African Journal of Biotechnology Vol. 4 (3), pp.

138-142, February 2005

Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJB
ISSN 1684–5315 © 2005 Academic Journals

Review

Application of biotechnology for the improvement of

Nigerian indigenous leaf vegetables
Opabode, J.T*. and O.C. Adebooye
Department of Plant Science Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, NIGERIA
Accepted November 2004

Nigeria is endowed with many indigenous leaf vegetables (ILVs) species, which spread across the
estimated cultivable land area of 71.2 million hectares. These ILVs provide food, income, employment
and herbal medicine to the population. Uncollected and uncharacterized germplasm, pests, diseases,
anti-nutritional factors, recalcitrant seed, seed dormancy and perishable produce militate against the
realization of potentials of the ILVs. This paper discusses biotechnological applications such as
meristem culture, in vitro selection, zygotic embryo culture, somatic embryo genesis, protoplast
culture, anther culture and genetic engineering that can solve improvement and production problems
associated with some selected ILVs. Among the problems envisaged in the application of these
biotechnological techniques are lacks of resources, selections of crop for research, attitude of
government and weather conditions.

Key words: Indigenous leaf vegetables, biotechnology, production problems.

INTRODUCTION

Nigeria is an agricultural giant nation in Africa, with a total to develop microorganisms from specific uses (Persley,
land area of 93.7 million square kilometers out of which 1992). Some of the aspects of biotechnology that are
cultivable land area is about 71.2 million hectares. This currently being used in crop production are: meristem
land area accommodates several species of indigenous and bud culture, zygotic embryo culture, cell and tissue
leaf vegetables (ILVs). The rich diversity of the ILVs of culture, genetic engineering, molecular markers and
Nigeria has been documented by several researchers monoclonal antibodies (Monti, 1992).
including Okigbo (1977), Okafor (1979, 1983) and The Federal Government of Nigeria has put in place a
Adebooye et al. (2003). A major problem with the ILVs of Nigerian Biotechnology policy, and has also established a
Nigeria is that they have not been selected for desirable Nigerian Biotechnology Development Agency to
traits and no serious genetic/biotechnological research formulate policies towards accelerating the acquisition of
has been done on them. Adebooye et al. (2003) reported biotechnology in the country. The International Institute of
that most of the ILVs are not easily available as farmers Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan is using biotechnology
now gather them with great drudgery and difficulty from tools on its mandate crops like: maize, soybean, cassava,
the few stands that are left in the wild. yam and plantain/banana (Brink et al., 1998; Kuta, 2004).
Biotechnology is a continuum of technologies, ranging In some national research institutes and universities with
from traditional biotechnology to modern biotechnology. tissue culture laboratories, research efforts are
Biotechnology is defined as any technique that uses concentrated on staple crops. Biotechnological
living organisms or substances from those organisms, to applications have not been extended to the ILVs of
make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals or Nigeria. Thus there is a need to include the ILVs in
Nigerian biotechnological programmes and policy. This
paper discusses the status of biotechnological application
on indigenous vegetables, potential for its application on
*Corresponding author. E-mail: jopabode@yahoo.com. the species and envisaged constraints.
 Adebayo and Opabode 139

Table 1. Biological constraint associated with some indigenous vegetables.

Indigenous vegetable Biological problems References

Corchorus olitorius L. Numerous morphotypes, defoliator, Akoroda (1985), Akinlosotu (1977)
grasshopper , nematodes, short shelf life
Celosia argentea L. Numerous morphotypes, Badra (1991)
black beetle, crown blight Nematodes,
Vernonia amygdalina Del Leaves curl virus, thrips, cotton aphids, Misari (1992)
white fly, bitter factor.
Telfairia occidentalis Hook. f. Uncharacterized germplasm, recalcitrant Esiaba (1982), Akoroda (1990), Ajayi et al.
seed, mosaic virus (2004), Odiaka and Schippers(2004)
Talinum triangulare Willd. Highly perishable, high soluble oxalate, Akachuku and Fawusi (1995), Schippers
hydrocyanic acid (2000)
Solanecio biafrae (Olive & Hiern) Genetic erosion, shade and support Schippers (2000),
C. Jeffery requirements, low seed viability Adebooye 2004)
Launea taraxicifolia (Willd) Amin Ex Seed dormancy, bitter factor Chweya and Eyzaguirre (1999)
C.Jeffrey

BIOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS ASSOCIATED WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY CAPACITY BUILDING IN NIGERIA

ILVS PRODUCTION
Recently, the interest of Nigerian Government in the
For the purpose of this paper, seven ILVs previously acquisition of biotechnology capability was demonstrated.
described by Adebooye et al. (2003) as high premium A national Biotechnology Policy has been formulated and
species across Nigeria were selected. Table 1 consists relevant biotechnology agencies and laboratory are being
of a list of problems on production, improvement and established to promote the exploitation of biotechnology
biological characteristics of the selected common ILVs of for the benefit of farmers in Nigeria. A list of such
Nigeria. The constraints range from germplasm collection programmes is contained in Table 2.
to pests problems. Because ILVs suffer neglect from
research and development process, many of them have
not had their germplasm collected and characterized in FUTURE ROLES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY ON SEVEN
Nigeria. Only a few like Corchorus olitorius,, Solanecio SELECTED INDIGENOUS VEGETABLES
biafrae and Telfairia occidentalis have received some
research attention. However molecular technology has More than any other groups of crop plants, ILVs require
not be used to characterize their germplasm. Field the urgent application of biotechnology. This is because
genebanks are features of some few ILVs and there are there are many unsolved practical problems and
fears that much of the genetic diversity could disappear unanswered research questions that limit the efforts
because of pressures exerted by mankind. towards exploiting the nutritional and production
High perishability of produce is a common problem of potentials of these multi-purpose crops. These problems
ILVs. They do not keep for long. Recalcitrant seed is a range from germplasm conservation to sustainable
major production constraint of T. occidentalis (Ajayi et al., production strategies.
2004). For seeds of T. occidentalis, germination capacity
declines when seed moisture is less than 40% and is
completely lost when moisture content falls below 30% Corchorus olitorius L.
(Odiaka and Schippers, 2004). The common practice is
to keep seeds inside the fruit but the seeds, being Jute mallow (Corchorus olitorius) is one of the few ILVs
viviparous, often begin to germinate before onset of that received research attention in Nigeria. National
planting season. Insect pests and nematodes are Horticultural Research Institute (NIHORT), Ibadan,
common pest. Insect pest such as Acrae eponina, Nigeria maintains a large germplasm collection of local
defoliate leaves of C. olitorius thereby reducing the landraces that have been characterized. NIHORT
quality and market value and if severe, render them unfit established genetic improvement programme for the
for human consumption (Akinlosotu, 1977; Akoroda, vegetable that resulted in the production of improved and
1985; Schippers, 2000). Nematodes attack roots making pure/varieties of the four major morphotypes known in
plants produce yellow and unattractive leaves. T. Nigeria. Despite this research attention, there are rooms
triangulare is the only ILV with high content of for biotechnological applications. On the few improved
antinutritional factors (Akachukwu and Fawusi, 1995). varieties developed by NIHORT, micropropagation is
140 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

Table 2. Biotechnology programmes in Nigeria and contact persons.

Biotechnology programmes Major goal Contact person

National Biotechnology Development Agency Development of appropriate policies and Prof. C.P.E. Omaliko
(NABD) Abuja programmes for building the required
SHESTCO National Biotechnology Advanced Central Laboratory for advance biotechnology Prof. G.H. Ogbadu
Laboratory, Abuja research in Nigeria.
National Center for Genetic Resources and Biotechnology in the conservation Nigerian Mr. M.B. Sarumi
Biotechnology, NAGRAB, Ibadan genetic resources
National Biosafety Frameworks, Federal Ministry Capacity building and effective regulation of Mr. M.P.O. Dore
of Environment, Abuja genetically modified products in Nigeria
Nigeria Agriculture and Biotechnology Project Promote the adoption of biotechnology for Dr C.A. Fatokun
(NABP), USAID-IITA-NABDA, IITA-Ibadan. enhanced agricultural
Source: Kuta (2004)

