Haiti

Peace Corps
Kwanyama language lessons

Table of Contents
1 Wa lele po?.......................................................................................................................7
2 Onda fya ondjala!............................................................................................................11
3 Owa dja peni?.................................................................................................................13
4 Oshifima oshinyenye.......................................................................................................19
5 Ovaneumbo vange...........................................................................................................25
6 kOkamba................................................................................................................. ........31
7 Owa uka peni?................................................................................................................37
8 Oundjolowele..................................................................................................................41
9 Omafiku nomafimbo.......................................................................................................53
10 Ohema iwa............................................................................................................ ..........59
11 mEumbo..................................................................................................................... .....65
12 mOshiwambo!............................................................................................................ .....71
Grammar Corners
Personal Pronouns...............................9 Demonstratives....................................49
Verbs...................................................14 The Passive Voice...............................51
Infinitives............................................21 Days of the Week................................55
Commands...........................................21 Telling Time........................................56
Habitual Actions.................................22 Adjectives............................................61
Noun Classes: Singular and Plural......27 More Adjectives..................................62
Questions.............................................28 Comparisons.......................................63
Noun Classes: Possessives..................29 Subordinate Subject Concords............68
Counting..............................................34 In / On / At, Part Two.........................68
Some / Each / All................................36 Subjunctive Verbs...............................69
Coming and Going..............................39 Verb Extensions..................................70
Noun Classes: Subject Concords........40 Oshiwambo.........................................72
Feelings...............................................44 Making It Simple.................................74
Conversational Words.........................45 Further Reading..................................77
Object Pronouns..................................48
Technical Language Units

Appendix A: mOngulu..............................................................................................................79
Appendix B: nOvakalimo..........................................................................................................81
Appendix C: Efe nge!......................................................................................................... .......83
Appendix D: Grammar Reference.............................................................................................85
Appendix E: Grammar Reference(handy tear-out)....................................................................87
Introduction
If you want to learn Oshikwanyama

But you find that it makes you ehama
Don't give up so diva!
With this book, you will shiiva
Your lips will move smooth like Rama.
Congratulations! You have, in your hands, the product of two years of love, sweat,
tears, and copious amounts of coffee. We wrote this language guide while serving in
Owambo as volunteer teachers. Our reasons were partly self-serving – writing about
the language helped us to understand it better ourselves – but we hope it will be of use
to anyone else who wants to embark on the adventure of learning Oshikwanyama. It’s
a wonderful journey, and we’re glad to join you on the road.
But now, down to business. As someone immersed in a new culture, possibly for the
first time, your linguistic needs are twofold. First, you need to learn how to function.
This book tackles this objective by presenting a series of content-oriented chapters that
will familiarize you with the vocabulary and phrases of daily life.
The second need is to understand the structure of the language so that you can build
your own statements and truly communicate. To this end, a series of Grammar Corner
sections are interwoven through the chapters. Because we wanted to provide a
reasonably complete grammar reference, you may find that the grammar sections
advance at a faster pace than the corresponding vocabulary lessons. If you don’t
understand them the first time around, you can always come back to them later.
This book began as a revision of a training manual for Peace Corps volunteers, but its
scope has broadened over time. It should be useful for anyone trying to learn
Oshikwanyama, but is most appropriate for people who go to stay among
Oshikwanyama speakers in Owambo.
You can access this book in its entirety over the internet at
http://www.schoolnet.na/language/. The web site also has a glossary of words
appearing in the book, as well as an answer key to the exercises.
Acknowledgements
We would like to extend our thanks, in no particular order, to: Aaron Cooper, for the
Oshindonga proverbs, compiled by his English class at Elombe JSS and translated to
Oshikwanyama by Meme Feni Haipinge and Tate Julius Hamunyela (a few proverbs
were taken from Paavo Hasheela's excellent book Omishe di dule eyovi (Gamsberg-
Macmillan, 1993); Laura Veuve, who contributed the appendix, Efe nge!; Linda
Shilongo for supporting this project and proofreading numerous drafts; SchoolNet
Namibia for hosting the online version; and, most of all, the families and communities
that put up with us and put us up for two years: Tate Kakololo Itope in Oshitayi,
Meme Sylvia Uahengo in Onanghulo, and Tatekulu Ephraim Angula in Olukonda.
Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 5

1 Wa lele po?
A: Ongula Tate: Ehee. Ove wa uhala po, Meme

Estera?
Tate: Wa lele po, Meme Liina? Meme: Ehee.
Meme: Ehee. Tate: Nawa tuu?
Tate: Nawa tuu? Meme: Ehee, onawa.
Meme: Ehee. Ove wa lele po, Tate
Petrus?
Tate: Ehee. D: Onguloshi
Meme: Nawa tuu? Meme: Wa tokelwa po, Tate Josefa?
Tate: Ehee, onawa. Tate: Ehee.
Meme: Nawa tuu?
B: Ongula Tate: Ehee. Ove wa tokelwa po,
Meme Maria?
Tate: Kala po nawa, Meme Liina. Meme: Ehee.
Meme: Eewa, enda po nawa Tate Tate: Nawa?
Petrus. Meme: Ehee, onawa.
C: Komatango E: Ookaume
Meme: Wa uhala po, Tate Landu? Beata: Ongaipi, Andreas?
Tate: Ehee. Andreas: Onawa, kaume. Ongaipi?
Meme: Nawa tuu? Beata: Onawa.

English Oshikwanyama
Good Nawa
Morning Ongula
Afternoon (mid-day heat) Omutenya
Afternoon (late afternoon) Komatango
Evening Onguloshi
Night Oufiku
Friends ooKaume
Yes Ehee / Ee / Heeno
No Ahowe / Aaye
OK Eewa
Good morning Wa lele po?
Good afternoon Wa uhala po?
Good evening Wa tokelwa po?
Hello (and other informal greetings) Ongaipi / Ongiini
Go well Enda po nawa
Stay well Kala po nawa
Sleep well (someone leaving for bed) Ka nangale po nawa
Sleep well (someone you're leaving) Nangala po nawa
Exercise 1 Exercise 3
Translate the following conversation Fill in the missing words in the
into English: following conversation:
A: Wa uhala po Meme ...............? A: Wa................... po
B: Ehee. Meme................................?
A: Nawa tuu? B: .......................
B: Ehee, ove wa uhala po A: Onawa .................?
Meme ..............? B: Ehee, wa ....................... po
A: Ehee. Meme ..........................?
B: Nawa tuu? A: Ehee.
A: Ehee, Onawa. B: Nawa tuu?
A: Ehee, onawa.
Exercise 2
Fill in the missing words in the Exercise 4
following conversation: Have a friend greet you for all of the
A: Wa ..................... po times of day. Practice until you can
Meme .....................................? do it without thinking.
B: ...............
A: Nawa tuu?
B: Ehee, .................... Wa lele po
Tate ...............................?
A: Ehee.
B: Onawa tuu?
A: ..................
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Eyoka lakula itali ku hange u na odibo. ~
A big snake will not find you if you have a stick.
(If you are always ready you will not have problems.)
8 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

CULTURAL INFORMATION
• Greet first before asking or saying anything, even in a shop or on the
telephone.
• Always take time and shake hands when greeting.
• Always greet elders first.
• When greeting, females should bend their knees and males should
nod their heads.
• Greeting passersby is considered very polite. It is often expected in
the villages, but in town it is not necessary.
• It is normal for the person who comes to a group of people to initiate
greeting.
• Words like Meme (mother), Tate (father), and especially Meekulu
(grandmother) and Tatekulu (grandfather) show respect and are just
as important as the greeting itself.
• Touch your right elbow to show extra respect.
• Literally, if someone says Wa lele po, they are asking if you laid
down last night. Wa uhala po asks if you spent the afternoon, and
wa tokelwa po asks if the sky became white for you at dusk. For the
record, the answer is always Ehee.
Grammar Corner: Personal Pronouns

In English, we have three different persons: I, you, and he/she/it, as well as their plural
counterparts: we, you all, and they. It is very similar in Oshikwanyama:
I Ame
You Ove
He/She Ye
We Fye
You all Nye
They Vo
Oshikwanyama makes no distinction between “he” and “she” – they are both referred
to as ye.
Quick Tip
Ngaa and tuu are used quite often for emphasis and carry a meaning
similar to “really” or “rather”.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Okuti kwa dala. ~
The forest has delivered (you).
(Welcome home, after a long journey.)

Grammar Corner: Numbers
Here are the counting numbers in Oshikwanyama.
One Imwe
Two Mbali
Three Nhatu
Four Nhee
Five Nhano
Six Hamano
Seven Heyali
Eight Hetatu
Nine Omuwoi
Ten Omulongo
Eleven (Ten and one) Omulongo na imwe
Twelve (Ten and two) Omulongo nambali
Twenty (Two tens) Omilongo mbali
Twenty-five (Two tens and five) Omilongo mbali nanhano
Thirty (Three tens) Omilongo nhatu
One hundred Efele
Two hundred Omafele avali
Three hundred Omafele atatu
One thousand Eyovi
Two thousand Omayovi avali
Counting things (e.g. two goats, fifteen people) is a bit trickier, and is explained in
Grammar Corner: Counting. The Oshikwanyama number Omafele avali (two
hundred) literally means "two hundreds".

2 Onda fya ondjala!
Onda fya ondjala. Ihandi li ombelela.
Onda fya enota. Kandi udite ko...
Onda kuta. Aame ............... Oove

lye?
Onda mana.
Oikulya inyenye!
Onda loloka, onda hala

okukofa. Tangi unene.
Omeva oku li peni? Okandjuwo oke li peni?
I’m hungry. Onda fya ondjala.
I’m thirsty. Onda fya enota.
I’m full. Onda kuta.
I’m finished. Onda mana.
I’m tired, I want to go to sleep. Onda loloka, onda hala okukofa.
Where is the water? Omeva oku li peni?
I don’t eat meat. Ihandi li ombelela.
I don’t understand... Kandi udite ko...
I’m ............... What’s your name? Aame ............... Oove lye?
The food is very good! Oikulya inyenye! / Oikulya iwa
Thank you very much. Tangi unene.
Where is the latrine? Okandjuwo oke li peni?

I need …….. Onda pumbwa ……..
I want …….. (polite) Onda hala ……..
May I have .......... (very polite) Kwafe nge / Kwafele nge .........
Give me .......... (informal) Pe nge ..........
Water Omeva (often "omeya")
Basin Oshiyaxa
To sleep Okukofa
To eat Okulya
To bathe Okulikosha
Body soap Ofewa (yokulikosha)
Candle Okalexita
Cup Okakopi
Beer Obiila
Help (noun) Ekwafo
Key Oshapi / Oshipatululo
And / With Na
Also / Still / Again Natango
Or Ile
I don't know Kandi shi shii
Exercise 1
Translate the following requests into Oshikwanyama.
Example: I want to eat meat → Onda hala okulya ombelela
1. I need a candle.
2. I want to sleep.
3. May I have a cup?
4. I want to bathe. I need water, a basin, and body soap.
5. I am hungry, I want to eat.
6. I need a beer.
Quick Tips
• There are no articles (a, an, the) in Oshikwanyama
• There is no literal translation for “please” in Oshikwanyama. To
express politeness, put kwafe nge or kwafelenge (“help me / help for
me”) before what you want to say.
• Alikana, a word commonly translated as “please”, adds a sense of
urgency or exasperation to a request.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Kape na okadila ihaka tilyana komulungu. ~
There is no bird that never gets ripe fruit on its lips.
(Everyone is served [someday/somehow]. [Where’s mine?])

3 Owa dja peni?
Zach: Wa uhala po nawa Meme?

Saima: Ehee. Wa uhala po Tate?
Zach: Ehee. Oshi li ngaipi?

Saima: Oshi li nawa. Edina loye olye?
Zach: Edina lange oZach. Edina loye olye?

Saima: Edina lange oSaima. Zach, owa dja peni?
Zach: Onda dja koAmerika.

Saima: O.K… Oto ningi shike moNamibia?
Zach: Ame omulongi ouliyambi.

Saima: Oto ka longa shike apa?
Zach: Ohandi ka longa omwaalu, oshiingilisa, nounongononi.

Saima: Oto ka kala mo efimbo li fike peni?
Zach: Ohandi ka kala mo eedula mbali.

Saima: Eewa. Oshi liwete nale, kaume.
Zach: Eewa. Kala po nawa.

Saima: Eewa.

