STRUCTURE

NCSEA | CASE | SEI FEBRUARY 2021

CFS/STEEL

INSIDE: Johns Hopkins Laboratory

Historic Metals in Renovations
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STRUCTURE magazine
 Contents FEBRUARY 2021

Cover Feature STRUCTURE AS A STATEMENT OF PURPOSE By John Roach, P.E.

For Building 201 at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, a two-way concrete flat slab was
selected for the structural system of both the laboratory and office wings. At the east wing, multi-bay conference
rooms, closely spaced stair and mechanical shafts, and a two-story auditorium made reinforced concrete
construction impractical. Instead, a steel frame structure is used throughout this five-story section of the building.

Columns and Departments

7 Editorial The Challenge of Virtual Collaboration 24 Education Issues Bringing Real-World Experience
By David Horos, P.E., S.E. into the Classroom By Mark Kanonik, P.E.

8 Structural Renovations Encountering Historic Metals 26 Business Practices How to Recession-Proof

in Renovations By Ciro Cuono, P.E., and Christopher Ribeiro, E.I.T. Your Engineering Career By Stephanie Slocum, P.E.,
in collaboration with SEI’s Business Practices Committee

12 Building
Blocks Structural Connections for
34 Structural Forum Lessons for Young Engineers
Hot-Dip Galvanizing By Alana Fossa and Thomas J. Langill, Ph.D.
By Jim Lintz, P.E., S.E.

14 Structural Connections Modern Wood Fasteners In Every Issue

– Part 2 By Alex Salenikovich, Eng, Ph.D., and David Moses, P.E., Ph.D.
Advertiser Index
NCSEA News
22 Historic Structures Tariffville Bridge Disaster SEI Update
By Frank Griggs, Jr., D.Eng, P.E. CASE in Point

February 2021 Bonus Content Additional Content Available Only at – STRUCTUREmag.org

Feature Revisiting Lessons Learned from the Nicoll Highway Collapse By Hee Yang Ng, MIStructE, C.Eng, P.E.

Spotlight ICE Block I

Publication of any article, image, or advertisement in STRUCTURE® magazine does not constitute endorsement by NCSEA, CASE, SEI, the Publisher, or the Editorial Board. Authors, contributors, and advertisers retain sole responsibility for the content of their submissions.

F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21
 EDITORIAL
The Challenge of Virtual Collaboration
By David Horos, P.E., S.E., LEED AP

W hen I was a kid in the 70s, there was a children’s TV show looking toward the post-pandemic world, which
called Zoom. I wouldn’t say I liked it too much, and it didn’t will likely include a new, hybrid model that consists of the best
last too long. It was reintroduced in the 90s and, again, didn’t stick. For (and hopefully not the worst) of both the in-person and at-home worlds.
understandable reasons, I suppose, this past year has had me thinking We all recognize some benefits of this new digital environment. Some
about that show and how little I suspected the word zoom would of us have participated in virtual site visits, which, while not as good
reenter my life in such a big way. A series of new software to install, as in-person, are likely better than no visit at all and certainly more
learn, and make sure they are compatible with my hardware. The accessible with limited travel budgets. The requirement to go virtual
need to run many programs (Zoom, Hangout, Teams, Webex, Goto, with conferences, dinner meetings, and seminars has been met with
Bluejeans, Connect) interchangeably depending on hosts. And a series new opportunities for participation, with a larger audience pool not
of terms introduced into our vocabulary (zoom fatigue, zoom etiquette, defined by geography. And our ability to attract speakers from afar
virtual background, etc.). And now common phrases, “Can you see was made easier with virtual events.
my screen,” “Can you make me the cohost,” and “Can you turn on On the other hand, we work in a very collaborative profession. Our
your cameras so we can see designs are improved by interactions with our
you?” The current question colleagues. And while we are still collabora-
in my mind is, where will this tive virtually, we may be losing something
lead us moving forward? by missing out on spontaneous face-to-face
Interestingly, Zoom was interactions. Are the online tools available
formed as a company in 2011 for collaboration sufficient to replace tried
and was worth $1 billion by and true approaches like sitting around a
2017, well before its most table with our colleagues to review designs?
recent growth. Some savvy Or to collectively review drawings pinned
folks anticipated changes in up on conference room walls? Engineers
the world and how we do value networking at conferences, which is
business before the pandemic. not fully replicated in the
Were we all destined to evolve virtual environment.
to our current arrangement,
The requirement to go virtual ... has been met How do we best take advan-
and the adoption of Zoom with new opportunities for participation, with a tage of the medium? More
was just accelerated? Or was this a larger audience pool not defined by geography. professional setups – better
technology that would never have cameras, lighting, and micro-
developed without the pandemic? We may never know, and it may not phones. We are all in show business now, hopefully with less makeup!
matter. Zoom and its cousins are indispensable now. A bigger question We have better electronic collaboration tools like surveys, virtual
might be whether it, unlike the TV show, remains for the long term. whiteboards, and more, all of which will require learning and becom-
It is great that collaboration technology already existed when we ing comfortable. We must learn to provide virtual access to in-person
needed it. But how do we adapt to make the best use of the technol- meetings while ensuring that those attending virtually have the same
ogy when it is no longer necessary? Collaboration technology opens opportunity to see, hear, and participate.
opportunities in the way we practice and team up professionally. Less The challenge will be to blend these new approaches with prior
business travel. More working from home without the commuting practices once we are past the pandemic while also mitigating the
time. Less need for office space, meaning less overhead? Less face-to- potential downsides to remoteness. What is the right amount of time
face interaction? We worry about extensive screen time for our kids to be in an office compared to working remotely? That answer will
and a resulting lack of social skills. Will our technical communication depend on circumstances, and it will take time to strike the right
skills and ability to collaborate suffer over time? What will we prefer, balance for different circumstances.
phones or digital meeting spaces; does it matter? How about sharing As we approach both the one-year anniversary of the first lockdowns and
messages live with large groups of people from far-distant regions, an the widespread availability of a COVID-19 vaccine, let us take the time to
ability that was not readily known or used regularly. reflect on our ability as a profession to react and adapt to quickly changing
And for those who design buildings, how will it affect our business circumstances. And to commit to taking the best of those adaptations
prospects and projects? Will we be coordinating new “zoom rooms” in forward with us in our practices and our work serving the profession.
offices and residences? Will the need for more flexible living and working I am very excited about the possibilities moving forward. Technology
spaces require changes to our designs? Will there be a need for more has helped us advance throughout history, and this abrupt crash
rehab/retrofit work? And will the ability to work from home result in course in virtual business has accelerated the current cycle
decreased demand for new office buildings and other project types? of innovation even more. Harnessing that technology will
Sooooo many questions to consider, and I certainly will not venture be key. Zoom on!■
to offer many answers. I will suggest that while there were initial
David Horos is a Director in the Structural Engineering Studio at Skidmore,
concerns, our profession showed we could survive and arguably thrive
Owings & Merrill and a member of the NCSEA Board of Directors.
in a fully remote environment. We were able to adapt and are now

STRUCTURE magazine FEB R U A R Y 2 021

 structural RENOVATION
Encountering Historic Metals in Renovations
By Ciro Cuono, P.E., and Christopher Ribeiro, E.I.T.

S tructural steel has been a dominant building material for more than 100
years. Although steel is not considered a particularly remarkable material
today, Vaclav Smil’s book, Still the Iron Age, illustrates how important iron
and steel have been and continue to be in industrialized societies. For a struc-
tural engineer working on historic renovations and adaptive reuse of pre-war
buildings, working knowledge of the history, development, and metallurgy of
structural metals is necessary for the engineer to be effective and efficient. Figure 1. A sample of a wrought-iron beam flange.

The three primary ferrous metals used in building construction from create various shapes; it has good compressive strength and low tensile
approximately the 1850s to the 1920s were cast iron, wrought iron, strength. Wrought iron is a more malleable or workable (hence the
and structural steel. All three materials are man-made metals (alloys) name “wrought”) alloy of iron with low carbon content and good
whose primary ingredient is iron. The industrial revolution of the 18th tensile and compressive strengths. Both metals were used in early build-
and 19th centuries brought iron making technology to an advanced ing structures, particularly industrial buildings in England, to replace
state where cast iron and then wrought iron could be mass-produced and span farther than the heaviest timbers available. Steel, which is
and used, first in transportation and then building projects. also an alloy of iron with low carbon content and other elements such
Iron technology was used and developed predominantly in Europe, as manganese, silicon, sulfur, and phosphorus, eventually replaced
China, the Middle East, and India. The basic process consisted of cast iron and wrought iron. Steel was known and available in limited
smelting mined iron ore (naturally occurring deposits of iron-rich quantities in the early 1800s and became commercially available after
minerals) and forging iron bars from the resulting “bloom” or sponge- Henry Bessemer developed an efficient process for producing steel,
like mass of iron, separating the resulting slag and impurities. Smelting which he patented in 1856. This process, called the Bessemer process,
was done in a furnace known as a bloomery, consisting of a chamber was improved by others and eventually replaced by the open-hearth
or pit with masonry walls and an exhaust stack. The fuel typically process. Cast iron was used predominately in the early to mid-1800s for
consisted of charcoaled wood or coal, which had a dual purpose of structural members and eventually relegated to columns and decorative
creating heat and providing carbon. When the carbon combined with uses due to its high compressive strength but brittle nature. Wrought
pure iron, the process created the first ferrous metals like wrought iron. iron was used in the latter half of the 1800s and replaced cast iron for
The introduction of air or oxygen via bellows and pipes, called tuyeres, flexural members due to its superior tensile properties.
was added to increase the heat within the furnace. Early development By the late 1800s, structural steel began to take over the market for
was limited by the availability of fuel and the ability to achieve high structural metals and was stronger than wrought iron, both in tensile
temperatures. However, the technology slowly advanced and came and compressive properties. In the building industry, particularly from
to fruition with the industrial revolution, the Chicago School of Architecture, tradi-
first in England and then in other parts tional heavy masonry buildings began to
of Europe and the United States. The grow taller and introduce interior skeletal
bloomery was eventually replaced by a framing, first with cast-iron columns and
blast furnace – blast referring to a blast of wrought-iron beams and eventually with
air (oxygen) and coke as a fuel instead of full skeletal steel framing. The “Chicago
charcoal. Coke was a fuel made from bitu- School of Architecture” was a style of archi-
minous coal that was first heated to reduce tecture that came out of Chicago in the
water content and impurities – a process late 1800s and early 1900s. The architects,
called “coking.” The resulting coke burned engineers, and builders, experiencing a
better and had a higher carbon content. building boom due to market forces and
This advanced technology produced metal the rebuilding from the aftermath of the
in liquid form at the bottom of the furnace, 1871 Great Chicago Fire, began to experi-
known as “pig iron.” The term came from ment with new materials and techniques.
the collected metal shapes of molds and This was the beginning of the common
bars that resembled a litter of pigs. Pig skeletal frame type of construction. The
iron is basically a cast iron or alloy of iron steel manufacturing industry grew, and each
with high carbon content. Wrought iron, steel producer used their own formulations,
cast iron, and, eventually, steel were made resulting in the finished product’s variability.
by further refining pig iron. Individual companies developed allow-
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, with a Figure 2. Excerpt from a 1930s framing plan showing beam able load tables for products made in the
high carbon content, cast into molds to sizes and typical floor construction. late 1800s and early 1900s. In 1900, the

STRUCTURE magazine
American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) developed standards for conditions, or, in some lucky instances, rolls of original drawings
structural steel such as ASTM A9, Specification for Steel for Buildings. tucked away in a corner (Figure 2). A detailed survey of the framing
These standards defined minimum requirements for the steel materials is then conducted. A keen eye can pick up clues like a “Pencoyd” or
used in these applications, bringing uniformity to the varying standards “Carnegie” stamp on the side of an old beam (Figure 3, page 10).
published by the individual producers of the time. In 1939, the A9 Back in the office, the wealth of information in engineering literature
standard for buildings was consolidated into ASTM A7 (the bridge can be used to determine allowable stresses, locate old load tables,
standard up to that point), and the two standards remained combined and determine the limits and design methodologies at the time of
until 1960, when the ASTM A36 standard was issued. This standard construction. Sources like the American Institute of Steel Construction
INFO SPECS
became the dominant standard for steel buildings until the 1990s. (AISC) Design Guide 15, Rehabilitation and Retrofit, and the AISC
File Name: 20-1246 Structure Mag_March_System Solutions Flat Size:
In 1921, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) was PR: Engineering Journal Field Welding to Existing
XXXX MKT: 20-1246
Steel Structures by David
Finished Size: 5” × 7.5”
founded to bring consistency to the design and construction standards Designer: Ricker,Georgina
First MorraQuarter/1988,
Email: are invaluableBleed:
gmorra@mapei.com resources
Yes for determining
Amount: .125”
114 4 E. Newpor t Center Dr.
for structural steel used in building construction,
D e e r f i e l dandB e a the
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Colors: 4/0 Other sources like
Standard Specification for Structural Steel forN OBuildings
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ENDED FORParker’s,
V I S U A L R E Architects’
F E R E N C E O N L Yand
A N D Builder’s
M A Y N O T M A Handbook,
T C H T H E F I N A L Pnow
R I N T E in the
D PR O D U public
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Metallurgical Differences
Cast iron contained a larger percentage of
carbon (2% to 4%) and was produced by
melting pig iron mixed with scrap metal MAPEI: Your single-source provider
in a “cupola” furnace. Though easily cast,
it was brittle and not malleable. On the
from restoration to protection
other hand, wrought iron is almost pure System solutions for bridge restoration
iron with a very slight amount of carbon
(0.2% to 0.35%). It was manufactured
by melting pig iron in a puddling fur-
nace where many impurities from the pig Overhead Repair Solutions
iron were removed. The resulting product
was an iron alloy with a glass-like fibrous
slag that is malleable and has good tensile
properties and good corrosion resistance.
The distribution of the slag fibers resulted Column Repair Solutions

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in the longitudinal or rolling direction
(Figure 1). By the early 1900s, steel com-
pletely replaced cast iron and wrought
iron for structural framing. It is an alloy of
iron with a carbon content of less than 2%
(mild structural steel has a carbon content
more in the magnitude of 0.3% to 0.6%).
It has a crystalline grain structure on a
microscopic level, is ductile, and, unlike
wrought iron, is more susceptible to cor- Bridge Deck Solutions

rosion. However, the relatively low carbon

content and small amounts of other ele-
ments give it great strength and ductility.