desirable for further in vitro selection to obtain lines with availability of high quality leaves. Interspecific crossing
desirable morphological traits and improved resistance to between V. amygdalina and its close relatives V. colorata
insect pest attack because a major production-limiting and V. hymenolepsis could produce high yielding hybrids.
factor is the attack by leaf defoliator (Acrae eponina). Researchers should double their attention on this
Somaclonal variation from tissue cultured jute mallow vegetable. This is because studies have revealed many
could produce variants with improved nutritional qualities uses of the crop plant (Adebooye et al., 2003). In view of
and shelf life. Considering the several morphotypes of this, biotechnological tools should be used to develop
jute mallow available, molecular characterization is variety/lines for specific purposes. In vitro selection,
desirable to establish the genetic relationships among somaclonal variation and somatic embryogenesis could
them. This can be achieved through development and produce line for these specific purposes. Anther and
use of molecular markers like Restriction Fragment microspore culture for production of haploids for selection
Length Polymorphism (RFPL), Random Amplified of somaclonal variant with desirable trait is a way of
Polymorphism DNA (RAPD), Amplified Fragment Length increasing genetic variability in Vernonia. Somatic
Polymorphism (AFLP) and microsatellite markers. As a hybridization through protoplast culture and embryo
result of many close and wild relatives of C. olitorius like culture are possible techniques for inter-specific crosses
C. tridens, C. tricularis, C.aetuans, C. aspenifolius and C. among Vernonia variants to obtain superior hybrids.
fascicularis, inter-specific crossing appears to be a
possible way of developing high yielding hybrids with
acceptable nutritional qualities and long shelf life. Telfairia occidentalis Hook.f.
Protoplast culture to achieve somatic hybridization can
produce such hybrids. Where natural crossing is Fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) has several
possible, zygotic embryo culture is recommended to production problems to which biotechnology can provide
prevent seed dormancy prevalent among Corchorus. solutions. The natural diversity or genetic base is not very
Furthermore, transformation system (such as wide and available morphotypes have not been
Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated gene transfer) characterized. Molecular characterization would provide
should be developed to drive novel genes into elite solution for establishment of genetic relationship among
Corchorus genome. fluted pumpkin germplasm. Molecular markers like RFLP,
RAPD, AFLP and micro satellites are potent tools in this
direction. Similarly, sex-linked markers would help
Vernonia amygdalina Del. distinguish female plants from male ones at early stage of
growth. New plants can be obtained through somatic
The common bitterleaf (Vernonia amygdalina) received embryogenesis from pedicels, stem, leaves roots and
substantial research attention on nutritional status, but other explants and this can solve the problem of
little work was conducted on agronomic practices or recalcitrant seed. This technique can make possible the
genetic enhancement.The studies on nutritional qualities production of artificial seeds in T. occidentalis. In vitro
of V. amygdalina were carried out in Nigeria and other propagation of T. occidentalis should be encouraged to
African countries (Schippers, 2000). Micropropagation of provide disease-free starting material for genetic
common bitter-leaf is an urgent need to produce virus- improvements and cultivar breeding. In vitro conservation
free plantlet against leaf curl virus that is threatening the is a solution against genetic erosion of the crop genetic
 Adebayo and Opabode 141