Grammar Corner: Verbs
In English, verbs change to agree with the subject of the sentence. For example, I run,
but he runs. In Oshikwanyama, verbs are made to agree with their subjects by the use
of a linking word. These linking words are called subject concords. For example,
between ame (I) and li (eat), we must put the first-person subject concord, ohandi:
Ame ohandi li.
There are two sets of subject concords, one for the so-called “active verbs” and one
for the “stative verbs”. In addition, there are different subject concords for positive and
negative statements: ame ohandi nu (I am drinking) versus ame itandi nu (I am not
drinking).
The negative subject concords are listed below their positive counterparts in the
following tables.
Subject Concords for Active Verbs

Person Past Present Future
+ Onda Ohandi / Ohai Ohandi ka
Ame
– Inandi Itandi Itandi ka
+ Owa Oto Oto ka
Ove
– Ino Ito Ito ka
+ Okwa Ota Ota ka
Ye
– Ina Ita Ita ka
+ Otwa Ohatu Ohatu ka
Fye
– Inatu Itatu Itatu ka
+ Omwa Otamu Otamu ka
Nye
– Inamu Itamu Itamu ka
+ Ova Otaa / Otava Otaa ka / Otava ka
Vo
– Inaa / Inava Itaa / Itava Itaa ka / Itava ka
Subject Concords for Stative Verbs

Person Past Present Future
+ Onda li ndi Ondi Ohandi ka kala ndi
Ame
– Kanda li ndi Kandi / Nghi Itandi ka kala ndi
+ Owa li u Ou Oto ka kala u
Ove
– Kwa li u Ku Ito ka kala u
+ Okwa li e Oku Ota ka kala e
Ye
– Ka li e Ke Ita ka kala e
+ Otwa li tu Otu Ohatu ka kala tu
Fye
– Katwa li tu Katu Itatu ka kala tu
+ Omwa li mu Omu Otamu ka kala mu
Nye
– Kamwa li mu Kamu Itamu ka kala mu
+ Ova li ve Ove Otava ka kala ye
Vo
– Kava li ve Kave Itava ka kala ve

Common Active Verbs
English Past Present Future
Eat lya li lya
Drink nwa nu nwa
Work / Teach longa longo longa
Study / Learn lilonga lilongo lilonga
Sleep kofa kofa kofa
Go ya i ya
Look tala tale tala
Common Stative Verbs

See * wete *
Be li li li
Love / Like hole hole hole
Have na na na
Know ** shi **
Feel / Hear *** udite ***
Understand *** udite ko ***
* The past and future tenses of “see” are expressed with the active verb mona.
** The past and future tenses of “know” are expressed with the active verb shiiva.
*** The past and future tenses of “feel / understand” are expressed with the active
verb, uda / uda ko.
To form a sentence with an active verb, put the proper subject concord in front of the
verb you want. Since the subject concords are different for each person, it is not
necessary to state the subject (ame, ove, etc.). For example:
I am eating → (I, present tense, active verbs) +
(eating, present tense)
Ohandi + li
Ohandi li
I ate → Onda lya
I ate meat → Onda lya ombelela
I am not working → Itandi longo
He is speaking → Ota popi Oshikwanyama
Oshikwanyama
We will go tomorrow → Ohatu ka ya mongula
It is the same with the stative verbs:
I like traditional porridge! → Ondi hole oshifima!
Do you have a pen? → Ou na opena?
I do not know Afrikaans. → Kandi shi shii Oshimbulu.
You might have noticed a few patterns in the subject concords:
For active verbs, the future is just the present concord + ka.
For active verbs, the negative present concords are the same as the positive
concords, but with the first O changed to an I.
There are a number of other patterns to the charts. Naming them all is left as an
exercise for the reader.

How is it going? Oshi li ngaipi?
It is going well. Oshi li nawa.
What is your name? Edina loye olye?
My name is __________ Edina lange o________
Where are you from? Owa dja peni?
I am from ____________ Onda dja ko_____________
What are you doing in Namibia? Oto ningi shike moNamibia?
I am a volunteer teacher. Ame omulongi omuliyambi.
I am a teacher trainer. Ohandi deula ovalongi.
I am an IT volunteer. Ohandi longo eekompiuta.
What will you teach here? Oto ka longa shike apa?
I will teach maths, English, and Ohandi ka longa omwaalu,
science. noshiingilisa, nounongoni.
For how long will you be here? Oto ka kala mo efimbo li fike peni?
I will be here for two years. Ohandi ka kala mo eedula mbali.
See you later, friend. Oshi liwete nale, kaume.
How old are you? Ou na eedula ngapi?
I am _____ years old. Ondi na eedula _______.
Quick Tip : What's the deal with stative verbs?

Stative verbs are a small group of frequently-used verbs in
Oshikwanyama. (You won't hear too many that aren't listed in the
above chart.) They are often referred to as non-action verbs because
they do not involve as much action on the part of the subject as, say,
running or cooking. As you can see, they have their own set of
concords, which must be memorized. Don't worry too much about past
or future forms; they are used infrequently, and you'll be in a better
position to learn them later.
Exercise 1
Translate the following sentences to Oshikwanyama:
1. I will sleep.
2. We love to eat meat.
3. I am studying Oshikwanyama.
4. She will go to Oshakati.
5. They drank water.

Exercise 2
Fill in the blanks with the appropriate present-tense stative subject concords.
1. [Ame] ........... na epulo.
2. [Vo] ........... wete oshikombo.
3. [Ye] ........... hole okulonga mepya.
4. [Ove] ........... hole okulonga mepya.
5. [Fye] ........... li moNamibia.
Exercise 3
Change the following sentences to the indicated tenses.
1. Ame ohandi nyola.
(past ) ..............................................................................................................
(future) ............................................................................................................
2. Onda lesha embo.
(present) ..........................................................................................................
(future) ............................................................................................................
3. Ohandi ka pwilikina.
(present) ..........................................................................................................
(past) ...............................................................................................................
4. Ame ohandi ka dima oshipelende.
(present) ..........................................................................................................
(past) ...............................................................................................................
5. Onda patulula ekende.
(present) ..........................................................................................................
(future) ............................................................................................................
Exercise 4
Fill in the missing words in the following conversation:
1. Edina lange oJuliusa. ...................... loye olye?
2. Edina ........................... oHileni.
3. Onda ........................... kEtilashi. Ove owa dja peni?
4. .................................... dja kOnanghulo.
Exercise 5
Translate the following questions to Oshikwanyama and answer in complete
sentences:
1. What is your name?
2. Where are you from?
3. For how long will you be in Namibia?
4. What will you do in Namibia?
5. How old are you?

Exercise 6
Correspond phrases in English to Oshikwanyama and vice-versa.
Owa dja peni? How old are you?
What is your name? Eumbo loye, oli li peni?
Where is your home? Edina loye olye?
For how long will you be here? Ame omukwatakanifi womukifi
wo HIV/AIDS.
Owu na eedula ngapi? Oto ka kala mo efimbo li fike
peni?
I am a volunteer teacher. Where are you working?
Oto longo peni? Where are you from?
I am an HIV/AIDS coordinator. Ame omulongi omuliyambi.
Okwiimba
The following song was written for American volunteer teachers. It is sung to the
tune of “My Darling Clementine”. It’s fun to sing and can easily be adapted to
your situation.
Eimbilo lovaliyambi
Fy'ovalongi valiyambi vaNamibia vaholike
’Twa dja koAmerika Tu longeni nombili
Tu kwafele Namibia Tu kwafele Namibia
Ehongo li xume ko Ehongo li xume ko
Quick Tip
In spoken Oshikwanyama, the initial o- on subject concords is not
emphasized very much. Where it says ’Twa dja ko ... in the song, you can
read it as Otwa dja ko...
Quicker Tip
Putting ha in front of a word negates that word.
Aame → It’s me.
Haame → It’s not me.
okwiimba → to sing
okuhaimba → not to sing
This is frequently used in the expression Hasho? → Is it not so?,
answerable by Osho. → It is so.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Hamutwe u ha tila mbudi. ~
A trouble-maker is not afraid of causing problems.
(You are causing problems everywhere you go.)

4 Oshifima oshinyenye
Tula omeva mombiya na tula ombiya pediko. Fulukifa omeva nde to tula mo oufila.
Pilula noluko ominute omilongo mbali. Tula oshifima poshiyaxa noluko. Teelela ile oto
pi. Lya nombelela ile nombidi. Oshifima oshinyenye!

Put (in/on/...) Tula (mo/po/...) Tula (mo/po/...) Tula (mo/po/...)
Boil Fulukifa Fulukifa Fulukifa
Stir Pilula Pilula Pilula
Wait Teelela Teelele Teelela
Burn yourself Pya Pi Pya
Cook Teleka Teleke Teleka
Bring Eta Eta Eta
Pound Twa Tu Twa
Take (from someone) Tambula Tambula Tambula
Pick (from many) Kufa Kufa Kufa

Traditional porridge Oshifima / Oifima
Meat Ombelela
Cabbage / Spinach Ombidi
Dried spinach Evanda
Goat Oshikombo
Beef Ombelela yongobe
Chicken Oxuxwa
Dog Ombwa
Fish Oshi
Field mouse Omhuku
Frog Efuma
Soup Oshopa
Pasta Omakoloni
Rice Olwiishi
Oil Omaadi
Tomato / Tomato sauce (Ketchup) Etama / Edama
Salt Omongwa
Fat cakes Oukuki
Apple Oshiyapela / Eyapela
Flour Oufila
Sugar Osuuka
Millet Omahangu
Traditional non-alcoholic drinks Oshikundu / Oshinwa
Traditional alcoholic drinks Omalodu, Otombo, Ombike
Bread Omboloto
Jam Ongema
Butter Ombuta
Beans Omakunde
Tea Otee
Coffee Okofi
Cooldrink Onamunate
Pot Ombiya
Bowl / Basin Oshiyaxa
Plate Okayaxa
Traditional clay pot Etiti
Spoon Olunguto
Fork Ofoloka
Knife Ombele
Hand Eke / Eenyala
Cooking stick Oluko
Fire Omundilo
Cooking fire Ediko
Match Okapalwa
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Lya odididi u didilike. Lya okadila u diladile. Lya omhuku u pukuluke.
Lya ongungu u ngungumane. ~
Eat an ant and remember. Eat a bird and think. Eat a mouse and be alert. Eat a bulb and be calm.
(It is important to remember, think, be alert, and be calm.)

Grammar Corner: Infinitives and Commands
Infinitives
Recall the verbs we saw in Chapter 2, Exercise 1:
To sleep Okukofa
To eat Okulya
To sing Okwiimba
On the left side, we have infinitive verbs in English. On the right, we have infinitive
verbs in Oshikwanyama. Fortunately, they are used in the same way in both languages.
Notice that the Oshikwanyama infinitive verbs are the past/future verb forms with the
prefix oku-. The only exceptions are those verbs beginning in vowels. For these,
change oku- to okw- and double the vowel, e.g. oku + imba → okwiimba.
By now, you’ve probably noticed that the past and future forms of verbs (not the
subject concords) are always the same. Often the present tense is the same as the past
and future: Onda kofa, ohandi kofa, ohandi ka kofa. Because this is the case, we will
stop writing verbs in past / present / future tables, and just write (in this case) kofa. For
verbs like “eat”, we will write lya (li): Onda lya, ohandi li, ohandi ka lya. The present
form is put in parentheses.
Commands
To form a command in Oshikwanyama, just say the past / future tense of the verb
without a subject concord:
Put the flour in the pot. → Tula oufila mombiya.
Eat meat! → Lya ombelela!
Wait ten minutes. → Teelela ominute omulongo.
Stay well. → Kala po nawa.
There are only a few irregular commands:
Go (away)! → Inda!
Come! → Ila!
If you are talking to a group of people, take off the last a and put on -eni:
Come (many people) → Ileni!
Stay well (many people) → Kaleni po nawa.
Also said: Kalii po nawa.
To make a negative command, put ino or inamu before the command:
Don’t be afraid! → Ino tila!
Don’t go! (many people) → Inamu ya!
Note that for negative commands, you use the past / future tense of the verb, not any
irregular forms, and without adding -eni.

Grammar Corner: Habitual Actions
Observe the following translations:
Meme Sylvia ota li ombelela. → Meme Sylvia is eating meat.
Meme Sylvia oha li ombelela. → Meme Sylvia eats meat.
Oho li ombidi? → Do you eat cabbage?
Iha li oshi. → S/he does not eat fish [in
general].
Ita li oshi. → S/he is not eating fish [right
now].
Like in English, the present simple tense in Oshikwanyama is used to talk about actions
that are ongoing. This kind of subject concord is formed from the normal present
tense, but replacing the first t with an h when applicable.
Exercise 1
Respond to the following questions in Oshikwanyama.
1. Ou hole okunwa obiila?
2. Oho li oshifima?
3. Oho li oshikombo?
4. Owa hala okunwa onamunate?
5. OvaNamibia ove hole okulya ombelela. Naave, ou hole?
6. Oho nu okofi ile otee?
7. Oho li ombwa?
8. Ondi hole okulya oukuki. Ove ou hole?
Exercise 2
Translate the following commands into Oshikwanyama.
1. Boil water!
2. You (plural) come now.
3. Please bring bread.
4. Eat fat cakes.
5. Cook frog!
6. Bring beans.
7. Go to the toilet.
8. Please give me the oshifima and ombidi.
9. Bring the apple!
10. Please give me the tea.
11. Help me one dollar.