Field and Laboratory MAPEI offers a full spectrum of products for concrete
Investigations restoration, below-grade waterproofing and structural
strengthening. Globally, MAPEI’s system solutions have been
Investigating old buildings is like reading utilized for bridges, highways, parking garages, stadiums,
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Interviews with building superintendents

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20-1246 Structure Mag_March_System Solutions.indd 1 F E B2/6/20
R U A12:20
R Y PM
2 021
 Chemical Sample 1
Carbon 0.230
Manganese 0.540
Silicon 0.010
Chromium 0.010
Molybdenum 0.010
Vanadium 0.010
Nickel 0.040
Copper 0.030
Boron 0.001
Carbon Equivalent 0.33
Pcm 0.27
Phosphorus 0.022
Sulfur 0.056

Figure 3. Existing beam from a 1920s building with a Figure 4. A typical beam to cast iron column detail. Figure 5. Sample from a laboratory
“Pencoyd” stamp from the Pencoyd Iron Works. Note beams bear on cast lugs. From Kidder/Parker analysis showing the results of a chemical
Architects’ and Builders’ Handbook. analysis of a steel beam from ca. 1910.

domain, provide original load tables, historical details, and guidance on iron and wrought iron (though weldable) are not reliable for welding
older systems’ methodologies. Knowledge of typical historical details purposes. It is generally recommended to strengthen and connect to
can help in a field survey as well. For example, cast-iron columns often those members by mechanical means. Another test, inherently qualita-
had integral cast seats or lugs for supporting timber, wrought iron, tive, is the inexpensive spark test. A specimen is brought into contact
or steel beams (Figure 4). Knowledge of this detail makes it easy to with a grinding wheel, and the resulting stream of sparks observed can
spot cast-iron columns. Drilling holes in the cast iron to ascertain confirm the presence of carbon (Figure 6). Pure iron (e.g., wrought
its thickness can allow for a capacity calculation from original load iron) results in smooth spurts of sparks, whereas the carbon in steel
tables and formulas based on the column’s height. produces forked sparks; the more significant the carbon content, the
Ultimately, laboratory testing of samples from the metal will provide more numerous the forks.
the most definitive proof of older metals’ metallurgy and weldability.
Some quick “sanity” checks are also useful for comparative and valida-
tion purposes. For example, if one knows the initial loading and size
Repairs, Alterations, and Renovations
of a beam and then back calculates the actual stresses, a low level of Historic metals are typically encountered when repairing, altering,
stress of say 8 to 10 kips per square inch (ksi) would indicate the metal and renovating historic buildings. A common repair scenario involves
is most likely wrought iron, rather than structural steel which would strengthening due to rusting or corrosion. Corrosion, an electrochemi-
most likely be 16 to 18 ksi. Additionally, if one found an I-beam of cal reaction (oxidation and reduction) that results in the expansion
unknown material but had, say, a 1-inch-thick flange for a 10-inch- of iron alloys, particularly steel, causes sectional loss of members.
deep beam, one could deduce that the beam is likely wrought iron The reaction requires water, and thus, unprotected or inadequately
since no 10-inch-deep steel beams had flanges that thick. protected metal is highly susceptible to corrosion.
Laboratory testing is the best method for definitively determining Strengthening techniques of existing metal structures can be accom-
the material, its weldability, and its yield strength. Specimens removed plished by shortening the span of the existing members, adding
from the field at innocuous locations, such as the flange at the end of new structural members, replacing the existing structural members,
a simply supported beam, can be sent to a metallurgist for laboratory post-tensioning (external prestressing) the existing members, and/or
testing. Ricker provides guidance on this and determines the equiva- enlarging the structural member’s section by welding new reinforcing
lent carbon content for steel weldability (Figure 5). Steel, with lower steel or by introducing composite action.
carbon, particularly after the 1920s, is generally very weldable. Cast In adaptive reuse of older structures, new performance requirements
often compel the addition of reinforcing material to increase load-
carrying capacity, to restore areas eroded by corrosion, to strengthen
fire-weakened members, or perhaps alter the appearance of a member
by changing its shape for aesthetic reasons.

In Conclusion
Identifying the material through visual inspections, confirming details
and original design methodology via consulting original texts and older
codes, and confirming yield strengths and weldability via
laboratory testing are the tools needed for successfully dealing
with historic metals.■

Ciro Cuono is the founding Principal of Cuono Engineering PLLC,

White Plains, NY, and is a past Assistant Adjunct Professor of structural
Figure 6. Diagram of sparks showing branching and forking. Part A shows wrought engineering at The Bernard and Anne Spitzer School of Architecture at the
iron, and Parts B through E shows various irons or steels. The presence of carbon is City College of NY. (ccuono@cuonoengineering.com)
relative to the branching or forking of the sparks. From Iron and Steel by Erik Oberg
Christopher Ribeiro is Project Manager at Cuono Engineering PLLC.
and Franklin Day Jones, 1918.

STRUCTURE magazine
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 building BLOCKS
Structural Connections for Hot-Dip Galvanizing
By Alana Fossa and Thomas J. Langill, Ph.D.

R eliable connections in structural steel

assemblies must accompany superior cor-
rosion protection. Hot-dip galvanized (HDG)
matched pair. This ensures that, when used in the
field, the bolt and nut combination can give the
proper structural connection without any galling
coatings produce maintenance-free corrosion of the bolt with its soft zinc coating on the threads.
protection for many years. The structural con- Exposure of the bolt and nut combination to
nections must provide equivalent corrosion environmental conditions hardens the outer zinc
protection as well as structural integrity to layer and improves the ability of the two parts to
ensure maintenance-free performance. A solid form a solid connection.
structural connection is ensured by provid-
ing corrosion protection for the bolt and nut
connection and providing clearance for the
Slip Critical Connections
HDG coating special treatment of the nut. A Although the hot-dip galvanized coating does not
critical factor in structural connections is the affect design strength considerations for bearing
slip factor for the faying surfaces. This article type connections, the design of slip critical con-
discusses recent changes made by AASHTO to nections is affected by the slip coefficient of the
Figure 1. Bolt and nut cross-section.
the design parameters for HDG faying surfaces hot-dip galvanized faying surfaces. Traditionally,
and the increased clearance holes for connections using bolts with industry standards denote newly hot-dip galvanized steel has a lower
a diameter above 1 inch. mean slip coefficient (μ = 0.30) than blast cleaned bare steel (μ = 0.50)
or bare steel painted with Class B coatings (μ = 0.50). As a result,
design freedom and cost can be affected when specifying hot-dip
HDG Fasteners galvanizing for corrosion protection. More bolts, holes, and joints
HDG fasteners are coated in accordance with ASTM A153/A153M, are required in the design of high-strength structural connections.
Specification for Zinc Coating (Hot-Dip) on Iron and Steel Hardware. Applying Class B zinc-rich paints (ZRP) over HDG faying surfaces
This specification ensures that the corrosion protection of the bolt, can significantly increase the slip coefficient and provide a greater
washer, and nut are in sync with the coating of the structural steel variety of coating options to the specifier/designer without affecting
that is to be connected. The hot-dip galvanizing process is an inter- long-term corrosion protection. Recent slip factor and tension creep
diffusional mixing of iron and zinc, forming a multilayer coating on testing performed by the American Galvanizers Association (AGA)
the steel hardware's surface. The iron and zinc diffusion creates inter- indicates higher slip coefficients (μ = 0.45 or μ = 0.50) can be achieved
metallic layers that form perpendicular to the steel surface and give by applying Class B zinc-rich paints to hot-dip galvanized faying
a uniform coating on all steel surfaces. When galvanizing structural surfaces which have been prepared with a chemical pre-treatment/
bolts, zinc metal builds up in the bolt's threads, making it difficult conversion coating. Based on these findings, the 8th edition of the
to thread a nut onto the bolt. The common practice for avoiding this AASHTO Load Resistance Factor (LRFD) Bridge Design Specification
issue is to spin the container of bolts in a centrifuge or spin-a-batch includes updated class definitions to include any blast-cleaned surfaces
system to reduce the excess zinc in the threads. coated with zinc-rich paints (Class D, μ = 0.45).
The bolt-to-nut connection has multiple layers of galvanized coat-
ing in the connection. The nut for a galvanized connection is coated Revised Surface Condition Classes
as a blank before the threads are produced in the nut to reduce the
potential for coating layers to interfere with the nut travel on the and Slip Coefficients
bolt threads. The concern with this practice is providing corrosion AASHTO’s Technical Committee for Structural Steel Design (T14)
protection for the threads inside the nut. recently passed changes to Section 6 (Steel Structures) of the LRFD
Figure 1 shows a nut and bolt combination with the nut threads document, and the revised language appears in the new 8th revision.
being uncoated and the bolt threads having a galvanized coating. The The revised language of Section 6 reflects the need within the industry
bolt threads provide corrosion protection to the nut threads. The use to re-define the available surface condition classes and associated values
of nuts that have been threaded after coating allows the nut threads for slip coefficients used to calculate the nominal slip resistance of a
to be standard tolerances, whereas, if the threads inside the nut were high-strength bolt in slip-critical connections. Class definitions within
coated, the threads would have to be produced to an oversized toler- Article C6.13.2.8 were updated to revise the class for hot-dip galvanized
ance. Another advantage of using the nuts with threads produced after faying surfaces, and include options for metalized faying surfaces and
coating is that threads are clear of extra coating. If the nut threads were blast-cleaned surfaces coated with zinc-rich paints (Table 1):
produced before coating, then the nuts' interior threads would be more Class A: Unpainted clean mill scale and blast-cleaned surfaces
difficult to clean of excess zinc coating. The cleanliness of the threads with Class A coatings. The value for a Class A surface condition is
is essential to the connection of the bolt and nut, giving the joint reduced from 0.33 to 0.30 to better align with the value provided
the proper tension when tightened. When using high strength bolts in the latest Research Council on Structural Connections’ (RCSC)
in structural connections, the bolt and the nut are typically sold as a specification corresponding to the median of available historical data.

STRUCTURE magazine
 Class B: Unpainted blast-cleaned surfaces to SSPC-SP 6 or better, Table 1. Slip coefficients by class.
blast-cleaned surfaces with Class B coatings, or unsealed (pure zinc Surface Ks (Slip
or 85/15 zinc/aluminum) thermal-sprayed coatings with a thickness Definition
Condition Coefficient)
less than or equal to 16 mils. Unsealed thermal-spray coatings were
not previously addressed by the specification, but are now included Class A • unpainted clean mill scale 0.30
within Class B based on recent research data. • blast-cleaned surfaces with Class A coatings
Class C: Hot-dip galvanized surfaces. Based on recent industry Class B • unpainted blast-cleaned surfaces to 0.50
research, the value for a Class C surface condition is reduced from 0.33 SSPC-SP 6 or better
to 0.30, and subsequent treatment (wire brushing) of the galvanized • blast-cleaned surfaces with Class B coatings
surface is no longer required. • unsealed (pure Zn or 85/15 Zn/Al) thermal-
Class D: Blast-cleaned surfaces with Class D coatings. Added to sprayed coatings with a thickness ≤ 16 mils
increase the options for zinc-rich coatings over any blast cleaned Class C • hot-dip galvanized surfaces (roughening by 0.30
surface (including HDG). wire brushing no longer required)
Eventually, specifications related to structural connections used in
other industries may be similarly revised. Slip critical testing on dif- Class D • blast-cleaned surfaces (including HDG) 0.45
ferent HDG surfaces indicates that wire brushing of the HDG faying painted with Class D coatings
surface is no longer required as the brushing can smooth the coating
and reduce the slip factor. hot-dip galvanizing or further reducing slip resistance by specify-
For the FHWA/bridge customer, the revisions allow a greater ing oversized holes that would allow sufficient clearance for the
variety of coating systems that can be used to design high strength bolt. As a result, design freedom and cost can be affected when
slip critical connections. Specifically, it will become easier and specifying hot-dip galvanizing for corrosion protection as more
more economical for the specifier to select hot-dip galvanizing and bolts, holes, and joints are required.
metalizing for corrosion protection. Although the slip coefficient Experience has shown clearance holes for slip-critical connections,
for hot-dip galvanized surfaces is reduced from 0.33 to 0.30 in which are ⅛-inch larger than the bolt diameter, are sufficient to accom-
this revision, it is anticipated that the new value will have minimal modate the zinc coating on the bolt and inside face of the hole without
impact on design. However, there is a potential for a small increase reaming. As a result, ANSI/AISC 360 Specification for Structural Steel
in the number of bolts used in connections with HDG fasteners. Buildings (2016) and AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
Regardless, customers will benefit from the removal of additional (8th Edition) include updated recommendations for clearance hole
labor previously required to roughen HDG faying surfaces. For sizing. A summary of the changes is presented in Table 2 (online).
the new Class D (μ = 0.45) surface condition, a slightly lower slip For a nominal bolt size, 1 inch or greater, these changes to nominal
coefficient value is provided than for Class B (μ = 0.50). However, hole size result in increased slip resistance, a simplified design, and
the value will not significantly impact the overall number of bolts reduced cost for hot-dip galvanized slip-critical connections.
required for most high-strength bolted connections. Therefore, Per the revised nominal hole dimensions, oversized holes are no
the addition of Class D simply provides a greater variety of coat- longer required for connections involving bolts sized 1 inch or
ing options to the specifier/designer, including the use of HDG greater. The standard hole is already sized ⅛ inch greater than the
surfaces with zinc-rich paints. bolt diameter. For connections where the specified bolt size is less
than 1 inch, the standard clearance hole size is only 1⁄16-inch larger
than the nominal bolt diameter. Therefore, the clearance holes
Class D Paint Materials must be oversized an additional 1⁄16 inch (i.e., ⅛ inch added to the
The combination of HDG coating and paints containing zinc sili- initial bolt diameter) to provide a clearance hole that will accom-
cate can increase the design slip factor and provide a decrease in the modate a galvanized bolt without the need of extra hole cleaning.
number of bolts required for a slip critical connection. Two specific
paint materials that have been tested for slip factor and creep proper-
ties when applied to HDG coatings are:
Conclusion
• HDG & Sherwin-Williams Zinc Clad II Plus with The application of zinc-rich paints over hot-dip galvanizing can
a slip factor μ = 0.45 significantly increase the slip coefficient of hot-dip galvanized slip
• HDG & PPG Dimetcote® 9/Sigmazinc™ 9 with a critical connections and provide a greater variety of coating options
slip factor μ = 0.50. to the specifier/designer while providing durable and long-term
The HDG surfaces were prepared for painting using a chemical corrosion protection. Available research and updates to industry
surface treatment (Picklex® 20), and both of the above paint systems specifications allow this method to be readily utilized for future
were brush-applied (no thinner used) and cured following cure sched- projects. Also, specifying updated standard clearance hole sizes can
ules provided within each paint manufacturer’s technical data sheet. be used to improve the slip resistance and cost of hot-dip galvanized
These paints can be applied at the galvanizing facility. slip critical connections utilizing certain bolt sizes.■

