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Chemistry in everyday life

Drugs and Chemotherapy. Chemicals which interact with macromolecular targets and produce a biological response. When the
biological response is therapeutic and useful, these chemicals are called medicines and are used in diagnosis, prevention and
treatment of diseases. Use of chemicals for therapeutic effect is called chemotherapy,
Classification of Drugs: - (a) On basis of pharmacological effect: - Useful for doctors as it provides them whole range of drugs
available for treatment of particular problem. For eg analgesics have pain killing effect; antiseptics kill microorganisms.
(b) On the basis of drug action: - It is based on action of drug on particular biochemical process. Eg. all antihistamines inhibit
action of histamine which causes inflammation in body. There are various ways in which action of histamines can be blocked.
(c) On basis of chemical structure: - It is based on chemical structure of drug. Drugs classified in this way share common
structural features and often have similar pharmacological activity. Eg. sulphonamides have common structural feature,
(d) On the basis of molecular targets:- Drugs usually interact with biomolecules such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins &
nucleic acids. These are called target molecules or drug targets. Drugs possessing some common structural features have same
mechanism of action on targets. Classification based on molecular targets is most useful classification for medicinal chemists.
Drug-Target Interaction Macromolecules perform various functions Eg: proteins which act as catalysts in body are called
enzymes, which are crucial to communication system in body are receptors. Carrier proteins carry polar molecules across cell
membrane. Nucleic acids have coded genetic information for cell. Lipids & carbohydrates are structural parts of cell membrane.
Enzymes as Drug Targets (a) Catalytic action of enzymes: In their catalytic activity, enzymes perform two major functions:
(i) First function of an enzyme is to hold substrate for chemical reaction. Active sites of enzymes hold substrate molecule in
suitable position, so that it can be attacked by reagent effectively. Substrates bind to active site of enzyme through variety of
interactions such as ionic bonding, hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interaction or dipole-dipole interaction.

Fig. (a) Active site of an enzyme (b) Substrate (c) Substrate held in active site of the enzyme
(ii) Second function of an enzyme is to provide functional groups that will attack the substrate and carry out chemical reaction.
(b) Drug-enzyme interaction: Drugs inhibit activities of enzymes. These can block binding site of enzyme & prevent binding of
substrate, or can inhibit catalytic activity of enzyme. They are called enzyme inhibitors. They work in two different ways:
(i) Drugs compete with natural substrate for their attachment on the active sites of enzymes. Also called competitive inhibitors.

Fig . Drug and substrate competing for active site

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Fig. Non-competitive inhibitor changes the active site of enzyme after binding at allosteric site.
(ii) Some drugs do not bind to the enzyme’s active site. These bind to a different site of enzyme which is called allosteric site.
This binding of inhibitor at allosteric site changes the shape of the active site in such a way that substrate can-not recognise it. If
the bond formed between an enzyme and an inhibitor is a strong covalent bond and cannot be broken easily, then the enzyme is
blocked permanently. The body then degrades the enzyme-inhibitor complex and synthesises the new enzyme.
Receptors as Drug Targets:- Receptors are proteins that are crucial to body’s communication process. Majority of these are
embedded in cell membranes. Receptor proteins are embedded in the cell membrane in such a way that their small part possessing
active site projects out of the surface of the membrane and opens on the outside region of the cell membrane.

Receptor protein embedded in the cell membrane, the active site of the receptor opens on the outside region of the cell. In the
body, message between two neurons and that between neurons to muscles is communicated through certain chemicals. These
chemicals, known as chemical messengers are received at the binding sites of receptor proteins. To accommodate a messenger,
shape of the receptor site changes. This brings about the transfer of message into the cell. Thus, chemical messenger gives
message to the cell without entering the cell.