Grammar Corner: Talking about Talking
While this book should give you a good foundation in Oshikwanyama, there are going
to be situations in which you will need to ask native speakers for more information
about their language. Here are some useful words and phrases to help you get started:
How do you say ... in ... otashi ti ngaipi mOshikwanyama?
Oshikwanyama?
What does ... mean? ... otashi ti ngaipi?
Word Oshitya
What is this/that? Eshi / Osho oshike?
Another basic aspect in communication is telling someone what another person has
said. Below is a table of some phrases that come in handy when relating a story:
Say Tya (Ti)
He/she/they said that Va ti
He/she says that Ota ti kutya
Hey! / I say! Ohandi ti! / Ohai ti! / Hai ti!
What did he/she/they say? Okwa ti ngaipi?
Quick Tip
Va ti (literally, "they said") can also carry the sense of "supposedly" or
"allegedly".
Exercise 3
You and a friend go to visit your Meekulu. She can’t hear all that well, so after
your friend speaks, you need to repeat what he said. Use words like va ti, ota ti
kutya, etc. Don’t forget to change the subject concord, if needed. The first one has
been done for you.
Friend: Wa uhala po, Meekulu? Meekulu: Oooooooh, oho landifa
Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi? eengodi dopeke. Owa kala mo efimbo li
fike peni?
You: Okwa ti wa uhala po nawa, kuku?
Friend: Onda kala mo eedula nhano.
Meekulu: Oh, onda uhala po nawa. Owa
dja peni kaume? Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi?
Friend: Onda dja koAngola. You: .......................................................
Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi? Meekulu: Ooh, eedula mbali...
You: ...................................................... Friend: Eewa, Meekulu. Kala po nawa.
Meekulu: Oh, koAngolaaaa! Oto ningi Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi?

shike moNamibia? You: .......................................................
Friend: Ohandi landifa eengodi dopeke. Meekulu: Eewa kaume, enda po nawa.
(cell phones) U etela nge ouleke!
Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi? Friend: Eewa Meekulu.
You: .......................................................

Grammar Corner: In / On / At
Perhaps after reading the recipe for oshifima you are wondering what mombiya means.
Ombiya is “pot”, but mombiya? Two things to note:
1. There are three important prepositions of place in Oshikwanyama, mo, po, and ko.
These can be roughly translated as follows:
In / Inside Mo
On / On top of Po
At / To / By Ko
2. When you have a phrase like “in the pot”, you might think of writing **mo ombiya,
but it is actually written (and said) mombiya. The same thing goes for po, ko, and
na (“and/with”).
Somewhat confusingly, mo, po, and ko are also used on their own as pronouns of
place. That is, mo can mean “in there”, po can mean “there”, and ko can mean “over
there”. Po usually refers to a place you can see, whereas ko is far away. See Grammar
Corner: In / On / At, Part Two for more information.
• Don’t smell food.
• Don’t sing while eating.
• It is rude to refuse food. Refuse politely e.g. “Thank you but I’m
full. I just ate.”
• It is traditional (as well as hygenic) to wash your hands before
eating.
• Do not pass food or drink behind someone’s back.
• When offering home-made food or drink always taste it first, in the
presence of the person. This is to show that the comestible is
nawa.
• Eat oshifima with your right hand only.
• Take meat with your right hand, but put it in your left hand to hold
and eat it.
• The word for "meat" in Oshikwanyama was originally onyama.
Ovakwanyama, the Kwanyama people, are literally "the people of
the meat." due to traditional beliefs about names, the word
onyama became taboo and replaced by the word ombelela, which
comes from the verb okuvelela, to dip. (Zimmermann et. al., 28)
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Sha na kulya osha na kulonga. ~
If you want food, you must work.
(If you want something, you have to work for it.)

5 Ovaneumbo vange
Edina lange oSalom. Onda dja

kOshikwiyu. Ondi na eedula omilongo
mbali na hetatu. Ohandi kala
novakulunhu vange.
Meme wange edina laye oSaima. Oku na

eedula omilongo nhano na nhano.
Tate wange edina laye oTangeni. Oku na

eedula omilongo hamano na imwe.
Ondi na ovamwameme yatatu,

omumwamemekadona umwe
novamwamememati vavali. Ame
onowele.
Omumwamemekadona edina laye

oTresia. Oku na eedula omilongo nhatu.
Ye oshiveli. Oha kala nomushamane
waye kOshakati.
Omumwamememati edina laye

oNangolo. Oku na eedula omilongo
mbali nanhano. Oha kala novakulunhu
yetu kOshikwiyu. Naye onowele.
Onghelo yetu oFrans oku na eedula

omilongo mbali nambali. Oha kala
kOvenduka kouniveesiti.
Meekulu wange oha kala nafye. Oku na

eedula omilongo hetatu na imwe.
Naave, oove lye?

Family Ovaneumbo / Edimo
My father Tate
Your father Xo
His/her father Xe
My mother Meme
Your mother Nyoko
His/her mother Ina
My sibling Omumwameme
My brother Omumwamememati
My sister Omumwamemekadona
Your sibling Omumwanyoko
His/her sibling Omumwaina
Little brother or sister Okandenge
Grandmother Me(m)ekulu
Grandfather Tatekulu
Child Okaana (plural: Ounona)
Baby Okaana / Okahanana
First-born Oshiveli
Middle-born (neither first nor last) Onowele
Last-born Onghelo
Friend Kaume
Female friend Kahewa
Visitor Omweenda / Omutalelipo
Neighbor Omushiinda
Husband / Man Omus(h)amane
Wife / Woman Omukulukadi
Fiancé (man) Omuvaleki
Fiancée (woman) Omuvalekwa
I am engaged. (woman) Onda valekwa.
Parents Ovakulunhu
Young person Omunyasha
Younger person (than you) Omunini
Elder person Omukulunhu
Who’s that? Olye oo?
Quick Tips
• As you can see, the Oshikwanyama words for “sister” and “brother”
are just specialized forms of “sibling”. So to make “his brother”, you
would say omumwaina + mati = omumwainamati.
• The words for “mother” and “father” depend on the person to whom
you are referring. However, it is acceptable to use meme and tate to
speak of any mother or father. For example, to say “his mother”, you
can say ina, or you can simply say meme waye (literally, “his 'my
mother'”).
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Oshififinwa ohashi shikula omhadi. ~
The heel follows the foot.
(You follow the behavior of your family.)

Grammar Corner: Noun Classes: Singular and Plural
In English, nouns can be divided into two groups, singular and plural. In Romance
languages, nouns can have genders, and adjectives have to agree with nouns in gender
and number. In Oshikwanyama, there are many different classes of nouns, which are
determined by the prefix that the noun has. Each class makes plurals in a different way,
as shown in the chart below.
Noun class Prefix of singular nouns Prefix of plural nouns
1* omu- ova-
1a** (none) oo-
2*** omu- omi-
3 e- oma-
4 oshi- oi-
5**** o- ee-
6 olu- omalu-
7 oka- ou-
8***** ou- omau-
9 oku- omaku- / oma -
* Noun class 1 only contains nouns that refer to people.
** Noun class 1a only contains nouns that refer to people, but that do not begin with
omu-, e.g. Tate, Meme, Kuku, as well as people’s names.
*** Noun class 2 has nouns that begin with omu- but do not refer to people.
**** If a noun cannot be a member of any other class, it belongs to noun class 5.
***** Ou- as a singular prefix generally refers to abstract concepts, e.g. oufiku
(night) and outalala (cold). The plural form is used rarely.
You will probably begin to notice that certain noun prefixes are used for certain kinds
of things. For example, names of trees have the prefix omu- (class 2), and small things
start with oka-.
Exercise 1
Translate the following Oshikwanyama words into English, then form their plural
in Oshikwanyama.
Example: Omumwameme → Sibling → Ovamwameme
Oshikwanyama Noun English Meaning Plural in Oshikwanyama
Omumwamemekadona
Tate
Omushiinda
Kaume
Omumwaina
Etanga
Okayaxa
Omulongo
Ongobe
Oshikombo

Grammar Corner: Questions
Listed below are some common question words.
Where? Peni?
When? (which day) Naini?
When? (what time) Efimbo peni?
Who? (O)lye?
Why? Omolwashike? / Oshike?
What? (O)shike?
How? (O)ngaipi? / (O)ngahelipi
How many? -ngapi?
Which? -lipi?
Questions are formed in two ways. The first way is to put the question word at the end
of the sentence:
Where are you going? → Oto i peni?
What are you doing? → Oto ningi shike?
Where is Meme Sylvia? → Meme Sylvia oku li peni?
The second way is to put the question word at the beginning of the sentence. In this
case, the initial o on the subject concord shifts to go in front of the question word:
Who is singing? → Olye ta imbi?
Why are you crying? → Omolwashike to lili?
Informal questions are often followed by hano, as in oto i peni, hano? There is a
tendency to drop the final o, so it is often pronounced ’to i penyan?
Translations of "how many" and "which" are given here for your information. Using
them is a bit tricky. For more information, see chapter six.
Exercise 2
Answer the following questions about Salom’s family.
1. Salom oku na ovamwaina vangapi?
2. Meekulu waye oku na eedula ngapi?
3. Omumwainakadona waye oha kala peni?
4. Salom okwa dja peni?
5. Frans ota ningi shike kOvenduka?
6. Oshike Tresia iha kala na Salom?
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Oshi ya twa mumwe noshima. ~
A fish is cooked with a tortoise.
(You have to take the bad things with the good.)

Grammar Corner: Noun Classes: Possessives
Take another look at the beginning of this chapter: Edina lange oSalom. Literally,
“My name is Salom.” At the end of the same paragraph, we have ovakulunhu vange,
“my parents”. You may already see that the words that indicate possession (“my”,
“your”, etc.) depend on what is being possessed: “my” can translate as lange, or
yange, or even other words. The root of all these words, -ange, denotes “my”. The
prefix must agree with the possessed object.
Noun prefix Possessive pronoun prefix
omu- w-
ova- v-
omu- (not people) w-
omi- d-
e- l-
oma- -
oshi- sh-
oi- y-
olu- l(w)-
oka- k-
ou- (plural) v-
ou- (singular) w-
oku- kw-
o- (anything else - group 5 singular) y-
ee- (group 5 plural) d-
To form a possessive pronoun, select the proper prefix from the chart above and
combine it with the root of the person you want:
English Oshikwanyama person Possessive Root
My Ame -ange
Your Ove -oye
His/Her/Its Ye -aye
Our Fye -etu
Your (plural) Nye -eni
Their Vo -avo
For now, focus on groups 1 and 5 and “my” and “your”. Use w-/v- with people and y-/
d- with things. This is a lot of information right now, so try to break it into the pieces
that you will use most often. With enough practice, this will come to you naturally.
My learner → omulongwa w-ange
Your elders → ovakulupe v-oye
My pen → opena yange
Your pens → eepena doye
Exercise 3
a. Draw up your own family tree. Present it to a friend.
b. Ask who the members of an Owambo family are and how they relate to each
other. Then draw up their family tree. Good lucky!

Exercise 4
Match each noun with the correct possessive concord.
meme (my) loye
ongobe (your) wange
kaume/kahewa (his/her) vaye
omatako (my) yange
okaana (our) yavo
oihauto (their) yoye
omiti (y’all’s) ange
ovanhu (his/her) yoye
omhadi (my) koye
olukaku (your) ketu
omakutwi (their) letu
oikombo (their) yavo
okayaxa (your) kaye
ohema (your) deni
eumbo (our) avo
• Having many members in the family is regarded as a good thing,
because the workload in the household can be divided amongst
everyone.
• All my mother’s sisters (aunts) are my mothers.
• All my father’s brothers are my fathers.
• Cousins are sometimes known as brothers and sisters.
• If you can figure out how everyone on a homestead is related, you
are a genius. Or, the family speaks very good English.
• If a meme calls you, you should respond Meem’. If you are
summoned by your Tate, say Taat’. If it is by an older person, say
Mee’ku or Tatee’ku. Otherwise, say ee.
Oshikundu Shetu by Papa François

Oshikundu shetu Oshifima shetu
Omalodu etu Omungome wetu
Omaongo etu Omahola etu
Oikulya yo moNamibia Oikulya yo moNamibia

6 kOkamba
A: Wa uhala po, tate? A: Ooh, ondilo unene. Hmm... omu na

B: Heeno, meme. oukuki?
A: Nawa tuu? B: Ehee.
B: Ehee, ondi li nawa. Ove wa uhala A: Ove na ingapi?
po, meme? B: Oifilinga itano.
A: Heeno, tate. A: Eewa, tate. Pe nge oukuki vavali
B: Nawa tuu? nobiila imwe.
A: Ehee, onawa. B: Eewa.
B: Owa hala shike? A: Oimaliwa yoye oyo, tate.
A: Tate, onda hala okulanda ofewa. B: Eewa, meme.
Omu naa? A: Eewa, tate, oshi liwete nale...
B: Ehee, omu na. Owa hala ofewa B: Oh! Tambulaa oshendja yoye.
youlikosha ile yokukosha? A: Ah, tangi meme. Oshi li nawa.
A: Ofewa yokulikosha. Oi na ingapi?
B: Eedola omulongo.

Cuca shop Okamba
Store Ofitola
Proletarian revolution Elunduluko lovanailonga
Right-wing reactionary Omukalunduluka wolulyo
Money Oimaliwa
Change Oshendja
Expensive Ondilo
Cheap Ombilixa
Coins Oimaliwa ikukutu
Bills Oimaliwa yomafo
Enough! (interjection) Opuwo!
To be enough (verb) Wana
Receipt Okasilepa
Price Odado/ Opulaisa
Customer Okasitoma
Dollar Odola
Rand Olanda
10c coin / coins Oshifilinga / Oifilinga
Buy Landa (Lande)

Sell Landifa
Give Pa (Pe)
Pay Futa (Futu)
How much? Ingapi?

It is too expensive. Ondilo unene
I only have ... Ondi na ... ashike
Don’t cheat me. Ino nyokoma nge.
I don’t have enough money. Kandi na oimaliwa ya wana.
Quick Tip
To ask how much something costs, you ask how much it has. Thus,
"How much is the soap?" is Ofewa oi na ingapi? See chapter seven for
more information on stative subject concords.
People will also understand you if you just name the item and say,
"Ingapi?"