Clearance Hole Sizing References and Table 2 are included in the PDF
version of the article at STRUCTUREmag.org.
Because hot-dip galvanizing is a coating of corrosion-inhibiting,
highly abrasion-resistant zinc on bare steel, the original steel Alana Fossa is a Senior Corrosion Engineer of the American Galvanizers
becomes slightly thicker. When talking about tapped holes and Association. (afossa@galvanizeit.org)
fasteners, the increased thickness is an important design con- Thomas J. Langill is a Technical Director of the American Galvanizers
sideration. Previously, the thickness of hot-dip galvanizing left Association. (tlangill@galvanizeit.org)
the specifier choosing between reaming out through-holes after

FEB R U A R Y 2 021
S AV E O V E R T I M E F O R
OTHER PLANS.

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 structural CONNECTIONS
Modern Wood Fasteners
The Key to Mass Timber Construction
Part 2: Introduction to Glued-in Rods
By Alex Salenikovich, Eng, Ph.D., and David Moses, P.E., Ph.D.

T his is the second part of the series of articles on

modern wood fasteners. Part 1 (STRUCTURE,
August 2020) focussed on self-tapping screws (STS). Part
2 introduces the reader to glued-in rods (GIR) and the
components making up these joints. Part 3 will summarize
design guidelines for the GIR connections. Despite the
interest among designers of mass timber construction,
there is no official recognition in U.S. and Canadian design Figure 1. 85 m (280-foot) clear span frame in the Gremyachinsky mining and processing
plant. Note that the center wall is not a vertical support. Courtesy of TSNIISK Kucherenko.
codes for GIR connections. This article sheds light on the
state of the art of this emerging technology. We caution the reader that this an area of development without code
approvals in the U.S. and Canada – the content is provided as informational and not to be used for design.

As is the case for self-tapping screws, glued-in rod technology origi- the basic rules for designing GIR joints have been adopted in timber
nates from Europe. Studies started in German-speaking countries and design practice in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, Italy, and New
Scandinavia in the early 1970s, initially for repairing and reinforcing Zealand. Several proprietary systems have been approved in Europe
floor and roof structures. In the same period, pioneering research on for GIR joints. Attempts have been made to include the design rules
inclined glued-in rods started in the USSR under the leadership of S.B. for GIR joints in the international (CIB) and European (Eurocode 5)
Turkovsky at the Central Research Institute of Building Construction design codes, but no consensus has been reached yet.
(TsNIISK Kucherenko). In 1982, design rules for GIR connections The principles and applications of GIR joints are somewhat similar to
were adopted in the Soviet timber design code and had remained active those of self-tapping screws. Steel rods with profiled shanks (threaded or
in the Russian building regulation. Using the Russian methodology, ribbed) are embedded deeply into timber. The rods are preferably loaded
over a hundred projects of various sizes, with free spans up to 100 m axially to provide superior stiffness and strength for transferring forces
(over 300 feet), have been completed in Russia (Figure 1). and/or moments at joints or reinforce timber near supports and in zones
By the end of the 20th century, glued-in rods had been studied world- of high horizontal shear or tension perpendicular to the grain (Figure 2).
wide, including Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and Japan. To date, Depending on the design configuration, the load-bearing capacity of the
joints may be governed by the pull-
out resistance of the bondline or by
the resistance of the steel shank of the
fastener. Therefore, a higher capacity
may be achieved with fewer glued-in
rods than with screws. Using milder
steel rods of smaller diameters may
be desirable to achieve ductile per-
formance of the joints. With careful
choice of diameter and spacing of the
rods, highly efficient joints can be
designed with minimum loss of stiff-
ness and strength of the adjoining
members, even for loads of 400 kN
(90 kips), as illustrated in Figure 3.
Furthermore, the design resistance
of timber members can be signifi-
Figure 2. Applications of inclined glued-in rods. a) connections of built-up members, b) members in tension, cantly enhanced with transverse
c) lifting lug anchorage, d) rigid knee joint, e) ridge connection, f) column fixed base reinforcement. Dashed reinforcement against splitting and
lines are GIR’s. Recreated from TsNIISK Kucherenko. shear. These are desirable features

STRUCTURE magazine
for engineers and architects who want aesthetically
pleasing, versatile, 3-D structures with benefits for
long-span structures, high fire resistance, or protection
against corrosion.
While STS may not often need pre-drilling and can
be quickly and easily installed in-situ with minimum
precautions (avoiding over-driving and breaking the
screws), glued-in rods require carefully controlled
fabrication procedures, normally in a factory setting.
As opposed to the STS, where the fastener’s threads
are directly engaged in mechanical grip with wood, Figure 3. High-capacity GIR joint with 400 kN (90 kips) capacity using inclined GIR welded to steel
the bond between the glued-in rod and wood is cre- flange plates. Transverse GIR is for joint reinforcement. Courtesy of TSNIISK Kucherenko.
ated utilizing an adhesive that forms a composite
system (Figure 4). Consequently, each rod’s pull-out resistance greatly to “starving” bondlines where the adhesive is poured into a “bot-
depends on the quality and durability of the bond between the rod tomless” hole and does not surround the rod properly. Therefore,
and the adhesive, between the adhesive and the wood substrate, and, European approvals of GIR joints are only valid for the CLT made
obviously, on the adhesive itself. of edge-glued and ungrooved laminations. There are also special
Numerous studies have investigated various restrictions on positioning the rods within
adhesives, bondline thickness and length, rod CLT laminations and the penetration length
materials and diameters, wood grain orienta- that must be followed until more research data
tion, heat and moisture resistance, creep, etc. becomes available.
Phenol-Resorcinol-Formaldehyde (PRF) has
Rods
been found unsuitable for GIR applications
because of significant shrinkage and brittleness. Threaded rods of low and medium carbon steel
Adhesives that have been approved for GIR are with yield strengths between 250 and 380 MPa
two-component polyurethanes and epoxies. (36 ksi to 55 ksi), such as ASTM 1554 Grades
Epoxies provide stiffer bondlines, which may 36 and 55, are currently recommended. The
or may not be advantageous for the GIR joint lower strength allows designers to rely on rod
performance, given stiffness compatibility with yielding as the governing failure mode, which
Figure 4. Glued-in rod composite system.
the wood substrate. Considering that Young’s Courtesy of Raphaël Bouchard. provides more predictable resistance indepen-
modulus of wood is 20 to 30 times higher dent of load duration effects. Furthermore, in
along the grain than in transverse direction, the distribution of cases such as seismic design, where it is necessary to avoid brittle
stresses along the bondline and resistance and long-term performance failures, the performance of GIR joints should be limited by yield-
depend significantly on the angle of insertion of the rod and load- ing of the rods. To ensure that rod yielding governs the design,
ing direction. Design and fabrication of GIR connections require extra bonded length is provided for capacity protection because the
sound knowledge and understanding of materials involved in this maximum ultimate strength of the steel is higher and may control.
composite system to avoid dramatic mistakes. Basic guidelines are Overstrength factors between 1.2 and 2.1 have been proposed in
discussed below.

Design and Production

Guidelines
Materials

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Glued-in rods can be used with glulam,
LVL, CLT, and solid wood panels.
Applications in softwood glulam timber
are the most frequent today. Since
CLT panels have gained momentum
worldwide, efficient and reliable con-
nections are often sought, especially for
multi-story buildings. The fabrication
and performance of GIR joints in CLT
is an area of current study underway
at Laval University in Quebec City,
Quebec. If CLT is produced without
edge-gluing of laminations, which is
predominantly the case in the U.S.
and Canada, special measures to avoid
leakage of adhesive in the gaps between
laminations are needed. The leaks lead
FEB R U A R Y 2 021
 the literature. It is currently proposed that the
Adhesives
design capacity of the bondline should be at least
50% greater than the design capacity of the rods. In Europe, several manufacturers obtained their own
When the design resistance of the joint is governed National Technical Assessment (NTA) and European
by the rods, the design is essentially a steel con- Technical Assessment (ETA) reports on adhesives
nection familiar to most designers. Threaded rods for bonding steel rods into wood building materi-
are easily connected to other steel parts using nuts als using either two-component polyurethanes or
(Figure 5). Alternatively, ribbed reinforcing steel bars epoxies. Typically included in these reports are basic
(rebar) present a very economical option. In con- information on the adhesive properties, installation
struction joints, rebar can be welded to other steel instructions, and specific design parameters, such
parts (as shown in Figure 3), with certain precautions as characteristic pull-out strength as a function of
to avoid burning the wood. In welded joints, the the bondline thickness and length, recommended
portion of the bonded length within 3 diameters of minimum spacing, and limits of the bonded-in
the rod near the weld should be discounted because length of the rods. In all cases, the installation must
of overheating. be executed by specially trained authorized personnel
Rods with diameters from 8 mm (5⁄16 inch) to Figure 5. Concept of a glulam in a controlled environment.
30 mm (13⁄16 inch) have been tested in GIR con- portal frame connection using steel
Joint assembly
nections. The most practical range of diameters threaded glued-in rods with a steel
is between 12.5 mm (½ inch) and 20 mm (¾ connector weldment to allow bolted Because of the very high stiffness of GIR joints, there
inch). The bonded length considered in design with assembly onsite. Threaded rods is little redistribution of forces between the rods
softwood timber products is between 10 and 30 must be glued in factory conditions. until they start yielding. Therefore, nuts should be
times the nominal rod diameter. Smaller diameters Adapted by Raphaël Bouchard from tightened uniformly using a torque-limiting wrench
and shorter rods are impractical and can be easily Buchanan and Fairweather (1993). to close any initial gaps in the joints during the
replaced by screws. Longer rods may be used when installation and induce equal tensile forces in the
necessary to avoid stress concentrations, but length does not nec- rods. A study conducted by R. Bouchard at Laval University showed
essarily increase the joint’s resistance in softwood timber products that a torque of 75 N.m (55 lb.ft) is sufficient to achieve the desired
(Figure 6 ). More work is required to develop design methods to effect. Overtightening (snug-tight installation) may be harmful to
account for the broad range of bonded lengths. Note also that drill- the joint performance because overtightening may cause excessive
ing deep and large holes requires dedicated equipment that most prestressing of the bond line. Prestressing is not recommended for
producers do not possess. low carbon steel.
Hole Diameters Quality Control (Q.C.)
Some earlier studies focused on holes with smaller diameters, Thorough quality control is a key in the GIR technology, especially
sometimes smaller than the nominal diameter of the thread, aiming when the structure’s integrity relies upon high-capacity rigid joints.
at mechanical locking of the threads with wood and economical As in any gluing process, the components’ surface preparation is of
use of adhesive. It has been established that the thickness of the primary importance: the rods and holes in timber must be clean and
bondline does not significantly affect the joint’s performance. dry, free of rust, grease, and dust. It is essential to avoid overheating
However, the oversize of the hole does affect the ease and accuracy the wood when drilling the holes.
of installation and the amount of adhesive used. Currently, recom- The timing of the gluing operations and the ambient and surface tem-
mended hole diameters are between 2 mm (1⁄16 inch) and 6 mm perature must be within limits imposed by the adhesive supplier. Any
(¼ inch) larger than the rod diameter. Holes of smaller diameters deviation from the prescribed procedures may compromise the bond’s
are not recommended. quality and put the finished structure at risk of catastrophic failure.
Since the glued joints are hidden inside the
wood, visual inspection is difficult. Unless
elaborate (and expensive) NDT techniques
are employed, the bond’s true quality remains
uncertain. At a minimum, the quality of
the cured adhesive should be tested
for every batch during fabrication
according to a Q.C. plan.■

References are included in the

PDF version of the article at
STRUCTUREmag.org.