Fig (a) Receptor receiving chemical messenger (b) Shape of the receptor changed after attachment of messenger (c) Receptor
regains structure after removal of chemical messenger.
There are a large number of different receptors in the body that interact with different chemical messengers. These receptors show
selectivity for one chemical messenger over the other because their binding sites have different shape, structure and amino acid
composition. Drugs that bind to the receptor site and inhibit its natural function are called antagonists. These are useful when

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blocking of message is required. There are other types of drugs that mimic the natural messenger by switching on the receptor,
these are called agonists. These are useful when there is lack of natural chemical messenger.
Drugs may be a single chemical substance or a combination of two or more different substances. An ideal drug should satisfy the
following requirements, when administrated to the ailing individual or host, its action should be localized at the site where it is
desired to act. In actual practice, there is no drug which behaves in this manner.
❑ It should act on a system with efficiency and safety.
❑ It should have minimum side effects.
❑ It should not injure host tissues or physiological processes.
❑ The cell should not acquire resistance to the drug after sometime.
❑ Very few drugs satisfy all the above requirements. Each drug has an optimum dose, below which it has no action and above
this level it becomes a poison.
Chemicals (drugs) used in chemotherapy are usually classified according to their action.
(1) Antipyretic: They are responsible for lowering the temperature of feverish body. Central nervous system, especially
hypothalamus, plays an important role in maintaining balance between the heat production and heat loss in order to regulate body
temperature. Hypothalamus is, thus, known as the thermostat of the body. Antipyretic drug helps to reset thermostat at normal
temperature. Heat production is not inhibited but heat loss is increased by increased peripheral blood flow which increases rate of
perspiration. This causes body to lose heat & subsequently lowers body temperature.
For example: Aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, novalgin and phenyl butazone.
(2) Analgesics: Drugs which relieve or decrease pain are termed analgesics. These are of two types,
(i) Narcotics: These are mainly opium and its products such as morphine, codeine and heroin. These produce analgesia, sleep &
in high doses cause unconsciousness. They are very potent drugs and their chronic use leads to addiction.
(ii) Non-narcotics: They are not potent & not cause addiction. Common drugs are aspirin & analgin. They also behave as
antipyretic.
(3) Antimicrobials: They are used to cure infections due to micro-organisms. Any organism which causes disease is called
pathogen.
The control of microbial diseases can be achieved by the following three ways,
(i) By drugs which kill the organism in the body (bactericidal).
(ii) By drugs which inhibit or arrest the growth of the organism (bacteriostatic) and
(iii) By increasing immunity and resistance to infection of the body (immunity).
Antimicrobial substances may be synthetic chemicals like sulphonamides, paraamino salicylic acid or they may be antibiotics like
tetracycline, penicillin, chloramphenicol, sulphanilamides such as sulphadiazine, sulphadimidine, sulphadimethoxine,
sulphadoxine, sulphasomidine etc.
(4) Antiseptics and disinfectants (i) Antiseptics: The substances which are used to kill or prevent growth of micro-organisms
are called antiseptics. These are not harmful to living tissues and can be safely applied on wounds, cuts, ulcers, diseased skin
surfaces. These are also used to reduce odours resulting from bacterial decomposition of the body or in the mouth. They are,
therefore mixed with deodorants, face powders and breath purifiers. We all must be familiar with antiseptic creams like furacin,
soframycin etc.
(ii) Disinfectants: The substances which are used to kill microorganisms but they cannot be applied on living tissues are called
disinfectants. Therefore, disinfectants also kill micro organisms but these are not safe for living tissues. Disinfectants play a major
role in water treatment and in public health sanitation. These are commonly applied to inanimate objects such as floors,
instruments, etc.