Exercise 1
Answer the following questions about the dialogue in complete sentences, in the
language of the question.
1. Okwa landa shike kofitola?
2. Ofewa oi na ingapi?
3. Did the customer want body soap or laundry detergent?
4. Oukuki ove na ingapi?
5. Okasitoma okwa futa eelanda hetatu. Obiila oi na ingapi?
6. Okasitoma okwa landa eeshi?
7. Okasitoma okwa futa noshiimaliwa shomilongo mbali. Oku na oshendja ingapi?
Exercise 2
1. Ou na eedola omilongo nhano. Oto futu eedola omilongo nhatu na hamano.
Paife, ou na ingapi?
2. Ohandi lande oshikombo shoye. Ohandi ku pe eedola omafele atatu nomilongo
hamano. Ou na ingapi?
Paife means “now”. However, paife in Namibia is far from the
American version of paife, as you may have already noticed.
Experimental observations have shown that the American sense of
paife is certainly not universal, as West Africa Internal Time (also
known as WAIT) also prevails here in Namibia. Paife can mean
anything from “in five minutes” to “sometime today”.
You can string together many paifes, with the increased number of
paifes meaning closer to the American sense of now. For example,
paife paife is less immediate than paife paife paife paife.
Paife is used in all Oshiwambo dialects, but Oshindonga has a fun
word for “now” as well – ngashingeyi. Similar to the stringing
together of paifes, this word can also be used multiple times to
indicate a time closer to the present. Ngashingeyi is much less urgent
then ngashingeyingeyingeyingeyi.
You may also hear the Oshindonga word mbala, which indicates that
something will happen in the near near future. Mbala is also
strengthened by repetition.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Onghulungubu hai pwa makiya. ~
An old briar fence always has thorns (even if you try to remove it).
(Old people always have wise things to say.)

Grammar Corner: Counting
Just as the possessive pronouns depend on noun classes, so do the numbers. When we
count objects in Oshikwanyama, we must pay attention to what object is being
counted. Again, this depends on the prefix of the noun:
Noun prefix Numerical prefix
omu- u-
ova- va-
omu- (not people) u-
omi- use normal numbers (or i-)
e- li-
oma- a-
oshi- sh-
oi- i-
olu- li- / lu-
oka- ka-
ou- (plural) va-
ou- (singular) u-
oku- ku-
o- (group 5 singular) use normal numbers
ee- (group 5 plural) use normal numbers
Match the appropriate prefix with the suffix of the number you want to form the
numerical concord of a noun:
Number Numerical suffix
Imwe -mwe
Mbali -vali
Nhatu -tatu
Nhee -ne
Nhano -tano
Hamano -hamano
Heyali -heyali
Hetatu -hetatu
Omuwoi Omuwoi (no prefix needed)
Omulongo Omulongo (no prefix needed)
So, if you are a farmer counting animals:
One goat → Oshikombo shi+mwe → Oshikombo shimwe
Two goats → Oikombo i+vali → Oikombo ivali
Three goats → Oikombo i+tatu → Oikombo itatu
Nine goats → Oikombo omuwoi (omuwoi needs no prefix)
One cow → Ongobe imwe (group 5 uses regular
numbers)
Two cows → Eengobe mbali (group 5 uses regular
numbers)
One frog → Efuma li+mwe → Efuma limwe
Two frogs → Omafuma a+vali → Omafuma avali

Exercise 3
Write a passage describing a family you know in Oshikwanyama. If you are not
living on a homestead, ask a friend to take you to theirs. Describe family members,
number of houses, and the animals that are kept by your family.
Exercise 4
Translate the following English phrases into Oshikwanyama.
1. I want to buy four loaves of bread.
2. We need to buy three beers.
3. He wants to buy fifteen frogs.
4. They have five chickens to sell.
5. I need to buy one bar of soap and four candles.
Quick Tip
We already know how to ask “how much” for money: oimaliwa ingapi. To
ask “how much” or “how many” for other things, use -ngapi with the
counting prefix: ovamwameme vangapi, eengobe ngapi.
To ask "which", put the counting prefix before -lipi.
Takamifa! Ngeenge owa eenyofi, oto ka xuxwila pombete yoye.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Okuna eenyala dile. ~
He has long fingers.
(He is a thief.)

Grammar Corner: Some / Each / All
Now we know how to talk about specific quantities of things. It is also practical to be
able to refer to “some”, “each”, or “all” of something.
“Some” is formed with the singular suffix -mwe and the plural counting prefix:
Some frogs → Omafuma a+mwe → Omafuma amwe
Nouns with the prefixes omi- and -ee, which you count using normal numbers, are
exceptions. They use the prefix di-:
Some cattle → Eengobe di+mwe → Eengobe dimwe
To say “each” or "every", simply put the word keshe in front of the singular noun. To
say “each one” of a specific thing, use keshe with the word for one of that thing:
Each person → Keshe omunhu → Keshe umwe
Every day → Keshe efiku → Keshe limwe
To talk about “all” of something, insert the counting prefix betwen a- and -she. An a in
the counting prefix changes to an e.
All the frogs → Omafuma a + (a→e) + she → Omafuma aeshe
All the cows → Eengobe a + di + she → Oongombe adishe
Quick Tip
• “All of us” is atushe; “all of them” is aveshe; “all of you” is amushe.
• For “everything”, just use aishe (oinima aishe).
• For information on “many” and “few”, refer to Grammar Corner:
Adjectives.

7 Owa uka peni?
Ove: Oshi li ngaipi?

Taxi driver: Oshi li nawa. Ongaipi?
Ove: Onawa.
Taxi driver: Owa hala peni?
Ove: Onda hala popepi nopoosa. Oshi li nawa?
Taxi driver: Eewa. Londa.
Ove: Ingapi, tate?
Taxi driver: Eedola nhano. Tu ye!
Ove: Eewa, tu ye.
(driving, approaching destination)
Ove: Tate, ngolyoka kolulyo komalobota.

Taxi driver: Eewa.
Ove: Ngolyoka kolumosho kostalata.
(approaching destination)
Ove: Ohandi di mo apa.

Taxi driver: Apa?
Ove: Heeno, tate.
Taxi driver: Eewa.
Ove: Eewa, ou na oshendja?
Taxi driver: Heeno, tate... Tambula.
Ove: Eewa. Tangi unene, tate.

Head (somewhere) Uka (uku)
Get in Londa
Get out/off Dja (di) mo
Stop Fikama
Here Apa
There Opo / Penya
Near Popepi na
Far Kokule
Turn Ngolyoka
Car Oshihauto/Ohauto/Otuwa
Lift Olefa
Hitchhike Kwata olefa
Bus Ombesa
Combi Okambesa
To the left Kolumosho
To the right Kolulyo
Directions Eembinga
Town Odolopa
Church Ongeleka / Omambo
Police station Opolifi
Post office Opoosa
Office Ombelewa
Petrol station Omahooli / Oseevisa
Stop light Omalobota
Road Opate
Street Ostalata
Path Ondjila
I need a lift. Onda pumbwa olefa.

Where are you going? Oto i peni?
Do you have change for . . . ? Ou na oshendja y____________
Where is my change? Oshendja yange? ( oi li peni?)
Stop here/ there. Fikama apa/opo.
I am getting out here/ there. Ohandi di mo apa/opo.
Stop for my friends. Fikamena ookaume kange.
I want to go to . . . . Onda hala (okuya) ko ________.
Exercise 1
Construct a dialogue between yourself and a friend who you have not seen in a
long while. This occurs at a hitch-point while waiting for a lift. Discuss where you
are going, what you will do there, how things are at home, etc.

Grammar Corner: Coming and Going
“To come” and “to go” are expressed with similar verbs:
Come Uya
Go Ya (I)
For the first person ame, it is written as follows:
Past Present Future
To go Onda ya – I went Ohandi i – I am Ohandi ka ya – I
going will go
To come Onde uya – I Ohandi uya – I am Ohandi ke uya – I
came, or I am coming will come
coming (familiar)
In all tenses, for “to come”, if the last vowel of the subject concord is an a, it changes
to an e. Thus, “He is coming” is said Ote ya and “He is going” is said Ota i. "He will
come" is Ote ke uya. The u in uya is often left off, both in speech and in modern
writing (Onde ya).
In addition, there are some more going-and-coming verbs:
Go back Shuna
Come back Aluka
Come from Dja (Di)
Arrive Fika (Fiki)
In English, the word “return” can be used for both “go back” and “come back”, but in
Oshikwanyama you must be specific.
Exercise 2
Translate the following statements into Oshikwanyama:
1. Y’all come back now, y’hear?
2. I am going back to America after two years.
Tip: “After two years”, in this case, translates to konima yeedula mbali.
3. I am from Angola.
4. I am going to Zimbabwe.
5. Where are you coming from?
6. Go to hell.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Mweenda-nakanya iha puka. ~
A traveller with a mouth doesn't get lost.
(Ask directions.)

Grammar Corner: Noun Classes: Subject Concords
At this point, we know the subject concords for people only – that is, only for noun
class 1. The other noun classes have corresponding sets of subject concords, but only
for the third person of course. In the table below, we organize the subject concords
according to the noun prefixes:
Noun Past Subject Present Subject Future Subject
prefix Concord Concord Concord
omu- (person) okwa ota ota ka
ova- ova otava / otaa otava ka / otaa ka
omu- (not people) owa otau otau ka
omi- oda otadi otadi ka
e- ola otali otali ka
oma- okwa otaa otaa ka
oshi- osha otashi otashi ka
oi- oya otai otai ka
olu- ola / olya otali / otalu otali ka / otalu ka
oka- oka otaka otaka ka
ou – (plural) ova otava otava ka
ou- (singular) owa otau otau ka
oku- okwa otaku otaku ka
o- (anything else – oya otai otai ka
group 5 singular)
ee- (group 5 oda otadi otadi ka
plural)
There are also subject concords for stative verbs:
Noun Past Subject Present Subject Future Subject
prefix Concord Concord Concord
omu- (person) okwa li e oku ota ka kala e
ova- ova li ve ove otava ka kala ve
omu- (not people) owa li u ou otau ka kala u
omi- oda li di odi otadi ka kala di
e- ola li li oli otali ka kala li
oma- okwa li ku oku otaa ka kala ku
oshi- osha li shi oshi otashi ka kala shi
oi- oya li i oi otai ka kala i
olu- olwa li lu / ola li li olu / oli otalu ka kala lu
oka- oka li ke oke otaka ka kala ke
ou- (plural) ova li ve ove otava ka kala ve
ou- (singular) owa li u ou otau ka kala u
oku- okwa li ku oku otaku ka kala ku
o- (anything else – oya li i oi otai ka kala i
group 5 singular)
ee- (group 5 oda li di odi otadi ka kala di
plural)
We will talk more about these later; for now you can concentrate on the present tense
only. Not all of this is used all of the time – you will probably not master the past and
future stative subject concords until at least a few months down the line. As we said
before, they are only here in hope that they might be useful to you in the future.

8 Oundjolowele

Head Omutwe
Hair Eexwiki
Eyes Omesho
Nose Eyulu
Ears Omakutwi
Mouth Okanya
Shoulder Epepe
Back Ombuda
Arms Omaoko
Hands Omake / Eenyala
Chest Onulo
Breast Omavele
Stomach Edimo
Buttocks Omatako
Legs Omaulu
Knee Ongolo
Foot Omhadi
Toes / Fingers Ominwe
Teeth Omayo
Beard Eendjedi
Pills Eepela
Medicine Omiti
Shot Ovenda
Clinic Okapangelo
Hospital Oshipangelo
Doctor Ndokotola / Omupangi
Cough Omukolo
Running nose Eshikisha
Diarrhea Oshimela
Toothbrush Okati kokomayo /
Okakombe kokomayo
Toothpaste Omuti wokomayo
Dental floss Ongodi yomayo
Hairbrush Omendu
Razor Okambi / Okashina
Sunscreen Omaadi omutenya
Lotion Omaadi okolutu
Lip balm Omaadi okomilungu
Condom Okondoma / Ongumi
Sick / In pain Vela (Vele) / Ehama

Burn (yourself) Pya (pi)
Shave Kulula
Vomit Kunga (Kungu)
Exercise 1
Label the drawing on page 41 using the words in the preceding list.

What part of you is hurting? / How Oto vele shike/peni?
are you sick?
When did you get sick? Owa tameka okuvela naini?
Can you call ... for me? Kwafe nge u dengele ...?
I want to go to the hospital. Onda hala okuya koshipangelo.
I want to see the doctor. Onda hala okumona Ndokotola.
The doctor said I have to go to Ndokotola okwa ti ondi na okuya
Windhoek. kOvenduka.
I need a condom. Onda pumbwa okondoma.
Use a condom. Longifa okondoma.
Take some condoms. Kufa(mo) eekondoma.
Protect yourself. Liamena.
Quick Tip
As you see from the previous word list, vele is the Oshikwanyama word
for being in pain. So, to express pain in a certain part of the body, you do
as follows:
• headache: Ohandi vele omutwe.
• stomach ache: Ohandi vele medimo. (i.e., “in the stomach”)
• back ache: Ohandi vele ombuda.
• Caution: If you say, Ohandi vele momutwe, you are saying "I am sick
in the head", i.e. "I am crazy."
Exercise 2
Read the dialogue. Answer the following questions in Oshikwanyama.
Jeff: Wa lele po nawa, meme?
Meme: Heeno, Jeff. Ove wa lele po nawa?
Jeff: Ayee Meme. Ohandi vele.
Meme: Oto vele shike?
Jeff: Ohandi vele medimo.
Meme: Owa tameka okuvela naini?
Jeff: Onda tameka onghela.
Meme: Owa pumbwa shike?
Jeff: Onda hala okumona Ndokotola.
Meme: Eewa, tuye koshipangelo.
1. Jeff oku li ngaipi? Omolwashike?
2. Jeff ota vele peni?
3. Jeff okwa li e udite nawa onghela?
4. Jeff na Meme otava ka ninga shike?
5. Otava ka ya peni?
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Ou ta ti fya. Ou ta ti kala ko. ~
Someone says die, another says stay.
(Everyone has friends and enemies.)

