: itial service-entry, i.e. allows for evolutionary development;
Is scalable whilst still retaining performance such that in-house
Although it may not deliver the potential peak attributes of knowledge can be migrated from one product development
performance by target YEIS, it still can provide a solid business programme to another with relative ease; and,
Fig. 3. (A) Conventional, hybrid-electric and universally-electric propulsion system architectural options, source [17]; (B) Possible power-train options for hybrid-electric
propulsion, upper portion denotes serial arrangements, lower portion denotes parallel arrangements, key: G – generator/M – motor.
Fig. 4. Example of a Degree-of-Hybridization trade-study conducted for a hypothetical Dual-Energy Storage-Propulsion-Power System targeting YEIS 2035; source Isikveren
et al. [19].
Maximizes synergy such that as many aircraft systems as pos- The Degree-of-Hybridization (DoH) employed in such ad-
sible are improved. vanced systems cannot be suitably represented by a single para-
metric descriptor. Lorenz et al. [18] have argued a full description
of any generic hybrid-PPS requires two descriptors involving ac-
2. Aircraft morphologies and systems architectures for elec- count of both the alternative energy [source] and that of the entire
tro-mobility PPS: one ratio comparing each of the maximum installed (or
useful) powers (HP); and, a second ratio comparing the extent of
The aviation sector can be considered to be in the midst of a energy storage (HE) of each, viz.
pioneering era with regards to electro-mobility. As a result, dra-
P ELEC E
matic and disruptive changes to component/sub-systems tech- HP = and HE = ELEC
P TOT ETOT
nologies coupled with experimentation of PPS architectures and/
or aircraft morphologies is currently taking place. The purpose of For a hybrid-electric solution, PELEC would represent the max-
this section is to lend visibility to what options are available to imum installed (or useful) electric power, and PTOT the total PPS
hybrid-electric and universally-electric aircraft solutions, to pre- installed power (motor, and for example, gas-turbine), EELEC the
sent state-of-art commercial activities, and to review the current total stored electric energy, and ETOT the total stored energy for the
array of future concepts proposed by academia and industry. entire PPS (electrical, and for example, kerosene). In order to
elucidate why such a dual set of parametric descriptors are ne-
2.1. Topological options, taxonometric conventions and algebraic cessary, consider:
descriptors
Conventional kerosene based gas turbine PPS – here HP ¼0 and
A comprehensive representation of the most relevant combi- HE ¼0; or,
natorial variety of hybrid-electric propulsion system for aircraft Pure serial hybrid-electric architecture where only electrical
transport application can be proposed by distinguishing between power is provided at the propulsive device(s) but energy sto-
the components (or component chains) generating the shaft rage is solely kerosene based – here HP ¼1 and HE ¼ 0; or,
power and the devices consuming it, as illustrated in Fig. 3A [17]. Universally-electric aircraft where energy storage is batteries
The term hybrid-electric implies intrinsically that electric power is only – here HP ¼1 and HE ¼ 1.
used in combination to a least one additional power source
(commonly fuel power). Assuming regarding the power-train a Isikveren et al. [19] established an algebraic basis when de-
combustion engine and an electrical source, the first step is to scribing the DoH for Power, HP, and, DoH for Energy, HE, para-
establish whether they are combined in serial or in parallel. This metric descriptors for purposes of interpreting the results of ad-
distinction can be tied to the nature of the power node between vanced trade-studies, optimization and corresponding synthesis of
the system constituents: in a serial hybrid arrangement, the node coherent engineering solutions involving any type of Dual-Energy
is electrical (upper portion of Fig. 3B), while in a parallel hybrid, it Storage–Propulsion–Power System (DESPPS). They reasoned for a
is mechanical (lower portion of Fig. 3B). given set of standalone sub-system energy conversion efficiencies,
Fig. 5. A survey of experimental, in-production or near in-production universally-electric aircraft sequenced according to year of first flight; first manned, fixed-wing electric
flight shown at apex of chart; information compiled from [28,29].
the parametric descriptor of HP was found to be solely a function of termed the “Discrete Wing and Body” (DWB, also referred to as the
the Supplied Power Ratio (Φ, related to converted power afforded “tube-and-wing”), the “Integrated Wing Body” and the “All-Wing
by each energy carrier), whereas in contrast, HE was found to be a Aircraft” were inspected. By comparing the ratio of wing displaced
more complex synthetic function described by comingling of Φ volume to the total displaced volume of the aircraft, this in-
and the Activation Ratio (ϕ, describing the relative nature of uti- dependent parametric variable posed opportunity to gauge whe-
lization with respect to time afforded by the motive power device ther all solutions generally fall within the bounds of what was
associated with each energy source). The non-dimensional para- defined as a DWB, or, a “tube-and-wing” aircraft morphology.
meters Φ and ϕ each vary between zero (denoting utilization of Results found for working parameters typical of aircraft employing
Energy Source “a” only) and unity (denoting utilization of Energy hybrid-electric PPS undertaking short-haul operations, the sizing
Source “b” only). For a given DESPPS architecture and inherent outcome of the relationship between wing displaced volume to
attributes related to component and sub-systems efficiencies this that of the total displaced volume of aircraft was more indicative
analytical representation can be visualized using the format of a of a contemporary ultra-large, ultra-long haul aircraft. This meant,
Ragone diagram [20]. Fig. 4 above displays an example functional unless a significant departure in PPS integration is considered, e.g.
correlation between installed HP and HE for a DESPPS based upon distributed propulsion, or, a universally-electric PPS is selected
kerosene and batteries as energy carriers targeting YEIS 2035 and from the outset, the tube-and-wing morphology was still con-
were derived from assumed step values of Φ and ϕ. It has been sidered to be appropriate.
shown when sizing the electrical part of a hybrid-electric system,
the batteries for instance, that the energy or the power require- 2.2. Integrated propulsion and power for fixed-wing aviation
ment can represent the sizing criterion [21]. Since for electro-
chemical storage devices like batteries, gravimetric specific power Progress from the first ever manned, fixed-wing flight of an
and gravimetric specific energy are not independent, this means aircraft solely using electrical energy for the PPS has been rela-
that the power sizing simultaneously influences the amount of tively slow in ramping up until around the year 2000 [22–27]. A
electrical energy stored. In contrast, energy and power sizing are number of commercial offerings exist; however, major inroads still
independent for fuel based systems, because the gravimetric need to be made for such technology to be incorporated in dedi-
specific power of fuel is unlimited, while the energy amount cated Part 25 transport category aircraft. Here, a number of com-
stored is directly proportional to the fuel mass. Another aspect of mercial activities will be briefly reviewed and synergistic design
the work conducted by Isikveren et al. [19] was to establish which morphologies, like distributed propulsion, will be discussed. This
aircraft morphologies would appropriately match a hybrid-electric section motivates why a hybrid-electric, “tube-and-wing” aircraft
PPS approach. One of the important outcomes of any pre-design morphology with quad-fan arrangement would complement the
exercise is to establish whether a given advanced systems ap- database of future concepts being studied today.
proach would be further enhanced by the adoption of aircraft
morphologies other than the traditional so-called “tube-and- 2.2.1. Experimental and commercial activities
wing” combination. An opportunity to gauge attributes related to At this point in time, electro-mobility for aircraft only exists in
vehicular aerodynamic efficiency and its association with DESPPS the single/twin-seater categories and are typically retrofits of ex-
was afforded when potential useful loads between the aircraft isting conventional designs with reduced payload-range capability.
body and wing were judiciously shifted and from a high-speed Their construction is often motivated by technical curiosity;
aerodynamics perspective the relative merits between what is however, there exists an emerging commercial interest limited to
glider, ultra-light and light-sport airplane markets. The era of so- conjunction with Diamond Aircraft and Siemens AG (see Fig. 5),
called “electric aircraft” (or perhaps more appropriately “uni- the E-Fan (see Fig. 5), a fully electrically-powered pilot training
versally-electric” as suggested by the authors of this article earlier) aircraft and the E-Thrust concept study based on a hybrid[uni-
had its beginnings with Brditschka’s converted HB-3 dubbed the versally]-electric distributed propulsion system architecture (see
MB-E1 [30]. The aircraft, which flew for just over 9 min in 1973, Fig. 6).
was powered by a 10 kW Bosch motor and utilized Ni–Cd battery
cells for energy. The 1970s until around the end of the 1990s were 2.2.2. Synergy with distributed propulsion and survey of future
witness to several experimental aircraft, but most of these focused concepts
on solar as a source of electric energy. From around the early The introduction of electric and hybrid-electric technology has
2000s until today, a proliferation of experimental aircraft utilizing drastically opened the design space. The full-potential of these
electro-chemical means of energy supply has emerged. It is around technologies will be drawn through synergetic integrations of the
the same time a series of glider/ultra-light/light-sport aircraft in- propulsive system at aircraft level which may lead to rethink en-
tegrators, namely, as itemized from left-to-right in Fig. 5, Air En- tirely the aircraft design paradigm [32].
ergy, Electraflyer, Yuneec International, Sonex Aircraft, Schempp- As conceptual designs for distributed propulsion developed
Hirth Flugzeugbau, Lange Aviation, Electravia, PC-Aero, Pipistrel throughout the years, e.g. Distributed Fans and so-called Propul-
and Cessna have undertaken the step of offering or are scheduled sive Fuselage concepts undertaken in the recently completed EC
to offer production aircraft to the light aviation sector. Fig. 5 also Framework Programme 7 DisPURSAL Project [33], they have
presents images for each of these production aircraft and has been evolved into concepts where the power generated through core
sequenced according to year of first flight. Apart from a novel gas turbine engines is transmitted to distributed propulsor fans
butterfly (or Vee-tail) empennage arrangement for the Yuneec which produced aircraft thrust. The challenge, however, was to
E430 and Sonex E-Flight Waiex, all aircraft appear to employ a establish the most efficient method of transmitting power from
conventional morphology, indicative of contemporary glider/ultra- the core engine to the propulsor fans. Of the several concepts in-
light/light-sport offerings. vestigated, the best alternatives included either employing me-
Regarding fixed-wing commercial aviation, at current technol- chanical transmission or producing electrical power and further
ogy levels the development of even a hybrid-electric passenger transmitting it via a conventional, i.e. non-High-Temperature Su-
aircraft appears challenging. Even setting aside the qualitatively per-conducting (HTS) technologies, distribution network to several
different power requirements for low-speed operations, limita- electrically driven fans using electrical motors. It was, however,
tions in range and flexibility in the payload-range working capa- found that if conventional methods of power transmission were to
city (useful load trade) is one of the major impediments. This is be utilized, they would result in low efficiency factors, thereby,
exemplified by basic studies conducted on the Dornier Do328 re- leading to poor performance and hence higher fuel consumption
gional aircraft modified into a universally-electric aircraft where than conventional systems [23,34].
the outcome indicated with improved aerodynamics, reduced The key benefits of this synergistic application include
structural mass still more advanced batteries are necessary to achieving ultra-high effective bypass ratios, while retaining the
achieve even a modest range capability [31]. Irrespective of these superior efficiency of large core engines, enabling Boundary Layer
challenges, one of the world's leading commercial aircraft in- Ingestion (BLI) to achieve higher propulsive efficiencies, lower fuel
tegrators, Airbus Group, has recognized the potential of electro- burn, reduced level of low-speed operations noise and overall
mobility for aeronautical applications, and has committed re- environmental emissions, various integration advantages, im-
sources to the so-called “E-Aircraft Programme” [29]. It is an in- provement in transient operating characteristics of the integrated
dustry lead initiative conceived by Airbus Group in order to pave system and improved benefits for large passenger aircraft over
the way forward in a piece-meal fashion for commercial aircraft to long-range missions. The benefits of the concept additionally allow
operate with fully-electric propulsion as the ultimate goal. At this new degrees of design freedom. These include the location of large
moment in time, active projects include: the Dimona DA36 e-Star turbo-shaft engines driving generators for optimal performance,
2nd Generation Project, a two-seat hybrid-electric aircraft in embedding of a broad continuous array of motor-driven fans on
Fig. 6. A survey of hybrid-electric and universally-electric aircraft concepts targeting YEIS 2030 þ unveiled in recent years, sorted left-to-right according to increasing
passenger accommodation.
the upper surface of the aircraft to maximize propulsive efficiency of the EC Framework Programme 7 DisPURSAL Project [48]. Also, it
by ingesting thick airframe boundary layer flow and desired/op- is interesting to observe apart from the N3-X and BW-11, which
timal combination of thrust split between the core propulsion have been designed to accommodate a few to several hundred
units and boundary layer ingesting fans. passengers, all concepts assume an advanced “tube-and-wing”
Distributed propulsion concepts being pursued today are based arrangement. The N3-X and BW-11 attempt to exploit benefits
on the synergistic application of hybrid-electric architectures and associated with BLI and noise shielding, and thus the Blended
distributed propulsion in a purely serial architectural arrangement Wing-Body morphology lends itself well to such an approach.
– termed as Turbo-electric Distributed Propulsion (TeDP). TeDP as
a concept considers the application of super-conductivity and HTS 2.3. Scope of investigative work in this article
technologies to reduce electrical power transmission losses. The
concept has gained momentum in recent years with extensive The nature of this technical article is to further examine the
research currently being undertaken in Europe and the US. The relative merits of the advanced “tube-and-wing” aircraft mor-
NASA N3-X [35] and the Cranfield University (CU) BW-11 [34] phology with a hybrid-electric systems approach to the PPS sub-
concept aircraft are typical examples of this approach. During the ject to constraints HP≠0,1 and HE≠0,1. It is an extension of previous
last six years, CU has engaged in a number of projects concerning studies conducted on a hypothetical hybrid-electric narrow-body
distributed propulsion. The work has resulted in a number of in- twin-sized transport targeting YEIS 2035 [21,44] with the main
teresting design studies [36–39] aimed at improving the technol- distinction of this work being adoption of a quad-fan arrangement,
