Questions & Answers

Subject: Management Concepts & Organisational Behaviour

Topic: Unit 3 – Perception & Learning
1- Explain Perception & Learning in Detail?
Ans- Perception is how people look at and understand the things. It is a
unique interpretation of the situation rather than recoding of it.
Perception is a complex cognitive process of understanding the world,
sometimes not in its real form. Perception is a learning process and
hence it differs from person to person. As a result, the same stimuli may
produce different behaviours and responses. In managing the
organizations, particularly in dealing with the people, managers should be
able to understand the perceptions of the people. It is in this context, an
attempt is made here to explain the perceptual process, factors
influencing perceptions and managing the perceptions to the advantage of
the organization.
Learning
Perceptual selection is also affected by learning. Learning determines
the development of perceptual sets. Perceptual set means the
expectation of particular interpretation based on past experience with the
same object. This is also known as cognitive awareness by which the
minds organize information and form images and compare them with
previous exposures to similar stimuli. In organizations employees’
experiences are influenced by their perception very much. In making
decisions, managers are also influenced by their functional background.
However, it is necessary for managers to rise above their own
experiences and be able to solve the problems in an appropriate way.
Individual differences lead to perceptual bias. This bias can be overcome
through education and experience.
Factors Influencing Perception
A number of factors operate to shape and sometimes to distort
perception. These factors emanate from three sources – the perceiver,
the perceived and the situation.
The Perceiver
When a person looks at a target, his interpretation of it is influenced by
his personal characteristics like his needs, past experience, habits,
personality, values, and attitudes. A person with a strong need for ego
satisfaction may select out from a situation and emphasize signals that
tend to satisfy the desire for self-esteem. Similarly, negative attitudes
toward unions may cause a manager to look for antagonisms in even
routine visits by local union officials to the organization. These and other
personal factors will determine what a person gives attention to in a
situation and how these cues are interpreted as a basis for decision-
making and action responses.
The Perceived
Characteristics in the target / object that are being observed may
influence what is perceived. The physical attributes, appearance, and
behaviour of other persons in the situation also influence how the object
is perceived. Physical attributes of a person are related to age, sex,
height, and weight. A young person exercising authority in a situation is
viewed differently from an older person doing the same thing. Personal
attire and appearance are also relevant factors in the formation of
perceptions.