Grammar Corner: Feelings
In English, we say “I am sick.” In Oshikwanyama, as we have seen, we say ohandi
vele. Ohandi is a subject concord, linking the (unstated) subject to the verb, which in
this case is vele. It seems that “to be sick” is a verb in Oshikwanyama. As it turns out,
most statements about one’s state of being are expressed with verbs in Oshikwanyama.
Where in English you would use the verb “to be”, in Oshikwanyama it is unnecessary.
To express other feelings, such as “happy” or “angry”, we use the past tense subject
concord. For example, onda hafa means “I am happy”. It may be helpful to think that
these “feeling verbs” express an idea of becoming: because handuka means “to become
angry”, onda handuka means “I have become angry”, or more simply “I am angry”.
Therefore, when talking about how someone feels in the present, we use the past
tense. It is possible to use other tenses. Oho handuka can be translated as “You
(always) get angry” and Tate ota ka hafa means “Tate will be happy”.
The past tense of these verbs is similar to that of stative verbs: “I wanted a beer” is
said as onda li nda hala obiila. “He was angry” is okwa li a handuka.
Here are some examples of the sort of verb that is used in this manner:
Happy Hafa / Nyakukwa
Full / Satisfied Kuta
Angry / Mad Handuka
Want Hala
Need (to be lacking) Pumbwa
Tired Loloka
Dying (of) Fya (Fi)
Sleepy Fya (Fi) emofi
Hungry Fya (Fi) ondjala
Afraid Tila
Exercise 3
How are you feeling today? Why?
Example: I am hungry because I did not eat today → Onda fya ondjala shaashi
inandi lya nena.
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Etembo olufo. ~
Moving (eg to another house) is chance.
(Have sympathy for someone in difficult times – next time it might be you.)

Grammar Corner: Conversational Words
If Ngeenge
If (unreal situations) Ngeno
Then Ndele / Ndee
Maybe Mbela / Kashimba
It’s possible Otashi shiiva / Otashi dulika
About Kombinga
After / Behind / Backwards / In the Konima
back
Forward / In front Komesho
Before / While Manga
Because Shaashi / Osheshi
But Ndee / Ndele / Ashike
Probably Pamwe
Some of these words are used differently than they are in English, so we should look at
them one-by-one.
Ngeenge
For positive statements, the conditional part of the sentence is placed in the past tense,
but the verb is in the present-tense form:
If I eat meat, I will be sick. Ngeenge onda li ombelela, ohandi
vele.
For negative statements, the verb is also in the past tense:
If I do not speak, it is okay. Ngeenge inandi popya, oshi li nawa.
Ngeno
Ngeno is used to talk about unreal or improbable situations. You have to put the word
ngeno in both parts of the sentence.
If you had studied, you wouldn't Ngeno owa leshele, ngeno ino dopa.
have failed.
If it were me (ie if I were you), I Ngeno aame, ngeno ohandi...
would...
Mbela
Used as in English.
Maybe we will be rained on. Mbela ohatu ka lokwa.
Otashi dulika / Otashi shiiva

Also used as in English:
Will you go to Ongwediva? Oto i kOngwediva?
It’s possible. Otashi shiiva.

If you want to say it's possible that something will happen, you have to use the
subjunctive voice (see Grammar Corner: Subjunctive Verbs).
It's possible that I'll go. Otashi shiiva ndi ye.
Kombinga
Used as in English, but with a twist: the word is really ko + ombinga, literally “to the
side”. To make a full phrase, you must say “to the side of”, and that “of” translates as
y-. Some examples:
Is he talking about school? Ota popi kombinga yofikola?
I am talking about you. Ohandi popi kombinga yoye.
We are talking about Tate. Ohatu popi kombinga yaTate.
Also used in the sense of “this side” or “that side”:
I stay somewhere that side. Ohandi kala kombinga kwii.
Konima
Same as kombinga, this one is literally “to the back”:
I will go after church. Ohandi ka ya konima yongeleka.
We will go later (after time). Ohatu ka ya konima yefimbo.
Komesho
The opposite of kombinga with regards to space, but not used for time. Literally, “to
the eyes”.
Sit in front, Tate. Inda komesho, Tate.
Go forward, Tate. Inda komesho, Tate.
Manga
This word translates better as “while”, although it is used for “before”. The phrase
after manga must be given in the negative past tense. Look carefully at the following
examples:
I went home before I went to Onda ya keumbo manga inandi ya
Ondangwa. kOndangwa.
I bathe before I go to school. Ohandi likosho manga inandi ya
kofikola.
Shaashi / Osheeshi
These are used as they are in English (see exercise 3).
Ndee( But / Then) / Ashike

Used as in English. Sometimes the Afrikaans-derived maala (but) is used instead. See
exercise 4.

I wanted to go, but I didn't get the Okwa li nda hala okuya, ndee inandi
money. mona oimaliwa
I went to Endola, then I went to Onda ya kEndola ndee onda ya
Oshakati. kOshakati..
Exercise 4
Hafeni just came home and is telling you about a problem he has. Translate what
he is saying into English.
“Ooooh, meme. Ohai ku lombwele kombinga yokakadona kange. Okwa hala tu
hombolwe, ndee ame onda hala okuya kOmbaye ndi ka kale novakulunhu vange.
Uuh, onda tila, man. Otashi shiiva ina hala okuya naame nondi mu hole unene.
Mbela ohandi ka kala apa, ngeenge ina hala okuya.”
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Okakuwena ke dule onguma. ~
A small axe cuts better than pounding with a rock.
(Something is better than nothing.)

Grammar Corner: Object Pronouns
Consider the following translations:
He bought tomatoes. → Okwa landa omatama.
He bought them (tomatoes). → Okwe a landa.
I am eating porridge. → Ohandi li oshifima.
I am eating it (porridge). → Ohandi shi li.
The first statement of each pair states the object of the sentence directly: “the
porridge”, “the tomatoes”. In the second statements, the noun objects are replaced
with their corresponding object pronouns: “it”, “them”. In English, object pronouns
must agree with the kind of noun they replace (“her”, “it”, “them”). Object pronouns in
Oshikwanyama agree with the class (prefix) of noun they replace. A complete table of
prefixes and object pronouns can be seen below:
Noun prefix Object pronoun

omu- mu
ova- va
omu- (not people) u
omi- di
e- li
oma- a
oshi- shi
oi- i
olu- li / lu
oka- ka
ou- (plural) va
ou- (singular) u
oku- ku
o- (group 5 singular) i
ee- (group 5 plural) di
As we see from the first examples, the object pronoun goes between the subject
concord and the verb. If the last vowel in the subject concord is a, it changes to e. For
example, ota changes to ote in ote shi mono (he/she sees it).
For commands, the object pronoun goes before the verb:
Don’t beat it! (the dog) → Ino i denga! (ombwa)
Bring it! (a thing) → Shi eta! (oshinima)
Like in English, personal pronouns have special object pronouns:
Me nge
You (singular) ku
Her / Him mu
Us tu
You (plural) mu
Them va

Nge, as a special case, is always put after the verb, even for commands.
You make me sick. → Oto ehameke nge.
Don’t accuse me! → Ino lundila nge!
For positive commands with nge, the last a in the verb changes to an e.
Help me! → Kwafe nge!
Tell me! → Lombwele nge!
Grammar Corner: Demonstratives

“This”, “that”, and “the other” all answer the question, “Which one?”. They
demonstrate to the listener which object out of a group the speaker is referring to, and
so we call them demonstratives. There is a different set of demonstratives for each
noun class; the suffixes are the same, but the prefixes vary. Listed below are the
prefixes for the different noun classes:
Noun Class “This” “That” “Yonder”
omu- ou oo winya / wii*
ova- ava ovo venya / vee
omu- (not people) ou oo winya / wii
e- eli olo linya / lii
oma- aa oo enya / ee
oshi- eshi osho shinya / shii
oi- ei oyo inya / ii
olu- olu / eli olwo / olo lwinya / lwii /
linya / lii
oka- oko aka kenya / kee
ou- (plural) ava ovo venya / vee
ou- (singular) ou oo winya / wii
oku- oku oko kwinya / kwii
o- (group 5 sing.) ei oyo inya / ii
ee- (group 5 pl.) edi odo dinya / dii
pa / pu ** apa opo penya / pee
ku ** oku oko kwiinya / kwii
mu ** omo omo mwiinya / mwii
* The second version of "yonder" is used for extra emphasis.
** Pa / pu, ku, and mu are not prefixes, but actual nouns.
A few examples might be necessary:

This goat → oshikombo eshi
That person → omunhu oo
That thing → oshinima osho
This place → apa
That donkey over there → ondoongi inya / ii
It’s probably frustrating to see the massive prefix list. Don’t worry about it. Just
remember eshi and osho for unnamed things, ou and oo for people (singular), and ei
and oyo for class 5 nouns, and you will be understood.

Exercise 5
Fill in the demonstratives for the words in the table below. The first one has been
completed for you.
English Oshikwanyama This That Yonder
People Ovanhu Ava Ovo Venya
Things
Eengobe
Goat
Food
Ounona
Oshinima
Girl
Omumati
Rag / Cloth Elapi
Learners Ovalongwa
Key
Car
Books Omambo
House
Place Oshilongo
Beer
Cooldrink
Lift
Exercise 6
Translate the following sentences into Oshikwanyama.
1. What is this?
2. Who is that?
3. Did you see that goat?
4. I want those books over there.
5. This porridge is delicious.
6. I love you.
7. I want it (the thing).
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Waa na mutanda ku na ngombe. ~
If you don’t have a calf, you don’t have a cow.
(You must plan for the future. / If you don’t have children, you have no nation.)

Grammar Corner: The Passive Voice
Consider the following examples:
Koto is greeting Ndahafa. → Koto ota popifa Ndahafa.
Ndahafa is being greeted by → Ndahafa ota popifwa ku
Koto. Koto.
Sylvia told me. → Sylvia okwa lombwela nge.

I was told by Sylvia. → Onda lombwelwa ku Sylvia.
The boys are going to ask the → Ovamati otava ka pula

teacher. omulongi.
The teacher is going to be → Omulongi ota ka pulwa
asked by the boys. kovamati.
The second statement in each pair is in the passive voice. The subject of those
sentences is the person or thing being acted upon. For most Oshikwanyama verbs,
simply take off the final vowel and add -wa to form the passive voice.Thus, pula (ask)
becomes pulwa (be asked).
For one syllable verbs, add the ending -wa to the present form of the verb. For
example, pe (give) becomes pewa (be given):
I was given fat cakes. → Onda pewa oukuki.
The meat will be eaten up. → Ombelela otayi ka liwa po.

9 Omafiku nomafimbo

Monday Omaandaxa
Tuesday Etivali
Wednesday Etitatu
Thursday Etine
Friday Etitano
Saturday Olomakaya
Sunday Os(h)oondaxa
January Januali
February Febululali
March Maalitsa
April Apilili
May Mei
June Juni
July Juli
August Aguste
September Septemba
October Kotoba
November Novomba
December Desemba
Day Efiku
Week Oshivike
Weekend Owikenda
Month Omwedi
Year Odula
Time Efimbo
Minute / Minutes Omunute / Ominute
Hour Otundi
Clock Ovili
Watch Ovili
Meet Shakena (Shakene)

Meeting Oshihongi / Oshongalele
Holiday / Vacation Efudo
Workshop Oshihongiilonga/ Owekshopa
What day is it? Nena etingapi?

What time is it? (Ovili) ongapi?
When (what day)? Naini?
At what time (of day)? Efimbo peni?
At what time (hour)? Pongapi?
At what sun position? Etango peni?
What is the date? Omafiku angapi?
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Omunwe umwe ihau litombola na. ~
One finger cannot catch a louse.
(Sometimes you need help.)