base. Biotechnologies to induce and express genetic erization and in vitro conservation of its germplasm are
variability like pollen and ovary culture, anther and areas of research in the near future.
microspore culture, meristem culture, somatic
embryogenesis, somaclonal variation and embryo culture
could produce cultivars with a higher proportion of female Solanecio biafrae (Olive&Heirne) C. Jeffery
to male plants, capable of producing more seeds/fruits for
consumption purposes, with stronger, more vigorous Solanecio biafrae is a commonly consumed ILV in
shoots and which are tolerant to water stress and southwest Nigeria. S. biafrae is being replaced by other
resistant to Telfairia mosaic virus. vegetables that do not require support and shade and
thus becoming rare and gathering for consumption is
done with great difficulty (Adebooye 2004). Therefore, the
Celosia argentea L. area of urgent biotechnological application on this crop
plant is both short and long term in vitro conservation of
its germplasm. Before this could be achieved,
Lagos spinach (Celosia argentea) is a fast-growing crop, micropropagation protocol for S. biafrae must be
which is popular in southwest Nigeria owing to the soft developed. However, to date there is no attempt to
texture of its leaves when compared with amaranth develop one. When conservation strategies are put in
leaves. However, its production is being threatened by place, in vitro selection techniques to develop
nematodes, as it is highly susceptible to both migratory varieties/lines that are less dependent on shade and
and sedentary nematode species. Unfortunately, C support for productivity should be a priority. Genetic
argentea has not received much research attention in variability of the crop could be widened by anther culture,
Nigeria compared to its close relative C. cristata in South embryo culture, somatic embryogenesis and protoplast
Africa (Badra, 1991). Considering its numerous close culture.
relatives like C. isertii, C. cristata and C. trigyna, inter-
specific crossing among these relatives could produce
hybrids with high degree of nematode resistance. This Launea taraxacifolia (Willd) Amin Ex. C. Jeffery
can be achieved by the technology of protoplast culture
and chromosome engineering. Where possible, Launea taraxacifolia is mainly collected from the wild in
molecular markers like RAPD, RFLP and AFLP should be Nigeria and other African countries. Seed dormancy and
use to establish genetic relationship among the species. propagation difficulty are hindrance to production of this
Furthermore, developing in vitro propagation protocol for crop plants. Micropropagation is a reliable solution to this
the plant could widen genetic variability of C. argentea. It problem. Therefore, in vitro propagation protocol for this
will be followed by in vitro selection for desirable crop should be established. Embryo rescue technique
agronomic traits among the plantlets. Occurrence of can solve seed dormancy problem of the crop. Selection
somaclonal variant could produce lines with resistant to of line with less bitter leaves would raise people interest
nematode and other desirable traits. In vitro conservation in the crop. Inter-specific crossing between L.
is an option for arresting the eroding genetic diversity of taraxacifolia and its wild relatives like L. sativa, L. serriola
the plant. Transformation systems for C. argentea need and L. cornita could result in hybrid with desirable traits
to be developed to facilitate genetically engineered
nematode resistance.
PROBLEMS AND CONCERNS

Talinium triangulare(Jacq) Willd. Constraints to the application of biotechnology to the ILVs

of Nigeria are many. Among these constraints are:
Water leaf (Talinium triangulare) is considered a cheap
crop and can easily be collected from the wild as Lack of resources for plant biotechnology
vegetable. To date, no research priority has been
accorded this crop. Improvement of its nutritional qualities A serious deficit of skilled human resources in the plant
should be the first objective of biotechnological sciences and biotechnology is evident in Nigeria. The
application on T. triangulare. Somaclonal variants could building up of such knowledge and development of
emerge as a result of manipulation of in vitro propagation human resources capacity is necessary to produce
conditions and medium. This could widen genetic improved varieties through use of biotechnology. Another
variability of the crop plant. Protoplast fusion could be serious constraint is the loss of skilled personnel who
used to achieve inter-specific crossing among its wild have received training and accepted jobs in developed
relatives like T. paniculata and T. cuneifolium. From the countries. Working opportunities in Nigeria are often
crosses, hybrid with desirable agronomic, nutritional and inadequate. Funds to pay salaries and absorb running
post-harvest qualities could emerge. Molecular charact- costs of projects are either limiting or inadequate thus
142 Afr. J. Biotechnol.

