A PAPER

PREHISTORIC ASTRONOMERS

Lecturer :

Mrs. Olivia Yolanda, S.E., M.M

Created By :

Rifa Adawiyyah

NPM 213402516222

MANAJEMEN STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSSINES

NASIONAL UNIVERSITY
 PREFACE

We thank God for the presence of ALLAH SWT, who has bestowed His grace,
guidance, and inayah to the authors, so that the authors can complete this paper
entitled "Prehistoric Astronomers". This paper has been compiled as much as
possible so that it can fulfill the first assignment in English. Despite all that, the
authors are fully aware that there are still shortcomings in terms of sentence
structure and grammar. Therefore, with open arms, the authors accept all
suggestions and criticisms from readers so that they can improve. Finally, the
authors hope that this paper can provide benefits to readers in general and to
authors in particular.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUD OF THE PREHISTORIC ASTRONOMERS

Astronomy is a branch of natural science that involves observing celestial bodies (such as stars,
planets, comets, nebulae, star clusters, or galaxies) and natural phenomena that occur outside the Earth's
atmosphere (for example, cosmic background radiation (CMB radiation). This science basically studies
various fields of celestial bodies — such as origin, physical/chemical properties, meteorology, and motion
— and how the science of these objects explains the formation and development of the universe.

Astronomy as a science is one of the oldest, as it is known from astronomical artifacts dating from
the prehistoric era, for example the monuments from Egypt and Nubia, or Stonehenge originating from
Britain. People from early civilizations such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Chinese, Indians and Maya were
also found to have made methodological observations of the night sky. However, even though it has a
long history, astronomy can only develop into a branch of modern science through the invention of the
telescope.

Quite a number of branches of science have been included as a field of astronomy, and when
observed, the nature of these branches is the most diverse, namely: from astrometry, space-based
navigation, observational astronomy, to the preparation of calendars and astrology. However, nowadays
professional astronomy is assumed to be synonymous with astrophysics.

In the 20th century, professional astronomy split into two branches: observational astronomy and
theoretical astronomy. The first involves collecting data from observations of celestial bodies, which will
then be analyzed using basic principles of physics. The second focuses on efforts to develop
computer/analytical models to explain the properties of celestial bodies and other world phenomena. The
two branches are complementary — theoretical astronomy seeks to explain the results of observational
astronomy, and observational astronomy in turn attempts to prove the conclusions reached by theoretical
astronomy.

Amateur astronomers have played and continue to play an important role in many astronomical
discoveries, making astronomy one of the few sciences in which amateurs are playing an active role,
especially in the discovery and observation of transient phenomena.

Astronomy must be distinguished from astrology, which is the belief that human destiny and affairs
are related to the position of heavenly bodies such as the stars or their constellations. It is true that these
two fields have a common origin, but at this time they were very different.
 BAB II

DISCUSSION

PREHISTORIC ASTRONOMERS

At first, astronomy only involved observations and predictions of the movements of

celestial bodies visible to the naked eye. At sites such as Stonehenge, early civilizations also
compiled artifacts thought to have had astronomical uses. These ancient observatories were
usually for ceremonial purposes, but could also be used to determine the seasons, weather and
climate — something one must know when going into farming — or to find out the length of the
year.

Before the invention of tools such as telescopes, research had to be done from the top of
buildings or high ground, all with the naked eye. As civilizations developed, especially in
Mesopotamia, China, Egypt, Greece, India, and Central America, people began to build
observatories and ideas about the nature of the universe began to be actively examined.
Generally, early astronomy was preoccupied with mapping the positions of stars and planets
(now called astrometry), an activity that eventually gave rise to theories about the motions of
celestial bodies and philosophical ideas to explain the origins of the Sun, Moon, and Earth. The
Earth was then assumed to be the center of the universe, while the Sun, Moon, and stars revolved
around it, such a model is known as the geocentric model, or Ptolemaic system (after the Roman-
Egyptian astronomer Ptolemy).