Grammar Corner: Days of the Week
In Oshikwanyama, the words to describe a particular day of the week – this Friday, last
Tuesday, next week – are, as you might have guessed, dependent on noun classes. To
say “last week”, you say “the week that went by”: oshivike sha dja ko. In this example,
sha is the past subject concord for oshi- words, without the o-.
To say “next week”, you say “the week that is coming”: oshivike tashi (u)ya. Like the
last example, tashi is just the present subject concord without the o-. To say “This
week”, you say, well, “this week”: oshivike eshi. Eshi is the “this” word for the oshi-
class of nouns.
Because you might not have everything in your head quite yet, we’ve collected all of
this information in the following table. None of this information is new; it has only
been gathered here for convenience.
Word Noun Class Pres. Subj. Conc. Past Subj. Conc. “This”
Omaandaxa Oma- otaa (okw)a aa
Etivali E- otali ola eli
Etitatu E- otali ola eli
Etine E- otali ola eli
Etitano E- otali ola eli
Olomakaya Olu- otalu / otali olwa/ ola eli
Osoondaxa Oshi- otashi osha eshi
Oshivike Oshi- otashi osha eshi
Omwedi* Omu- otau owa ou
*Even though the prefix of omwedi is omu-, its plural is eemwedi.
Exercise 1
Translate the following statements into Oshikwanyama:
1. Next Sunday we will go to Oshakati.
2. Last Thursday Natanael went to the hospital.
3. This Friday I will go to town to buy food and see friends.
4. They will go to Etosha next week.
5. We went to Windhoek last Saturday.
Exercise 2
Translate the following statements from Oshikwanyama to English:
1. Oshivike sha dja ko, onda li handi vele medimo.
2. Ondi na edalo omwedi tau uya.
3. Etine tali uya, ohandi i kodolopa.
4. Molomakaya la dja ko, omumati wange okwa dana etanga.
5. Itandi i kongeleka mosoondaxa eshi.

Grammar Corner: Telling Time
In chapter six, we learned how to count in Oshikwanyama. To tell time, we just need
to add some phrases like “thirty minutes past”.
To tell the hour, just say the number with an o- in front of it, e.g. Ombali means "It's
two o'clock".
The easiest way to tell time with minutes is to state the hour first, followed by “past”,
then the minutes. 8:30 is hetatu ya pita omilongo nhatu, and 6:15 is said hamano ya
pita omulongo nanhano. Here, ya pita means “past”.
Oshikwanyama always adds a bit of spice to keep things interesting, of course. To say
“past” for the hours nine to twelve, it is no longer ya pita but wa pita. So 9:20
becomes omuwoi wa pita omilongo mbali, and 12:45 is omulongo nambali wa pita
omilongo nhee nanhano. This is because the numbers nine through twelve all start
with omu-, and the subject agrees with the verb by using the correct subject concord.
A second way to tell time is to say 8:30 as “half till nine”, etata lomuwoi. Broken into
pieces, this is etata lo-omugoyi, but the first o is elided. Likewise, 10:30 is said etata
lomulongo na imwe.
The same things happens with other times: 1:30 becomes etata lombali (etata lo-
mbali) and 5:30 is said as etata lohamano.
Exercise 3
Look at Jane’s program for the day below, and say what she did during the day
and what time she did those activities, in Oshikwanyama.
5:30- woke up
5:45- bathed
6:30- ate breakfast with her family
7:15- walked to school
13:00- ate lunch
16:00- went to the cuca shop to have a beer with her friend Simon
20:30- ate dinner with her family- they ate oshifima and goat meat
21:30- went to bed

Exercise 4
Create a program about your typical day, starting with the time you wake up until
the time that you go to bed, in Oshikwanyama.
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Kaxuxwena, hadela nyoko. Nyoko onale e ku hadele. ~
Young chick, scratch for your mother. Your mother has already scratched for you.
(Help your parents; they helped you as a baby.)

Exercise 5
Below is the diary of Meme Hileni for the month of December. Translate her
agenda into Oshikwanyama. Include what she is going to do, stating the days, and
the time she will do those activities. Read it out loud, to practice telling time.
Friday 07:
14h00: Lunch with
Tate Max
Saturday 08:
10h00: Wedding of
Tate Andreas
Wednesday 12:
16h00: Go to Peace
Corps office
Friday 14:
Workshop on
HIV/AIDS
Sunday 16:
11h30: Go to Etosha
with learners.
There are various national holidays in Namibia- they are listed below
in a table, along with the Oshikwanyama translation of the holiday.
Below the table are some common holiday phrases.
Date Holiday Oshikwanyama

1 January New Year’s Efiku lotete lodula
21 March Independence Day Efiku lomanguluko
Easter Opaasa
1 May Worker’sDay Efiko lovanailonga
4 May Cassinga Day Efiku laKassinga
Ascension Day Efiku lelondo
25 May Africa Day Efiku laAfrika
26 August Hero’s Day Efiku lomapendafule
28 September Namibia Children’s Day Efiku lokanona okaNamibia
10 December Human Rights Day Efiku loufembawomunhu
25 December Christmas Okrismesa
26 December Family Day Efiku lovaneumbo
Merry Christmas Okrismesa ya yambekwa
Did you celebrate the new year? Owa dana odula ipe?
Did you arrive well (in the new year)? Owa fika mo nawa?
Did you have a nice holiday / vacation? Owa fuda po nawa?

10 Ohema iwa

Clothes Oikutu
T-shirt Okambidja
Shirt Ohema
Blouse Ohema / Okabuluse
Trousers Ombulukweva
Jersey / Sweater Ombidja
Dress Ohema (yoomeme) / Oshikutu
Skirt Oufulukweva
Jacket Ondjafa / Ombaikifa
Shoes Eenghaku / Omalukaku
Flip-flops Eetapa
Socks Oikafino
Hat Embale
Belt Omuya
Slip Okadjalifo
Glasses Omakende okomesho
Tie Otae
Watch Ovili
Bra Okamanga
Underwear Okapendi / Okadolombuluku
Laundry Oikutu yakaka / Oikoshomwa

Clean Yela
Dirty Kaka
Bucket Oshiyemele / Evela
Soap Ofewa
Clothesline Ongodi yoikutu
Clothespins Oukalamala
Iron Oshikangule
Basin Oshiyaxa / Ombaali
Wash (clothes or dishes) Kosha (Kosho)

Wash (your body) Likosho (Likosho)
Iron Kangula
Where can I hang my clothes? Openi hai tulike oikutu yange?

You look nice. Oto monika nawa.
I was born like that. Osho nda lwa.
Quick Tip
• For Americans: “Pants” means “underwear” in Namibian English.
Say “trousers” to refer to the things you wear on your legs.
Exercise 1
Label the drawing on the previous page. Use words from the above list, or ask
some friends.

Red -tilyana
Orange -tilyanaoushunga
Yellow -shunga
Green -ziza
Blue -mbulau
Purple -tilyanembulau
Black -laula
White -toka
Brown -mbudu
What color is your shirt? Ohema yoye oi li ngahelipi?
Grammar Corner: Adjectives

To tell the truth, Oshikwanyama lacks adjectives. Because states of being can be
expressed with verbs, adjectives are less necessary in daily usage. However, you will
still hear them.
Once again, adjectives have their own set of concords that must agree with noun
prefixes. Fortunately, they are nearly identical to the counting prefixes. Here is a table.
Prefixes that differ from counting prefixes are italicized.
Noun prefix Adjective prefix
omu- mu-
ova- va-
omu- (not people) mu-
omi- di-
e- li-
oma- ma-
oshi- sh-
oi- i-
olu- li- / lu-
oka- ka-
ou- (plural) va-
ou- (singular) u-
oku- ku-
o- (group 5 singular) i-
ee- (group 5 plural) di-
So:
red t-shirt → okambinja katiliyana
blue t-shirt → okambinja kambulau
black pants (trousers) → ombulukweva ilaula
stupid goat → oshikombo shilai
hot water → omeva mapyu
good food → oikulya iwa

Some common adjectives, other than the colors, include the following:
English Oshindonga
Good / Nice -wa
Bad -i
Stupid -lai
Really nice -walela
Clever -ndunge
Big *
Small -shona
Hot -pyu
Cold -talala
Many **
Few -shona
Sweet / Delicious -nyenye
Sour -lula
Easy / Light -pu
Difficult / Heavy -ndjuu
Short -hupi
Long -le
* "Big" is usually expressed with the past tense of the verb kula (to grow). Thus, "big
goat" is oshikombo sha kula.
** "Many goats" is said oikombo ihai pu (goats that don't finish). For other nouns,
you will need to choose the right subject concord.
Grammar Corner: More Adjectives

Note that all the previous adjectives are abstract – for example, only blue things exist
in the world, not blue itself. Concrete adjectives, those that relate a noun to something
else that exists in the world, are formed a bit differently.
meme dress → ohema yoomeme
bedroom (sleep room) → ondunda yokunangala
The dress is for oomeme, so we use the possessive prefix to link the two nouns
together.
Exercise 2
Translate the following phrases from English into Oshikwanyama.
nice red shirt
school books
stupid goats
blue trousers
difficult exam
cold water

Grammar Corner: Comparisons
Just as Oshikwanyama tends to use verbs where English would have adjectives (e.g.
“happy”) , it uses verbs to express comparative (e.g. “happier”) and superlative (e.g.
“happiest”) forms.
Both the comparative and the superlative form use the verb dule (surpass, exceed).
To use the comparative form, combine [stative concord] + dule with whatever
attribute you want to compare, e.g.
I am happier than Rebecca. → Onda hafa ndi dule Rebecca.
You pound mahangu better
→ Oho tu omahangu u dule nge.
than I do.
Ombelela yongobe oiwa i
Beef is tastier than goat meat. →
dule yoshikombo.
He is stronger than you.
(“He surpasses you in → Oku ku dule eenghono.
strength.”)
The superlative form is similar to the comparative. Just add the word for “all”.
I am the happiest person.
→ Onda hafa ndi dule aveshe.
(“I am happier than all.”)
Ombelela ongobe oi dule
Beef is the best meat. →
ombelela aishe.
Another useful verb for comaparing things is fa (look like, be like, seem like). It is
used in the same way as the “feeling” verbs (see Grammar Corner: Feelings).
You look like your mother. → Owa fa nyoko.
You all seem angry. → Omwa fa mwa handuka.
She runs like a cheetah. → Oha tondoka a fa etotono.
Note the need for the subordinate subject concords in many of the above examples.
Exercise 3
Lombwele nge, oto djala shike nena?
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................................

11 mEumbo

House Eumbo
Toilet Okandjuwo
Bedroom Onduda yokunangala
Kitchen (outside) Epata
Kitchen / Food storage area Okambifa
Shower area Okalikoshelo
Sitting room Osheti / Oshinyanga
Hut / Room Onduda
Homestead Eumbo lomiti / loshiwambo
Grain storage Eshisha / Okaanda
Garden Oshikunino
Corral Oshuunda
Gate / Door Oshivelo / Omuvelo
Fence Ekoye / Odalate
Fire Omundilo
River Omulonga
Seasonal (water) pan Oshana
Dirty water Omeva (m)a kaka
Water tap Opomba / Okapomba
Animal Oshinamwenyo
Cow Ongobe
Goat Oshikombo
Chicken Oxuxwa
Donkey Ondoongi
Cat Okambishi
Dog Ombwa
Lizard Ekoko
Snake Eyoka
Spider Eluviluvi
Scorpion Ondje
Millipede Ongongololo
Pig Oshingulu
Duck Ombaka
Horse Onghambe
Bird Okadila
Mouse Omhuku
Ant Ohedi / Onhenda
Fly Odi
Mosquito Omwe
Bat Elimalima
Owl Exuvi
Dove Onguti
Cockroach Epenzi / Ekakalate
Bug Epuka / Okapuka
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Nekwa litoka oye ngaa nyoko. ~
If your mother is poor, she is still your mother.
(You have to accept people as they are.)

Bed Ombete
Fridge Okiila / Ofilidja
Stove Efiga
Trash Oimbodi
Window Ekende
Table Oshitafula
Chair Oshipundi
Roof Eembuli / Mombada
Candle Okalexita
Paint Opainda
Lock Ekumba
Key Oshipatululo / Oshapi
Break Teka (Teke)

Fix Pangela
Lock / Latch Pata
Open / Unlock Yuulula / Patulula
Close Edila / Pata
Sweep Komba (Kombo)
Look for Konga (Kongo)
Rake Halaka
Hoe / Cultivate Lima (Limi)
Plant Twika (Twike)
Sow Kuna (Kunu)
Plough Pulula
Harvest Teya
Slaughter / Kill Dipaa
Skin Yuva (Yuvu)
Fetch water Teka (Teke)
Collect wood Tyava (Tyave)
Throw away Ekelashi
Meet Shakaneka (Shakaneke) /
Mona (Mono)
Visit Talela po (Talele po)
Greet (on behalf of) Kundila po (Kundile po)
Wake up Penduka
Wake someone up Pendula
Where do I put my trash? Openi handi ekelashi oimbodi?

It is broken. Osha teka.
Can I paint my room? Nandi painde onduda yange?
What’s wrong? Oshike sha puka?
Can I help you? Nandi ku kwafe?
Where can I plant a garden? Openi handi dulu okuninga
oshikunino?
Exercise 1
Label the drawing on page 65. Try your hand at drawing more common homestead
scenes and objects!