contributing to reduced availability of personnel. Even Ajayi SA, ME Dulloo, RS Vodouhe, P Berjak, JI Kioko (2004).
Conservation status of Telfairia spp in sub-Saharan Africa. Paper
specific focal research points that were created in Nigeria
presented at the Regional workshop on Plant Genetic Resources and
at high donor expenses lack the critical mass of skilled food security in West and Central Africa, held at IITA, Ibadan April
personnel. Furthermore, training gained abroad is often 26-30, 2004.
not attuned to local needs because of the different Akachukwu CO, Fawusi MOA (1995). Growth Characteristics, yield and
nutritive of waterleaf, Talinum triangulare (jacq.) Willd in a semi-wild
research and infrastructure environment in Nigeria. As a
environment. Discovery and innovation, 7(2):163-172.
result the demand and opportunities present in the home Akinlosotu TA (1977). A checklist of insects associated with local
countries are often not met or remain unanswered. vegetables in southwest Nigeria. Institute of Agricultural Research
and Training, University of Ife, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Res.Bull.8: 1-18.
Akoroda MO (1985). Morphotype diversity in Nigeria land-races of
Corchorus Olitorius. J. Horticult. Sci. 60(4):557-562.
Selection of crops for research Akoroda MO (1990). Ethnobotany of Telfairia occidentalis among Igbos
of Nigeria. Econ. Bot. 44(1):29-30.
The research institutes in Nigeria focus mainly on the Badra T (1991). Lagos Spinach. In: pulses and Vegetables Williams,
J.T. (ed). Lond. Chapman and Hall. pp. 131-163.
routinely cultivated species. It has been reported by
Brink JA, Wooodward BR, Dasilva EJ (1998). Plant biotechnology: a
Adebooye et al. (2003) that ILVs often do not receive tool for development in Afr. Electron. J. Biotechnol. 1(3).
attention. Therefore, the research priorities of Nigerian Chweya JA, Eyzagurre PB (1990). The Biodiversity of Traditional leafy
plant research institutes contribute substantially to the vegetables. Rome: IPGRI p. 212.
Esiaba RO (1982). Cultivating the fluted pumpkin in Nigeria. World
under-utilization and extinction of some ILVs. Even for
crops, 34(2):70-72.
the food staples, researches are not adequately funded Kuta DD (2004). GM technology to benefit farmers in Nigeria.
and where funds are made available, little or nothing Ag.Biotech. Net, 6:120-124.
could be achieved because of the insufficiency of the Misari SM (1992). Further observations on the insect attacking bitterleaf
in samaru, Northern Nigeria. Savanna, 13(1):1-3.
funds. Monti LM (1992). The role of biotechnology in Agricultural research. In:
Biotechnology enhancing research on tropical crops in Africa.
CTA/IITA co-publication. pp. 1-10.
CONCLUSION Odiaka NI, RR Schippers (2004). Telfairia occidentalis Hook.f. In
Grubben GJH. Denton OA (Editors). Plant Res. Trop. Afr.
2:Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Netherlands/Backhuys
Presently, little consideration is given to the use of Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/CTA Wageningen, Netherlands. pp.
biotechnological techniques on the ILVs of Nigeria. As 522-527.
Nigerian government is demonstrating political will for Okafor JC (1979). Edible indigenous woody plants in the rural economy
of the Nigerian Forest zone. In DU Okali (Ed). The Nigerian Forest
increasing biotechnology capacity and application
Ecosystem, Proceed.of a workshop on Nig. Rainforest Ecosyst.
through the National Biotechnology policy and University of Ibadan, Nig.
programme on staple crops, the same gesture should be Okafor JC (1983). Horticulturally promising indigenous wild plant
extended to ILVs. The benefits accruable from such species of the Nigerian forest zone. Acta Horticult. 123:165-176.
Okigbo BN (1977). Neglected plants of horticultural and nutritional
gesture are enormous. It could be done in phases; from importance in traditional farming systems of tropical Africa. Acta
low-tech tissue culture to sophisticated DNA Horticult. 53:131-150.
manipulation. Persley GJ (1992). Beyond Mendel’s Garden: Biotechnology in
Agriculture. In: Biotechnology enhancing research on tropical crops in
Africa. CTA/IITA co-publication. pp. 11-19.
Schippers RR (2000). African indigenous vegetable- An overview of the
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT cultivated species. Chatham, UK: NRI/CTA. pp. 213.

The United Nations University/Institute for Natural

Resources in Africa (UNU/INRA) provided the funds and
guidance for our initial project on ethnobotany of the
indigenous leaf vegetables of southwest Nigeria. The
agency also provided the funds for this review of
literature (Project UNU/INRA 2004-0002).

REFERENCES

Adebooye, OC, FMD Ogbe, JF Bamidele (2003). Ethnobotany of

indigenous leaf vegetables of southwest Nigeria. Delpinoa, Italy. Vol.
45: 295-299.
Adebooye OC (2004). Solanecio biafrae (Olive and Heirne), C Jeffery.In
Grubben, GJH Denton OA (Editors). Plant Resources of Tropical
Africa 2: Vegetables. PROTA Foundation, Netherlands/Backhuys
Publishers, Leiden, Netherlands/CTA Wageningen, Netherlands. pp.
469-471.