Alex Salenikovich is a Professor of Timber

Engineering at Laval University in Quebec.
(alexander.salenikovich@sbf.ulaval.ca)
David Moses is a Structural Engineer and
owner of Moses Structural Engineers Inc.
(dmoses@mosesstructures.com)
Figure 6. The approximate behavior of GIR showing axial yielding of rods with sufficient bonded length.

STRUCTURE magazine
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 C an a building’s structure enhance the human interactions that
occur within and communicate its raison d'être to those out-
side its walls? These are the ideas that shaped the design of Building
201 at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
(APL) in Laurel, Maryland, the nation’s largest University Affiliated
Research Center. The result is an innovative structure that promotes
collaboration and embraces the sense of the unknown inherent to
revolutionary scientific research.

A Revolutionary Workplace
for Scientific Discovery
Building 201 serves as the flagship facility for the Research and
Exploratory Development Department (REDD) at APL, a mul-
tidisciplinary group of researchers whose work in hard science,
engineering, and advanced fabrication drives groundbreaking dis-
coveries at the Laboratory. Innovation at REDD is powered by teams
of scientists and engineers drawn from across a broad spectrum of
disciplines. Consequently, promoting collaboration and physical
connection throughout the 263,000-square-foot building was the
primary design objective. Because REDD is mission-focused, its
needs for specialized laboratories, manufacturing facilities, and
offices are continually evolving. In response to these challenges,
CannonDesign and APL created a building that promotes collabora-
tion, provides for maximum future flexibility, and reflects the critical
research that occurs within.

Supporting the Mission

The structural design of Building 201 supports the core functions of
Steel framing provides the structure for the ornamental stairs scientific discovery, which depends on partnership, cross-disciplinary
and bridges that span across the skylit central atrium. collaboration, and efficiency. Research and fabrication facilities
occupy an L-shaped wing along the south and west sides of the

STRUCTURE AS A STATEMENT
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Building 201 By John Roach, P.E.

building, while offices, dry labs, and conference rooms are housed in
separate wings along the north and east. At the center of the complex
is a five-story atrium, which connects each of these intertwined zones.
To accommodate constantly evolving research needs, laboratory
and office spaces are based on the Universal Grid, a structural con-
figuration consisting of 31.5-foot square bays that can be subdivided
into 10.5-foot planning modules for nearly unlimited flexibility.
With a floor-to-floor height of 15 feet, a two-way concrete flat slab
was selected for the structural system of both the laboratory and
office wings, which maximized the available overhead space for
the intense concentration of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing
systems serving the area.
APL required that each floor’s long-term live load deflection not
exceed L/480 and established stringent Vibration Criteria (VC) for
all lab spaces. To meet these requirements, CannonDesign structural
engineers used RAM Concept to design a 14-inch-thick reinforced
concrete slab in both the laboratory and office wings, which allows
The “flying” fourth floor, supported by concrete-filled HSS columns and
the latter to be quickly converted into research space as future needs
cantilevered plate girders, is perched 45 feet above the entrance plaza. dictate. Vibration consultant Colin Gordon Associates (CGA) used
proprietary finite element modeling software to validate the design

STRUCTURE magazine
for both VC-A and VC-B performance, which correspond to accelera-
tion limits of 2000 μ-in/s and 1000 μ-in/s, respectively.
At the east wing, multi-bay conference rooms, closely spaced stair
and mechanical shafts, and a two-story auditorium made reinforced
concrete construction impractical. Instead, a steel frame structure is
used throughout this five-story section of the building, separated from
the concrete portion by an expansion joint to accommodate differential
movement. Three, five-foot-deep steel transfer girders, each weigh-
ing 20,000 pounds, span 60 feet across the auditorium. The design
approach of varying the structural system according to programmatic
requirements helped reduce costs and maximize constructability.

Bridging the Divide

The heart of Building 201 is a five-story skylit atrium that links each part
of the complex and emphasizes the role of structure in making unique Concrete and steel are interwoven throughout Building 201 to maximize each
connections between spaces and people. On each floor along the south material’s structural efficiency.
side of the atrium, the two-way slab cantilevers 10 feet into the open
volume, providing a path for circulation and a “gallery corridor” that to minimize the impact of differential deflections between floors and
offers views into the laboratory spaces. Seven bridges span the width across the width of each bridge. The stair and footbridge provisions of
of the atrium from the gallery corridor to the north wing to promote the American Institute of Steel Construction’s (AISC) Design Guide 11,
cross-disciplinary collaboration and encourage informal encounters. Vibrations of Steel Framed Structures Due to Human Activity, provided
Several structural challenges added complexity to the bridge design. initial vibration design criteria, which was further refined by finite element
First, each bridge is skewed relative to the Universal Grid structure, analysis. Heavy W14 girders with a composite slab were used to satisfy
resulting in spans that exceed 40 feet. Additionally, five ornamental these requirements while holding the structural depth to only 22 inches.
stairs that connect the bridges to one another are oriented at severe
angles, which adds complexity to their support conditions. Finally, the
south end of each bridge begins at the tip of the cantilevered gallery
Telling a Story Through Structure
corridor, while the north supports occur at a building expansion joint. Alluding to the transparency and objectivity that drives the process
CannonDesign evaluated several alternatives for the bridge construc- of scientific discovery, architecturally exposed structural steel and
tion, including cast-in-place concrete, prestressed concrete, and steel concrete are prominently featured throughout the building. At the
atrium, these materials are intertwined

pUrpOSe
with one another in the same way that
individuals and building functions
blend together in the same space. At

OF
the perimeter, five-story monolithic
shear walls with a board-formed finish
visually anchor this vast open space.
Self-consolidating concrete (SCC) was
used in each wall to preserve the grain
and texture of the wood formwork.
framing. The limitations of cast-in-place concrete became evident early The defining feature of Building 201 is the “flying” fourth floor at
in the process due to the span-to-depth ratio that would have been the north wing. Here, the lower three floors of the structure end at
required to limit deflection. Furthermore, site-cast concrete would an outdoor courtyard while the fourth level transitions from con-
have required the construction of multistory formwork and scaffold- crete to steel framing and continues another 150 feet. This upper
ing, which was both impractical and detrimental to the construction floor is supported by seven, asymmetrically arranged, three-story
schedule. The alternative of using site-cast prestressed concrete slabs columns that serve as a physical metaphor for the core mission of
would eliminate the challenges posed by deflection and formwork, the REDD team at APL: bringing together diverse teams for one
but craning the 80,000-pound slabs into the center of the building common purpose.
was determined to be impractical. This left steel framing as the most While the building’s interior embodies transparency through
viable alternative. structural expression, the flying fourth floor serves as a counter-
The cantilevered slab of the gallery corridor is interrupted by each point by instead emphasizing mystery. When viewed from below,
bridge structure so that each span begins at the first interior line of the structure seems to float in space. The steel columns, which
columns. Each bridge girder bears in a shear wall pocket or on a appear impossibly slender, are composite HSS sections filled with
W12x72 beam encased in concrete, rather than a structural concrete reinforced, 10,000 psi SCC to maintain a less than 50% demand-
beam, to simplify the connections at this end and minimize structural capacity ratio. The underside of the flying fourth floor features a
depth. At the north expansion joint, each bridge girder bears on a mirror-like stainless steel surface. To someone looking up from the
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) pad supported by a concrete corbel. ground, the reflected columns appear to extend infinitely through
The design team used both RAM Structural System and RISA 3D to the building itself.
analyze the steel bridge and stair structures. Due to the complex con- Seven five-foot-deep steel plate girders span between the columns,
figuration of the stairs and bridges and the location of the expansion concealed behind the mirrored surface. Weighing nearly 50,000
joint, careful consideration of construction sequencing was necessary pounds, the girders cantilever up to 27 feet to the west and 15
FEB R U A R Y 2 021
 feet to the north and south,
enhancing the perception that
Building for the Future
the fourth floor is floating in APL Building 201 is a landmark facility that will accelerate discoveries
space above the courtyard. by promoting collaboration within the scientific workplace. Therefore,
Their concealment, together it is fitting that close collaboration between its architects, engineers,
with the mirrored surface and APL leadership drove this revolutionary design. Critical to this
above the columns, creates a process and the successful completion of Building 201 is an appre-
skewed perspective of reality ciation that structure can shape human interaction and tell the story
that alludes to REDD’s ethos: of a building and its purpose in subtle but important ways. In this
to see what everyone has seen way, Building 201 will provide APL with one more tool as it
and to think what no one carries out its mission to solve the most complex technical,
has thought. engineering, and scientific challenges facing the nation.■
To capture the compound
deflections of the multidirec-
tional cantilever framing, the John Roach is a Structural Engineer with the Buffalo office of CannonDesign.
design team used RISA 3D to (jroach@cannondesign.com)
model and analyze the floor
Highly textured, board-formed concrete structure. Because this portion
shear walls are prominently featured of the structure lacks its own Project Team
throughout the completed structure. lateral force-resisting system,
Owner: Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
both the steel framing and the
Structural Engineer: CannonDesign, Buffalo, NY
composite slab diaphragm are designed to independently transfer
Architect: CannonDesign Arlington, VA, and Chicago, IL
wind and seismic loads into the north wing shear walls. Steel fram-
Lab Planning: CannonDesign Arlington, VA, and Boston, MA
ing at the roof level is augmented by in-plane bracing, and spandrel
MEP/FP Engineer: CannonDesign St. Louis, MO, and Buffalo, NY
beams serve as chord elements. These beams are encased within the
Vibration and Acoustical Consultant: Colin Gordon Associates,
SCC shear walls to provide load transfer, with headed studs welded
Brisbane, CA
to the steel engaging the vertical wall reinforcing.

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STRUCTURE magazine
 historic STRUCTURES
Tariffville Bridge Disaster
By Frank Griggs, Jr., Dist. M.ASCE, D.Eng., P.E., P.L.S.

T he Connecticut Western Railroad was chartered on June 25, 1868, to run from
Hartford, Connecticut to the New York State line at Salisbury, where it was
planned to connect with the Dutchess & Columbia Railroad in New York State near
Millerton, NY. It would then connect to the New York & Harlem Extension railroad
running northerly out of New York City towards Albany, NY. It was completed on
December 21, 1871, with many of its bridges being wood and iron Howe Trusses,
even though many railroads had adopted iron bridges by this date. Tariffville was
a small town west of Hartford and located in a bend in the Farmington River that
generally flowed eastward into the Connecticut River. Tariffville Bridge disaster.

The Railroad Commissioners described the bridge as: behind it, and the baggage car still further back in the river. The three
“The structure was a through bridge of two similar spans, of the ordinary passenger cars on the east span were also forced into the opening by the
Howe truss pattern, each span 163 feet in length between extreme panel momentum of the train behind them, the first one being turned to a
points, and some ten feet above the water of the river… The bridge, position nearly at right angles with the bridge, and the second and third
built in 1870… uncovered and unpainted. Its diagonal braces, top and left with their forward ends in the river and their rear platforms against
bottom chords, were of yellow pine, and vertical suspension rods of the center pier. The remaining six cars of the train were uninjured.”
wrought iron. Each span consisted of 16 panels of 10 feet 2 inches each, The Hartford Courant described the collapse more emotionally
or in all a few inches less than 163 feet. Height between chords, 20 feet. as follows,
Upper chord composed of two pieces 6 x 11 inches, and two pieces 7 x “The first locomotive had cleared the west span, and entered upon
11 inches, lower chord two pieces 6 x 14 inches, and two pieces 7 x 14 the trestlework, when the entire span gave way, breaking off imme-
inches. Main braces, two to each panel, 9 x11 inches; counter braces, one diately east of the heavy stone pier in the center of the river. As the
to each panel, 7 x 8 inches. Floor beams, 6 x 12 inches, 14 feet in the structure gave way, the first locomotive was hurled violently over, and
clear between chords. One track stringer 10 x 11 inches under each rail.” embedding itself in the ground was completely wrecked. The other
The Commissioner’s description went on to detail the sizes and engine and the baggage car went down with the wreck in an upright
locations of the suspension rods. Sizes ranged from 1¼ inches to 17⁄8 position, and the side of the heavy truss fell over upon them. The
inches. None of the rods had enlarged or upset ends, but the cutting first passenger car was whirled around and sank to the bottom of the
of threads in the rods reduced diameters by ¼ inch or more. river, lying nearly in a parallel direction with the stream. The second
On January 14, 1878, about seven passenger car went down end foremost
years after the bridge opened, a train upon the first car, smashing the larger
consisting of two locomotives and eight portion of it into kindling wood, the
passenger cars running westerly from It is clear that different people rear end of the car resting upon the
Hartford and ½ mile west of Tariffville placed the blame for the collapse bridge. The next car occupied a similar
Station started to cross the bridge at a position but swerved more to the left
speed estimated at six to eight miles per
on the railroad company, the and therefore did not rest upon the car
hour. The locomotives and cars passed bridge designers and builders, the in front of it.
over the easterly span safely, and the maintenance and inspection corps, None of the remaining coaches left the
forward engine just reached the western track. The crash produced by the fall,
abutment, “when suddenly a snapping a derailment, and more. and the cries of the wounded and dying,
was heard and a sense of sinking experi- speedily brought assistance, but the first-
enced by those in charge of the engines comers worked at a great disadvantage.
and baggage cars and by the occupants of the forward passenger cars. The cars had broken through the ice, which rendered it difficult to
Then a fearful crash and fall of the bridge carrying with it engine approach near enough to reach the passengers. But all worked with a will.”
tender, baggage, and three passenger cars causing the death of thirteen As was usual in these cases, a Coroner’s Jury was convened and they
persons and wounding and injuring many others.” visited the site between January 22nd and February 12th. “A large
The Annual Report of the Railroad Commissioners of Connecticut number of witnesses were examined, not only of persons on the
described the crash as, “Both the trusses of the west span, with the two train, or who were connected with the railroad but also of experts
locomotives and baggage car thereon, immediately fell together towards and scientific men, bridge-builders, civil and mechanical engineers,
the south, the forward locomotive being overturned and leaving its ash- from various parts of the country in this and adjoining states.” They, 8
pan on the abutment, the second locomotive landing on the ground just out of 12 jurors, concluded the following, as taken from their report.