Grammar Corner: Subordinate Subject Concords
Consider the English phrase, “People who go to the store”. The important part of the
phrase is the noun, “people”. The verb that appears in the phrase is subordinated to the
noun by the word “who”. In Oshikwanyama, this subordination is made by using a
different subject concord: not Ovanhu otava i kofitola, but Ovanhu tava i kofitola.
For almost all of the subject concords, just drop the initial o and there you are: otashi
→ tashi, ova → va, etc. So, when you want to describe nouns that do something, or
generally want to emphasize the noun and not the action, use the subordinate subject
concord.
The only irregular subordinate subject concord is for the third person. For present
tense, rather than oku → **ku it is e. For past tense, rather than okwa → **kwa, it is
okwa → a.
Some examples:
Ondi wete ovamati tava kombo. I see the boys [who are] sweeping.
oMaria a teleka oukuki. It is Maria who cooked the fat cakes.
Olye ta imbi? Who is singing? (It is who that is singing?)
Grammar Corner: In / On / At, Part Two

When mo, po, and ko are used in the subject of a sentence, they have their own subject
concords.
Pronoun of Subject Concord
Place Past Active Present Active Future Active Present Stative
po (pu-) opa / opwa otapu / otapa otapu ka / opu / ope
otapa ka
ko (ku-) okwa otaku otaku ka oku
mo (mu-) omwa otamu otamu ka omu
For example:
Omu na ofewa? Is there soap [in] there?
Kape na sha. / Kapu na sha. There is nothing [there].
koAmelika, oku na eembwa? Are there dogs in America?
koAmelika, ohaku liwa eembwa? Are dogs eaten in America?
Omu na ovanhu mongeleka. There are people in the church.
Be careful not to confuse these concords with the subject concords for people.
[Mongulu] omwa kaka. It is dirty [in the room].
(NOT “You all are dirty”)
Mo, po, and ko are also used frequently in fixed expressions:
Johanna omo e li? Is Johanna in there?
You will undoubtedly discover many more as you listen to native speakers.
Po is also useful for expressing the ideas of “just” and “about to.” For example, Opo
nda lya /Opo nda li means “I just ate”, and Otu li pokumana means “We’re about to
finish, yo.”

Grammar Corner: Subjunctive Verbs
Consider the following sentences:
I want you to go to school. → Onda hala u ye kofikola.
The teachers want the → Ovalongi ova hala ovanafikola
learners to stand up. va fikame.
I don’t want her to talk. → Inandi hala a popye.
These sentences express desires that something occur. We already know how to
express a desire to do something using hala. When the subject of the sentence (I, the
teachers, etc.) wants someone else to do something, the second part of the sentence –
the part that tells what the subject wants to happen – requires a special subjunctive
voice in Oshikwanyama.
To use the subjunctive voice, we use a subjunctive concord and change the final vowel
in the verb to an e. Listed below are the subjunctive concords for people:
Person Subjunctive concord
Ame ndi
Ove u
Ye a
Fye tu
Nye mu
Vo va
Thus, the sentence “Do you want me to eat?” is translated as Owa hala ndi lye?
“Rebecca wants Johanna to pound mahangu.” is Rebecca okwa hala Johanna a twe
omahangu.
For other kinds of nouns, use the object pronoun as the subjunctive concord:
Meme Foibe wants the goats → Meme Foibe okwa hala
to get out. oikombo i dje ko.
English words like “let” and “should” often indicate a desire that something occur:
“Let’s go”, “Should we buy?”, etc. Again, in Oshikwanyama, we use the subjunctive
voice. The prefix na- is often added to the concord for emphasis.
Shall I buy for you? → Nandi ku landele?
Let’s go! → Natu ye!
Should I clean? → Nandi wapaleke?
Note: If you are in a group of more than two people, instead of -e, you must end the
verb with -eni. “Let’s go!” is then Natu yeni! “Let’s eat!” is Natu lyeni!
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Ino londa omukwa neenghaku. ~
Don't climb a baobab with shoes.
(Don't enter a difficult situation ill-prepared.)

Quick Tip (for the grammar fiends)
Comparing the list of subjunctive concords with the list of personal
subject concords, you may notice a pattern: the present continuous
concord is – with some exceptions due to vowel changes and contractions
– formed by adding the prefix ota- or oha- to the subjunctive concord.
Hence, ame ohandi nu; fye ohatu nu; and so on.
In fact, the subjunctive concords listed above may be considered the true
subject concords, while pre- and post-fixes such as ota mark things like
verb tense and aspect. The same, of course, is true for all noun classes.
This understanding of subject concords can be very useful in discovering
Oshikwanyama language patterns. See also the final grammar corner,
“Making it Simple”.
Exercise 2
Translate the following sentences into Oshikwanyama. Use correct subjunctive
forms..
Example: I want you to buy me a beer → Onda hala u landele nge obiila.
1. The principal wants the learners to pass (pita).
2. He does not want them to fail. (dopa).
3. Paulus wants Shaalu to fetch water.
4. Let’s (two people) go to Oshakati!
5. Let’s (large group) buy some meat!
Grammar Corner: Verb Extensions

As you recall, we form the passive voice by removing the verb’s final vowel and
appending -wa. This -wa can be considered a verb “extension” – it extends both the
verb and its meaning. There are a number of other extensions that can change the
meaning of a verb. Some of them are given in the table below, along with brief
explanations and an example. Interested readers should consult A Reference Grammar
of Oshikwanyama (Fivaz 2003) for more information.
Extension Meaning English Oshikwanyama
-afana ... each other We saw each Otwa monafana.
other.
-ela ... for / on behalf I bought some Onde mu landela
of sweets for her. ouleke.
-ifa to make ... Don’t make me Ino handukifa nge.
angry.
li- ... itself / each Did you wash Owe likosha?
other yourself?

12 mOshiwambo!
A: Oove lye hano, mumati wange? A: Oto ningi shike mouKwanyama?

B: Ngame Pandu ya Shiwedha. Edhina B: Otandi longo osikola.
lyoye olye? A: Ooh, ove omulongifikola... Owa
A: Aame Meekulu Nelao. Owa dja tambulwa nawa momukunda wetu.
peni, Pandu? B: Iyaloo, Kuku.
B: Onda dja kElombe. A: Natu lyeni oikulya
A: Ooh, kElombe koNdonga! Oku li yoshikwanyama...oshifima nevanda.
nawa? Natango ope na ombelela yoxuxwa.
B: Heeno, oku li nawa. B: Ooh, ekaka nonyama yondjuhwa!
A: Neengobe, odi li nawa? Iikulya iiwanawa! Onda panda,
B: Ee-ee, oongombe odhi li nawa. Kuku!
A: Nounona?
B: Eeno, uunona owu li nawa.

Grammar Corner: Oshiwambo
As you probably noticed, the teacher and the meekulu in the above dialogue are not
speaking exactly the same language. The meekulu is speaking Oshikwanyama, while
the teacher, who comes from Elombe, speaks Oshindonga. Because these native
speakers can understand each other, we can think of both Oshikwanyama and
Oshindonga as dialects of the Oshiwambo language. Seven different dialects of
Oshiwambo are spoken in Namibia: Oshikwanyama, Oshindonga, Oshikolonkadhi,
Oshimbalantu, Oshikwaluudhi, Oshingangera, and Oshikwambi. Only Oshikwanyama
and Oshindonga have standard written forms and are taught as subjects in schools.
Oshiwambo is a relative newcomer to Namibia. Records of Khoisan speakers dating
almost as far back as 30 000 BC have been found in southern Africa. The Khoisan
family of languages is best known for its unique “click” sounds. Oshiwambo, on the
other hand, is a member of the Bantu language family, which originated around what is
now Nigeria. Speakers of proto-Bantu began migrating in search of better farmland
five thousand years ago, and arrived in Namibia around 1000 BC. The most widely-
spoken languages in Southern and East Africa developed from proto-Bantu, among
them Swahili in Kenya and Tanzania, Shona in Zimbabwe, and Zulu in South Africa.
The Oshiwambo dialects have many differences, but native speakers understand all of
them without much difficulty. When you speak to people, especially young people, you
will most likely hear a mixture of dialects.
After learning a few key patterns and words, you will begin to understand other
dialects of Oshiwambo, too. For example, f in Oshikwanyama becomes th in
Oshindonga. Thus, Aandonga eat oshithima, while Ovakwanyama sup on oshifima. A
few of the more common substitutions are listed in the table below.
Oshikwanyama Oshindonga Oshikwambi
sh – oshi li nawa sh tsh
d – edina dh dh
-nge – kwafe nge ndje -nge
nothing – omaongo g – omagongo g
d – omalodu v v
x/sh - oxjuxwa deep h sh
The structure of the noun classes is the same, but some of the prefixes and object
pronouns are different. It is useful to familiarize yourself with them. Readers especially
interested in Oshindonga should see the companion to this book, Te ti!
Okwiimba:
Okanona kameme (mOshindonga) Okaana kameme (mOshikwanyama)
Okanona ka meme Okaana ka meme
Egumbo olyo ndyo Eumbo olo lo
Ohandi zi po paife Ohai di po paife
Takamitha ayihe Takamifa aishe
Egumbo, egumbo Eumbo, eumbo

Egumbo olyo ndyo Eumbo olo lo
Ohandi zi po paife Ohai di po paife
Takamitha ayihe Takamifa aishe

Okwiimba:
Owambo
Twa dja kokule Mu na Ovangangera
Kedi lomatale
Twe ya kuoove Owambo Twe ya kuoove Owambo
Wambo yetu wambo yetu Mu na Ovakwaluudhi

Twe ya kuoove Owambo Mu na Ovambalantu
Mu na Ovandonga Twe ya kuoove Owambo

Mu na Ovakwanyama
Mu na Ovakolonkadhi
Twe ya kuoove Owambo Mu na Ovandonga
Mu na Ovakwambi Twe ya kuoove Owambo
OMUKWANYAMA TA TI:
~ Lumosho lilonga manga lulyo e li po. ~
The left hand learns while the right exists.
(Learn from your elders while they are still around.)

Grammar Corner: Making It Simple
Let’s face it: noun classes make learning Oshikwanyama difficult. Not only do you
have to recognize the existence of fourteen different kinds of nouns, but you also have
to remember fourteen different kinds of possessives, numbers, subject concords, object
pronouns, demonstratives, and adjective formations. Ough, Meme. What the
Oshiwambo student needs is a mental structure, like a filing cabinet, in which to store
all of these linguistic odds and ends. This final grammar corner offers one such model;
yours will undoubtedly be different.
Let us recall the different object pronouns:
Noun Class Examples Object Pronoun
omu omunhu mu
ova- ovalongi, ovalongi va
omu- (not people) omuti, omulongo u
omi- omiti, omilunga di
e- etango, efimbo li
oma- omafimbo, omeva a
oshi- oshikombo, oshifima shi
oi- oikulya, oikombo i
olu- olukaku, olutu lu
oka- okaana, okayaxa ka
ou- (plural) ounona, ouyaxa va
ou- (singular) oufiku, oupyu u
oku- okutwi ku
o- ongobe i
ee- eengobe di
While it might not be easy to memorize 150 things, a list of 15 is possible. From this
list one is able to derive all of the rest, albeit with quite a number of rules. The rules
read as complicated, but with a little time and practice, will become natural for you.
However, people and their nouns resist derivation and so must be memorized.
Possessives
The object pronoun is essentially the prefix for possessives. Drop the final i, unless the
i is by itself. In that case, change it to y. Change a final u to a w (say ua and you'll see
why).
my child → okaana ka+ange → okaana kange
our time → efimbo li→ly+etu → ethimbo lyetu
your ear → okutwi ku→kw+oye → okutwi kwoye
their goats → oikombo + i→y+avo → oikombo yavo
Numbers
For groups with prefixes o-, ee-, and omi-, the numbers have no prefixes. For the other
ones, the object pronoun is the prefix.
eight cows → eengobe *+hetatu → eengobe hetatu
(often eengobe di
li hetatu)
seven children → ounona va+heyali → ounona vaheyali
six goats → oikombo i+hamano → oikombo ihamano

Subject concords: present action
In most cases, subject concords are formed by putting ota- before the object pronoun.
The negative is the same as the positive, but with ita- instead of ota-.
Eengobe ota+di → Eengobe otadi...
Oikombo ota+i → Oikombo otai...
Okaana ita+ka → Okaana itaka...
Subject concords: past action

Add o- to the object pronoun. Drop the final i, unless it is by itself – then change it to
y. Change u to w. Add an -a to the end if there is not already one in the object
pronoun.The negative is just the object pronoun with a prefix of ina- (no changes).
Okaana o+ka → Okaana oka...
Okaana ina+ka → Okanona inaka...
Eengobe (o+di+a→oda) → Eengobe oda...
Eengobe ina+di → Eengobe inadi...
ikombo (o+i→y+a)→oya → Oikombo oya
Subject concords: future action

Add ka to the end of the present subject concord, as a separate word.
Oikombo otai + ka → Oikombo otai ka...
Ovalongi otava + ka → Ovalongi otava ka...
Subject concords: present stative

Add o- to the object pronoun. If the last letter is a, change it to e. The negative is the
same as the positive, except with ka- rather than o-. Again, oma- is a special case (oku,
kaa)
Etango o+li → Etango oli...
Okayaxa (o+ka→ke) → Okayaxa oke...
Oshifima ka+shi → Oshifima kashi...
Omeva oku → Omeva oku... (Sometimes
ome...)
Subject concords: past stative

Take the past tense action subject concord (positive or negative) and add li as a
separate word. Then add on, as a separate word again, the positive past action subject
concord, without the initial o-.
Oshikombo osha + li + → Oshikombo osha li shi...
(oshi→shi)
Ounona ova + li + (ove→ve) → Ounona ova li ve...
Oikulya inai + li + →(oi→i) → Oikulya inai li i....

