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INSTITUT SUPERIEUR PEDAGOGIQUE

I.S.P/BUKAVU

HISTORY OF
AFRICAN LITERAURE II.docx

B.P. 854 BUKAVU

SECTION: LETTRES ET SCIENCES HUMAINES

DEPARTEMENT: ANGLAIS-CULTURE AFRICAINE

A COURSE IN AFRICAN LITERATURE INTENDED FOR

THE BAC 1 STUDENTS AT BUKAVU TEACHER TRAINING

COLLEGE

By Senior lecturer MUKANDIKWA MUTEKULWA Germain

Academic Year 2022-2023

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I. Objectives

At the end of the course, students will be able to:

- Comment on oral literature

- Be aware of some African beliefs and exchange about them
- Give a historical background to literature produced by Africans
- Discover some African writers
- Discuss different literary works by African writers
- Analyse some literary texts.

II. Course orientation

The course will consist of lectures and assignments. The first assignment will be
done in the lecture room. The second one will be part of the students‟
research. They will be assigned works in groups and research into them.
Granted that students should be involved in communicative language
teaching, they will be asked to voice their viewpoints about the course
contents they will have studied. Finally, they will sit for a written exam.
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CHAPTER ONE : PRELIMINARIES OF LITERATURE

1.1. Definitions of literature

There have been various attempts to define the term literature. This is because
literature is a multi-dimension concept. Therefore there is no specific definition
of literature.

The following are some definitions of literature :

 Literature is a work of art expressed in words, using language creatively

to express human realities. It is distinct from other works of art such as
painting, sculpture, etc. All works of art express the culture of the society
from which they originate.
 Literature is the writing that is valued as a work of art, particularly fiction,
drama and poetry.
 Literature is the writing in prose and verse, especially writing having
excellence of form or expression and expressing ideas of permanent
or universal interest. It stands to man as science stands to nature.
 Literature can be defined as word of art which is transmited in spoken
or written form. This work is a product of a certain society. It is imagined
but reflects social realities. Also, this work has two parts : form and
content. In form there are some parts such as language, plot, setting,
characterization and style. Content contains themes, message,
philosophy, issues and historical background of a certain society.
 Literature is a term which implies creative language and imitates social
realities which can be transmitted in the form of writing or speech and
reflects human experiences.
 Literature is one of the creative and universal means of communicating
the emotional, spiritual or intellectual concerns of mankind. It is
characterized by imagination, meaningfulness of expression, and good
form and technique.
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1.2. Nature of literature

Originally, man‟s language was spoken, so his verbal art was oral. Historically
various forms of oral literature have emerged as a result of the process of
linguistic differentiation i.e. labour songs, epics, folk tales, myths, etc. All the
main techniques and devices of literary art were invented during the time
when man knew only oral literature.

The pre-literate man invented techniques and devices like simile, metaphor,
alliteration rhyme, rhythm, allusion, hyperbole, concepts of tragic, comic,
dialogue, narrative, characterization, plot, style, etc.

1.3. Types of literature

There are two types of literature :

- Oral literature
- Written literature
1.3.1. Oral literature

Africa has a very rich and diversified oral literature . Each ethic group has a
store of myths, legends, folktales, riddles, sayings and other oral arts that
embody culture and tradition and are important elements in African cultural
heritage.

Myth

A myth is a story often about immortals and sometimes connected with

religious rituals, that attempts to give meaning to the mysteries of the world. In
myths, gods and goddesses are usually identified with the immense powers of
the universe. In other words, African myths explain the creation of the
universe, the activities of gods at the beginning of creation, the essence of all
creatures and the nature of their interrelationships.

How the world was created from a drop of milk

At the beginning there was a huge drop of milk;

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then Doondari (God) came and he created the stone;

then the stone created iron;

And iron created fire;

and fire created water;

and water created air;

the Doondari descended a second time. And he took the five elements

and he shaped them into man.

But man was proud.

Then Doondari created blindness and blindness defeated man.

but when blindness became too proud,

Doondari created sleep, and defeated blindness;
But when sleep became too proud,
Doondari created worry, and worry defeated sleep;
But when worry became too proud,

Doondari created death, and death defeated worry.

but when death became too proud,

Doondari descended for the third time,
and he became as Gueno, the eternal one
And Gueno defeated death. A Fulani story (Mali).