STRUCTURE magazine
 1) We are of the opinion that no blame or censure can be justly “The principal lesson, therefore, taught by the Tariffville disaster is
charged upon the conductor of the fated train, or any of those asso- the necessity of larger suspension rods than those heretofore used in
ciated with and aiding him in running it, but on the contrary have most of the wooden railroad bridges of the State. If, in that bridge, the
before us the most abundant evidence of the constant carefulness and broken rods had been one-quarter inch larger in diameter with upset
watchful solicitude of Conductor Elmo, Superintendent Jones, and ends, their area and efficiency would have been nearly doubled, their
their subordinates on the eventful night. liability to breakage correspondingly diminished, and their strength
2) We have not the least evidence to lend us to believe that the bridge nearer the standard recommended by the best engineers. They were,
had been tampered with for the purpose of wrecking the train, or for however, fully equal in size and strength to the general average of rods
any other purpose. used on other similar bridges in the State. At the time of the accident,
3) We have not sufficient evidence to lead us to believe that there was this Board was not empowered by law to order any changes of con-
any derailment, either of engines or cars, but, on the contrary, all were struction to increase the safety of bridges or other railroad structures,
moving along smoothly when a sudden crash of the bridge was heard but simply “to recommend from time to time the adoption of such
and felt, with a simultaneous sense of sinking. measures and regulations as they may deem conducive to the public
4) We are of the opinion that placing an additional engine on the safety and interest.”
track in advance of the train, or the uniting and running two engines Mansfield Merriman, a well-known professor of civil engineering at
together, when deemed necessary, is not at all censurable, but that, in Yale and Lehigh, concluded in a letter to the Courant,
the language of a witness of large experience and intelligence, ‘Any “In short, the designers of this bridge violated mathematical calculation
bridge that would not carry two locomotives ought not to carry one.’ and engineering precedent; to save the money which a few pounds of
5) We are of the opinion that if the materials of the bridge at the time iron would have cost, human lives were daily put in danger. Wooden
of its construction were of suitable quality, quantity, and proportion to bridges are usually covered to protect them from the action of the rain,
fulfill all of its requirements, they had at the time of the disaster become ice, and snow; but this was left exposed for six years until the upper
deteriorated; that the iron suspension rods, from being overstrained or chord became rotten enough to give way under a fraction of the strain
from some other cause, had lost their tension and sustaining power; which it was intended to support, and no steps were taken to repair it.
that the timber of the chords from many years exposure to the action Not even the iron rods were painted. To save the money which repairs
of the elements without covering or paint, had become weakened by would have cost, the lives of passengers were daily risked. It was not
decay to such an extent as to render the bridge unsafe and unfit for properly inspected by a commission which has examined it every year
the purpose for which it was constructed; and that the disaster was since its erection on behalf of the State. An efficient inspection would
occasioned by the heavy train passing over a bridge thus rendered have discovered the defective tie-rods six years ago; an effective inspec-
dangerously weak and defective. tion would not have allowed it to remain exposed to the action of the
6) We, therefore, find that the responsibility of this sad disaster largely weather for six successive years; an intelligent inspection would have
rests upon the directors of the Connecticut Western Railroad Company detected and repaired the rotten timbers. For the lack of such inspection,
and that they are deserving of censure for allowing the use of a bridge for human lives were lost. The immediate responsibility for the accident
railroad purposes after its materials had become defective to the point must fall upon the officers of the railroad company, not for running
of danger, and for permitting so many years to pass without covering, two locomotives over the bridge, but for building such a structure and
strengthening, and preparing the same in such a manner as not to jeop- neglecting to keep it in repair. But the State of Connecticut is also
ardize human life. responsible for sanctioning, as it has done annually by its railroad com-
“In conclusion…it is time to take a new departure; that in their missioners, the use of such an ill-proportioned and unsound bridge.”
construction the eternal principles of nature’s laws should not be It is clear that different people placed the blame for the collapse on the
violated; and that in their management all from the highest official to railroad company, the bridge designers and builders, the maintenance
the lowest operative, should at times be held to a strict accountability. and inspection corps, a derailment, and more. The New York Times
Upon the directors especially rests a weight of responsibility which in its August 17, 1878 issue wrote, under a headline – A BRIDGE
they cannot shake off; they have assumed duties which they cannot DISASTER EXPLAINED, “At the time of the inquest it was held that,
shirk. These duties are not fully discharged by attending only to the if the car was off the track, the engineers and passengers would have
financial affairs of the company. …To them is committed the most noticed it, but with the experience of Satan’s Kingdom [a local name for
sacred of all trusts – the freight of human life! For its safe transporta- the area] it is now firmly believed that the car derailed on the Tariffville
tion, they should be held accountable; and this disaster should remind wooden bridge and the wheels striking the weak timbers let the span
them that eternal vigilance is the price of safety.” down. This exploded the theory that the bridge had been tampered
The other four non-majority jurors concluded, with, which was prevalent at the time of the accident.”
“In our opinion, from the evidence, the bridge at the time of the disaster Despite this failure, the Howe Truss was still used on many railroads
was in a safe condition for the passage of trains, whether consisting of one and roadways around the country well into the 20th century. Like the
or more engines. And we further believe that the same was constructed iron bridge builders, the builders of most of the Howe Trusses adopted
upon thorough scientific principles, and we do not believe that it had the upsetting of threaded tension bars such that the cross-sectional
become deteriorated by exposure to the elements sufficient to weaken the area of the bars at the root of the threads was equal to or greater than
same to a point of danger. We also believe by the numerous tests of the the cross-section of the main bar.
iron that it is of good quality and that the same had not been overstrained The Western Connecticut Railroad went bankrupt in 1880 after it
sufficiently to cause any weakening or danger therefrom. We have had settled with families of the 13 victims for an amount vary-
sufficient evidence to believe that there was a derailment of some por- ing from $200-$600 per person. The lesson learned is the
tion of the train, and if so, by falling upon the timbers of the bridge, or importance of inspection of wooden bridges.■
coming in contact with the side of the same, would in either case, in our
Dr. Frank Griggs, Jr. specializes in the restoration of historic bridges, having
opinion, cause a severe shock, sufficient to cause the structure to fall.”
restored many 19 t h Century cast and wrought iron bridges. He is now an
The Railroad Commissioners concluded, after writing a lengthy
Independent Consulting Engineer. (fgriggsjr@twc.com)
report on the bridge and its failure,

FEBRUARY 2021
 education ISSUES
Bringing Real-World Experience into the Classroom
By Mark Kanonik, P.E., F.ASCE

In 2019, the American Society of Civil

Engineers (ASCE) published the Civil
Engineering Body of Knowledge (CEBOK, 3rd
see how the abstract concepts learned in the
classroom can be applied to actual projects with
all of their unexpected complications. Often,
practice. What better opportunity to engage
an adjunct who can demonstrate what actual
professional practice entails?

“
ed.), which “defines the set of knowledge, it is the adjunct who is most apt to bring that Structural engineers spend much of their
skills, and attitudes necessary for entry into project experience into the classroom. Many time producing construction documents, yet
the practice of civil engineering at the pro- little if any coursework is devoted to this.
fessional level.” ASCE acknowledges that This seems counter-intuitive since construc-
the “fulfillment of the CEBOK must include tion documents are part of a legally binding
both formal education and mentored experi- agreement with significant potential risks.
ence.” Indeed, the CEBOK lists 21 desired Rarely do buildings collapse because of a gross
outcomes, although 14 cannot be achieved It has been said that a error, but many construction projects have
without mentored experience after or separate become legal battlegrounds over inadequate
from formal classroom experience. In 2019, picture is worth a thousand drawings and specifications. Yet adjuncts,
ASCE also hosted the Education Summit: words, but a visit to a with their years of experience, know full well
Mapping the Future of Civil Engineering the importance of proper construction docu-
Education. In the proceedings published construction site is worth ments and can explain the subtle nuances that
in August 2020, the Summit listed four make a successful set of documents. Since
objectives of future engineering education;
a thousand pictures in a calculations are not usually included with
Objective 2 is to “Elevate professional skills PowerPoint presentation. the construction documents, students must
to a truly equal footing with technical skills.” understand how abstract calculations become
Employers expect graduates to correctly per- a physical building based on construction
form the calculations necessary to design beams adjuncts have years of meaningful experience, documents that they will ultimately develop.
and columns, and footings. Still, many employ- and they view teaching as one way to “give Adjuncts are also likely to have close contacts
ers feel that recent graduates lack the ability back” to the profession. They bring the experi- within the industry outside of the classroom.
to apply these calculations to real-world prob- ence that students want but that many faculty Students spend considerable time calculating
lems where the general solution is not obvious. cannot provide. Adjuncts cannot and should the potential failure mechanisms of a bolted
Today’s economic reality is that employers expect not replace full-time faculty, but adjuncts can connection. However, nothing explains the
recent graduates to be immediately billable and and do complement full-time faculty by bridg- actual working of that connection like going
productive workers who can effectively apply the ing the gap between academics and experience. to a steel fabrication shop and seeing it in
theoretical knowledge gained in the classroom Most structural engineering classwork is very person. Learning the difference between
to the projects on their desks. matter-of-fact. Often homework problems are mortar and grout is much easier when the
The author recently conducted an unscientific structured to guide students to a particular students build a masonry wall with a trowel in
review of 96 open faculty positions posted on answer, such as the lightest-weight beam to hand. It has been said that a picture is worth
the ASCE website and noted that only two support a given load. But structural engineers a thousand words, but a visit to a construc-
required licensure for appointment. However, design buildings (and other complex structures, tion site is worth a thousand pictures in a
eight stated that licensure was “preferred.” too), which are more than just a collection of PowerPoint presentation.
Another recent and unscientific review of the individual elements. And there is rarely, if Certainly, a thorough understanding of the
first 10 civil engineering programs in New York ever, one and only one correct answer to any subject matter is necessary to teach at the college
State listed by Google showed that only 10 of real-world engineering problem. Computer level, but one does not need to be a world-
212 faculty are licensed, as reported on their programs are incredibly sophisticated, allowing renowned expert to be an effective adjunct.
respective college’s website. It is disappointing structural engineers to design buildings that The primary requirement for being an adjunct
that more faculty are known by the author to could not have been conceived a generation ear- is simply a willingness to teach. There is an
be licensed even though their respective college lier. But these same computer programs cannot investment in time and energy, particularly the
websites do not acknowledge this. Why does conceptualize. They cannot locate the columns first year, but the benefits far outweigh the costs.
the “engineering education system” place such in a building, and they cannot determine if the The author’s sincere wish is that many readers
little value in the licensure of its faculty when building should be framed in steel or concrete or become actively involved in educating the next
students are so strongly encouraged to become some other material. Such conceptual thinking generation of structural engineers. No
licensed after graduation? is typically gained through years of experience. less than the future of the profession
The author acknowledges that requiring all Still, conceptual thinking can also be taught, of structural engineering is at stake.■
faculty to be licensed or even to have experi- most effectively by an adjunct who interacts
Mark Kanonik is the National Technical Director
ence outside of academia is unrealistic. Perhaps with the architects who design buildings and
of Structural Engineering at EYP Architecture &
a reasonable middle-ground is to employ the contractors who build them. Nearly all civil
Engineering, PC, in Albany, NY. He is also an
adjuncts in the classroom. Most students study engineering programs culminate in a design-
Adjunct Faculty at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
structural engineering because they want to intensive capstone project, in which the students
in Troy, NY. (mkanonik@eypae.com)
improve the built environment. They long to work on projects meant to simulate professional

STRUCTURE magazine F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21
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 BUSINESS practices
How to Recession-Proof Your Engineering Career
By Stephanie Slocum, P.E., in collaboration with SEI’s Business Practices Committee

T here is a skillset that makes your engi-

neering career “recession-resistant.” That
skillset is basic business development and
engineers. There is also a perception that
employers can always find someone with
technical expertise when work picks up again.
Learning these skills takes time. But what if
you are an engineer who knows they cannot
afford to wait to start honing their business
has proven value to ALL structural engineer- Although technology has dramatically development skills?
ing firms. Yet, many engineers actively avoid increased the speed of some design aspects, “Get involved with local structural engi-
learning it for a variety of reasons. it cannot rekindle a broken client relation- neering associations and allied groups such
This article explores why engineers with ship or nurture a new client relationship. As as civil engineers, builders, contractors, and
this skillset have an advantage, why learning a result, engineers with business development architects. Network with industry people,
these skills is of increased urgency in uncer- skills have a significant advantage over those develop contacts, and nurture those relation-
tain economic times, and how engineers can only comfortable sitting behind a computer ships to last lifetime.” – Arpan B. Tailor, M.S.,