The start of astronomy according to mathematical and scientific rules was pioneered by
the Babylonians. They found that lunar eclipses have a regular cycle, called the saros cycle.
Following in the footsteps of the Babylonian astronomers, progress was made by the
astronomical community of Ancient Greece and the surrounding countries. Greek astronomy
from the very beginning had the goal of finding rational, physics-based explanations for celestial
phenomena. In the 3rd century BC, Aristarchus of Samos calculated the size of the Earth and the
distance between it and the Moon, and then proposed the heliocentric model of Solar System —
the first in history. In the 2nd century BC, Hipparchus discovered the motion of precession, also
calculated the sizes of the Moon and Sun and the distance between them, as well as inventing the
earliest astronomical research tools such as the astrolabe. The majority of constellations in the
Northern Hemisphere are currently based on the order formulated by him through a catalog that
at that time included 1,020 stars. The famous Antikythera mechanism (ca. 150-80 BC) also dates
from the same period: the analog computer used to calculate the positions of the
Sun/Moon/planets on specific dates was the most complex item in history until the 14th century,
when astronomical clocks began to appear together in Europe.
 In Europe itself during the Middle Ages astronomy had experienced a stalemate and
stagnation. On the other hand, rapid developments occurred in the Islamic world and several
other civilizations, marked by the construction of observatories in other parts of the world in the
early 9th century. In 964, the Persian astronomer Al-Sufi discovered the Andromeda Galaxy (the
largest galaxy in the Local Group) and recorded it in the Book of Fixed Stars (Kitab Suwar al-
Kawakib). Supernova SN 1006, the brightest exploding star in recorded history, was successfully
observed by the Egyptian astronomer Ali bin Ridwan and a separate group of Chinese
astronomers in the same year (1006 AD). The great astronomers of the Islamic era usually came
from Persia and Arabia, including Al-Battani, Thabit bin Qurrah, Al-Sufi, Ibn Balkhi, Al-Biruni,
Al-Zarqali, Al-Birjandi, as well as astronomers from the observatory- observatories in Maragha
and Samarkand. It was through this era that Arabic proper star names were introduced. The ruins
in Greater Zimbabwe and Timbuktu may also have housed observatories - undermining earlier
beliefs that there were no astronomical observations in the sub-Saharan region before the
colonial era.

Astrometry and celestial mechanics

Measurement of the position of celestial bodies, as told, is one of the oldest branches of
astronomy (and even science). Activities such as sailing or compiling a calendar most require
accurate knowledge of the position of the Sun, Moon, planets and stars in the sky.

Measurements such as these produce an accurate understanding of gravitational

disturbances and in this way astronomers can determine the precise positions of celestial bodies
in the past and in the future. The branch of astronomy that studies this field is known as celestial
mechanics. At this time the tracking of objects close to Earth also allows predictions of close
encounters, or even collisions.

Then there is the measurement of star parallax. This measurement is most important
because it provides a basis for the cosmic distance ladder method, through which the size and
scale of the universe can be determined. Parallax measurements of relatively closer stars can also
be used as an absolute basis for the characteristics of stars that are more distant, because the
features between them can be compared. We can then construct their kinematics by measuring
the radial velocity and their respective self-propelled motions. Astrometric results can also be
used for measurements of dark matter in galaxies.

During the 1990s, techniques of measuring the stellar wobble in astrometry were used to
detect the presence of extrasolar planets orbiting stars near our Sun.
Benefits of Astronomy Science
There are many benefits of astronomy, here are some of the benefits of astronomy for human
life, including:

1. Knowing the movement of celestial bodies, as well as the distribution and characteristics of
celestial bodies.
2. Determine the time based on the sun or moon.
3. As an indication of natural phenomena on earth.
4. Predict the weather.
5. Define forecast.
 CHAPTER III

Case Study

Stonehenge and Prehistoric Astronomy

Stonehenge is a natural monument in the form of a group of large stones arranged in a
circle. Stonehenge is located on Salisbury Plain, Wiltshire, England (about 13 KM Northwest of
Salisbury). Geographically, Stonehenge is located at 51º 11' latitude and 1º 49' east longitude.
Stonehenge itself is a naming in the modern era that originates and is rooted in two words
namely 'stone' and 'henge'. Stone means stone, and henge means circle. Stonehenge is one of the
oldest prehistoric buildings which is estimated to have been built around 3000 BC, and it is
included in the list of world heritage sites of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO).