Tortoises, men and stones

God created the tortoise, men and stones. Of each he created

male and female. God gave life to the tortoises and men, but not the
stones. Men could have children, and when they became old
they did not die but became young again!
The tortoise, however, wished to have children, and went to God.
But God said: " I have given you life, but I have not given you
permission to have children."
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But the tortoise came to God again to make the request, and
finally God said:
"You always come to ask for children. Do you realize that when the
living have had several children they must die?"
But the tortoise said: "Let me see my children and then die." Then God
granted the wish. When man saw that the tortoise had children, he too
wanted children. God warned man, as he warned the tortoise, that he
must die. But man also said: "Let me see my children and then die."
That is how death and children came into the world. Only the
stones didn't want to have children, so they never die!
A Nupe story (Nigeria).
Legend

A legend is story from ancient times about people and events (that can or
cannot be true). Legends tell of cultural heroes and important ancestors who
were endowed with qualities such as courage, intelligence, generosity,…
Young people learn about these illustrious ancestors through story telling.
Among the Bahaya (Tanzania), the young groom researches in his family
values that were preserved and passed down through legends and chooses
an important ancestor that they will try to emulate and that will be his role
model. In a very real sense, these ancestors participate and influence the
lives of people today.

Proverb

A proverb is a message coded and transmitted in order to evaluate and/or

effect human behavior. Proverbs reveal key elements of a culture such as the
position and influence of women, morality, what is considered appropriate
behavior, and the importance of children. In a great deal of African
communities, the ability to speak in a proficient way depends largely on a
good mastery of proverbs. These treasured sayings impart the wisdom of the
ages and consequently serve as a trustworthy authority in arguments or
discussion. For example,
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- When elephants fight, it is the grass that suffers. African proverb.

- Fear a silent man. He has lips like a drum. Beninese proverb.
- What you give, you get ten times over. Beninese proverb.
- If you cut your chains you free yourself. If you cut your roots, you die.
African proverb.
- Virtue is better than Wealth. Kenyan proverb
- A Stumble is not a fall. Haitian proverb
- When you follow in the path of your father, you learn to walk like him.
Ashanti proverb.
- The fool speaks, the Wise man listens. Ethiopian proverb.
- Wisdom is like fire. People take it from others. Hema (DRC) proverb.
- Knowledge without wisdom is like water in the sand. Guinean proverb.
- If you close your eyes to facts, you learn through accidents. African
proverb
- You always learn a lot more when you lose than when you win. African
proverb
- You do not teach the paths of the forest to an old gorilla. Congolese
proverb.
- Ears that do not listen to advice, accompany the head when it is
chopped off. African proverb.
- War has no eyes. Swahili proverb.
- When a king has good Counselors, his reign is peaceful. Ashanti
proverb.
- He who fears the Sun will not become a chief. Ugandan proverb
- He who refuses to obey cannot command. Kenyan proverb
- No matter how beautiful and well−crafted a coffin might look, it will not
make anyone wish for death. African proverb
- An intelligent enemy is better than a stupid friend. Senegalese proverb.
- If you carry the egg basket, do not dance. Ambede proverb
- A child is a child of every one. Sudanese proverb
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- Anger and madness are brothers. African proverb

- True love means what‟s mine is yours. African proverb.
- Love is like a bady. It needs to be treated tenderly Congolese proverb
- You know who you love but you can‟t know who loves you. Nigerian
proverb
- Lovers do not hide their nakedness. Congolese proverb
- Love is like the Cough, you can‟t hold back. African proverb
- Coffee and love test best when hot. Ethiopian proverb
- He who loves the vase, loves also what is inside. African proverb
- It is much easier to fall in love than to stay in love. African proverb
- Wisdom is wealth. Swahili proverb
- Only a Wise person can solve a difficult problem. Akan proverb
- You learn how to cut trees by cutting them down. Bateke proverb
- One who causes others misfortune also teaches them wisdom. African
proverb
- If evil lasts for a long time, it will become a tradition. Igbo proverb
- Quarrels end, but words once spoken never die. Sierra Leonean
proverb
- The Night has ears. Masai proverb
- You cannot name a child that is not born. African proverb.