ogy and its development for future implementation. In another thus allowing for a feasibility study involving a rudimentary form
effort to distribute thrust, Airbus Group Innovations and Rolls- of distributed propulsion.
Royce together with CU as are currently engaged in the Distributed The complete electrical system integration approach under-
Electrical Aerospace Propulsion (DEAP) Project [40]. The E-Thrust taken in previous publications [21,43,44] for the conceptual design
conceptual work discussed earlier constitutes one aspect of this of fuel-battery hybrid-electric transport aircraft has been a parallel
broader DEAP initiative. installation of an Electric Motor (EM) mounted on the shaft of a
Fig. 6 presents various hybrid-electric and universally-electric gas-turbine (GT). The EM can either support the operations of the
aircraft concepts unveiled in recent years sorted according to size GT [21,43] or even drive the shaft of the propulsor by itself during
(left-to-right), ranging from 4 seats (top-left) up to 555 passengers some segments of the complete flight mission [44]. Utilizing an
(bottom-right). All aircraft target a YEIS of 2030 þ. Hybrid-electric EM concurrently with a GT in a parallel installation results in
concepts include the NXG-50 [41] (50-passenger), DEAP [40] operating the GT in part load, which impairs its efficiency. Driving
(around 100-passenger), ESAero TeDP [42] (150-passenger), SU- the propulsor by the EM itself during cruise while the GT is shut
GAR Volt [43] (154-passenger), Bauhaus Luftfahrt (BHL) Twin-Fan down enables one to introduce electric power into the propulsion
[44] (180-passenger), BHL Quad-Fan (180-passenger, the focus of system while the GT core remains unaffected [44]. However, in this
this technical article), N3-X [35] (300-passenger) and BW-11 [34] case the DoH for Power (HP) is fixed and cannot be varied. With
(555-passenger). With the exception of the ESAero TeDP, N3-X and the aim of assessing the implications of increasing HP on sizing and
BW-11, all the listed hybrid-electric concepts employ some form of performance of hybrid-electric aircraft and in the search for an
serial/parallel combinatorial power-train arrangement that utilize innovative integration of the hybrid-electric motive power system,
either a gas-turbine core with generators or advanced batteries as a new approach is proposed and subsequently investigated in this
the main source of electrical energy. The ESAero TeDP, N3-X and technical article. Instead of coupling the EM directly to the low-
BW-11 employ a purely serial power-train, i.e. HP ¼ 1 and HE ¼0, pressure shaft of the GT as in previous work, the EM here is
consisting of a turbo-shaft engine which is used solely to provide mounted directly on the shaft of the propulsor and this new EM-
electrical power through a generator to electric motors driving Propulsor entity, dubbed an Electric-Fan (EF), these are integrated
multiple propulsive fans, which are distributed above, below, or in the aircraft as additional bill-of-materials item to the combus-
inside a wing. The universally-electric concepts, namely, HP ¼1 and tion based engines. In order to clarify this approach, one might
HE ¼ 1, are cited as LEAPTech [45] (4 passengers, pilot included), think of an aircraft with a number of electrical fans, NEF, and a
328-LBM [31] (around 30-passenger), VoltAir [46] (regional, un- number of Turbofans (TF), NTF. Concrete examples would be a tri-
specified accommodation capacity) and the Ce-Liner [47] (189- fan aircraft with two fans conventionally powered by GTs while
passenger). Each of these concepts utilize electrical energy sup- the remaining fan is driven by an EM, or, as a quad-fan aircraft
plied from advanced batteries combined with propulsors either equipped with two TFs and two EFs. This latter design option is the
reflecting suitably projected conventional electric motors or mo- focus of the investigation presented this paper. As the operations
tors incorporating HTS technologies. The universally-electric of the EFs and TF are now considered to be independent, the HP
technology is married with distributed technology in the LEAPTech can be freely varied and its effect on aircraft design can be as-
concept [45]. By distributing the thrust on 18 propellers mounting sessed. Moreover, an expected advantage of this integration ap-
on the wing leading-edge, the design of the wing could be per- proach is if the sizing of the EFs and TFs are done thoughtfully, the
formed to achieve most efficient cruise while still providing si- overall power plant efficiency of the TFs will not be significantly
milar low-speed performance of a conventional gas-powered ai- affected by the operations of the EFs.
craft. This concept exemplifies possible synergies which can be The sizing strategy of the hybrid-electric propulsion system with
drawn through integration of electric propulsion at aircraft level an emphasis on the sizing of the EF is discussed first. The design and
and the change in paradigm for aircraft design. performance of a quad-fan concept is then investigated with re-
As one reviews the aircraft concepts shown in Fig. 6 above, spect to the enounced sizing scenario of the hybrid-electric pro-
certain clusters of design intent and integration strategies could be pulsion system. The consideration of the overall sizing effects, and
identified. The LeapTech and ESAero TeDP all employ distributed in particular, of the integration impact of the electrical system at
propulsion morphological approaches that not only focus on zero aircraft level is based on sizing and performance methods pre-
and ultra-low-emissions respectively, but also provide Short Take- viously published by the authors [21]. The implication of increasing
off and Landing (STOL) capabilities. The DEAP and VoltAir exploit HP is discussed for an interval of design ranges. The influence of HP
benefits afforded by BLI, with the VoltAir producing a net favorable on flight technique optimization is also analyzed. Finally, the “best-
vehicular efficiency outcome through the additional gains by way and-balanced” hybrid-electric concept is benchmarked against an
of Wake Filling, as exemplified by the Propulsive Fuselage Concept advanced gas-turbine only aircraft. As a matter of clarification, in
adopting a convention that permitted an appropriate comparison A value of zero for HP,USE would represent the case where no EF
between terrestrial, marine and aeronautical vehicles [18], and (s) are sized/utilized in the concept, whereas the case with a value
Isikveren et al. [19] presented advanced aircraft trade-study work of one would mean a concept where TFs are not sized/utilized.
using the parametric descriptor of HP for installed power (HP,INS). Both of these values are theoretical in the sense that they do not
The reader should note for sake of lending transparency and to represent a relevant practical engineering solution in the context
assist in providing some measure of understanding, all values re- of the investigated quad-fan approach.
lated to DoH for Power in this technical article adheres to Useful
Power as a basis (HP,USE), i.e. the power seen at the propulsive de- 3.2. Turbofan model
vice(s).
The TF model is based on a Geared-Turbofan (GTF) model
published by Pornet et al. [44] modeled in GasTurb11s [49], it was
3. Sizing scheme for the hybrid-electric propulsion system sized for several design thrusts ranging 15–35 kN at TOC condi-
tions (ISA, FL350, M0.78). For each selected design thrust, geo-
The sizing scheme for the hybrid-electric motive power system metrical dimensions, weight, maximum thrust and fuel flow
is developed in this section. Flow path sizing of the TFs and the EFs characteristics were provided in form of multi-dimensional tables
has been performed at Top-Of-Climb (TOC) conditions. The thrust enabling an integrated evaluation of the GTFs at aircraft level. The
requirement at TOC and the thrust provided by the EFs determine GTF was designed for an overall pressure ratio of 62.0 and a by-
the design thrust of the TFs. Models for the TFs implemented in pass ratio of 16.2. A gear ratio of 3.0 was found to provide a good
the quad-fan aircraft overall model is also described. The thrust compromise between turbine strain and stage loading. The design
yielded a Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) of 13.24 g/kNs
and power demand characteristics of the Ducted-Fan (DF) are
for the engine with the highest thrust and 13.30 g/kNs for the
generically introduced to discuss the sizing cases of the EM ac-
engine with the lowest thrust. The weight of the engines was
cording to HP,USE.
calculated according to geometric component dimensions and
performance parameters. The TSFC characteristic is represented
3.1. Flow path sizing of the Turbofan and Electrical Fan
against the thrust setting for the different engine models. It can be
observed that the scale effect has only a small influence on the
The flow path sizing of the TFs and EFs is performed at TOC
TSFC characteristics and efficiency. As shown in Fig. 7 an important
condition (ISA, FL350, M0.78). The thrust requirement at TOC, TTOC,
note for later analysis of the efficiency of the GTFs according to its
which includes a 300 fpm residual climb rate, is distributed be- part load characteristics is that the TSFC bucket covers an interval
tween the TFs and the EFs according to HP,USE, the number of EFs, of 70–100% of the maximum thrust.
NEF, and the number of TFs, NTF.
TTOC⋅Hpuse 3.3. Ducted fan model and sizing strategy of the electric motor
TEFTOC =
NEF (1)
The thrust and power-demand characteristics of the EF model
TTOC = TTF,TOC⋅NTF + TEF,TOC⋅NEF (2) are based on a DF model published by Steiner et al. [50] The sizing
of the EF which includes the sizing of the DF and of the EM is
The required fan diameter of the TFs and EFs is obtained essential in the design of the quad-fan concept. Consequently,
from the design thrust, TTF,TOC and TEF,TOC, according to the TF generic thrust and power characteristics of the DF are reviewed in
model and the DF model respectively described in Section 3.2 and this section in order to explain aspects involved in the sizing. As
in Section 3.3. indicated previously the flow path sizing of the DF is performed at
Fig. 7. Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSFC) characteristics of the Geared Turbofan model with respect to the design thrust at ISAþ 10 °C, FL350 and M0.76.
16000
50
14000
40 12000
10000
Power [kW]
Thrust [kN]
30
8000
20 6000
4000
10
2000
0 0
1 0 0.8
0.95
0.9 100 50 0.7
0.6
0.85 200 150 0.5 50 0
0.8
0.75 300 250 0.4
0.3 250 200 150 100
350 0.2 350 300
0.7 400 400
Relative corrected speed [−] Flight Level [100ft] Mach Number [−] Flight Level [100ft]
Fig. 8. Ducted-Fan model sized at ISA, FL350 and M0.78 for a design thrust of 10 kN and a fan design pressure ratio of 1.413; (left) off-design power demand at a relative
corrected speed of 1.0; (right) off-design thrust characteristics at M0.78.
TOC conditions (ISA, FL350, M0.78). The thrust and power char- At higher levels of HP,USE, the EF plays a larger role in providing
acteristics of a generic DF sized at a design thrust of 10 kN and at a the required thrust during take-off and initial climb. Consequently
fan design pressure ratio of 1.413 are represented in Fig. 8. The the EM will have to be sized such that the DF can deliver the re-
sizing point is indicated by a solid circle. As per definition at the quired thrust to fulfill the take-off and initial climb requirements.
sizing point the relative corrected fan speed, Nrel,EF, is 1.0. The In this scheme, due to the impact of the EM power on the weight
power demand characteristics of the DF are of particular im- of the electrical system and its effects on the overall performance
portance for the sizing of the EM. The variation of the power de- of the aircraft, the sizing of the EM would need to be thought as an
mand with Mach number and altitude are represented in Fig. 8 optimization scheme whose objective is the minimization of the
(left) at Nrel,EF of 1.0. It can be observed first that the off-design weight of the electrical system while fulfilling the take-off and
power demand increases with decreasing altitude. Secondly, while climb performance constraints.
at high-altitude, the off-design power remains about constant The critical sizing case of the EM depends consequently on
with Mach number, it increases in contrast noticeably with in- HP,USE, the thrust lapse characteristics of the TF and the thrust and
creasing Mach number at low altitude. power lapse characteristics of the EF. The analysis of the several
According to the observation made about the power-demand sizing cases of the EM and the respective level of HP,USE is provided
characteristics of the DF, the sizing scheme of the EM can now be in Section 4.4 in the context of the quad-fan concept.
discussed. If the EM is sized according to the DF power required at
its sizing point and by recalling the increasing power demand of 3.4. Discussion about the model and its limitations
the DF with decreasing altitude, it becomes clear that the EM in-
stalled power will limit the fan performance at lower altitude In the proposed concept, the EFs are operated at their maximal
(nota bene: it is assumed in the model that the EM is thermally thrust available during the mission. Operational phases covering
managed and that in the first instance its maximal power remains taxi-in/out, descent, landing and hold have been excluded, which
constant with altitude and speed). In other words, the fan speed are performed only with the TFs, and this was decided in order to
will be reduced during climb and take-off limiting the available maximize the utilization of the electrical system, and as a result
thrust. The decrease of the installed thrust with reduction of the increase largely the overall propulsion system efficiency. The
fan speed is represented in Fig. 8 (right) for different altitudes at a maximal thrust provided by the EF is a function of the sizing and
given M0.78. As a result, the climb and take-off performance will thrust lapse characteristics of the DF and of the maximum power
be influenced by this sizing strategy. From this analysis, it could be of the EM installed. The difference in thrust requirement between
concluded that the EM should be sized at relevant take-off con- TOC and cruise as well as the reduction in aircraft Gross Weight
ditions such that take-off and initial climb performance require- (GW) result in a necessity to throttle back the GTFs during cruise.
ments are met. But in fact, the critical sizing case of the EM will The amount of thrust to be reduced is determined by the maximal
depend on the level of HP,USE. thrust delivered by the EFs, the sizing of the GTF and the thrust
For low values of HP,USE, due to the fact that the GTF still de- required during cruise. Due to the throttling of the GTFs during
livers a large proportion of the thrust at take-off, the sizing case of cruise, the GTF can be subjected to operation within part-load
the EM will be at TOC conditions. The thrust available at take-off conditions. The GTF can run into part-load conditions provided the
from the GTF is an outcome of the sizing of the GTF at TOC. It HP,USE is sufficiently large (see Section 4.1). However, according to
depends on the thrust lapse characteristics of the GTF and on the the sizing procedure of the GTFs and EFs at TOC (see Section 3.1),
temperature limitation setting at take-off. Several de-rating sce- the amount of thrust required by the GTFs during cruise will
narios can be envisaged to improve the life-cycle of the GTF ac- mainly remain within the TSFC bucket of the GTF (see Fig. 7). In
cording to the take-off requirements. The de-rating of the GTF will other words, the efficiency of the GTF will not be strongly im-
need to be adapted according to the EF maximal thrust available at paired during cruise, which will benefit the overall system effi-
take-off (which depends on the level of HP,USE, the resulting in- ciency of the hybrid-electric motive power system. Only at large
stalled EM according to the TOC and the thrust lapse character- values of HP,USE the GTF operations into part-load might result into
istics of the EF) to conserve the same take-off field length slight degradation of its efficiency. The efficiency change of the
performance. GTF with increasing HP,USE is discussed in Section 4.1.
performance of the quad-fan hybrid-electric aircraft, an under-