“
improve their skills. during periods of economic uncertainly. P.E., S.E., Arun, Inc.
Engineers with business-development Do not wait to take action on business
skills have more options and job security development. In times of economic uncer-
than those that do not. The AEC industry In times of economic tainties, a focus on business development
– and by extension structural engineering – is uncertainties, a focus on and client relationships keeps the doors of
known for being cyclical. Engineers with tech- engineering firms open. Many engineers have
nical expertise are in high demand in boom business development worked at multiple firms or have clients with
times. In economic downturns, Management and client relationships whom they have lost touch. Now is the time
makes tough choices to reduce staff to match to be transparent about the relationships you
projected reduced workloads. Engineers iden- keeps the doors of have developed and rekindle them if needed.
tified as having a long-term benefit to the firm engineering firms open. A quick email to a client you have not
have a leg-up when making these decisions. spoken to recently, with a focus on service
As someone who recently turned 40, the first, is a great start.
author has experienced a completed cycle Structural engineering leaders share how As an individual engineer, you can reach out
three times to date, beginning with the 1999 important this skillset is: to those clients and demonstrate that you care
dot-com bust. Recently, the COVID-19 pan- “Engineers with great communication skills, about them as a person or share something
demic has created new economic uncertainty. a sense of the importance of teamwork, valuable, like a link to a newly advertised
When the 2008 recession began, project man- and good personal relationship skills are project of interest. You can also talk to your
agers with direct client relationships were asked extremely important. These employees make employer about how best to leverage existing
to help bring in new business and take over busi- every interaction with clients – day in, day relationships.
ness development responsibilities, while pure out – a business development opportunity. If you are an employer, do not rely on your
business development staff was dismissed. This Engineering is a service business, and the best monthly client newsletter or business develop-
concept is not new and is often referred to as the way to create repeat clients is to exceed their ment staff to keep these relationships strong.
“Seller-Doer” model. The Society for Marketing expectations on the level of service.” – Mary Empower the engineers who work directly
and Professional Services (SMPS) defines the Kay Knight, P.E., Principal, Uzun+Case LLC with your clients on a daily basis to set aside
seller-doer model as: “…technical staff who “We try hard to encourage all of our team time each week to focus on nurturing those
are also responsible for billable hours, and, to members to understand and to embrace the relationships beyond the transactional. Not
some degree, for securing contracts or projects fact that every interaction is a sales call. The sure where to start? Ask them to send a per-
for their firms, either through repeat clients or best client is a repeat client. That makes your sonalized (preferably handwritten) note of
fostering relationships with new clients.” best business developers the project manag- gratitude to a client. Stress is currently high
This model is prevalent throughout the ers in charge of making projects successful. for everyone. A simple, thoughtful act helps
industry, largely because clients are demand- This means the ability to develop a genuine your firm stand out when the number of avail-
ing it. It is estimated that 84% of engineering, business relationship, to be seen as a trusted able new projects dwindles.
70% of architecture, and 66% of construction advisor, and partner.” – Scott Rosemann, P.E., This article is the author’s opinion and is a collab-
firms use this model. There is a proven finan- COO, and Structural Engineering Director, oration of the SEI Business Practices Committee,
cial benefit; firms using this model are more Rosemann & Associates, P.C. of which the author is the Chair. If you would like
likely to be high-performing, averaging at least It is never too early or late to learn busi- to learn more about this topic, please
14% greater operating profits on net revenue ness development skills. Primary functions see this FREE video presentation at
than other AEC firms (41 st Annual Deltek of seller-doers include participating in client https://youtu.be/gZHLx3Zoy84.■
Clarity Architecture & Engineering Industry meetings and presentations, writing propos-
Study, Data collected 1.21.20-3.23.20). als, and participating in organizations that Stephanie Slocum is the Founder of Engineers
History shows us that the seller-doer’s role provide opportunities for client interaction. Rising LLC. She presently chairs the SEI Business
increases during uncertain economic times Seller-doers may also author articles for client Practices Committee and serves on the SEI Board
and that candidates with these skill sets are publications, attend networking events, or of Governors. (stephanie@engineersrising.com)
more difficult to find than strictly technical provide content for their firms’ websites.

STRUCTURE magazine F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21
 “An NCEES Record makes it
fast, easy, and convenient to
apply for additional P.E.
licenses in other states.”

Alexander Zuendt, P.E.

Zuendt Engineering
Record holder since 2011

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ncees.org/records
 NCSEANCSEA News
NCSEA Corporate Members
National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
ASSOCIATE MEMBERS
Nationally recognized bodies that are associated with the practice of structural engineering, or companies who provide supplies or services to
structural engineers.
AECDaily Corporation Graitec Peikko
AISC GRM Custom Products Pieresearch
American Wood Council Headed Reinforcement Corporation Post-Tensioning Institute
Atlas Tube Hilti, Inc. PROSOCO/CTP
AZZ Galvanizing Services Hubbell Power Systems (CHANCE) RISA Technologies
Blind Bolt International Code Council Schneider Structural Eng., Inc.
Cantsink International Masonry Institute SE Solutions, LLC
Cast Connex Corporation ITW Commercial Construction SidePlate Systems, Inc.
Chicago Clamp Company Jordahl USA Inc. Simpson Strong-Tie
Commercial Metals Company Kinemetrics SkyCiv
Copper Creek Companies, Inc. Lindapter USA Steel Deck Institute
CoreBrace LNA Solutions Steel Joist Institute
DBM VirCon MeadowBurke Steel Tube Institute
DeWALT Metal Building Manufacturers Assoc. Taylor Devices
Dlubal Software Inc. Mitek Builder Products Trimble
Fabreeka International, Inc. National Ready Mixed Concrete Assoc. USG Corporation - Structural Solutions
Fox Rothschild LLP Nelson Stud Welding Vector Corrosion Technologies
Freyssinet, Inc. New Millennium Building Systems Vitruvius Project
GIZA Steel Nucor

SUSTAINING MEMBERS
Structural engineering firms, firms that employ structural engineers, or individual professional engineers practicing structural engineering.
4x Engineering Engineering Solutions, LLC Morabito Consultants, Inc.
Allan Klein PA Consulting Engineer Gilsanz Murray Steficek Mortier Ang Engineers
ARW Engineers Haines Structural Group O'Donnell & Naccarato, Inc.
ASC Engineers Inc Haskell Omega Structural Engineers, PLLC
Barter & Associates, Inc. Heyer Engineering Ruby & Associates, Inc.
Burns & McDonnell Holmes Culley Schaefer
C.A. Pretzer Associates, Inc. Holmes Structures Schultz Burman Engineering, PLLC
Case Engineering, Inc. HSI - Home Structural Inc. Simpson, Gumpertz & Heger
Collins Engineers, Inc. Ian Hoff Design Stability Engineering
Cowen Associates Consulting IBI Group Engineering Services Inc. STV, Inc.
Structural Engineers Indurkar Structural Engineers TEG Engineering, LLC
Criser Troutman Tanner J Welch Engineering LLC TGRWA, LLC
Consulting Engineers James Andel, P.E. The Harman Group, Inc.
CSA Engineering Joe DeReuil Associates Thornton Tomasetti
Davis Patrikios Criswell, Inc. JVC Engineering Virginia A&E, PLLC
Deems Structural Engineering Krech Ojard & Associates Wallace Engineering
Degenkolb Engineers Lance Engineering LLC WDP & Associates
DiBlasi Associates, P.C. Larson Engineering, Inc. Willo Engineering LLC
Dominick R. Pilla Associates LBYD, Inc.
DrJ Engineering, LLC Mainland Engineering Consultants Corp
ECM Mainstay Engineering Group, Inc.
Learn more about NCSEA's Corporate Memberships by visiting www.ncsea.com.

STRUCTURE magazine
 News from the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations

Call for 2021 Structural Engineering Summit Abstracts

The Structural Engineering Summit Committee is seeking presentations for the 2021 Summit in New York, NY, October 12–15,
2021. Ideal presentations are between 45 and 90 minutes and deliver pertinent and useful information that is specific to the practicing
structural engineer, in both technical and non-technical tracks. Submissions on best-design practices, new codes and standards, recent
projects, advanced analysis techniques, management, business practices, the future of the profession, and other topics that would be
of interest to practicing structural engineers are desired.
Submit your abstract by April 2, 2021. Visit bit.ly/2021SESabstracts for more details.

Volunteer for an NCSEA Committee

NCSEA has a variety of committees that work to further the association’s mission to constantly improve the level of standard of
practice of the structural engineering profession throughout the United States, and to provide an identifiable resource for those needing
communication with the profession.
NCSEA SEA members may apply for committee positions throughout the year using the online Volunteer Application. Most committees
admit new members on a rolling basis while others add members only once per year. Once submitted, the application will be reviewed
to confirm Member Organization/SEA membership and then forwarded to the committee chair(s) for review. Please expect a response
within 30 days.
Visit www.ncsea.com/committees to learn about NCSEA's Committees and to complete a volunteer application.

2021 Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards

NCSEA's Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards annually highlights some of the best examples of structural engineering ingenuity
throughout the world. Projects are judged on innovative design, engineering achievement, and creativity. Multiple winners are presented in eight
categories with an outstanding winner chosen from each category. The winners will
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The awards are presented in the following categories:
• New Buildings under $30 Million
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• New Buildings $80 Million to $200 Million
• New Buildings over $200 Million
• New Bridges or Transportation Structures
• Forensic/Renovation/Retrofit/Rehabilitation Structures under $20 Million
• Forensic/Renovation/Retrofit/Rehabilitation Structures over $20 Million
• Other Structures
Entries are due on July 13, 2021. Structural engineers and structural engineering Outstanding Project Winner in the New Buildings $80 to $200
firms are encouraged to enter. More information about the awards along with Million Category: International Spy Musuem – Washington, DC,
submission instructions can be found on www.ncsea.com. submitted by SK&A

NCSEA Webinars Register by visiting www.ncsea.com.

February 9, 2021 February 16, 2021 March 4, 2021

90 Seismic Ideas Wind Load Effects Overview of Changes and
in 90 Minutes on Canopy Systems Additions in ACI 318-19
James Malley, S.E. Medapati Abhinav Reddy, E.I.T Royce Floyd, Ph.D., S.E.
This presentation will provide a rapid-fire Wind is one of the most important consid- Discussion of technical changes to design
series of ideas for engineers to consider in erations while designing the structures. This provisions in the 2019 edition of the ACI
the implementation of seismic designs of topic tries to explore the wind load on canopy 318 Building Code Requirements for Structural
new steel buildings. systems and its effect on them. Design and Concrete and an overview of the reorganization
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Courses award 1.5 hours of Diamond Review-approved continuing education after the completion of a quiz.

FEB R U A R Y 2 021
 SEI Update
Learning / Networking
SEI Virtual Events
www.asce.org/SEI/virtual-events
• #SEILive Conversation with Leaders on Sustainability – Wednesday, February 3, 12:30 pm US ET
• NEW – SEI Standards Series
Join live, virtual sessions for exclusive interaction with expert ASCE/SEI Standard developers
on state-of-the-market updates. Participants will learn about technical revisions and review a design
example. Attendees are encouraged to join and participate in Live Q&A.
Each session is LIVE and only available 1:00 – 2:30 pm US ET.
March 18 – ASCE/SEI 43 Seismic Design Criteria for Structures, Systems, and Components in Nuclear Facilities
May 20 – ASCE/SEI 49 Wind Tunnel Testing for Buildings and Other Structures
July 15 – ASCE/SEI 72 Athletic Field Lighting
September 16 – ASCE/SEI 59 Blast Protection of Buildings
November 18 – ASCE/SEI 8 Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Stainless Steel Structural Members
Individual session: Member $49, Nonmember $99. Student member: Free registration.
REGISTER NOW at https://cutt.ly/9hQDTEo

Structures Virtual
Save the Date – June 2-4, 2021
Join SEI and the global structural engineering community as we expand our reach to advance
structural engineering practice! We are saddened to have had to cancel Structures Congress
in-person in Seattle in March and look forward to hosting you for an online event June 2-4
on the latest advances and new interactive technical/professional learning.
To sponsor, contact Sean Scully sscully@asce.org
#StructuresVirtual21
www.structurescongress.org

The must attend triennial conference on the analysis, design, construction, and maintenance of electrical transmission line and substation
structures and their foundations. View Program, including:
• Pre-Conference Workshop on using ASCE/SEI Standards and Manuals of Practice for reliability and resiliency of power
delivery systems
• Expert Technical Session Topics: Wildfires, Case Studies/Projects, Design/Analysis, Lattice Towers, Managing Aging Infrastructure,
Substations, Loading, Foundations, Special Design Considerations, SEI/ASCE Overhead Line Loading Standard
• Fun Golf Scramble with colleagues and friends sponsored by Power Line Systems
• Student Scholarship to participate – To be announced
Sponsor/Exhibit – Book your space to reach transmission line and substation professionals. Contact Sean Scully sscully@asce.org

www.etsconference.org • #ETSC21

Errata SEI Standards Supplements and Errata including ASCE 7. See www.asce.org/SEI-Errata.
If you would like to submit errata, contact Kelly Dooley at kdooley@asce.org.

STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Structural Engineering Institute of ASCE

Advancing the Profession

Share lessons from structural failures, near misses, and

incidents in order to not repeat them. Submit and review
reports at www.cross-us.org.