The role of African proverbs

Proverbs are commonly used in the continent‟s long standing tradition of oral
arts. They present various roles, however, one issue will be emphasized.

Gender ideology in African traditional society through proverbs

In Africa, gender ideology is generally seen in proverbs. Only few proverbs are
enumerated.
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a. Proverbs that portray women as sexual objects

Women are considered as sexual objects to satisfy the pleasure of men.

African proverbs that portray women as sexual objects show the complex
relationship between power and sexuality and hegemonic masculinity as a
source for the imposition and practice of unwanted sexual assault on women.

They also point out the society‟s belief that female sexuality is determined by
male sexual virility. The Igbo proverb “A woman carrying a vagina would ask
to be sexed, that the vagina is her own, but when it causes trouble, the real
owner of the vagina would be looked for”, depicts the society‟s view that
women‟s sexuality is inactive in the absence of masculine involvement.
Similarly, the proverb, “one cannot be afraid of the wide vagina because it
cannot sex itself”, shows the passivity of women‟s sexuality and by inference,
the supremacy of masculinity. Women lack objectivity in how they think and
what they do. For example, the Igbo proverb: “one would be doing a good
thing to a woman and she would be doing a good thing to whoever she truly
loves”, ridicules women for making themselves the “public property for any
man”.

Proverbs that convey women as evil sub-species of humanity

Among the multiple images of women in patriarchy is the representation of

women as a symbol of “disorderly world of vices in which Satan attempts to
rule. In this representation women possess sinful and horrible nature. This
aspect of the Western and Christian devaluation of women is communicated
in many African proverbs. For example, “to marry is to put a snake in one‟s
handbag” according to the Tsonga – Shangana. To go to women or live with
them is equated with committing suicide in the Oromo proverb, “He who
goes to women has already sold himself”. The Igbo proverb, “A dog trained
by a woman always bites people to death” shows the dangers that women
may present in the society.
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Proverbs that encourage men to control women

In Africa, proverbs are used to instigate men to power and control. It is

viewed that becoming lax towards women and allowing them some sort of
freedom is disadvantageous. Hence the proverb “the lady whose husband
spoils, slips from the tanned hide”. A woman who has assumed an upper
hand in her home may disturb the peace of the neighbour. Moreover,
proverbs instruct husbands not to fear their wives, for if they do, they may not
get full services from them.

Proverbs that convey women’s expression and supportive roles

Some proverbs focus the importance of mother in nurturing children and

maintaining their welfare. The mother is considered as a very important
person. That is, the Igbo say, “If a child starts learning to climb trees, his/her
mother starts learning to cry”. To point out the life - enhancing quality of
mothers, the Gikuyu of Kenya say, “the baby that refuses its mother‟s breast
will never be full”.

Proverbs that show complementarity between men and women

In Africa, gender may well be both asymmetrical and complementary. A

separate life is hard to live for men as well as women. The proverb, “the
woman is a banana tree (which multiplies), the man however is a cornstalk
(what stands alone)”, clearly shows the African view that a man is
meaningless without a woman. To state the preciousness of women, the
Ghanaians say, “woman is a flower in a garden, her husband the fence
around it”. In Africa, marriage is one of the social accomplishments. It is a
must for females to marry as early as possible. Remaining unmarried is not
normal even for males, except for those who chose that way for Christian
reasons. (Priests, nuns, etc.). The following Swahili proverb says, “It is better to
be married to an old lady than to remain unmarried”, reveals the
abnormality of being unmarried. The Kamba of Kenya say, “he who eats
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alone dies alone”. The Igbo say, “the husband is the beauty of a woman”, to
show that a woman is incomplete without a husband.
Riddle

A riddle is a statement or question having a double or veiled meaning, put

forth as a puzzle to be solved. Riddles are not just a form of entertainment;
they play an important role in the social and cultural education. Riddles are
also useful tools in children cognitive development. They teach rules of
behavior, explain and interpret natural phenomena, and are a socially
sanctioned avenue for questioning social taboos and restricted subjects. In
the educational role, riddles provide a safe avenue for transmitting restricted
information as well as intimate and vital knowledge. Among the chagga, for
example, elders explain that riddles are for entertainment, but they also point
out that an adept at riddling acquires social respect and is considered a
master in manipulating social knowledge. For example,

- I am neither inside nor outside, but I am in every house.