wing podded, twin-engined reference aircraft with advanced gas-
turbine only was modeled for comparison purposes. Both aircraft
reflect the same estimated technology freeze year of 2030 (YEIS
2035) and were sized for exactly the same set of Aircraft Top-Level
Requirements. The advanced gas-turbine aircraft is referred as the
“reference aircraft” in this technical article. The aircraft top-level
requirements, the design mission definition and the aircraft sizing
are described in the Sections 4.2 and 4.3 and IV.C respectively.
4.1. Parametric descriptors and qualitative pre-design investigation
An algebraic basis for the quantification of HP and the DoH for

Energy (HE) was established by Isikveren et al. [19], and a corre-
lation between HP and HE was suggested using the format of the
Ragone diagram [20]. As was previously stated in the introductory
remarks, Isikveren et al. [19] presented advanced aircraft trade-
study work using the parametric descriptor of HP,INS, which was
Fig. 9. Electrical propulsion system architecture. found to be solely a function of the Supplied Power Ratio (Φ, re-
lated to converted power afforded by each energy carrier). In
According to the selected operation of the EFs, the increase in contrast, HE was found to be a more complex synthetic function
HP,USE is limited to a value that would result in a shut-down of the described by comingling of Φ and the Activation Ratio (ϕ, de-
GTFs during cruise due to fact that the EFs can deliver the required scribing the relative nature of utilization with respect to time af-
thrust alone. Indeed, in this situation, the EFs should not run at the forded by the motive power device associated with each energy
maximal available thrust – the thrust should be adjusted to the source). Furthermore, it was reasoned by Isikveren et al. [19] that
cruise required thrust. In the investigation presented in this aircraft design range exhibits a monotonic functional sensitivity
technical article, a maximal HP,USE value was set at 0.60 due to the with Activation Ratio, thus ϕ can be considered to serve as a proxy
nature of the implemented GTF model. Above this HP,USE threshold for design range. Apart from defining the two fundamental in-
the design thrust of the GTF would have violated the validity of the dependent non-dimensional variables of Φ and ϕ for purposes of
implemented models and as a result of the low design thrust, it sizing and optimizing hybrid-electric aircraft propulsion systems,
was judged that the selected GTF architecture would not be re- sensitivity studies involving variation of Φ and ϕ were also con-
levant anymore. ducted by Isikveren et al. [19] An interesting observation pertains
to the possibility of examining a series of hybrid-electric aircraft
3.5. Electrical system characteristics propulsion systems that deliver the same relative block fuel re-
duction or Energy Specific Air Range (ESAR, see Section 4.5) out-
A identical electrical propulsion system architecture as pub- come. Generally, for a given gravimetric energy density and set of
lished by Pornet et al. [21] was selected and is represented in conversion, transmission and propulsive efficiencies, a constant
Fig. 9. It is composed of battery packs controlled by Battery Con- relative block fuel reduction can be achieved with concurrent
troller Units (BCUs) that deliver electric power to the High Tem- changes in Φ and ϕ. As a simple illustration of how the inter-play
perature Super-conducting (HTS) EM equipped with a controller. between Φ and ϕ could be manipulated for desired effect, the so-
Solid State Power Controllers (SSPC) protect the complete system called HP,INS–HE Onion Curves chart given by Isikveren et al. [19]
from failure cases. The assumptions made in terms of components has been reconfigured as an HP,USE–HE correlation in Fig. 10. Each of
technology level are summarized in Table 1. The implemented all- the scenarios labeled ➊ through ➍ in Fig. 10 represent strategies
electric sub-system reflects the same architecture as proposed in and corresponding outcomes when in a generic sense one at-
Pornet et al. [21] tempts to maintain the same relative block fuel reduction as-
suming a quad-fan morphology versus that of an original hybrid-
electric twin-fan configuration.
4. Aircraft sizing and integrated performance The option as shown by ➊ considers keeping HE constant. Since
ϕ (and design range, R) decreases, Φ (and subsequently η) needs to
The hybrid-electric propulsion system comprises two GTFs and be increased in order to maintain the original value of HE. Al-
two EFs installed in an underwing podded arrangement, and is though ϕ decreases, a magnified increase in Φ leads to a higher
integrated on a 180 PAX narrow-body transport aircraft. The sizing increased Gross Weight (labelled as IGW) as well as a corre-
of the hybrid-electric propulsion system follows the scheme de- sponding improvement in lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) since constant
scribed in the previous section. In order to assess the integrated wing loading during resizing means that the relative share of
wing-to-fuselage zero-lift drag becomes favorable. Owing to a
Table 1
magnified increase in η coupled with a modest increase in IGW
Overview of propulsion components and technology performance assumptions. (and L/D), the vehicular efficiency metric, ESAR, improves in a
magnified manner. Although this option is a much more en-
Component Mass sizing parameter Efficiency [%] Source ergetically efficient strategy, the reduction in design range cap-
ability makes for a prohibitive choice. Option ➋ considers an in-
Battery 1000–1500 Wh/kg 85.0–95.0 Stückl et al. [46]
Kuhn et al. [51] crease in Φ (and subsequently η) whilst maintaining constant ϕ
HTS-Motor 20.0 kW/kg 99.5 Brown [52] (and design range). Again, modest increase in IGW (and L/D) is
Controller 20.0 kW/kg 99.5 Brown [52] indicative of this choice. The outcome for ESAR is a minor-to-
Converter 18.0 kW/kg 99.5 Brown [52] modest improvement, and thus can be considered to be a viable
HTS Cable 9.2 kg/m 100 Xin [53]
SSPC 44.0 kW/kg 99.5 Brown [52]
strategy provided a design range increase is not predicated. A
significant design range increase can be afforded using the option
Fig. 10. Strategies and corresponding outcomes when maintaining the same relative block fuel reduction assuming a quad-fan morphology versus a twin-fan configuration.
➌ approach. In this instance, increases in together with a corre- assuming 102 kg per PAX. Compliance with the airworthiness
sponding significant increase in IGW (and L/D) leads to a modest regulations CS-25 and FAR 25 transport category were adminis-
reduction in ESAR. Although there is likely to exists a moderate tered, and it is worth noting that the minimum second segment
reduction in vehicular efficiency with this strategy, an increase in climb gradient requirement in this study conformed to one ap-
design range makes for a worthwhile possibility. Finally, as de- plicable to four-engined aircraft. Field performance is character-
picted with ➍ in order to keep HP,USE constant Φ (and subsequently ized by a Take-Off Field Length (TOFL) at ISA, sea-level not being
η) need to be kept fixed and a magnified increase in ϕ (and design greater than 2200 m, and an approach speed less than 145 KCAS.
range) needs to occur. This leads to a magnified increase in IGW Additionally, the time-to-climb to initial cruise altitude is limited
(and L/D) and the collective influence generates the least desirable to 25 min.
ESAR result. Irrespective of the significant increase in design range
this scenario would be considered not so desirable due to ex- 4.3. Design mission
cessive degradation in vehicular efficiency. This simplified in-
vestigation and associated strategy review as shown in Fig. 10 was The defined mission profile consists of a taxi-out, take-off at sea
conducted in order to help formulate strategies for the more so- level and ISAþ10 °C, climb at ISAþ10 °C with speed schedule 250
phisticated trade-studies presented in this technical article. KCAS/300 KCAS/M0.76 until an initial cruise altitude at FL350. The
cruise, performed at M0.76 and ISAþ10 °C, is followed by a mir-
4.2. Aircraft Top-level Requirements rored descent, landing and taxi-in. Reserves and contingency fuel
is in accordance with EU-OPS 1.255, namely, 5% trip fuel con-
The following Aircraft Top-Level Requirements (ATLeRs) were tingency cruise, 30 min hold at 1500 ft and 100 nm alternate.
stipulated for the design of the conventional and hybrid-electric However, due to the combined use of the GTFs and EFs a con-
aircraft. The YEIS was set as 2035. The design payload is 180 PAX tingency cruise account based on trip fuel is not relevant anymore.
Fig. 11. Power profiles of the hybrid-electric propulsion system covering block and reserves/contingency operational phases.
EM. To gain an insight into this sizing criterion, the performance