Get Involved with your

Local SEI Chapter
Connect with colleagues, take advantage of lifelong
technical/professional learning, and advance structural
engineering in your area. www.asce.org/SEILocal

Joint CASE, NCSEA, and SEI Virtual Town Hall

February 23: For the Betterment of the Structural Engineering Profession
On Tuesday, February 23, 2:30 – 4:00pm CST, the leadership from the three organizations will host a virtual Joint Town Hall event to
discuss how the three organizations are progressing to fulfill the Joint Vision, with Q&A with participants.
See full info and sign up for free registration on page 21.

Participate in Engineers Week:

INSPIRING WONDER
February 21-27
• Celebrate how engineers make a difference
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For promotional materials, activities, and guidance visit
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Celebrating 25 years of SEI – Advancing

and serving structural engineering

SEI News Read the latest at www.asce.org/SEINews

SEI Standards Visit www.asce.org/SEIStandards to view ASCE 7 development cycle
FEB R U A R Y 2 021
 CASE in Point
Did you know?
CASE has tools and practice guidelines to help firms deal with a wide variety of business scenarios that structural engineering firms face
daily. Whether your firm needs to establish a new Quality Assurance Program, update its risk management program, keep track of the
skills engineers are learning at each level of experience, or need a sample contract document – CASE has the tools you need!

CASE has several tools available for firms to use to enhance their business development processes:
CASE 962-F A Guideline Addressing the Bidding and Construction Administration Phases for the Structural Engineer
CASE 962-H National Practice Guideline on Project and Business Risk Management
CASE 976-A Commentary on Value-Based Compensation for Structural Engineers
CASE 504 Proposal Preparation Spreadsheet

Tool 5-4 Negotiation Talking Points

Tool 7-1 Client Evaluation
Tool 7-2 Fee Development
Tool 8-1 Contract Review
Tool 8-2 Contract Clauses and Commentary

CASE Popular Guideline Updated!

CASE has released a comprehensive update to their popular guideline, CASE 962-D: Guideline Addressing Coordination and Completeness
of Structural Construction Documents. The guideline will assist the structural engineer of record (SER) and everyone involved with build-
ing design and construction in improving the process by which the owner is provided with a successfully completed project. Their intent is
to help the practicing structural engineer understand the importance of preparing coordinated and complete construction documents and
to provide guidance and direction toward achieving that goal.
This guideline focuses on the degree of completeness required in the structural construction documents (Documents) to achieve a “suc-
cessfully completed project” and the communication and coordination required to reach that goal. They do not attempt to encompass the
details of engineering design; instead, they provide a framework for the SER to develop a quality management process.
Currently, the coordination and completeness of Documents vary substantially within the structural engineering profession and among
the various professional disciplines comprising the design team. The SER’s goal should be meeting both the owner’s and the contractor’s
needs by producing a complete and coordinated set of Documents. Owners and contractors generally understand that some changes will
occur because they realize that no set of Documents is perfect. The SER must focus on completeness, coordination, constructability, and the
reduction of errors to minimize potential changes.
An overall comprehensive update was done to the Guideline to keep with best business practices and current industry standards.

You can purchase these and the other Risk Management Tools at www.acec.org/bookstore.

ACEC’S Coalitions Virtual Winter Meeting

Join ACEC Coalitions for its 2021 Winter Education Series February 24-26, and you can
earn 5 PDH credits! The three-day program features education sessions covering cybersecurity,
business tax implementation, and communication/documentation in a remote work environ-
ment; briefing on ACEC leadership activities; and an economic outlook briefing.
Registration is free to Coalition members and only $179 for ACEC members and $279 for
non-members.
Go to https://education.acec.org/diweb/catalog/item?id=6190547
to check out the three-day agenda and to register.

Follow ACEC Coalitions on Twitter – @ACECCoalitions.

STRUCTURE magazine
 News of the Coalition of American Structural Engineers

DONATE to the CASE Scholarship Fund!

ACEC’s Coalition of American Structural Engineers (CASE) is currently seeking contribu-
tions to help make the structural engineering scholarship program a success. The CASE
scholarship, administered by the ACEC College of Fellows, is awarded to a student seeking
a master’s degree in structural engineering in an ABET-accredited engineering program.
Since 2009, the CASE Scholarship program has given $34,500 to help engineering students
pave their way to a bright future in structural engineering.
We have all witnessed the stiff competition from other disciplines and professions eager to
obtain the best and brightest young talent from a dwindling pool of engineering graduates.
One way to enhance the ability of students to pursue their dreams to become professional
engineers is to offer incentives in educational support.
Your monetary support is vital in helping CASE and ACEC increase scholarships to those students who are the future of our industry.
All donations toward the program may be eligible for a tax deduction, and you don’t have to be an ACEC member to donate!
Donate today at www.acecresearchinstitute.org/scholarships.

WANTED: Engineers to Lead, Direct, Engage with CASE

Committees!
If you are looking for ways to expand and strengthen your business skill set, look no further than serving on one (or more!) CASE Committees.
Join us to sharpen your leadership skills – promote your talent and expertise – to help guide CASE programs, services, and publications.
We currently have openings on all CASE Committees:
Contracts – Committee is responsible for developing and maintaining contracts to assist practicing engineers with risk management.
Guidelines – Committee will be responsible for developing and maintaining national guidelines of practice for structural engineers.
Programs – Committee is responsible for developing program themes for conferences and sessions that enhance and highlight the
profession of structural engineering.
Toolkit – Committee will be responsible for developing and maintaining the tools related to CASE’s Ten Foundations of Risk
Management program.
To apply, your firm should:
• Be a current member of ACEC
• Be a member of the Coalition of American Structural Engineers (CASE), or be willing to join the Coalition
• Be able to attend the groups’ regular face-to-face meetings each year: August, February (hotel, travel partially reimbursable)
• Be available to engage with the committees via email and Video/conference call
• Have some specific experience and/or expertise to contribute to the group
Please submit the following information to (mternieden@acec.org), subject line, CASE Committee:
• Letter of interest indicating which committee
• Brief bio (no more than a page)
Thank you for your interest in contributing to advancing the structural engineering profession!

FEB R U A R Y 2 021
 structural FORUM
Lessons for Young Engineers
By Jim Lintz, P.E., S.E., LEED AP BD+C

That which we obtain too easily, we esteem too lightly.

-THOMAS PAINE

S tructural engineering is a stressful profes-

sion, especially for young engineers. The
construction industry is highly competitive
engineer, you will be called upon to
determine if what the contractor has
done is acceptable or design a correction allowing us to create ever more sophisticated
regardless of your niche in it, and clients are if it is not and do so as promptly as possible models. However, it is helpful to keep in
always looking for designs to be maximally to not hold up construction. Again, another mind mathematician George Box’s quip: “All
efficient and executed as quickly as possible. learning experience. models are wrong, but some are useful.” To
Unfortunately, projects run even faster today The stress that these everyday occurrences improve efficiency and get the right answers,
than they did a decade ago, leaving less time cause never completely goes away. However, keep structural design models as simple as
for young engineers to learn how to produce the level of stress does get more tolerable. possible while still maintaining their useful-
quality work quickly and communicate effec- The more projects you complete, the greater ness. It generally takes a few years to develop
tively with their clients. your understanding becomes, and the more the intuition for when a member is under- or
As a young engineer, your top concern is your engineering judgment grows. And the over-sized, so it is even more important early
probably not efficiency or schedule, but rather more conversations you have with clients, the in your career to understand what the soft-
doing your job competently and avoiding more comfortable these interactions become. ware you are using can and cannot do, and
unpleasant consequences if you do not. It All of this helps. Unfortunately, there is just to be intentional with the design assumptions
is not uncommon to make a simple math- no substitute for spending time and gaining inherent in the model. For example, if a steel
ematical error, make an invalid assumption experience. Or maybe it is fortunate. After all, beam connection is modeled as fixed, the
or estimate, misinterpret a code section, or “That which we obtain too easily, we esteem drawings ought to have connections at the
miss an important note that should have too lightly.” – Thomas Paine flanges, and if a concrete slab is necessary, do
been added to the drawings. Consider these There are things that you can do to lower not model it as a flexible diaphragm.
as learning experiences. your stress level. Review your work and bring In this author’s experience, it takes about
You will soon appreciate that there are many questions to your supervisor or a colleague four years to develop confidence in most
safeguards to ensure appropriate design solu- with more experience. This can be humbling, daily tasks. I still had questions. I still have
tions but remember that the best way to gain but it is also an excellent opportunity to learn. questions, but I realized around the time
your colleagues’ trust and earn more respon- Most people like to help others; it feels good that I took the P.E. exam that requiring four
sibility is to produce consistently good work. to pass on knowledge, and explaining ideas years of experience before allowing someone
Review of your work through your company’s to others helps build their understanding. to be professionally licensed is not just an
Quality Assurance/Quality Control (QA/QC) However, learning how to come up with arbitrary period. Four years really is a reason-
process is intended to catch invalid assump- answers on your own is part of growing as able amount of time to develop acceptable
tions, improve the design solutions, and an engineer. Look for the answer in an old competence.
ensure code compliance. You will learn to textbook, use an internet search engine, read a So, strive to get better each day and find
welcome this oversight. Any issues that slip journal article. If you are like me, the complex and learn from your mistakes. Take personal
past the QA/QC process are likely to be spot- problems that you have during the workday responsibility. Try to keep things in perspec-
ted by detailers since they closely examine remain with you at night. Sometimes the tive and remain humble, and in doing so, you
the project drawings as they produce shop cleverest solutions pop into your head out of will be able to push through and overcome.
drawings. Experienced contractors also often the blue when you shower or climb into bed. Structural engineering is an honorable pro-
question designs if a size or spacing is out If your firm does not have checklists, create fession that plays a valuable role in society.
of the ordinary or if they think they have a your own for calculations to be done and When storms blow through, or earthquakes
better idea. At first, you may not welcome items to be on drawings – and use them. shake the ground, our communities rely on
their comments and questions, but their Please do not view the checking of shop draw- us and our expertise to keep them safe. It
ideas are often well-founded and result in a ings as something you would like to delegate is, however, not an easy profession. All of
better product. to others but as a way to confirm that every- us have had times when the job presented
Fabricators and contractors may also make thing is as it should be before construction a real challenge, but it is a chal-
unintentional errors or omissions that could begins. Pay close attention, and you will find lenge worth pursuing. The rewards
affect the structure. They could misinterpret the detailer’s mistakes and any design issues are significant.■
the drawings, forget to put an embedded plate that slipped through previous reviews.
Jim Lintz is a Structural Engineer at LJB Inc. in
in a concrete wall, layout rebar incorrectly, We are lucky to live at a time when, each
Dayton, OH. (jlintz@ljbinc.com)
make an unacceptable weld, etc. As a structural year, our design tools become more powerful,

STRUCTURE magazine F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21
 Access to
ACI 212.3R-10
ACI University Learning
Report on Chemical
Admixtures for Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 212

ACI Members receive free access

to all ACI live webinars and 220+
on-demand courses.

• 12-month subscription available

for nonmembers
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Visit www.concrete.org/aciuniversity
to view all your access options

220+ On Demand Courses | Live Webinars | Multi-User Options | 55+ Different Topics

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STRUCTURE
FEB RUA RY 2021 | Bonus Content
 Revisiting Lessons Learned
from the Nicoll Highway Collapse
By Hee Yang Ng, MIStructE, C.Eng, P.E.

T he Nicoll Highway excavation shoring construction collapse

occurred in Singapore on April 20, 2004, around 3:30 pm.
The accident deeply impacted Singapore’s local construction
industry. Many regulations were tightened up through this inci-
dent, such as appointing qualified geotechnical engineers for
deep excavation works and requiring authority submissions for
temporary construction. The collapse resulted
in four people killed and three injured. Several
project parties were charged in court, and
project completion was delayed.
Diaphragm walls with multiple levels of struts
were often thought to be a robust earth-retain-
ing wall system. How did such a system fail?
This article revisits some of the contributing
causes of the earth-retaining structure collapse
and highlights six essential lessons learned from
the incident.

Project Details
The collapse was located in the south-central
part of Singapore island. The land transport
agency of Singapore had wanted to build a
circular metro line (Circle Line 1 Stage 1 –
Contract C824) connecting the suburban areas
of Singapore to the central business district
Plan view of the collapse area. in the downtown area. Excavation work for

STRUCTURE magazine
a cut-and-cover tunnel was underway and had almost reached the
base of the excavation when the collapse occurred.
The 20-meter-wide (approximately 65.6 feet) cut-and-cover tunnel
had to be constructed by excavating to 33 meters (approximately
108.3 feet) below ground level. The ground consisted of deep layers
of soft marine clay with very low shear strength (20 kPa to 40 kPa),
which typically increased linearly with depth. 800-millimeters-
thick (approximately 2.6 feet) reinforced concrete diaphragm walls
(D-walls) were used as earth-retaining structures, supported by 10
levels of steel struts, spaced at about 3 to 3.5 meters (approximately
9.8 to 11.5 feet) vertically. Two levels of Jet Grout Pile (JGP) near
the base of the excavation were constructed to provide strength and
stability to the soft soil as the base was being excavated. It is worth
noting that such a deep excavation in adverse ground conditions
would typically require a wall thickness of about 1500 millimeters
(approximately 4.9 feet). That thickness is twice the size of the wall
used in C824.