Who am I ?
Answer: A door
- I am born tall, but I die very short. I am used inside the house. Who am I ?
Answer: A Candle
- I have ten servants that obey my orders; they help me whenever I need
them. They nourish me, help me wear my clothes and they turn the
pages of my book when I am reading. They never argue among
themselves, who are they?
Answer: My fingers
- Two doors are opening and closing at the same time. But they are not
doors of my house. What are they?
Answer: My eyes.
- I have a good friend who is teaching me a lot of things, but
unfortunately my friend is not speaking. Who is my friend ?
Answer: A book
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- What goes on four legs in the morning, on two legs at noon, and on
three legs in the evening?
Answer: A man.

Ballad

A ballad is a story told in verse and usually meant to be sung. Ballads are
generally classified as folk ballads or literary ballads. Folk ballads have no
known authors. They are composed anonymously and transmitted orally.
Literary ballads are composed by known writers who imitate folk ballads.

Lyric

A lyric is a poem, usually a short one that expresses a speaker‟s personal

thought and feelings. A lyric was originally a poem sung to the
accompaniment of a lyre, and lyrics to this day have retained a melodious
quality. The elegy and the ode are forms of the lyric. It is worth while pointing
out that an elegy is a poem of mourning, usually over the death of an
individual. It may be a lament over the passing of life and beauty or a
meditation on the nature of death. An ode is a complex and often lengthy
lyric poem written in a dignified formal style on some lofty or serious subject.
Odes are often written for a special occasion, to give honor to a person or a
season or to commemorate an event.

Epic

An epic is a long narrative poem describing the deeds of a great hero and
reflecting the values of the culture from which it originated. Many epics were
drawn from an oral tradition and transmitted by song and recitation before
they were written down.

Folk tale

A folk tale is a very traditional story from a particular place that is passed on
to people in a spoken form. Folktales are often told for entertainment. They
feature human beings and animals either separately or together. They are
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employed for social commentary and instruction and also serve as a potent
means of affirming group values and discouraging antisocial behavior.

The Queen of Ethiopia

In the days of King Solomon, three thousand years ago, there lived in Ethiopia
a dynasty of Queens, who reigned with great wisdom. One Queen, the
Malika Habashiya or Abyssinian Queen of old legends, had a dream in which
she held a kid in her lap. On waking up, she found herself pregnant and in
due course she gave birth to a baby daughter. But alas! The child had one
goat‟s foot. When the Queen died, Princess Goat‟s Foot succeeded her,
since she had no other children. One day, she heard of king Solomon and his
great wisdom, so she wrote him a letter announcing her arrival at his court.
She was hoped that his great knowledge might enable her to cure her foot
but she did not mention that. The king, however, always knew in advance
what was going to happen. In front of his new palace he had a large pool
dug, so that all his visitors had to rinse their feet before arriving. When the
Queen of Abyssinia arrived, she had to raise her skirt before wading through
the pond, so that the king could see her legs, one normal and one abnormal.
In the pond was a piece of iron wood which was placed there on the king‟s
orders. When the Queen‟s cloven foot hit it, she was cured. When she
stepped out of the water, she noticed that she had two human feet. She
wanted to go home, having achieved her purpose, but Solomon persuaded
her to stay. He proposed her marriage, but she refused. However, Solomon
knew the answer to that too. He gave some orders to his servants and an hour
later the cook served a very spicy meal. That night the Queen felt very thirsty
but there was no water in the palace. The pond had been drained and the
servants told her that only the king had water, so she had to go and beg
Solomon for water in his bedroom.

There is a version of the tale which says that she had agreed to marry King
Solomon only if she took something vital from him. She therefore broke into his
bedroom like a thief, hoping to find water without waking him. However,
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Solomon was wide awake like every man in love. As she was drinking from his
water jar, she felt his hand holding hers in the dark, while the king‟s voice
asked: “Is water not vital, my dear Queen ?” She had to agree to marry him
there and then, but the next day she insisted on going home. Solomon gave
her a ring, saying: “When you have a son, send him to me when he is grown
up, and I will give him half of my kingdom”. The Queen of Ethiopia took the
ring and traveled back by boat along the Red sea.