The initial construction of a group of stones in the Stonehenge monument is in the form
of holes that form a circle formation. The stones themselves weigh tens of tons, with an average
height of four meters. These stones are arranged and arranged in such a way and done manually
and traditionally by using human power to move them. Regarding where the stones came from,
the type of rock and or the characteristics of the stones, to this day there is still debate among
historians and scientists. However, it is clear that along the way, the stones have theological,
mythical, and social values with their local style and touch.

As for what purpose Stonehenge was built for, there are many theories and opinions
about it. However, one theory states that Stonehenge was built for purposes and interests related
to astronomical studies. In fact, there is an opinion that says that Stonehenge is a simple and
natural building where observing celestial bodies, which in this case is referred to as an ancient
observatory. Allegedly this 'observatory' building is the first and oldest in the world. Among the
functions of this building in its history is predicting the occurrence of eclipses (both lunar
eclipses and solar eclipses), as well as activities related to other astronomy.

According to Dr. Yahya Waziri in his work "al-'Imārah wa al-Falak", he revealed that the
construction of Stonehenge was carried out in three phases (periods). The first period (around
3100 BC), Stonehenge was just a simple circular ditch with a mound on the inside with a
diameter of 100 meters. The second period (around 2300 BC), at this stage Stonehenge already
looks intact using blue stone material from the Preseli hill (southern part of Wales) which is
about 380 kilometers from the Stonehenge location. During the third period (around 1500 BC),
Stonehenge was complete and finished, and its use intensified. In this period Stonehenge stones
have been arranged and laid out in such a way.
In fact, the arrangement of the stones at Stonehenge as seen today corresponds to a number of
astronomical phenomena. In the 18th century AD, William Stukeley (an archaeologist from
England), discovered the fact that the rocks in the Stonhenge circle actually form a 'horseshoe'
that is exactly facing the Sun when it rises in summer. The position and location of the stones are
facing geographic north at an angle of about 51 degrees 18 minutes, which is almost the same as
the latitude of that location, which is 51 degrees 11 minutes. Based on this fact it is evident that
the construction and planning of the Stonehenge stones was carried out accurately. This is none
other than because of the needs and interests in it, namely related to mythology and supernatural
activities.

Furthermore, in fact the Stonehenge building has a correlation with the tradition of sun
worship which has been thriving since then. Therefore there is also an opinion which states that
Stonehenge was built for this main purpose, namely in order to worship the Sun. In 1966 AD,
Gerald Hawkins (a geographer) stated that Stonehenge was not only a place for ancient rocks in
England, so again it was not only for the purpose of astronomical observations such as the Sun
and Moon, but also Stonehenge made it possible to determine the fall of astronomical
phenomena called eclipses , both solar and lunar eclipses. In reality again, Stonehenge at that
time could be declared as the largest sun-worshipping temple in the world, thus he could also be
called an astronomical calculator.

Alexander Thom (a professor of geometry and mathematics) confirms Hawkins' opinion

above, according to him there are many giant rock sites and places in England that point exactly
to the Sun and or the Moon with all their various positions and models. This shows the close
relationship between humans and nature as well as the traditions that developed at that time. The
unique and interesting aspect of this Stonehenge monument is the fact that it was erected by a
culture that did not have written records or traditions at all, which adds to the mysterious aspect
of Stonehenge itself. Meanwhile, in the context of astronomy, Stonehenge provides an
understanding of the substance of astronomy which cannot be separated from observations of
celestial bodies.

Meanwhile, in a socio-religious context, the presence and existence of Stonehenge with

all its mysteries and controversies shows the close relationship between humans and nature in
their daily activities which cannot be separated from nature. Humans in their history have always
been inseparable from and with nature. For ancient humans, the interaction and meaning of
nature was absolutely necessary, apart from being related to life and existence, it was also related
to the esoteric aspects of humans themselves.