of the reference aircraft was analyzed. By sizing the GTFs at TOC
and according to the implemented GTF model, the TOFL (ISA, SL)
without de-rating is below 1900 m with time-to-climb at
around 20 min. (for each of the investigated design ranges). The
take-off and climb performance, outcome of the sizing of the
GTF, exceed consequently the expectations of the ATLeRs. As a
result, within the aforementioned HP,USE range and recalling the
effects of sizing the EM at TOC (refer to Section 3.3), the TOFL
and time-to-climb can be let increasing compared to the non-
rated reference aircraft while still remaining within the ATLeRs.
When HP,USE reaches the threshold of 0.25, the time-to-climb
constraint limitation of 25 min is reached.
For HP,USE values between 0.25 and 0.50, time-to-climb was
found to be the critical sizing case for the EM installed power.
Consequently the EM power is sized such that time-to-climb
does not exceed 25 min.
For HP,USE values above 0.50, TOFL (ISA, SL) turns out to be the
sizing condition of the EM. The EM maximal power is conse-
Fig. 12. Relative change in block fuel versus relative change in block ESAR. quently sized such that the TOFL remains within the limit of
2200 m.
The contingency cruise reserve condition was adapted and ex- These sizing cases are the underlying EM sizing criterion in
pressed as an equivalent time criterion defined as 10% of the block each of the results presented in the following sections. An inter-
time. As mentioned earlier, taxi-in/out, descent, landing and hold esting note is that the critical sizing scenarios remain almost
operations are performed with the GTFs only (no additional wind- identical for each of the design ranges investigated. This fact is to
milling drag component was assumed in this analysis due to shut- be explained and discussed in the following sections of this
down of the EFs during these segments). Fig. 11 illustrates the technical article.
power profiles of both the GTFs and EFs over the course of the
complete block and reserves/contingency operational phases. 4.5. Relative change in block esar versus relative change in block fuel
4.4. Aircraft sizing The relative change in block Energy Specific Air Range (ESAR
with units nm/kWh) [55], which is a vehicular efficiency figure-of-
4.4.1. Sizing guidelines merit, against the relative change in block fuel assuming the re-
For the sizing of the aircraft, the following design rules and ference aircraft as a datum are illustrated in Fig. 12 according to
assumptions were employed. The wing is sized according to a variation of HP,USE and for an interval of design ranges between
constant wing loading of 645 kg/m² (to avoid 1.3 g buffet onset 900 nm and 2100 nm.
limitations) and a constant wing aspect ratio of 12.5 (reflecting the The first observation from results indicate that within the in-
YEIS 2035 technology standard). As the fuselage geometry is kept vestigated design space the vehicular efficiency of all hybrid-
fixed, the underfloor volume represents a constraint for the ac- electric concepts are impaired compared to the reference aircraft.
commodation of batteries and for the storage conventional cargo. The relative change in block ESAR which characterizes the distance
The baggage volume for the advanced gas-turbine only aircraft is traveled per total energy consumed, for the given set of assump-
of 0.22 m³ per PAX. The volume constraint problem has been tions here, is indeed always negative. The analysis of the relative
analyzed assuming a linear variation of the battery volumetric change in block fuel shows that for low HP,USE the block fuel
specific energy with respect to the gravimetric specific energy consumption is larger compared to the reference aircraft for every
according to a factor of 1000 kg/m³ which includes the volume of investigated design range. By increasing HP,USE block fuel reduction
the battery and of the thermal management system. For instance, can be achieved whose amount depends upon the design range,
for a battery gravimetric specific energy of 1.5 kWh/kg, the battery but at the penalty of a further reduction in vehicular efficiency.
volumetric specific energy is assumed to be 1500 kWh/m³. It is These trends can be explained by the following design
also assumed that aircraft loadability due to battery installation considerations:
would be achieved in a more detailed study. Generally, this value
of 1000 kg/m³ gravimetric-to-volumetric specific energy is rather 1. Compared to the twin-engined reference aircraft, the installa-
conservative when compared to 2000–3000 kg/m³ indicative of tion of EFs and the associated electrical system adds weight and
contemporary terrestrial hybrid vehicles [54]. Nonetheless, for an results in an aerodynamic penalty due to the additional wetted-
initial assessment involving the application of high performance area of the nacelles. At low values of HP,USE the slight increase in
batteries and associated thermal management in the context of overall propulsion system efficiency (provided by the electrical
aeronautical application the authors feel it is an appropriate target. system and its highly efficient components) does not counteract
these negative aspects entirely. Consequently, the quad-fan
4.4.2. Electric motor critical sizing conditions aircraft displays higher fuel burn consumption and a lower
The sizing of the hybrid-electric propulsion system and in par- vehicular efficiency compared to the reference aircraft.
ticular of the EFs was generally discussed in Section 3.3. The critical 2. By increasing HP,USE the utilization of electrical power increases,
sizing scenarios of the EM are elaborated in the context of the quad- which enables a larger improvement to the overall propulsion
fan concept investigated as function of HP,USE in the following: system efficiency. Due to the use of electrical energy and by
virtue of an increase in overall propulsion system efficiency, the
For HP,USE values below 0.25, the DF power required at TOC block fuel can be significantly reduced. However, because of the
condition was found to be the critical sizing condition of the additional weight of the electrical system and of the batteries,
reference aircraft. As a result, cargo volume represents a volu-

metric constraint for the housing of batteries and cargo. A typical
cargo volume of 0.14 m³ per PAX is displayed (as solid triangle
symbols) in Fig. 12, taken to be appropriate for regional market
segments, provides an indication of the extent restrictions cargo
volume limitations impose. At a design range of 900 nm, the cargo
volume limit of 0.14 m³ per PAX is reached at an HP,USE of 0.47. By
increasing the design range, the amount of batteries required be-
comes larger. As a result, the cargo volume limit is reached at
lower HP,USE values. For instance, considering a design range of
1700 nm, the cargo volume per PAX limitation is reached at an
HP,USE of 0.25.
In summary, implications of the hybrid-electric propulsion
system at aircraft level with respect to an increase in HP,USE is
characterized by:
An increase in the amount of electric energy used, which results

in an increase in battery mass;
An increase in aircraft weight (due to increasing required bat-
tery mass and the sizing of the electrical system) which initiates
Fig. 13. Relative change in block fuel versus relative change in block COSAR ac-
cording to a specific fuel price of 6.00 USD/USG and a specific electricity price of
ever more significant sizing cascade effects;
0.07 USD/kWh. An enhancement to the overall propulsion system efficiency due
to more extensive use of electrical energy, with a corresponding
reduction in block fuel consumption; and,
An overall decrease in vehicular efficiency due to weights effect,
which tends to overwhelm the benefit of the hybrid-electric
system and L/D improvement due to all-axes wing scaling.
4.6. Relative change in block COSAR versus relative change in block