In due course she gave birth to a son whom she called David, after his
father‟s father. When he grew up, his mother sent him to king Solomon, with
numerous presents. When David entered Solomon‟s court, he noticed an
empty chair next to the king‟s and sat down on it. Solomon asked him: “What
have you come for, handsome young man? He replied: “I am David of
Ethiopia I have come to ask you for half of your kingdom, and here is the ring
which you gave my mother”. Solomon embraced him when he recognized
his ring, and spoke: “So be it. I will give you Africa, which is half of my
kingdom”. According to the legend, the king was in his right to do so for God
had given him the whole world as his realm. No one knew at the time how big
Africa really was.

 Fable : They are short stories not based on fact, often with animals as
characters, that convey a moral message. The characters are most
frequently animals, but people and inanimate objects are sometimes
the central figures. Fables have to do with supernatural or unusual
incidents.
 Anecdote : It is a short, interesting or amusing story about a real person
or event. In careful usage, the term most frequently refers to a narrated
incident in the life of an important person and should lay claim to an
element of truth.
- Idiom
Phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its
individual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit.
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1.3.2.Written literature

Written literature is expressed through written form. It began with the invention
of writing. Written literature has three genres : poetry, drama and fiction.

Short stories are a part of written Literature. A short story by definition is a prose
narrative which is more brief than a short novel, restricted in characterization
and situation. Usally a short story deals with one major event. Characters are
not developed fully.

Poetry :

Poetery is the way of expressing the feelings, emotions, ideas and other things
that we experience or ideas with special reference to emotional significance
using language characterized by imagery and rhythmical sounds. Poetery
deals with human problems. It portrays realized tension concerning a certain
society.

A poet :

Is a person who composes a poem. It can be in written or oral form.

A poem

Is a piece of writting in verse form especially expressing deep feelings in

beautiful language.

A verse

Is a single line in a poem. Verses form one stanza.

A stanza

Arrangement of verses in a poem, several verses comprising complete ideas.

Characteristics/Features of a poet

- He/she must have a great knowledge of human nature.

- He/she must know the problems of his/her society.
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- He/she must present strong feelings.

- He/she must educate his/her society.
- He/she must have ideas concerning poetry.

Characteristics/features of poetry

- Poetry is imaginative
- Poetry is rythmical-Is arranged in a pattern of verses which form Stanzas.
- Poetry reflects experiences (ideas of people)
- Poetry is rich in figures of speech (images)
- Poetry arouses emotions.

Types of poetry are as follows :

- Narrative poetry
- Reflective poetry
- Descriptive poetry
- Lyric poetry
- Sonnet poetry
- Ballad poetry.

All these types can be Divided into two categories

(a) The closed form/Traditional poetry/Rhytmic poems

This is a kind of poetry which strictly observes the old rules of writing
poems such as rhyme pattern, equal number of syllables in each verse,
the lengh of verses, the number of verses in each stanza, etc.
Therefore there is a patten which can help one to explain the form of
the poem.
(b) Open form/Modern poetry/Free verse
This is a kind of poetry which does not observe the the old rules of
writiing poems. There are lots of variations in the number of syllables in
each verse, in the length of verses, in the number of verses in each
stanza, etc. Therefore there is no pattern which can help one to explain
the form of the poem.
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The following books are examples of poetry : Song of Lawino, Song of

Ocol, Songs of Malaya and Prisoner, The Horn of My Love,etc.

Drama (Plays)

It is a literary composition of any length,usually written to be performed by

actors who impersonate the characters, speak in the dialogue, and enact
the appropriate actions. A play usually, assumes that this enactment will
appear on a stage before an audience.

The word drama comes forms Greek words which mean to do or to act. It
refers to the story told in a way that it can be acted by characters before an
audience.

It is a kind of communication between the playwright and the audience

through actors. The important things in drama are actors or players, actions,
the audience, plot, setting, language (diction) etc.