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The same substance can act as disinfectant as well as antiseptic depending upon its concentration. For example, a 0.2% solution of
phenol acts as antiseptic and its 1% solution acts as disinfectant.
The common examples are,
(a) Cl2 is used for making water fit for drinking at a concentration 0.2 to 0.4 ppm.
(b) Dettol is antiseptic. It is a mixture of chloroxylenol & terpeneol in a suitable solvent. Chloroxylenol has both antiseptic &
disinfectant properties.
(c) Bithional is antiseptic added to soaps to reduce odour produced by bacterial decomposition of organic matter on skin.
(d) Iodine is powerful antiseptic. It is used as a tincture of iodine which is 2-3% iodine solution of alcohol-water.
(5) Antibiotics: Substance produced by living cells which is capable of inhibiting life processes / even destroying micro-organism
(6) Antihistamines: They diminish or abolish main actions of histamine released in body & hence prevent allergic reactions. In
other words, antihistamines are also called anti-allergic drugs.
The common antihistamine drugs are diphenylhydramine (Benadryl), pheniramine maleate (Avil), chlorpheniramine (Zeet),
Promethazine, triprolidine (actidil), Antazoline (antistine), Dimethindene (foristal).
(7) Anaesthetics: They produce insensibility to functions of all types of cell especially of nervous system.
(8) Antifertility Drugs: Antibiotic revolution has provided long and healthy life to people. The life expectancy has almost
doubled. The increased population has caused many social problems in terms of food resources, environmental issues,
employment, etc. To control these problems, population is required to be controlled. This has lead to the concept of family
planning. Antifertility drugs are of use in this direction. Birth control pills essentially contain a mixture of synthetic estrogen and
progesterone derivatives. Both of these compounds are hormones. It is known that progesterone suppresses ovulation. Synthetic
progesterone derivatives are more potent than progesterone. Norethindrone is an example of synthetic progesterone derivative
most widely used as antifertility drug. The estrogen derivative which is used in combination with progesterone derivative is
ethynylestradiol (novestrol).
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Q. 1. Define the following by giving one example of each: (i) Antiseptics [SP 13][AI 10][DB 09]
(ii) Antioxidants [SP 13] (iii) Narcotic analgesics [SP 13] (iv) Antacids [DB 09, 11][AI 09 C, 11]
(v) Analgesics [DB 09, 11][AI 10,10C] (vi) Anti fertility drugs [DB 10] (vii) Antibiotics [AI 09C, 10]
(viii) Broad spectrum antibiotics[AI 10C] (ix) Tranquilizers [AI 10 C][DB 08C] (x) Disinfectants [AI 09]
(xi) Antihistamines [AI 08C, 09C]
Q. 2. Mention the action of the following on the human body in bringing relief from a disease:
(i) Brompheniramine [AI 11 C] (ii) Aspirin [AI 11 C] (iii) Equanil [AI 11 C]
(iv) Ranitidine[AI 08] (v) Paracetamol[AI 08] (vi) Tincture of iodine [AI 08]
Q.3. Differentiate between the following & Give one example of each: disinfectants and antiseptics. [AI 11, 12][DB 09, 11]
Q. 4. What are the main constituents of dettol? [DB 10C, 11]
Q. 5. What is tincture of iodine and what is it used for? [AI 2011]
Q. 6. State one use each of DDT and iodoform. [DB 10]
Q. 7. What are analgesic? How are they classified and when are commonly recommended for use? [DB 10][AI 10]
Q. 8. Explain Broad spectrum antibiotic, Give an example and state two diseases for which it is prescribe? [AI 09 C][DB 08C]
Q. 9. Name a substance that can be used as an antiseptic as well disinfectant. [DB 08][AI 08C]
Q. 10. Discuss the two ways in which drugs prevent attachment of natural substrate on active site of an enzyme. [DB 08C]
Q. 11. What are antibiotics? Distinguish between narrow spectrum & broad spectrum antibiotics. Classify following into
Bactericidal bacteriostatic antibiotics: Tetracycline, Penicillin. [AI 2008 C]
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Chemicals in Food: Main categories of food additives are as follows:

(i) Food colours (ii) Flavours and sweeteners (iii) Fat emulsifiers and stabilising agents
(iv) Flour improvers - antistaling agents and bleaches (v) Antioxidants (vi) Preservatives
(vii) Nutritional supplements such as minerals, vitamins and amino acids.
Except (vii), none of above has nutritive value. These are added to increase shelf life of stored food or for cosmetic purposes.
ARTIFICIAL SWEETENING AGENT: Natural sweeteners add to calorie intake & ∴ many people prefer artificial sweeteners.
Ortho-sulphobenzimide or saccharin, about 550 times as sweet as sugar. It is excreted from body in urine unchanged. It appears
to be entirely inert & harmless when taken. It is of great value to diabetic persons & who need to control intake of calories.
Aspartame is most successful & widely used artificial sweetener. It is 100 times as sweet as sugar. It is methyl ester of dipeptide
formed from aspartic acid & phenylalanine. Its use is limited to cold foods & soft drinks as it is unstable at cooking temp.
Alitame is high potency sweetener, it is more stable than aspartame, control of sweetness of food is difficult while using it.
Sucrolose is trichloro derivative of sucrose. Its appearance & taste are like sugar. It is stable at cooking temperature.
FOOD PRESERVATIVES: Food preservatives prevent spoilage of food due to microbial growth. Commonly used preservatives
include table salt, sugar, vegetable oils & sodium benzoate. Salts of sorbic acid & propanoic acid are also used as preservatives.
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Q. 1. Explain the following terms with one suitable example for each:
(i) A sweetening agent for diabetic patients [DB 09C, 11][AI 09] (ii) Food preservatives [AI 09, 10, 11, 12] [DB 11]
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Cleansing Agents: Two types of detergents are used as cleansing agents. These are soaps and synthetic detergents.
These improve cleansing properties of water. These help in removal of fats which bind other materials to the fabric or skin.
SOAPS: Soaps used for cleaning purpose are Na or K salts of long chain fatty acids, e.g., stearic, oleic & palmitic acids. They are
formed by heating fat (i.e. glyceryl ester of fatty acid) with aqueous NaOH solution. Reaction is known as saponification.
In this reaction, esters of fatty acids are hydrolysed & soap obtained remains in colloidal form. It is precipitated from the solution
by adding sodium chloride. The solution left after removing the soap contains glycerol, which can be recovered by fractional
distillation.