fuel
In order to bridge the gap between a purely technical in-

vestigation and conducting an economics analysis of hybrid-energy
aircraft concepts, the cost-based figure-of-merit COSAR (Cost Spe-
cific Air Range) was introduced by Pornet et al. [56]. The relative
change in COSAR is presented in Fig. 13 as an integrated block value.
COSAR with units [nm/USD] characterizes the distance travel per
cost of energy. COSAR depends upon the respective specific cost of
the energies considered. In this assessment, the specific fuel cost is
set at 6.00 USD/USG and the specific cost of electricity is set at 0.07
USD/kWh [56]. In other words, the specific cost of electricity re-
presents in this evaluation around 40% of the specific cost of the
fuel. Due to the lower specific price of electrical energy compared to
Fig. 14. Relative change in MTOW and relative change in overall propulsion system fuel, reducing fuel consumption versus utilizing electrical energy
efficiency (HP,USE as a proxy) at for an interval of design ranges.
becomes more advantageous. This is explained by the fact that the
change in block COSAR compared to the reference aircraft becomes
the MTOW of the aircraft is noticeably increased (see also positive at high HP,USE for design ranges between 900 nm and
Fig. 14). Even figuring in an improvement to L/D as an outcome 1500 nm. For an HP,USE of 0.60, the block COSAR can be increased
to an all-axes scaling of the wing (constant wing loading and from 10% to 30% for design ranges 1300 nm and 900 nm respec-
fixed fuselage dimensions), ESAR is still degraded compared to tively. For longer design ranges, the large increase in required en-
the reference aircraft. For design ranges below 1300 nm, block ergy indicated by the significant degradation in ESAR (see Fig. 13)
fuel reductions beyond 35% are achieved while the block ESAR is and in particular the increase in required electric energy overcomes
reduced to values between 5% and 20%. Between 1300 nm the benefit obtained from the lower specific price of electricity. As a
and 1700 nm, the reduction in block fuel achievable is between result, for design ranges above 1500 nm, no improvement in block
20% and 40%. The degradation in ESAR becomes, however, COSAR is achieved. At a design range of 1700 nm and an HP,USE of
significant with values between 20% and 30%. 0.55, the block COSAR is 7% less than the reference aircraft. Com-
3. Increasing the design range results in a larger energy require- paring statements drawn from the analysis of ESAR variation
ment, and notably, an increase in the amount of batteries re- (Fig. 12) and of COSAR change (Fig. 13) underlines the importance of
quired, which triggers significant sizing cascade effects. Although considering economics analysis in order to determine a “best and
it still leads to a decrease in potential fuel burn reduction the balance” hybrid-electric concept.
degradation in ESAR becomes much larger. For design ranges
above 1900 nm, no significant improvement in fuel burn com- 4.7. Relative change in MTOW versus the Degree-of-Hybridization
pared to the reference aircraft is obtained with increasing HP,USE. for Useful Power
For this preliminary investigation of quad-fan aircraft concepts, Weight effects during sizing of the installation electrical system
the entire fuselage geometry was kept identical to the one of the and of the batteries are reflected by the relative change in MTOW
indicated in Fig. 14, which displays significant increase in MTOW additional wetted area due the extra nacelles and pylons, however,
against the reference aircraft. At a design range of 900 nm and an this tends to reduce the size of the GTFs. As a result, at an HP,USE of
HP,USE of 0.60, the MTOW of the hybrid-electric aircraft is 49% 0.05, the L/D is roughly the same as that of the reference aircraft.
larger than the reference aircraft and 85% larger for 1300 nm. This Due to sizing effects, the L/D increases with HP,USE; for instance, at
weight effect counteracts strongly the benefit of increased overall an HP,USE of 0.60, the change in L/D is increased by 9%.
propulsion system efficiency provided by the highly efficient With the introduction of the more efficient electrical system,
electrical components as demonstrated previously with the eva- the overall propulsion system efficiency is increased, and this is
luation of relative change in ESAR (see Fig. 12). It is interesting to indicated by a growing HP,USE. At an HP,USE of 0.05, Δη is around 3%
highlight the change of paradigm in aircraft design when design- and is increased up to 46% at an HP,USE of 0.60. The positive in-
ing and sizing a fuel-battery hybrid-electric aircraft. First of all, fuel fluence of the increase in L/D and η is countervailed by the sig-
burn reduction can be achieved while the MTOW of the aircraft is nificant increase in W. The installation of the EFs, its associated
increased. For a single energy source aircraft, assuming a given electrical system, battery weight and the resulting cascading ef-
aerodynamic and propulsion system efficiency, a decrease in block fects lead to 5% higher gross-weight at an HP,USE of 0.05 and 88%
fuel can only be achieved through a reduction in aircraft mass. In larger at an HP,USE of 0.60. These combined changes in L/D, η and W
the case of fuel-battery hybrid-electric aircraft, block fuel reduc- lead to the following change in ESAR at cruise start: it remains
tion can be achieved while the mass of the aircraft increases. This negative in the investigated range of HP,USE and remains approxi-
apparent paradox results from the utilization of another source of mately constant at 2% up to an HP,USE of 25%. Above this value,
energy, namely electrical energy, and from the increase in overall the contribution of MTOW change overwhelms the change in L/D
propulsion efficiency. Secondly, a reduction in fuel burn reduction and η leading to a net reduction in the ΔESAR down to 14% at an
does not mean automatically an improvement in vehicular effi- HP,USE of 0.60. The change is represented here for a single point
ciency. When the change in weight is larger than the change in within the mission; however, it provides a good insight into the
overall propulsion system efficiency, the total energy consumed design aspects which contribute to changes in ESAR. By integrating
(fuel and electrical energy) increases (see relative change in ESAR these changes along the segments that constitute the block and
in Fig. 12). The aircraft utilizes energy in a less efficient manner, diversion legs, the integrated value of block ESAR change pre-
therefore its vehicular efficiency decreases while a significant fuel sented in Fig. 12 is obtained.
burn reduction could still be achieved.
4.9. Influence of Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power on the
4.8. Relative change in point ESAR versus the Degree-of-Hybridiza- combustion-based propulsion system efficiency
tion for Useful Power
To analyze the influence of the EFs running at maximal avail-
To gain more insight into the contributions affecting the change able thrust during cruise on the efficiency of the GTFs, the thrust
in vehicular efficiency, the relative change in ESAR compared to a lapse of the GTF between the thrust required at TOC and the thrust
reference is expressed as required at start cruise condition (ISAþ10 °C, FL350, M0.76) are
illustrated in Fig. 16. The efficiency of the conventional propulsion
Δη⋅Δ(L/D)
ΔESAR = system is represented at start, mid-cruise and end-cruise condi-
ΔW (3)
tions with respect to HP,USE. Recalling the TSFC bucket of the GTFs
As can be gauged in Eq. (3) constituent parameters of overall spans 70%-100% of the maximum thrust (see Fig. 7), it can be
propulsion system efficiency (η), L/D and Gross Weight (W) all concluded that for HP,USE values up to 0.45, the GTF still operates
combine to define the ESAR qualities of a given hybrid-electric well within the TSFC bucket. As a result the efficiency of the GTF
aircraft concept. Variation of these constituent parameters is even at mid-cruise and end-cruise remains almost unchanged.
shown in Fig. 15 corresponding to a cruise start point (ISAþ10 °C, However, for HP,USE values above 0.45, the thrust lapse increases as
FL350, M0.76) for an aircraft sized for design range of 1300 nm. the thrust delivered by the EFs during cruise increases. Conse-
Focusing first on the L/D, the installation of the EFs results in quently, the efficiency of the GTF is slightly impaired. In Fig. 7, the
100 100
Change in L/D GTF thrust lapse Cruise/Top−of−climb
90 95
Change in gross−weight Conventional system efficiency start cruise
Change in propulsion system efficiency 90 Conventional system efficiency mid cruise
80
Change in ESAR Conventional system efficiency end cruise
85
70
Study Settings: 80
Value in percent [%]
Relative change [%]
60
Point performance: start cruise 75
50 ISA+10°C, FL 350, Mach 0.76
Design range1300 n.mi 70
40 ebattery = 1.5kWh/kg Study Settings:
65 Point performance: top−of−climb
30
60 ISA+10°C, FL 350, Mach 0.76
20 Point performance: cruise
55 ISA+10°C, FL 350, Mach 0.76
10 Design range1300 n.mi
50
ebattery = 1.5kWh/kg
0 45
−10 40
−20 35
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Degree of hybridization for power, Hp [%] Degree of hybridization for power, Hp [%]
USE USE
Fig. 15. Point performance analysis at cruise start (ISAþ 10 °C, FL350, M0.76) for a Fig. 16. Analysis of the combustion-based propulsion system efficiency variation
design range of 1300 nm. during cruise (ISAþ10 °C, FL350, M0.76) for a design range of 1300 nm.
TSFC of the GTF is reduced by roughly 4% at a thrust setting of 60% 10

of maximum thrust. When computing the change in efficiency of Cargo volume/PAX = 0.14m³
the combustion-based system between, for instance, HP,USE of 0.30 5 1500
and 0.60, a similar value of about 4% is obtained. Moreover, due
Relative change in block fuel [%]

to the fuel consumed during cruise and the resulting decrease in
0
aircraft mass, the required thrust reduces from the start to the end
1300
of the cruise phase. As the result, the thrust lapse incrementally 10
increases at mid-cruise and end-cruise leading to a more pro- −5 15
nounced part-load operating GTF. However, this effect is counter- 20
balanced by a corresponding reduction in fuel flow with increasing −10
25
HP,USE, thus the change in aircraft mass becomes less pronounced
HpUSE [−]
30
Design Range [nm]
during cruise. 35
−15
1100 40
4.10. Influence of the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power on
−20 45
take-off performance Study settings:
ebattery = 1.0kWh/kg 50
900
Take-off performance was analyzed according to assumption the −25
−45 −40 −35 −30 −25 −20 −15 −10 −5 0
One Engine Inoperative (OEI) case results only from a failure of the
Relative change in block ESAR [%]
critical GTF only, whereas the EFs are still operating according to the
useful EM power and the off-design characteristics of the DF. As a Fig. 18. Relative change in block fuel versus relative change in block ESAR.
matter of interest, it can be noted that according to the assumption for
the theoretical case of HP,USE equals 1.0, the All-Engines Operational
reached. Consequently, (T/W)AEO decreases with increasing HP,USE up to
(AEO) and OEI performance would be identical. A detailed study about
0.50. At an HP,USE value of around 0.50, TOFL becomes the critical sizing
the influence of different failure modes of the hybrid-electric propul-
criterion. However, it can be observed that instead of remaining con-
sion system during take-off operations is subject to future work.
stant, (T/W)AEO still slightly decreases. Besides the change in aero-
Notwithstanding this, the current assumption could be legitimized by dynamic efficiency due to sizing effect with increasing HP,USE, it is also
the knowledge that there would exist a greater level of reliability using a result of increases in (T/W)OEI with higher HP,USE. In other words, by
electrical components. increasing HP,USE more thrust per weight is available during the OEI
Because of the assumption that the EFs are unlikely to fail com- case.
pared to the GTFs, take-off performance is improved with increasing
HP,USE. Indeed, as the TOFL and second segment climb gradient are 4.11. Sensitivity study according to battery gravimetric specific
generally driven by an OEI case, increasing the thrust contribution of energy
the EFs during take-off compared to the GTFs enhances the OEI take-
off performance. The effect at aircraft level is visualized by plotting the The assumptions made in terms of battery gravimetric specific
evolution of the AEO and OEI thrust-to-weight ratio, (T/W)AEO and energy have significant implications on the presented results. Conse-
(T/W)OEI, respectively at a given take-off condition (ISA, SL, M0.20) in quently, the sensitivity with regards to the battery gravimetric specific
Fig. 17. The variation of the ratio between TOFL and the TOFL limitation energy was analyzed. The relative change in block fuel and block ESAR
of 2200 m stipulated by the ATLeRs reflects the scenario employed for is represented in Fig. 18 assuming a battery gravimetric specific energy
the sizing of the EMs as discussed in Section 4.4. As TOFL is not a of 1.0 kWh/kg at cell-level. It can be first observed that only for design
critical sizing criterion up to an HP,USE of 0.50, it is an outcome of the ranges strictly below 1500 nm block fuel reductions can be achieved
overall sizing process. According to other active sizing criteria TOFL against the projected, combustion-based only aircraft. For a given
increases up until the TOFL requirement defined in the ATLeRs is range and a given HP,USE, due to the higher resulting weight of the
batteries and corresponding sizing cascade effect the potential in block
110 fuel is reduced compared to results assuming 1.5 kWh/kg. Moreover,
100
for the same design range and HP,USE the weight impact results in a
larger degradation in block ESAR compared to one calculated at
90 1.5 kWh/kg. In addition, for a given design range according to the
80 assumption made in terms of the gravimetric specific energy, the
volumetric constraint for the housing of the battery occurs at a lower
Value in percent [%]
70 HP,USE.
Study Settings: TOFL/TOFL
ATLeRs
60
Point performance: take−off T/W
AEO
50 ISA, SL, Mach 0.2
Design range1300 n.mi
T/WOEI 5. Influence of the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power
40 e = 1.5kWh/kg on flight technique optimization
battery
30
An assessment of the influence HP,USE has on flight technique
20 optimality together with implications to operational procedures is
reviewed in this section.
10
For a design range of 1300 nm, the ESAR altitude-speed sensitivity
0 is investigated at a GW of 98% MTOW for increasing HP,USE. The results
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
of this sensitivity study are illustrated in Fig. 19 (left) for an HP,USE of
Degree of hybridization for power, Hp [%]
USE 0.25 and in Fig. 19 (right) for an HP,USE of 0.40. A contrast of these
Fig. 17. Takeoff Field Length, thrust-to-weight ratios of All-Engine Operational and
results can be conducted when surveying results of a projected,
One Engine Inoperative conditions against Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful combustion-based only reference aircraft displayed in Fig. 21 within
Power, design range of 1300 nm. Section 4.2. In addition, Fig. 22 provides flight technique sensitivity
Fig. 19. ESAR altitude-speed sensitivity versus the Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power for a design range of 1300 nm and at 98% of MTOW; (left) Degree-of-Hy-
bridization for Useful Power of 0.25; (right) Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power of 0.40.
information for a tentatively chosen benchmark hybrid-electric aircraft