The Situation
The context in which we see the objects or events is important. The
physical, social and organizational elements of the situation or event may
also influence perceptions. A subordinate calling his boss by the first
name may be perceived quite differently when observed in a typical
Indian office as opposed to in a social reception. Though the perceiver
and the perceived are the same, it is the situation that makes a
difference. Such background characteristics of the situation or context are
additional factors that can affect how the situation is perceived by the
different persons. The following Diagram shows the summary of the
factors influencing perception.
Learning Theories
In an organization, employees have to learn and practice productive work
behaviours. The manager’s task is to provide sufficient learning
experiences to employees in an environment that will facilitate learning
process and promote desired behaviours. Training prepares employees to
meet the challenges of the job, for which incentives are to be provided to
learn and practice right behaviours. The following are the important
theories of learning.
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is the process by which individuals learn to link the
information from a neutral stimulus to a stimulus that causes a response.
This response may not be under an individual’s conscious control. Pavlov,
in his experiments, hanged some meat in front of dogs. This meat is
unconditioned stimulus or unlearned stimulus. The dogs responded to
this stimulus by salivating. This kind of response was instinctive or
unconditioned. Afterwards Pavlov started to ring a bell at the same time
when meat was offered. Ringing the bell without offer of meat was not
connected to any responses. However, by ringing the bell every time
when meat was offered, Pavlov established a relationship between the
two stimuli that is the bell and the meat. With the continuation of the
process, the ringing of the bell alone acted like a stimulus to evoke the
response of salivating even without presentation of meat. As a result, the
bell became a conditioned stimulus leading to conditioned response.
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner coined the term operant conditioning to refer to a process
by which individuals learn voluntary behaviour. Voluntary behaviours are
called operant because they operate or have some influence on the
environment. Learning occurs from the consequences of behaviour, and
many employee work behaviours are operant behaviours. As a matter of
fact, most behaviours in everyday life are forms of operant behaviour.
Managers are interested in operant behaviours because they can influence
the results of such behaviours. On the basis of the direct relationship
between the consequences and behaviour, the management can identify
the relationship and try to modify the behaviour. That is how the
behaviour can be controlled by manipulating its consequences. Two
principles guide this relationship.
1- The behaviour that results in positive rewards is likely to be repeated
and behaviour with negative consequences is likely to be extinguished.
2- Based on such consequences, the behaviour can be predicted and
controlled.
Therefore, some consequences can be used to increase the recurrence of
desired behaviour and some other consequences can be used to decrease
the recurrence of undesired behaviour.
2- Explain Personality & Individual Differences and impact on
Behaviour?
Ans- Personality is a complex phenomenon and difficult understand.
There is no single universally acceptable definition. Personality refers to
the personal characteristics that lead to consistent patterns of behaviour.
It represents the overall profile or combination of stable characteristics
that capture the unique nature of a person. Personality combines a set of
physical and mental characteristics that reflect how a person looks,
thinks, acts and feels. It has both internal and external elements.
External traits are observable behaviours on the basis of which we can
understand one’s personality. The internal factors are thoughts, values
and genetic characteristics that are inferred from the observable
behaviours. According to Hogan, personality refers to the relatively stable
pattern of behaviours and consistent internal states that explain a
person’s behavioural tendencies.
Individual Differences and Impact on Behaviour
The range of personality traits is quite bewildering. Personality trait
means the basic components of personality. The important personality
traits that influence employee behaviour at work place are need patterns,
locus of control, introversion and extroversion, self-esteem and self-
concept, risk taking, self monitoring, Type A or Type B personality, and
goal orientation. These are briefly explained below.
Need Patterns
Primarily four personality needs can be identified that manifest
themselves in the work setting. They are the needs for achievement,
affiliation, autonomy, and dominance. Those with a high need to achieve
engage themselves proactively in work behaviours in order to feel proud
about their achievements and success. Those who are high in need for
affiliation tend to work cooperatively with others. Those who are high in
need for autonomy do well when not closely supervised. Those high in
their need for dominance prove to be effective in situations where they
can enforce their legitimate authority.
Locus of Control
Locus of control refers to a generalized belief that events are
either within one’s control (internal locus of control) or are determined by
the fate or luck (external locus of control). People who have moderately
strong internal locus of control are likely to perform better at work places.
They are likely to be more successful than their external counterparts.
Internals are more suitable for leadership positions and are likely to be
more satisfied with the jobs. Internals typically have more control over
their own behaviour than externals that leave everything to fate.
Introversion and Extroversion
Personality traits are commonly understood in terms of
introversion and extroversion. Introversion is the tendency in individuals
which directs them to turn inward and experience and process feelings,
thoughts and ideas within themselves. Extroversion refers to the tendency
in individuals to turn outward searching for external stimuli with which
they can interact. While there is some element of introversion as well as
extraversion in all of us, based on dominance, people are regarded as
either introverts or extroverts. Extroverts are sociable, lively, gregarious,
and seek outward stimuli or external interactions. Introverts are quiet,
reflective, introspective, and intellectual people. They interact with a few
intimate people. Introverts perform well when they are alone and when
the environment is quiet. Since managers have to constantly interact with
individuals both within and outside the organization and be able to
influence them to achieve organization’s goals, it is expected that
extroverts prove to be better managers than introverts.
Risk - taking
Personality differences can be seen in the willingness of people to
take risk. Some managers are prepared to take risk and act on little
information and quickly also. They prove to be as much effective as those
other managers that are averse to take risk and make decision cautiously.
Self – Monitoring
It refers to a person’s level of sensitivity and ability to adapt to
situational cues. High self-monitors change their behaviour quite easily to
suit the situation whereas low self monitors reveal their moods and
personal characteristics to others who can easily predict their behaviour in
a given situation. Self monitoring personality trait is important in carrying
out organizational activities. Employees having this trait emerge as
better performers, better leaders and are likely to grow faster in the
organization.
3- Explain Motivation & Job Performance
Ans- The word ‘motivation’ has been derived from the word ‘motive’
which means any idea, need or emotion that prompts a man into action.
Whatever may be the behaviour of a man, there is some stimulus behind
it. Stimulus is dependent upon the motive of the person concerned.
Motive can be known by studying his needs and desires. Generally,
different motives operate at different times among different people and
influence their behaviour. The management should try to understand the
motives of individuals which cause different types of behaviour.
Doing Business all over the world is very challenging. Corporate
performance and revenue growth are challenge by Internal and external
operating environment factors. To survive in profitable way in the highly
challenging and competitive global market economy, all the factor of
Employee Motivation &Production - machine, materials & men, – should
be managed in a impressive way. High productivity is a long-term
benefits of Employee motivation. Motivated employee is a valuable asset
which delivers huge value to the Organization in maintaining and
strengthening its business and revenue growth.
Motivation is the word derived from the word ‘motive’ which means
needs, desires, wants or drives within the persons. It is the process of
inspiring people to actions to achieve the goals. In the work goal
background, the psychological factors motivating the people’s behavior
can be need for Money, Respect, Job-Satisfaction, Achievement, etc.
Motivation occupies an important place and position in the whole
management process. This technique can be used fruitfully for
encouraging workers to make positive contribution for achieving
organizational objectives. Motivation is necessary as human nature needs
some sort of inducement, encouragement or incentive in order to get
better performance. 
Motivation of employees is one function which every manager has to
perform along with other managerial functions. A manager has to function
as a friend and motivator of his subordinates. It is an integral part of
management process itself. Factors that encourage Employee’s
motivation:

 Belief in employees strengths

 Inquire employees what they want

 Teach employees to measure their own success

 Crystal clear &regular communication about factors important to

employees

 Treating employees with respect

 Feedback and training from managers and leaders

 Industry-average benefits and recompense

 Carry an idea notebook  

 Explain the reward system

 Stop Distracting Employees

Motivated employees are inclined to be more productive than non-

motivated employees. If employee will satisfied and happy then he/she
will do his /her work in a very impressive way, and then the result will be
good, on the other hand motivated employee will motivate other
employees in office. Job performance management is the process through
which managers ensure those employees activities and outputs are
congruent with the organization’s goal. Therefore it is the organizations
priority to ensure that motivational tools which encourages initiative and
stimulates efforts from the employees are put in place for a better
performance and deliverance of quality service. The performance of an
employee is measured by the output that the individual produces and it is
related to productivity. Productivity is defined variously as (i) that which
people can produce with the least effort (ii) output per employee hour,
quality considered (iii) the increased functional and organizational
performance, including quality (iv) a ratio which measures how well an
organization (or individual, industry, country) converts input resources
(labor, materials, machines etc.) into goods and services. It is about
aligning the organizational objectives with the employees agreed
measures, skills, competency requirements, development plans and the
delivery of results. The emphasis is on improvement, learning and
development in order to achieve the overall business strategy and to
create a high performance workforce.
4- Explain Values and its types?
According to Rokeach “values represent basic conviction that a specific
mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially
preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of
existence”. Chakravarty defines values as “the manner in which an
individual tends to make judgements or choices, both about goals and
means, at different stages of one’s life, in different facets of it, as are
deemed to lead to the well being and happiness of oneself and society”.
Importance of Values
In the organizational context, values are important because they
influence employee conduct and behavior. They play a vital role in
behavioral disposition and the decision making behavior of an individual.
Now-a-days, employees resent the traditional command-and control
supervision and expect a lot of autonomy and operational freedom.
Organizational ethics is becoming important in view of the manipulations
and malpractices indulged in at various levels in the organization. It has
something to do with the values of that organization.
Values influence behavior of an employee in several ways. If an
employee feels that payment of wages on the basis of performance is
right, he / she cannot accept payment of wages on the basis of seniority,
he becomes indifferent to such a system followed in the organization.
Therefore, the values of individuals need to be studied, so that
employees’ values could be matched with that of the organization.
Sources of Values
Values are learnt right from the childhood. They are taught by mother
when she guides the child in several ways like “you go to bed early”, “you
should wear clean clothes”, “you should achieve first rank” and things like
that. Early ideas of what is right and wrong were probably formulated
from the views expressed by the parents. As one grows, there is a
likelihood of getting exposed to other value systems and be induced by
them. We derive the values from the people we love or respect like our
parents, teachers, friends, and other famous celebrities in movies, sports,
business, and politics.
Types of Values
You may note that values do not operate in isolation. Several values
interact with each other to form value system in a society. According to
Rokeach, value systems are composed of rank-ordered sets of values that
fall into two general categories namely terminal values and instrumental
values. Terminal values reflect the desired end states of existence
whereas instrumental values are related to the choice of behavior in
reaching those end states. Terminal values are desired states of
existence that we try to achieve. Preferences like duty, equality and
wisdom and a compatible life are some of the terminal values. On the
other hand, instrumental values are desirable modes of behavior that help
us reach terminal values. Being polite, courageous, logical, self
controlled, ambitious etc., are some of the instrumental values. Values
can be categorized on the basis of the level at which they operate. These
may be:
- Personal values which are formed from past experience and interaction
with others;
- Cultural values which are the dominant beliefs held collectively society;
- Organizational values which are at the heart of organizational culture in
terms of shared assumptions, values and beliefs; and
- Professional values which are held by the members of an occupational
group.