Modeling Undrained Behavior

In designing a multi-stage excavation, the use of software is often
required. Although, in many cases, the drained behavior of soil is
critical for excavation works (due to unloading), undrained behavior
is still relevant and appropriate for soil such as marine clay, which
has very low permeability.
The software used to design the cut-and-cover tunnel for Nicoll
Highway was Plaxis. When considering the undrained behavior of
soil, the relevant strength parameters are total stress soil parameters.
For strength design, it is the undrained shear strength, cu. Designers
may sometimes choose to input the value of undrained shear
strength of a particular soil directly into the software. However,
in Plaxis, the software allows the designer to model undrained Section of the cut-and-cover tunnel.
behavior using effective stress parameters (i.e., using cohesion c´
and friction angle φ´). The advantage of this is that shear strength in economies. C824 designers took advantage of this and modeled
increase due to consolidation can be used in the design, resulting the undrained conditions using effective stress parameters in Plaxis.
However, the C824 project designers failed to
recognize that such an increase in shear strength
can be quantitatively wrong, especially for soft
clay. In a p-q plot, it can be visualized that in
an undrained loading using the Mohr-Coulomb
(MC) model, the stress path moves vertically
upwards. This means that the center of the Mohr
circle (p-coordinate) remains the same, while the
radius of the circle (q-coordinate) increases. Note
that p and q are also average stress (stress compo-
nents added together and divided by the number
of components) and deviatoric stress (difference
in major and minor principal stress), respectively.
In undrained loading, the load is taken entirely
by the water in the soil, so there is no change in
the soil’s effective stress. The load only increases
the deviatoric stress (q-coordinate) as the Mohr
circle becomes larger as loading increases. In
reality, as the positive excess pore water pressure
increases during undrained loading (i.e., pres-
sure exerted on water), the stress path deviates
to the left, resulting from a decrease in aver-
age effective stress (p-coordinate) because total
stress = effective stress + pore pressure. As water
Lateral soil pressure acting on D-wall panels causing joint to open up. exerts pressures in all directions, it is important

F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21 B O N U S C O N T E N T
 (e.g., loose sand and soft clay), soil loss occurred due to these weak
soils leaking through the utility gaps at areas where the interfacing
gaps were not adequately secured. Also, the builder had difficulties
installing continuous strutting. For C824, investigators suspected
that the jet grout piles (JGP) were not carried out near utility areas
(due to concerns of damage), and this could have severely impaired
the effectiveness of the JGP in providing strength when acting like
a strut and providing stability close to the base of the excavation.

Poor Strutting System

There were many inadequacies in the design of the strutting system
in C824. Due to the design-and-build nature of the contract, the
contractor wanted a very lean design. The curved diaphragm walls
and close vertical spacing of the struts (obstructing ease of construc-
tion) did not help. In C824, it was found that some walers were
discontinuous. Some struts were installed without splays. There
were also cases where struts were bearing directly onto D-wall panels
Poor strutting design and construction.
without a waler. The waler’s fundamental purpose was to provide
to appreciate that an increase in vertical stress in water will result continuous line support to the retaining wall so that loads could
in the same stress exerted horizontally. be redistributed, and the effects of eccentricity could be mitigated.
The over-prediction of soil shear strength using effective stress When this was omitted, the effectiveness of the strutting support
parameters resulted in severe under-design. The forces and moment system was somewhat compromised.
in the retaining walls were grossly underestimated, and deflections
predicted were too optimistic. This resulted in an earth retaining
system that was inadequately sized. Back analysis for C824 D-walls
Sway Stability of Open Stiffeners
showed that the bending moments and deflections were underes- During construction, it was found that some of the plate stiffeners
timated by 50%. for the strut and waler connection had buckled. The contractor
thought that this happened due to more load being transferred
through the strut’s flanges, resulting in the plate stiffeners being
Curved Diaphragm Walls inadequate. Unknown to the contractor, the inadequacy of the steel
The curved alignment on the metro line plan meant that the retain- stiffener plates was due to an overestimate of the stiff bearing length
ing walls had to follow this curvature. It should be noted that curved of the waler resulting in under design of stiffeners.
diaphragm walls posed many challenges for design and construction. The contractor then replaced the steel plates with C-channels, think-
First, the usual 2-dimensional (2-D) plane strain analysis adopted for ing that the “bigger” C channel sections would perform better as
a section design would not capture the effects of curvature, which stiffeners. This proved to be a costly mistake, as it was one of the
runs in the out-of-plane direction. Forces and moments in retaining main contributing factors leading to the strutting system’s inadequacy.
walls, strut forces, and wall deflections might be increased or decreased The contractor did not realize that the C-channels acting as
due to the curvature. stiffeners had resulted in an “open” stiffening system. This means
When it comes to construction, it is not easy to construct a con-
tinuous waler due to the wall’s curvature. In C824, discontinuous
walers at some locations resulted in weakness between adjacent
diaphragm wall panels. As D-walls were constructed as discrete
panels, wall joints opened up at weak locations due to the lateral
soil pressure acting in a direction causing the walls to move inwards
into the excavation. A robust and continuous tying waler needed
to be constructed to provide a “tying effect” to prevent opening up
of the wall joints, which the designers had overlooked.

Utility Crossings
Existing underground utilities have to be protected from damage
during excavation. Sometimes, utilities may be diverted away from
the excavation area before construction commences, but this is not
always possible. There will be occasions where project parties are
required to contend with existing utilities in the way of the excava-
tion activities. In C824, critical electrical cables (66kV) were in the
way of the diaphragm walls. Utility gaps of 4 meters (approximately
13.1 feet) disrupted the continuity of the diaphragm walls. This
created a zone of weakness in the diaphragm walls. In weak soils Replacing plate stiffeners with C-channel stiffeners.

STRUCTURE magazine
that the “opening” created had an inherent weakness, a failure
by sidesway. Sidesway failure mode is dangerous because of the
after-peak brittle response. Once the system is overloaded beyond
capacity, failure occurs suddenly and the load-carrying capacity
decreases sharply.

Telltale Signs
A large-scale infrastructure project such as C824 inevitably required
a large team of project personnel for design and on-site during con-
struction. Despite the large team of engineers, supervisors, client
Sidesway failure mode of “open” stiffeners.
representatives, and contractors present on-site, none of the project
parties realized that the numerous abnormal sightings were tell-
tales signs of an impending collapse. Before the collapse, the lateral Designers should note that apparent earth pressures can only be used
wall deflection was more than 400 millimeters (approximately 1.3 to estimate strut loads, not retaining wall forces.
feet), which did not appear to be alarming to the project parties. To estimate retaining wall moments, designers can use Rankine’s earth
Furthermore, there were signs that the strutting system was under dis- pressure. Assuming active pressure is Kaσv and Ka = 1, with a surcharge
tress, manifested by stiffener plates buckling and kingposts deformed of 20 kN/m2, maximum earth pressure is 33x18+20 = 620 kN/m2.
beyond vertical alignment. The maximum bending moment is 620x4.52/8 = 1600 kNm/m using
The tragedy of the Nicoll Highway incident could have been avoided maximum bending moment for a simply supported beam (wL2/8).
if project parties were aware of the dangers in deformed and distorted The factored moment becomes 1.5x1600 = 2400 kNm/m.
structural members and large wall and ground movements. In C824, Using the above rule of thumb, designers must remember that
the immense pressures of cost and time impelled the builder to take these simplified methods cannot predict strut loads or wall forces
unnecessary risks, even to the extent of not stopping work in the with great accuracy, especially for a complex deep excavation
face of warning signs, hoping to complete the work quickly so that project. It is only meant to give the designer a sense of the order
the situation could turn around and stabilize. This mindset to rush of magnitude. This is because an actual excavation construc-
work and complete the excavation and backfill to achieve safety is a tion is a multi-stage process. Therefore, additional forces will be
dangerous fallacy. The more secure way would be to cease work and introduced during the intermediate stages of loading. Also, the
strengthen the weak areas to ensure safety and stability. stiffness and rigidity of the wall, struts, and soil interact with one
another. Forces and moments get redistributed according to the
soil and wall and strut movement. For example, a flexible wall
Comparison of Results bending moment would be very different from that of a rigid wall.
It is sometimes useful to check computer output using simple rules Therefore, software such as Plaxis is often required to analyze a
of thumb. Designers can use apparent wall pressure diagrams where complex deep excavation project.
lateral pressure pa acting on the wall = γH(1-m4cu/(γH)) to estimate
the strut load. Using m = 0.4, cu = 30 kPa, γ = 18 kN/m3, H = 33m,
pa works out to be 0.9 γH = 535 kN/m2. Adding a surcharge of 20 kPa
Conclusions
(assume Ka =1), the earth pressure becomes 555 kN/m2. Therefore, The safety of temporary construction might sometimes take a backseat
the estimated unfactored strut load is 555 multiplied by the spacing because they are constructed only for a relatively short period to facili-
of 3.8 meters (largest tributary area near the base), giving 2100 kN/m. tate permanent construction. Parties are sometimes tempted to adopt
lower safety standards for temporary works. However, this
can be a costly mistake, especially for a large-scale project
involving complex site conditions, as shown in the C824
incident. In Singapore, as a result of the C824 incident,
temporary construction requires the same safety factors as
permanent construction, and submission to authorities for
approval of the design is required before work can com-
mence on site.
Designers involved in complex geotechnical works
need to understand soil behavior to use appropri-
ate software and predict forces on retaining structures
correctly, including the software’s assumptions and
the limitations of the model and analysis results.
In addition to theoretical knowledge, experience is
also critical to identify site-specific problems and
avoid potential pitfalls.■

Hee Yang Ng is a Principal Engineer with a building control

agency in the Asia-Pacific region.
Conceptual load-displacement curve showing sudden failure due to side-sway.

F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21 B O N U S C O N T E N T
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 SPOTLIGHT
ICE Block I
Seamlessly Blending Three Structural Materials

I CE Block I in Sacramento, California, is

the reincarnation of the historic Crystal ice
manufacturing facility, which was destroyed
which allowed the
basement garage level
to be as shallow as
by fire on the same site. The new structure is possible to minimize
an elegant blend of architecture and structure. excavation.
The $26 million project hosts retail and The BRBFs strategi-
restaurant tenants on the first floor with cally exposed on the
office tenants on the second through fourth building’s exterior on
floors. The exposed heavy timber structure the north and south
for the upper floors honors the character of sides express the struc-
the original historic building. The fourth- tural elements as an
floor mezzanine layout provides a 30-foot-tall architectural feature;
volume with expansive views of downtown this provided a unique
through the full glass curtainwall. The second engineering challenge
floor includes post-tensioned concrete transfer to deliver the lateral
girders to accommodate the basement parking forces to the frame.
layout. Exposed braced frames on the exterior The BRBF system transfers its forces to the
of the north and south façades further serve concrete shear wall system of the basement
to create an authentic expression of structure walls at the first-floor level through large,
in harmony with architecture. embedded steel plates in the tops of the con- ICE Block I was
ICE Block I was one of the first projects in
Northern California to utilize an exposed
crete columns.
The nearly identical east and west wings
one of the first
mass timber structure. The building blends are connected by a sky bridge at the second projects in Northern
three structural materials seamlessly and visi- through fourth floors, which is seismically iso-
bly: mass timber at the upper floors supported lated at one end. The first-floor exterior deck California to utilize
by a concrete podium at the second floor, area is elevated 30 inches from the adjacent an exposed mass
combined with steel Buckling Restrained sidewalk grade to create a pedestrian area for
Braced Frames (BRBFs). retail and restaurant use. timber structure.
The glulam post and beam system of the The design of an exposed exterior braced
upper levels intentionally leveraged cantile- frame system posed challenges. Early in the
vered girders over the columns. This allowed project, the architect was interested in utilizing
a reduction in girder depth to make them the exterior brace system as a purely archi- Accommodating a full-length drive ramp into
commensurate with beam depths. The glulam tectural element, even if that meant the real the basement parking level also presented chal-
beams connect to girders and columns with structural braces had to reside somewhere else. lenges on this relatively small site. The response
custom steel saddle hangers and column caps. Buehler, the structural design firm, took on was to utilize the existing sloped alley behind the
Solid sawn 3x decking with a non-structural the challenge to make the structural design building as part of the ramping solution. This
concrete topping completes the floor system also serve as the architectural expression, elim- approach minimized the ramp length within the
at the wood levels. The fourth floor is the inating the need for a duplicate system. This structure while simultaneously mini-
crown jewel of the architectural expression. was not a trivial undertaking; the structural mizing required clearance below the
With the north and south edge of the floor diaphragm had to penetrate the curtainwall post-tensioned beam over the ramp.■
pulled back from the exterior wall to create a system in order to attach to the braced frame.
two-story volume, tenants experience a verti- Waterproofing concerns were mitigated by Buehler was an Outstanding Award Winner
cal connection to the mezzanine through the providing a ‘box’ section for the curtainwall for the ICE Block I project in the 2020 Annual
30-foot-clear volume. to join. The structural design also needed Excellence in Structural Engineering Awards
The concrete second floor is a one-way to account for the eccentricities of the dia- Program in the Category – New Buildings
reinforced concrete slab supported by post- phragm connections. under $30 Million.
tensioned girders. The girders serve as transfer The fourth-floor mezzanine is pulled back
elements to transition the column spacing from the exterior wall except in the two end
of the wood levels to a grid appropriate for bays. This complicated the seismic load path Project Team
drive aisles in the basement parking level. between the diaphragm and exterior braced
Structural Design Firm: Buehler
The second floor was chosen as the transfer frame. The diaphragm in the two end bays is
Architect: RMW Architecture
level because there was ample height clearance strengthened by a horizontal, diagonal steel
General Contractor: Ascent Builders
above level 1 to accommodate the girders, truss below the wood floor to address this.

STRUCTURE magazine F E B R U A R Y 2 0 21 B O N U S C O N T E N T