candidate with attributes of design range 1300 nm and HP,USE equal to
0.30 (as detailed in Section 6).
In all the above-mentioned charts associated with hybrid-
electric aircraft, the change in ESAR optimum indicates that with
increasing HP,USE, the optimum flight technique tends towards
lower speed and lower altitude. At an HP,USE of 0.25, the maximum
ESAR was found to be M0.70/FL345 [Fig. 19 (left)]. At an HP,USE of
0.30 the optimum is at M0.69/FL335 (Fig. 19), whereas at an HP,USE
of 0.40 the ESAR optimum occurs at M0.67/FL310 [Fig. 19 (right)]. A
similar trend was already identified during the investigation of an
universally-electric aircraft concept [47] and the comparison of its
flight technique optimality against a projected gas-turbine only
aircraft [55]. The explanation of this change in altitude-speed
optimality is rather complex as it involves the sensitivity of the
overall propulsion system efficiency and the sensitivity of the
aerodynamic efficiency with speed and altitude. For an increasing
HP,USE, flight technique optimality of the quad-fan aircraft is driven
more importantly by the characteristics of the EFs as they produce
a larger proportion of the thrust. The altitude-speed condition has
less influence on the EF characteristics compared to that of the GTF
Fig. 20. Geometrical and dimensional changes in accordance with the Degree-of-
Hybridization for Useful Power. characteristics. Indeed, in this analysis the EMs are assumed to be
thermally managed, and consequently, the efficiency is assumed to
Fig. 21. Reference aircraft; (left) Altitude-speed sensitivity for a design range of 1300 nm and a gross-weight of 98% of MTOW; (right) Speed sensitivity versus gross-weight
variation at a design range of 1300 nm, FL350 and a specific fuel price of 6.00 USD/USG.
Fig. 22. Hybrid-electric aircraft – (left) Altitude-speed sensitivity for a design range of 1300 nm, Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power of 0.30 and gross weight 98% of
MTOW – (right) Speed sensitivity versus gross weight variation for a design range of 1300 nm, Degree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power of 0.30, FL350, specific fuel price of
6.00 USD/USG and variations in specific electricity price.
be constant with altitude-speed. A similar assumption is made for Fig. 14. According to the sizing setting of the wing with constant
the other components that constitute the entire advanced elec- aspect ratio and constant wing-loading, the wing area is increased
trical architecture. In addition, as this analysis was conducted on a by 28% and the wing span by 13%. As a consequence, with a 39.1 m
point performance basis, it is acceptable to assume constant bat- wing span the ICAO Code C airport compatibility is violated and
tery efficiency. Consequently, the change in the electrical system needs to be reclassified as Code D. As a result of the sizing effect,
efficiency is only driven by the change in propulsive efficiency of aerodynamic efficiency, L/D, is increased by 5%. According to the
the DF with altitude-speed variation. In contrast, the efficiency of downsizing of GTFs with the introduction of EFs, design thrust has
the GTF is strongly influenced by the effect of altitude-speed var- been reduced by 14%. It results in a modest increase in TSFC, þ 2%
iation on the gas-turbine characteristics. The change in overall at design point. At the selected HP,USE of 0.30, the sizing criterion of
propulsion efficiency with altitude-speed becomes consequently the EMs is the time-to-climb (see Section 4.4) requirement. The
less pronounced HP,USE increases. As a result, by increasing HP,USE
resulting installed power of a single EM is 2220 kW. As illustrated
ESAR optimality is mainly driven by the sensitivity of the aero-
in Fig. 17, TOFL is increased by 13% compared to the non-rated
dynamic polar characteristics of the aircraft goverened by speed
TOFL performance of the reference aircraft.
and altitude. These characteristics tend notably to slow down the
To provide some indication to the reader of the geometrical and
optimum speed of the aircraft, and commensurate with this the
dimensional changes, an overlay of the hybrid-electric aircraft
optimum tends towards a lower flight altitude as well.
sized for HP,USE of 0.10, 0.30 and 0.50 is provided in Fig. 20. As
Following the philosophy of the Long Range Cruise (LRC) definition
(characterized by 99% SAR maximum), altitude-speed techniques of readily seen, aircraft morphologies beyond that of DWB, or, a
M0.72/FL350 for HP,USE of 0.25, and, M0.71/FL350 for HP,USE of 0.40 “tube-and-wing” combination does not appear to be an outcome.
could be defined at 99% of ESAR maximum. Such a flight technique is (Tables 2 and 3)
denoted in this paper by the term Long ESAR Range Cruise (LERC). In
view of these results, it can be concluded that the effect of HP,USE on 6.1.2. Aircraft mass breakdown
flight technique optimization will not drastically change the altitude- As shown in Table 1 hybrid-electric aircraft sizing effects have
speed operation of hybrid-electric aircraft, and that they could be in- produced an outcome where the structural weight increased by 17%.
tegrated without significant changes into the existing commercial Focusing on the propulsion system, the 14% down-size in design
transport network routes of current turbofan airliners. thrust of the GTF leads to a decrease of 14% in the combustion-based
power plant weight. However, due to the installation of the EFs,
which includes the weight of the DFs and of the EMs, the combined
6. Aircraft characteristics and benchmark propulsion system weight is increased by 24%. In addition, the in-
stallation of the electrical propulsion system Power Management and
A design range of 1300 nm was selected for the benchmark of Distribution (PMAD) with 1348 kg results in a 37% increase in elec-
the hybrid-electric. The selection is justified by in-house projected trical system weight. Consequently, the Operational Empty Weight
market analysis for YEIS 2035, which indicates that this design (OEW) of the hybrid-electric aircraft is 16% higher. The release fuel
range covers 90% of the projected cumulative stage lengths for the (including block and reserves/contingency) is reduced by 8%. Recal-
narrow-body class of aircraft [57, 58]. Recalling Fig. 12, since the ling Fig. 12, the block fuel reduction was found to be around 15%. The
housing of batteries is volumetrically constrained at an HP,USE battery mass installed is 11,740 kg.
above 0.33 a design point with an HP,USE of 0.30 was consequently
selected for the benchmark analysis to follow.
6.2. Optimum flight technique analysis
6.1. Aircraft benckmark
To gain more insights into the implications of the hybrid-
6.1.1. Aircraft main data electric propulsion system on flight technique optimization, the
Comparison of the hybrid-electric concept with the reference optimum flight techniques of the benchmark hybrid-electric air-
aircraft (Table 1) indicates a 28% increase in MTOW as illustrated in craft are compared against the reference aircraft in this section.
Table 2
Aircraft main data comparison at a design range of 1300 nm and HP,USE of 0.30.
Aircraft Main Data Unit Reference aircraft Quad-fan hybrid Δ Reference
MTOW [kg] 60,840 77,730 28%