Only sodium and potassium soaps are soluble in water and are used for cleaning purposes. Generally potassium soaps are soft to
the skin than sodium soaps. These can be prepared by using potassium hydroxide solution in place of sodium hydroxide.
Types of soaps: Toilet soaps are prepared by using better grades of fats & oils & care is taken to remove excess alkali. Colour &
perfumes are added to make these more attractive.
Why do soaps not work in hard water? Hard water contains calcium & magnesium ions. These ions form insoluble calcium &
magnesium soaps respectively when sodium or potassium soaps are dissolved in hard water.

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These insoluble soaps separate as scum in water and are useless as cleansing agent. In fact these are hinderance to good washing,
because the precipitate adheres onto the fibre of the cloth as gummy mass. Hair washed with hard water looks dull because of this
sticky precipitate. Dye does not absorb evenly on cloth washed with soap using hard water, because of this gummy mass.
Synthetic Detergents: Synthetic detergents are cleansing agents which have all the properties of soaps, but which actually do not
contain any soap. These can be used both in soft and hard water as they give foam even in hard water.
Some of the detergents give foam even in ice cold water. Synthetic detergents are mainly classified into three categories:
(i) Anionic Detergents: Anionic detergents are sodium salts of sulphonated long chain alcohols or hydrocarbons. Alkyl
hydrogensulphates formed by treating long chain alcohols with concentrated sulphuric acid are neutralised with alkali to form
anionic detergents. Similarly alkyl benzene sulphonates are obtained by neutralising alkyl benzene sulphonic acids with alkali.
In these, anionic part of molecule is involved in cleansing action. Sodium salts of alkylbenzenesulphonates are anionic detergents.
They are mostly used for household work. Anionic detergents are also used in toothpastes.

(ii) Cationic Detergents: They are quarternary ammonium salts of amines with acetates,
chlorides or bromides as anions. Cationic part possess long hydrocarbon chain & positive
charge on nitrogen. Hence, these are called cationic detergents. Cetyltrimethylammonium
bromide is popular cationic detergent & is used in hair conditioners. Cationic detergents have
germicidal properties & are expensive, thus are of limited use.
(iii) Non-ionic Detergents: Non-ionic detergents do not contain any ion in their constitution. One such detergent is formed when
stearic acid reacts with polyethyleneglycol.

Liquid dishwashing detergents are non-ionic type. Mechanism of cleansing action of this type of detergents is the same as that of
soaps. These also remove grease and oil by micelle formation.
Main problem that appears in the use of detergents is that if their hydrocarbon chain is highly branched, then bacteria cannot
degrade this easily. Slow degradation of detergents leads to their accumulation. Effluents containing such detergents reach the
rivers, ponds, etc. These persist in water even after sewage treatment and cause foaming in rivers, ponds and streams and their
water gets polluted.
These days the branching of the hydrocarbon chain is controlled and kept to the minimum. Unbranched chains can be biodegraded
more easily and hence pollution is prevented.
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Q. 1. Describe the following giving one example for each:
(i) Detergents [DB 11][AI 10] (ii) Synthetic detergents [AI 2011] (iii) Cationic detergents [DB 08, 09, 10][AI 09, 10C]
(iv) Anionic detergents [AI 2010 C] (v) Nonionic detergents [DB 09][AI 09]
Q. 2. Why do soaps not work in hard water? [DB 11]
Q. 3. what are biodegradable and non-biodegradable detergents? Give one example of each. [DB 08, 11C]
Q. 4. What are anionic detergents? How are they prepared? Write their two main uses. [Delhi Board 2009 C]
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