Types of Drama

 Tragedy : Is a type of drama which shows serious actions and always a

hero who faces danger, i.e. death, isolation, etc i.e. An Enemy of the
peopl, Death of Salesman, etc.
 Comedy : Is a type of drama which is humorous/funny because it
always makes the audience laugh i.e. Mfalme Juha, Aliyeonja Pepo
etc.
 Tragic comedy : Is a kind of drama which combines the elements of
tragedy and comedy. But here the hero does not end in death or
danger.
 Historical Drama : Is the type of drama which expresses the history of a
certain society, but always the reader will find some elements of
tragedy and comedy as it is the case in the The Trial of Dedan Kimathi.
 Melo-drama : Is the type of drama for entrertainment
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The following books are examples of plays : the Lion and the Jewel, The
Trials of brother Jero, Dedan Kimathi, Enemy of the people, I will Marry
when I want etc.

1.4.Elements of Literature

Any work of literature has two elements namely form and content. Form and
content are inseparable things in a literary work.

(a) Form
Form refers to the superstructure of a literary work, i.e. How
something is said, arranged, etc. Form consists of the following parts :
plot, techniques (style), setting, language (diction) and
characterization.

Plot : Plot is the arrangement (organization) of events in a narrative or play. It

is clearly reflected through conflict, physical, moral or personal conflict. A
story is what happens, a plot is the action.

Plot is the interplay and sequence of events in a story artfully arranged so

that the author may attain the desired aesthetic or artistic effect. Plot implies
causality.

Techniques (style)

In a normal sense technique is a method of doing or performing something

especially in the arts or sciences. In a literary work technique refers to the way
the work is being made.

 Narrative technique : An account of a tale or story. Sometimes it could

be a whole book or part of it.
 Oral traditional style : Retelling a story. This resembles the traditional way
of story telling such as „„once upon a time, a long time ago…‟‟,
„„Many years…‟‟ etc.
 Straight forward narration : The narrative relates to what is taking place
from the beginning to the end. It is common in many novels.
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 Point of view : The position from which the events are observed.
We may determine the point of view by identifying the viewer through
whose eyes we see the action. Point of view refers to who tells the story.

Points of view are Divided into three Main Types.

The first-person : The central character tells the story in his own words.

The third-person (limited) : The author refers to all characters in the third
person, but describes only what can be seen, heard or thought by a single
character. In third-person-omniscient, the author refers to each character in
third person and may describe what several characters see, hear, or think, as
well as events at which no character is present.

Flashback, the end or middle part of the story is made (found) at the begining
and vice versa. Examples of literary works which contain this technique are :
Death of a Salesman, Petals of Blood, A Grain of Wheat, No Longer at Ease,
etc.

Setting

The setting of the story is the environment of its events, the immediate world in
which they occur. It includes time (historical period) and place (erea where
events take place).

Example : The setting of the novel : The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born is
Ghana after independance (1969).

Characterization

Character by definition is a person in a story or a Character may be defined

as representation of persons. Even when the characters are animals, they
almost invariably represent human beings or exhibit human attibutes.

The creation of imaginary persons so that they exist for the reader as lifelikes is
called Characterization. The ability to characterize is a primary attribute of a
good writer.
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How do we determine a character ?

- What he/she says.
- What he/she thinks about
- What he/she does and motivation.
- What others say about him/her.
- What he thinks of internal monologue.

Types of characters

Generally we can classify characters into two groups of Flat charactes and
Round characters. Each group also can be divided into central/main
characters, and subsidary characters.

Flat and static characters do not change, do not grow. They are those
characters who cannot change their personality or outlook. Round
characters grow and are capable.

Language (Diction)

Diction refers to the choice and arrangement of words in a literary work. By

determination of language used we can ask ourselves the following
questions :

- Is it simple language ?
- Is it complex language ?
- How does the simplicity/complexity affect the message ?
- What effect does it have ?
- Are the words in sentences difficult ?
- Are they translated directly from other languages ?
- Is it mixed language ?

When we make criticism (judgement) about language used in a literary work

we consider the following :
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 Type of language used i.e. simple, complex mixed, figurative

language, normal language, grammatical or ungrammatical
language, etc.

Imagery and symbolism

Imagery/Images

- Imagery refers to the use of figurative language to produce pictures in

the minds of readers or hearers.
- Imagery means images. Imagery is a word that gives the idea of
sensory perception. It makes one feel as if one sees, touches, smells or
hears something quite specific.