MLW [kg] 59,010 76,170 29%
OEW/MTOW Dimension less 0.594 0.538 9%
Design Payload/MTOW Dimension less 0.302 0.236 22%
Release Fuel/MTOW Dimension less 0.104 0.075 28%
Total Battery/MTOW Dimension less NA 0.150 NA
Thrust-to-Weight ratio (SL, Static) Dimension less 0.320 0.290 12%
Wing Loading [kg/m²] 645 645 0%
Wing Ref. Area (Airbus Gross) [m2] 94.3 120.4 28%
Wing Aspect Ratio (Airbus Gross) Dimension less 12.5 12.5 0%
Wing Span [m] 34.6 39.1 13%
Wing Leading Edge Sweep [deg] 26.4 26.4 0%
GTF Design Thrust (ISA, FL350, M0.78) [kN] 18.1 15.6 14%
EF Design Thrust (ISA, FL350, M0.78) [kN] NA 6.8 NA
TSFC (ISA, FL350, M0.78) [g/kNs] 13.29 13.50 2%
Electric Motor Installed Power [kW] NA 2220 NA
L/D (initial cruise, ISA, FL350, M0.78, MTOW brakes release) Dimension less 18.1 19.0 5%
TOFL (ISA, SL) [m] 1850 2080 13%
Approach speed (ISA, SL, MLW) [KTS] 142 143 þ0%
Table 3 performance offered by Torenbeek [59] who had based his deriva-
Aircraft mass breakdown comparison at a design range of 1300 nm and HP,USE of tions on earlier work presented by Hale [60]. Torenbeek declares
0.30.
the Maximum Range Cruise (MRC), MMRC, speed as
Mass Breakdown Summary Unit Reference Quad-fan Δ Reference
⎛ 2g ⎞ ⎛ W ⎞ ⎛ dC /dC2 ⎞ ⎛ 2 + η ⎞
aircraft hybrid MMRC = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ 4 ⎜ D L ⎟⎜ M
⎟
⎝ σ ⎠ ⎝ SW ⎠ ⎝ CDo ⎠ ⎝ 2 − ηM ⎠ (4)
Structure [kg] 18,440 21,487 17%
Propulsion System [kg] 4132 5117 24% where g is acceleration due to gravity, s is the density lapse ratio, SW
Conventional [kg] 3861 3553 14%
Powerplant
is the reference wing area, dCD/dCL2 is the vortex-induced drag
Electric Motors [kg] NA 444 NA factor (including compressibility effects), CDo is the zero-lift drag
( þcontrollers) coefficient (including compressibility effects), and ηM is the rate
Ducted Fans NA 1119 NA change in overall propulsion system efficiency with respect to Mach
number. Now, assuming for a given altitude the Thrust Specific
Equipment [kg] 10,012 11,640 16% Power Consumption (TSPC, with units W/N) [55] varies with Mach
Furnishing [kg] 4435 4435 0% number, for any type of power plant ηM can be obtained using
Hydraulic System (anti- [kg] 173 173 0%
icing)
logarithmic differentiation of the identity η¼Ma/TSPC, namely,
Electrical System [kg] 4460 6088 37%
d ln η ⎛ M ⎞ dη
PMAD propulsion [kg] NA 1348 NA ηM = =⎜ ⎟
Sub-systems [kg] 4460 4740 6% d ln M ⎝ η ⎠ dM
Instruments [kg] 944 944 0% ⎛ M⎞ d ⎛ TSPC ⎞ a ⎡ ⎛ M ⎞ d TSPC ⎤
Operational Items [kg] 3580 3580 0% =⎜ ⎟a e (ln M − ln TSPC) = ⎜ M ⎟ ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎝ η ⎠ dM ⎝ Ma ⎠ TSPC ⎣ ⎝ TSPC ⎠ dM ⎦
M ⎛ d TSPC ⎞
OEW [kg] 36,159 41,818 16% =1− ⎜ ⎟
Payload [kg] 18,360 18,360 0% TSPC ⎝ dM ⎠ (5)
Release Fuel [kg] 6317 5806 8%
(blockþreserves) with the parameter, a, denoting the local sonic velocity. Upon sub-
Total Battery [kg] NA 11,740 NA stitution of Eq. (5) into Eq. (4), owing to the transcendental (simple
MTOW [kg] 60,840 77,730 28%
iteration) nature of the collective expression, small incremental
changes in M and in dTSPC/dM are expected to occur even for [sig-
6.2.1. Reference aircraft nificant] variations in values of TSPC as nominated by the designer.
The altitude-speed sensitivity of the reference aircraft is pre- The implication is in a simplified sense any reduction in TSPC would
sented in Fig. 21. Due to the use of a single energy source, Specific impart the greatest influence, thus leading to a reduction in ηM,
Air Range (SAR), ESAR or COSAR figures-of-merit lead to the same thereafter generating a reduction in MRC speed. As can be gauged
sensitivity for the identification of flight technique optimality. At a from inspection of Eq. (4) increasing wing loading (W/SW) and/or
GW condition of 98% MTOW, the optimum corresponds to M0.70/ decreasing CDo will tend to increase the MRC speed. In contrast, if
FL350 in Fig. 21 (left). The LERC flight technique (defined as 99% again substitution of Eq. (5) into Eq. (4) is considered, a decrease in
ESAR maximum) would enable an increase in speed to M0.73 at dCD/dCL2 will tend to lower the MRC speed. Although the above con-
FL350. Compared to a state-of-the-art narrow-body short-to-med- struct given by Eq. (4) relates to quantifying changes in MRC speed, it
ium range aircraft, LRC was found to be slightly lower for a similar is assumed the same amount of relative change due to variation in
flight condition. The origin of this reduction lies in the extent of TSPC will approximately occur if an LRC speed convention is adopted,
improvements in the overall propulsion system and aerodynamic i.e. a fractional change in MLRC is approximately equal to the fractional
efficiency provided by the advanced technology implemented in change in MMRC. For a given flight altitude and ambient conditions,
the reference aircraft and how they trade-off between one another and varying aircraft instantaneous gross weight, the inference here is
when identifying an speed optimal condition. This outcome can be the rate change in SAR degradation with respect to Mach number,
best explained via the theoretical treatment of optimum cruise dSAR/dM, is approximately the same for LRC speed variation.
6.2.2. Hybrid-electric aircraft efficiency indicated a significant block fuel reduction could be
The ESAR optimum of the hybrid-electric aircraft presented in achieved with increasing HP,USE. However, the potential block fuel re-
Fig. 22 (left) shows a slight reduction in optimum speed and altitude duction vanishes for design ranges above 1700 nm assuming a battery
with M0.69/FL335 compared to the reference aircraft. However, con- gravimetric specific energy of 1.5 kWh/kg. The installation weight of
sidering LERC, a flight technique of M0.72/FL350 can be defined which the batteries and the electrical system result in a large weight increase
is closed to the one defined for the reference aircraft. In Fig. 22 (right), of the aircraft. This effect, which increases with the level of HP,USE,
speed sensitivity versus GW variation is represented for MRC, the counteracts the benefit of an increase in overall propulsion system
Maximum ESAR Range Cruise (MERC), the Maximum COSAR Range efficiency afforded by the utilization of the more efficient electrical
Cruise (MCRC) and LRC. The ESAR metric takes into account the total system approach. As a consequence, the vehicular efficiency of the
energy (the combined energy of fuel and electrical energy), while in hybrid-electric aircraft degrades rapidly with increasing HP,USE and was
the SAR metric only the fuel energy is considered. As indicated in found to be lower than the projected, solely combustion-based aircraft
Section 3.4, the EFs are operated at their maximum thrust during for all investigated design ranges. The sensitivity of the design with
cruise while the GTF throttle can vary. As a result, the electrical energy regards to the battery gravimetric specific energy was also assessed.
is mainly a function of the flight time, or in other words, the flight Intuitively, for lower battery gravimetric specific energies, the amount
speed. By flying faster, the cruise time is decreased for a given stage of batteries increases for a given energy demand, which penalizes
length, reducing the electrical energy required during cruise. Conse- strongly the performance with regards to fuel and energy consump-
quently, the minimum energy condition can be reached at higher tion as well as aircraft weight. Assuming a battery gravimetric specific
speeds than for the condition for maximum SAR. The optimum speed energy of 1.0 kWh/kg, no real potential in block fuel reduction was
is, however, counter-balanced by the higher fuel consumption at displayed for design ranges above 1100 nm. Moreover, the narrow-
higher speeds. The change in optimum speed between SAR and ESAR body fuselage shape imposes a volumetric constraint for the housing
was found to be small. of the batteries. Evolution of the fuselage geometry towards double-
Due to the investigation of the COSAR metric, the results depend bubble cross-section might be required for required battery housing as
upon the relative specific price of each energy source. In this appli- well as to provide similar cargo volume standards afforded by con-
cation, the fuel price was set at a constant 6.00 USD/USG, whereas the temporary state-of-the art aircraft. The influence of the HP,USE to flight
electricity price was varied assuming 0.07 USD/kWh and 0.16 USD/ technique optimization was also analyzed in this technical article. A
kWh. With a specific electricity price of 0.07 USD/kWh, which re- reduction in optimum flight-speed and altitude was assessed with
presents about 40% of the investigated specific fuel price, the fuel increasing HP,USE. However, by mimicking the Long Range Cruise de-
energy price has a higher contribution to the COSAR metric. Conse-
finition strategy, these effects would not affect strongly the flight
quently, the COSAR figure-of-merit tends to an optimum speed slower
technique optimality of hybrid-electric aircraft compared to conven-
than that of the ESAR optimum, but still slightly faster than that of the
tional gas-turbine only aircraft.
SAR optimum. When the specific electricity price equals the specific
The operational scheme of the hybrid-electric system em-
fuel price, which is the case at 0.16 USD/kWh, the COSAR speed op-
ployed in this concept could be revisited in the way that the GTFs
timum coincides with the ESAR optimum as both energy contributions
would be optimized and would operate at its peak efficiency
are equally weighted in the COSAR metric. Compared against the re-
during cruise, whereas the fluctuation of thrust required would be
ference aircraft whose results are presented in Fig. 21 (right), it can be
alleviated by the EFs. In this way, the GTF efficiency would not be
noticed that the change in speed sensitivity is not altogether different
impaired by any variations in HP,USE. As the efficiency of an High
using either the MERC or MCRC speeds.
Temperature Superconducting motor remains almost constant for
In terms of absolute COSAR value expressed in [nm/USD], a low
broad range of power levels, the thrust throttling of the EFs would
electricity price leads to large improvement in the COSAR metric as it
not impair the overall propulsion system efficiency. The sizing
was already highlighted in Section 4.6. However, it is important to
cascading effect will depend on the sizing of the electrical system
highlight that in this particular study, COSAR results are representative
and the total battery mass required. The investigation of this op-
of an instantaneous cruise point calculation, whereas in Fig. 13 the
erational strategy will be subject of future work.
COSAR value is integrated along the entire block mission (which in-
In order to compensate the negative weight impact of the ad-
cludes all the transient flight phases). This explains why the changes in
vanced electrical system integration, more tightly-coupled ap-
block COSAR are less than the change in COSAR, which can be cal-
proaches need to be conducted in further work. By enhancing the
culated according to Fig. 21 (right) and Fig. 22 (right).
synergies between the propulsion system, aerodynamics and the
structure, the field of distributed propulsion will definitely play a
7. Conclusion major role in establishing the feasibility of hybrid-electric technol-
ogies. Furthermore, innovative combinations between energy-
Consideration given to the application of hybrid-electric propulsion power generation and the fuel-battery hybrid-electric system needs
systems for transport aircraft has dramatically expanded the design to be further assessed. Moreover, a deeper investigation of possible
space in aircraft design. Because of the decoupling between the energy synergies provided by the electrical propulsion system integration
generation and the Useful Power production, the selection of the op- on another systems on board of the aircraft need to be considered.
timum energy system, the optimum integration of the propulsors as
well as the optimum operation of the overall hybrid-electrical pro-
pulsion system need to be determined according to the aircraft re- Acknowledgments
quirements. In this contribution, the implication of an increasing De-
gree-of-Hybridization for Useful Power (HP,USE) on the design of a fuel- The authors would like to thank Sascha Kaiser for fruitful dis-
battery narrow-body transport aircraft was assessed. In order to freely cussions and valuable advice.
vary the HP,USE, a quad-fan aircraft concept equipped with two ad-
vanced Geared-Turbofans (GTFs) and two Electric Fans (EFs) was