Demonstrative prefixes
For "this": Add a- to the beginning of object pronouns that end in -a, o- to pronouns
that end in -u, and e- to those that end in -i.
this porridge → oshifima e+shi → oshifima eshi
these people → ovanhu a+va → ovanhu ava
For "that": Add an o at the beginning and end, dropping the final vowel. Drop -i or
change it to y.
that house → o+li+o → eumbo olo

those children → ounona o+ va+o → ounona ovo
that cow → ongobe o+i→y+o → ongobe oyo
For "yonder": Just add -nya / -inya, changing a to e.
yonder trees → omiti di+nya → omiti dinya
yonder folk → ovanhu va→ve+nya → ovanhu venya
Adjective formation
The adjective prefixes are the object concords, except the “concrete adjectives” which
use the possessive prefix. Again, oma- is a special case (ma-)
stupid cow → ongobe i+lai → ongobe ilai
small children → ounona va+shona → ounona vashona
bedroom → onduda y+okunangala → onduda
yokunangala

Grammar Corner: Further Reading
There are actually quite a number of books out about Oshiwambo, although none of
them with the sparkling wit of the present one. Listed below are those we found to be
most useful and/or in print. Most can be purchased in The Bookstore in Oshakati. We
frequently consulted these books as we wrote this guide.
GRAMMARS:
The Yellow Book: Zimmerman (W.) & Hasheela (P.) Oshikwanyama Grammar.
Windhoek: Gamsberg Macmillan, 1998.
This slim volume has lots of useful, fascinating, and relatively readable
information about the language and its grammar. However, as it was written
more as a reference for linguists than a language guide, its organization does
not always behoove beginning learners, and has been compared to a novel of
the choose-your-own-adventure variety.
The Green Book: Fivaz (D.) & Shikomba (S.) A Reference Grammar of Oshindonga.
Second revised edition, Windhoek: Academy, (1986) 2003.
The only comprehensive Oshindonga grammar in English, this pithy tome is
ideal for the budding linguist, or the died-in-the-wool masochist.
DICTIONARIES:
Unfortunately, the easiest to find are for Oshindonga. But because the
languages are so similar, they can still be useful for you, with a little help from
your Kwanyama-speaking friends.
The ELCIN Dictionaries:
English-Ndonga Dictionary. Compiled by ELCIN Church Council Special
Committees Resolution 292/92. Ondangwa: ELCIN Printing Press, 1996.
Tirronen (T.) Ndonga-English Dictionary. Ondangwa: ELCIN, 1986.
A bit outdated – most people don’t have drawing-rooms these days, for
instance – but still the most comprehensive.
The Bilingual Dictionary: Viljoen (J.J.), Amakali (P.) & Namuandi (M.)
Oshindonga/English English/Oshindonga Embwiitya Dictionary. Windhoek:
Gamsberg Macmillan, (1984) 2001.
A great resource for learners of both Oshindonga and English, this abridged
dictionary contains most of the basic words you’ll need in everyday
Oshikwanyama. Plus, it goes both ways, so you can look up both words
you’ve heard and words you’d really like to know. There is also a short
grammar reference in the front.
Grade School Texts:
These can often be found in school storerooms. Although they are all in
Oshiwambo, they are easy enough to be useful for the intermediate and
advanced students.

Appendix A: mOngulu
Chalkboard Oshipelende
Chalk Omya
Pen Opena
Pencil Opena yekala
Paper Ombapila
Book Embo
Exam Ekonaakono
Report / Certificate Odjapo
Workshop Oshihongiilonga / Owekshopa
Science (esp. Physical Science) Ounongononi
Mathematics Omwaalu
English Oshiinglisa
Afrikaans Oshimbulu
German Oshindowishi
Portuguese Oshiputu
Spanish Oshispania
Computers Eekompiuta
Principal Omukulunhufikola
Secretary Hamushanga
Grade Ondodo
Bag Ondjato
Learners Ovalongwa / Ovanafikola
Calculator Okashina
Electricity Olusheno
School Fund Oshikefa shofikola
Prepare Lilongekida
Invigilate / Proctor Kalela
Sit down Kala omutumba
Mark Talela
Stand up Fikama
Be quiet Mwena
Speak louder Popya mokule / muule
Speak softer Popya kashona / pedu
Read aloud Lesha mokule
Be late Laata
You are correct Ou li mondjila
You are not correct Ku li mondjila / Owa puka
Put that axe down Tula ekuva pedu

Appendix B: nOvakalimo
Volunteer Omuliyambi
Trainer Omudeuli
Community Ovanhu vomomukunda / Ovakalimo
Development Ehumokomesho
Observe Talela
Project Opoloyeka
Work (noun) Oilonga
Meeting Oshihongi
Parents’ meeting Oshihongi shovadali
School Board Etonatelofikola
Clinic Okapangelo / Okilinika
Headman Omwene womukunda
Fundraising Ekongo loimaliwa
Chairperson Omunashipundi
Treasurer Omudiinini woiniwe
Vote Hoolola
We came to this meeting to ... Otwe ya poshihongi eshi sho ...

Thank you for the opportunity ... Tangi kompito ...
Where can we get ... ? Openi hatu dulu okumona ... ?
Is there someone who can give us ...?Opu na omunhu umwe ta dulu oku tu
pa ... ?
What does this community need? Ovanhu vomomukunda ova pumbwa
shike?
Opens at .... Otashi patulula po ....
Closes at .... Otashi pata po ....
I train teachers. Ohandi deula ovalongi.
I am an HIV counsellor. Ame omuhungimwenyo wo HIV.
Eshiivo loshongalele:
(Modify this letter for your own purposes.)
Omufimanekwa ............................ ,
Oto indilwa nefimaneko opo u uye koshingalele sho..........

Oshongalele otashi ningwa mo .......... potundi ........... Ohatu ka
popya kombinga yo ................ .
Weni,
......................................
(Invitation to a meeting for the election of the school board:
Dear......,
You are respectfully invited to come to a meeting of....... The meeting will
take place on ..(date)... at ...(time)... We are going to talk about.........
Yours faithfully,)

Appendix C: Efe nge!
Some useful expressions for women dealing with unwanted suitors:
I don’t want you. (works well and Inandi hala. /
gets a laugh from all) Inandi ku hala.
Let go of me. / Leave me alone. Efe nge!
He is bothering me. Ota hepeke nge.
I am already married. Onda hombolwa nale.
I already have a man; I don’t want Ondi na omusamane nale; inandi hala
two. vavali.
Quick Tips
• It is usually best not to insult. Inandi hala is strong enough, and doesn’t
make people angry or defensive of their pride.
• An effective approach is to say aaye to everything and suck your teeth
(’tsk) to show your disgust.
• If he asks, Omusamane woye oku li peni? (Where is your husband?),
just say, kEumbo. (At home.)

Appendix D: Grammar Reference
Person Subject Concords

Possess. Object
Past Present Future Present Present Suffix Pronoun
English Kwanyama
Active Active Active Stative Habitual
+ Onda Ohandi Ohandi ka Ondi Ohandi
I Ame -ange nge
– Inandi Itandi Itandi ka Kandi Ihandi
+ Owa Oto Oto ka Ou Oho
You Ove -oye ku
– Ino Ito Ito ka Ku Iho
He/She/ + Okwa Ota Ota ka Oku Oha
Ye -aye mu
It – Ina Ita Ita ka Ke Iha
+ Otwa Ohatu Ohatu ka Otu Ohatu
We Fye -etu tu
– Inatu Itatu Itatu ka Katu Ihatu
+ Omwa Otamu Otamu ka Omu Ohamu
You all Nye -eni mu
– Inamu Itamu Itamu ka Kamu Ihamu
+ Ova Otava Otava ka Ove Ohava
They Vo -avo va
– Inava Itava Itava ka Kave Ihava
Noun Singular Plural Numerical Normal Some stative verbs:

Number
Class Prefix Prefix Suffix Number
1 omu- ova- 1 -mwe imwe hole like/love
1a (none) oo- 2 -vali mbali
2 omu- omi- 3 -tatu nhatu na have
3 e- oma- 4 -ne nhee
4 oshi- oi- 5 -tano nhano udite feel
5 o- ee- 6 -hamano hamano
udite ko hear/understand
6 olu- omalu- 7 -heyali heyali
7 oka- ou- 8 -hetatu hetatu wete see
8 ou- omau- 9 none omuwoi
9 oku- omaku- 10 none omulongo shi know
Noun Possessive Numerical Adjective Subject Concord

Object Pronoun
Prefix Prefix Prefix Prefix Present Active Present Stative
omu- (things) w- u- u- otau ou u
omi- d- - (i-) di- otadi odi di
e- l- lili- otali oli li
oma- - a- ma- otaa oku a
oshi- sh- shi- shi- otashi oshi shi
oi- y- i- i- otai oi i
olu- l- li-/ lu- li-/ lu- otali /otalu oli / olu lu
oka- k- kaka- otaka oke ka
ou- (plural) v- va- va- otava ove va
ou- (singular) w- u- u- otau ou u
oku- kw- kuku- otaku oku ku
o- y- - i- otai oi i
ee- d- - di- otadi odi di
ku - - - otaku oku ko
mu - - - otamu omu mo
pu - - - otapu opu po

Appendix E: Grammar Reference (handy tear-out)
Person Subject Concords

Possess. Object
Kwanya Past Present Future Present Present Suffix Pronoun
English
ma Active Active Active Stative Habitual
+ Onda Ohandi Ohandi ka Ondi Ohandi
I Ame -ange nge
– Inandi Itandi Itandi ka Kandi Ihandi
+ Owa Oto Oto ka Ou Oho
You Ove -oye ku
– Ino Ito Ito ka Ku Iho
+ Okwa Ota Ota ka Oku Oha
He/She/It Ye -aye mu
– Ina Ita Ita ka Ke Iha
+ Otwa Ohatu Ohatu ka Otu Ohatu
We Fye -etu tu
– Inatu Itatu Itatu ka Katu Ihatu
+ Omwa Otamu Otamu ka Omu Ohamu
You all Nye -eni mu
– Inamu Itamu Itamu ka Kamu Ihamu
+ Ova Otava Otava ka Ove Ohava
They Vo -avo va
– Inava Itava Itava ka Kave Ihava
Noun Singular Plural Numerical Normal Some stative verbs:

Number
Class Prefix Prefix Suffix Number
1 omu- ova- 1 -mwe imwe hole like/love
1a (none) oo- 2 -vali mbali
2 omu- omi- 3 -tatu nhatu na have
3 e- oma- 4 -ne nhee
4 oshi- oi- 5 -tano nhano udite feel
5 o- ee- 6 -hamano hamano
udite ko hear/understand
6 olu- omalu- 7 -heyali heyali
7 oka- ou- 8 -hetatu hetatu wete see
8 ou- omau- 9 none omuwoi
9 oku- omaku- 10 none omulongo shi know
Noun Possessive Numerical Adjective Subject Concord

Object Pronoun
Prefix Prefix Prefix Prefix Present Active Present Stative
omu- (things) w- u- u- otau ou u
omi- d- - (i-) di- otadi odi di
e- l- lili- otali oli li
oma- - a- ma- otaa oku a
oshi- sh- shi- shi- otashi oshi shi
oi- y- i- i- otai oi i
olu- l- li-/ lu- li-/ lu- otali /otalu oli / olu lu
oka- k- kaka- otaka oke ka
ou- (plural) v- va- va- otava ove va
ou- (singular) w- u- u- otau ou u
oku- kw- kuku- otaku oku ku
o- y- - i- otai oi i
ee- d- - di- otadi odi di
ku - - - otaku oku ko
mu - - - otamu omu mo
pu - - - otapu opu po

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Peace Corps

Kwanyama language lessons

Technical Language Units

If you want to learn Oshikwanyama

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 5

A: Ongula Tate: Ehee. Ove wa uhala po, Meme

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 7

8 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Grammar Corner: Personal Pronouns

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 9

10 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Onda fya ondjala. Ihandi li ombelela.

Onda fya enota. Kandi udite ko...

Onda kuta. Aame ............... Oove

Onda loloka, onda hala

Omeva oku li peni? Okandjuwo oke li peni?

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 11

12 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Zach: Wa uhala po nawa Meme?

Zach: Ehee. Oshi li ngaipi?

Zach: Edina lange oZach. Edina loye olye?

Zach: Onda dja koAmerika.

Zach: Ame omulongi ouliyambi.

Zach: Ohandi ka longa omwaalu, oshiingilisa, nounongononi.

Zach: Ohandi ka kala mo eedula mbali.

Zach: Eewa. Kala po nawa.

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 13

Subject Concords for Active Verbs

Subject Concords for Stative Verbs

14 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Common Stative Verbs

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 15

Quick Tip : What's the deal with stative verbs?

16 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 17

18 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

English Past Present Future

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 19

20 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 21

22 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Friend: Onda dja koAngola. You: .......................................................

Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi? Meekulu: Ooh, eedula mbali...

You: ...................................................... Friend: Eewa, Meekulu. Kala po nawa.

Meekulu: Oh, koAngolaaaa! Oto ningi Meekulu: Okwa ti ngaipi?

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 23

24 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Edina lange oSalom. Onda dja

Meme wange edina laye oSaima. Oku na

Tate wange edina laye oTangeni. Oku na

Ondi na ovamwameme yatatu,

Omumwamemekadona edina laye

Omumwamememati edina laye

Onghelo yetu oFrans oku na eedula

Meekulu wange oha kala nafye. Oku na

Naave, oove lye?

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 25

26 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama

Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama 27

28 Hai ti! – A Beginner’s Guide to Oshikwanyama