proposed. The aircraft was sized for an interval design ranges 900– Appendix A. Supplementary material
2100 nm and the resulting performance was compared against a
projected, solely combustion-based aircraft. The analysis in terms of Supplementary mkaterial associated with this article can be
relative change in block fuel reduction and change in vehicular found in the online version at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.
2015.09.002. their Emergent Aviation Markets, National Harbor, Maryland, SciTEch, 2014,
AIAA http://dx.doi.org/0.2514/6.2014-0535.
[33] A.T. Isikveren, Distributed Propulsion and Ultra-high By-pass Rotor Study at
Aircraft Level 0 Collaborative Project, FP7-AAT-2012-RTD_L0, Proposal No.
References 323012 to European Commission Directorate Generale for Research and In-
novation, 2012.
[34] H. Smith, Airframe integration for an LH2 hybrid-electric propulsion system,
[1] Air Transport Action Group (ATAG), The Right Flightpath to Reduce Aviation Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 86 (2014) 562–567 , Sep.
Emissions, Durban, South Africa, 2010. [35] H.D. Kim, J. L. Felder, M. T. Tong, J. J. Berton, W. J. Haller, Turboelectric dis-
[2] Advisory Council for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE), European tributed propulsion benefits on the N3-X vehicle, Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol.
Aeronautics: a Vision for 2020, 2001. 86 (2014) 558–561 , Sep.
[3] European Commission, Flightpath 2050 Europe's Vision for Aviation-Report of [36] H. Smith, Airframe integration for an LH2 hybrid-electric propulsion system,
the High Level Group on Aviation Research, Luxembourg, 2011. Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 86 (2014) 562–567 , Sep.
[4] International Air Transport Association (IATA), A Global Approach to Reducing [37] R. Kirner, L. Raffaelli, A. Rolt, P. Laskaridis, R. Singh, Analysis of Distributed
Aviation Emissions, 2009. Propulsion on Advanced Vision 2020 Aircraft Concepts, International Society
[5] Air Transport Action Group (ATAG), A Sustainable Flightpath Towards Redu-
for Air Breathing Engines, Busan, Korea, 2013.
cing Emissions, 2012.
[38] V. Mantic-Lugo, G. Doulgeris, R. Singh, Computational analysis of the effects of
[6] International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), ICAO Environment Report,
a boundary layer ingesting propulsion system in transonic flow, Proc. Inst.
2010.
Mech. Eng. Part G: J. Aerosp. Eng. (2012).
[7] NASA Environmentally Responsible Aviation, Nþ 2 Advanced Vehicle Concepts
[39] A.S Gohardani, H. Edwards, H. Doulgeris, R. Singh, ELECTERA-A Step Towards
NRA Draft Solicitation Synopsis, 2012.
the Development of a Techno Economic Risk Analysis Scheme for More
[8] R. Muller, ACARE Goals (AGAPE) Progress Evaluation, Project Final Report
Publishable Summary, 2010. Electric Aircraft, ISABE 2011, 2011.
[40] P. Miller, Potential Propulsion Solutions for Hybrid-Electric Aircraft, Disruptive
[9] Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe (ACARE),
Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda (SRIA)-Volume 1, Brussels, 2012. Green Propulsion Technologies Conference, Institute Of Mechanical Engineers,
[10] J.C. Mankins, Technology Readiness Levels, White Paper, Advanced Concepts London, United Kingdom, 2014.
Office, Office of Space Access and Technology, NASA,1995. [41] T. Banning, G. Bristow, C. Level, L. Sollmann, J. Calderon-Fernandez, D. Wells,
[11] A.T. Isikveren, M. Schmidt, Future Transport Aircraft Ultra-Low Emissions M. Olson, N. Davis, C, Du, S. Ambadpudi, J.P., 2012–2013 FAA Design Compe-
Technology Options, GARS Workshop Air Transport and Climate Change, tition for Universities Electric/ Hybrid-Electric Aircraft Technology Design
Worms, Germany, 2014. Category-NXG-50-Georgia Tech, 2013.
[12] A. Seitz, A.T. Isikveren, M. Hornung, Pre-Concept Performance Investigation of [42] B. Schiltgen, A. Gibson, M. Green, J. Freeman, More Electric Aircraft: Tube and
Electrically Powered Aero-Propulsion Systems, AIAA-2013-3608, in: Proceed- Wing Hybrid Electric Distributed Propulsion with Superconducting and Con-
ings of the 49th AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference and Ex- ventional Electric Machines, SAE Technical Paper 2013-01-2306, 2013.
hibit, San José, California, USA: 2013. [43] M.K. Bradley, C.K. Droney, Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research: Phase I
[13] J.E. Green, Greener by Design, Innovative Configurations and Advanced Con- Final Report, Huntington Beach, California: 2011.
cepts for Future Civil Aircraft Lecture Series 2005–06, von Karman Institute for [44] C. Pornet, S. Kaiser, A.T. Isikveren, M. Hornung, Integrated Fuel-Battery Hybrid
Fluid Dynamics, Brussels, Belgium, 2005. for a Narrow-Body Sized Transport Aircraft, Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. 86 (6)
[14] J.H. McMasters, A US Perspective on Future Commercial Airliner Design, In- (2014) 568–574 , vol. 86.
novative Configurations and Advanced Concepts for Future Civil Aircraft Lec- [45] A.M. Stoll, J. Bevirt, M.D. Moore, W.J. Fredericks, N.K. Borer, Drag Reduction
ture Series 2005–06, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, Brussels, Bel- Through Distributed Electric Propulsion, Aviation Technology, Integration and
gium, 2005. Operations Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, 2014.
[15] E. Torenbeek, Introductory overview of innovative civil transport aircraft [46] S. Stückl, J. Van Toor, H. Lobentanzer, VOLTAIR-The All Electric Propulsion
configurations, Innovative Configurations and Advanced Concepts for Future Concept Platform-A Vision For Atmospheric Friendly Flight, in: Proceedings of
Civil Aircraft Lecture Series 2005–06, von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics, the 28th International Congress of The Aeronautical Sciences, ICAS, Brisbane,
Brussels, Belgium, 2005. 2012.
[16] L.F. Campanile, Shape-adaptive wings: the unfulfilled dream of flight, in: [47] A.T. Isikveren, A. Seitz, P.C. Vratny, C. Pornet, K.O. Plötner, M. Hornung, Con-
R. Liebe (Ed.), Flow Phenomena In Nature-a Challenge to Engineering Design, ceptual Studies of Universally-Electric Systems Architectures Suitable for
WIT press, 2006. Transport Aircraft, Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrt Kongress, DLRK, Berlin,
[17] C. Pornet, Hybrid and Universally-Electric Aircraft Concepts, AccessScience, 2012.
McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Sciences and Technology, McGraw-Hill Education [48] S. Stückl, J. Bijewitz, A. Seitz, A.T. Isikveren, J.-L. Godard, A. Mirzoyan, A.-D.
(2014) http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.YB150553. Bord, O. Brodersen, J. Sieber, J. Stuhlberger, J. van Toor, Report on the Tech-
[18] L. Lorenz, A. Seitz, H. Kuhn, A. Sizmann, Hybrid Power Trains for Future Mo- nology Roadmap for 2035, DisPURSAL Deliverable D1.2, public document,
bility, Paper 1316, Deutscher Luft- und Raumfahrtkongress, Stuttgart, Germany 2014.
(2013), p. 1–17. [49] J. Kurzke, GasTurb11, compiled with delphi 2007 on 27 january, 2010, 2010.
[19] A.T. Isikveren, S. Kaiser, C. Pornet, P.C. Vratny, Pre-design Strategies and Sizing [50] H.-J. Steiner, P.C. Vratny, C. Gologan, K. Wieczorek, A.T. Isikveren, M. Hornung,
Techniques for Dual-Energy Aircraft, Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. J. 86 (6) Optimum number of engines for transport aircraft employing electrically
(2014) 525–542. powered distributed propulsion, CEAS Aeronaut. J. 5 (2014) 157–170 , vol.
[20] D. Ragone, Review of Battery Systems for Electrically Powered Vehicles, SAE [51] H. Kuhn, A. Seitz, L. Lorenz, A.T. Isikveren, A. Sizmann, Progress and Perspec-
Technical Paper 680453, 1968.
tives of Electric Air Transport, in: Proceedings of the 28th International Con-
[21] C. Pornet, C. Gologan, P.C. Vratny, A. Seitz, O. Schmitz, A.T. Isikveren,
gress Of The Aeronautical Sciences, ICAS, Brisbane, 2012.
M. Hornung, Methodology for sizing and performance assessment of hybrid
[52] G.V. Brown, Weights and Efficiencies of Electric Components of a Turboelectric
energy aircraft, J. Aircr. 52 (1) (2015) 341–352, http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/1.
Aircraft Propulsion System, 49th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting including
C032716 2014, pp. 1–12.
the New Horizons Forum and Aerospace Exposition, Orlando, Florida, 2011.
[22] M. Cronin, Advanced Power Generation Systems for More Electric Aircraft, SAE
[53] H.K. Xi, W.Z. Gong, Y. Zhang, Y.F. Bi, H.K. Ding, H. Wen, B. Hou, Y. Xin, China's
Technical Paper 912186, 1991.
33.5 m, 35 kV/2 kA HTS AC power cable's operation in power grid, Physica C
[23] A.S. Gohardani, G. Doulgeris, R. Singh, Challenges of future aircraft propulsion:
a review of distributed propulsion technology and its potential application for 445–448 (2006) 1054–1057.
the all electric commercial aircraft, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. 47 (2011) 369–391 , Jul. [54] T. Markel, A. Simpson, “Energy Storage Systems Considerations for Grid-
[24] M. Cronin, The all-electric aircraft, IEE Rev. 36 (1990) 309–311. Charged Hybrid Electric Vehicles, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, vol.
[25] A.S. Gohardani, A synergistic glance at the prospects of distributed propulsion NREL/CP-54. Presented at SAE Future Transportation Technology and IEEE
technology and the electric aircraft concept for future unmanned air vehicles Vehicle Power and Propulsion Joint Conferences, Chicago, Illinois September
and commercial or military aviation, Prog. Aerosp. Sci. 57 (2013) 25–70. 7-9, 2005.
[26] R.E. Quigley, More Electric Aircraft, in: Proceedings of the 8th Applied Power [55] A. Seitz, O. Schmitz, A.T. Isikveren, M. Hornung, Electrically Powered Propul-
Electronics Conference And Exposition, APEC 93, 1993, pp. 906–911. sion: Comparison and Contrast to Gas Turbines, Deutscher Luft- und Raum-
[27] A.S. Garohdani (Ed.), Distributed Propulsion Technology, Nova Science Pub- fahrt Kongress, DLRK, Berlin, 2012.
lishers, 2014, ISBN: 978-1-62948-588-1. [56] C. Pornet, S. Kaiser, C. Gologan, Cost-Based Flight Technique Optimization for
[28] Electric Aircraft, accessed april 2015, Available: 〈http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Hybrid Energy Aircraft, Aircr. Eng. Aerosp. Technol. J. 86 (2014).
Electric_aircraft〉. [57] Aviation OAG, Official Airline Guide Database, 2010.
[29] Airbus Group, The future of e-aircraft, accessed april 2015, 〈http://www.air [58] Airports Council International, ACI Global Traffic Forecast Report 2008–2027,
busgroup.com〉 Available: 〈http://www.airbusgroup.com/int/en/story-over 2008.
view/future-of-e-aircraft.html〉. [59] E. Torenbeek, Optimum Cruise Performance of Subsonic Transport Aircraft
[30] R. Moulton, An Electric Aeroplane, Flight International, 1973. 1995 Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Aerospace Engineering, The
[31] M. Hepperle, Electric Flight-Potential and Limitations, NPU-DLR Workshop, Netherlands.
Braunschweig, 2014. [60] F. Hale, Best-Range Flight Conditions for Cruise-Climb Flight of a Jet Aircraft,
[32] M.D. Moore, B. Fredericks, Misconceptions of Electric Propulsion Aircraft and NASA Conference Proceedings No. 2001, Vol. 4, 1976, pp. 1713–1719.

Plane 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plane 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Plane 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Progress in Aerospace Sciences ∎ (∎∎∎∎) ∎∎∎–∎∎∎

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

Conceptual design of hybrid-electric transport aircraft

3.1. Flow path sizing of the Turbofan and Electrical Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1. Introduction is a breakdown that recommends aircraft energy levels (for ﬂight

Nomenclature ATM Air Trafﬁc Management

performance of the quad-fan hybrid-electric aircraft, an under-

4.1. Parametric descriptors and qualitative pre-design investigation

An algebraic basis for the quantiﬁcation of HP and the DoH for

EM. To gain an insight into this sizing criterion, the performance

reference aircraft. As a result, cargo volume represents a volu-

An increase in the amount of electric energy used, which results

4.6. Relative change in block COSAR versus relative change in block

In order to bridge the gap between a purely technical in-

TSFC of the GTF is reduced by roughly 4% at a thrust setting of 60% 10

Relative change in block fuel [%]

information for a tentatively chosen benchmark hybrid-electric aircraft

Aircraft Main Data Unit Reference aircraft Quad-fan hybrid Δ Reference

MTOW [kg] 60,840 77,730 28%

You might also like