Symbolism
Symbolism means a sign or something that stands or suggests something else
by arbitrary association rather than instinct similarity. In the broader sense,
symbolism is the term which signifies something else, in this sense all words are
symbols. In literature, symbol is applied only to a word or set of words that
signify an object or event, that is, the word refers to something which suggests
a range of reference beyond itself some symbols are conventional or
„„public‟‟.

Symbolism can be summarized as a technique whereby a word/image/a

picture drawn signifies something other than what it represents. A symbol is
anything which stands for something else. It is too complex for the author to
deal with it directly. The thing which is symbolized is called the referent.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

A figure of speech is a departure from the ordinary form of expression, or the

ordinary course of ideas in order to produce a greater effect.

FIigures of speech may be classified as under :

- Those based on ressemblace, such as Simile, Metaphor, Personification

and Apostrophe.
 - 21 -

- Those based on Contrast, such as Antithesis and Epigram.

- Those based on Association, such as Metonymy and Synecdoche.
- Those based on construction, such as Climax and Anticlimax.
 Simile : In a simile a comparison is made between two objects of
different kinds which have however at least one point in common. The
simile is usually introduced by such words as like, as or so, like even by
such words as compare, resemble.

Examples :

- Oh my love‟s a red, red rose.

- My sister was like an angel.

Note : A comparison of two things of the same kind is not a simile.

Metaphor, a metaphor is an implied simile. It does not, like the simile, state
that one thing is like another or acts as another, but takes that for granted
and proceeds as if the two things were one.

Thus, when we say, „„He fought like a lion‟‟, we use a simile, but when we say,
„„He was a lion in the fight‟‟, we use a metaphor.

Examples:

- The news was a dagger to his heart.

- Wilond is a lamb.

Note :

- Every simile can be compressed into a Metaphor and every Metaphor

can be expanded into a simile.
Thus, instead of saying,
Richard fought like a lion (simile),

We can say : Richard was a lion in the fight (Metaphor).

Similarly, instead of saying,

 - 22 -

The camel is the ship of the desert (Metaphor), we may expand it and say,

As a ship is used for croissing the ocean, so the came is used for crossing the
desert (Simile).

Other examples :

Variety is the spice of life (Metaphor).

As spice flavours food, so variety makes life more pleasant (Simile).

The waves broke on the shore with a noise like thunder (Simile).

 Personification : In personification inanimate objects and abstract

notions are spoken of as having life and intelligence.
Examples :
- Death lays his icy hand on kings.
- The mountain rose majestically.
 Hyperbole : In Hyperbole a statement is made emphatic by
overstatement.
Examples :
- I invited billions of people to my party.
- Why, man if the river were dry, I am able to fil it with tears.
 Euphemism : Euphemism consists in the description of a disagreeable
thing by an agreeable name.
Examples :
- He has fallen asleep (i.e, he is dead)
- Senior citizens instead of old people.
 Antithesis : In antithesis a striking opposition or contrast of words or
sentiments is made in the same sentence. It is employed to secure
emphasis.
Examples :
- Speech is silvern but silence is golden.
- To err is human, to forgive divine.
 - 23 -

 Oxymoron : Oxymoron is a special form of Antithesis, whereby two

contradictory qualities are predicted at once of the same thing.
Examples :
- A kind thief.
- Happy suffering.
 Epigram : An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequently introducing
antithetical ideas which excite surprise and arrest attention.
Examples :
- The child is the father of the man.
- Fools rush in where Angels fear to tread.
 Irony : It is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the
opposite of that which is literally conveyed.
Examples :
- He cannot succeed with 50%, he is really very brainy.
The following are the kinds of irony :
a) Verbal irony : It is a discrepancy between what is said and what is
meant.
b) Dramatic irony : It is a discrepancy between what characters or a
speaker believe (s) or say (s) and what the reader knows to be true.
c) Situational irony : It is a discrapancy between what is expected to
happen and what really happens. Another type of irony is attitudinal
irony which should be distinguished from situational irony. Situational
irony results from what most people expect but attitudinal irony
results from what one person expects.
 Metonymy, In metonymy (literally, a change of name) an object is
designated by the name of something which is generally associated
with it.
Some familiar examples :
- The bench, for the judges.
- The house, for the members of the House of commons
- Bluejackets, for sailors.
- The Crown, for the king.
 - 24 -

Since there are many kinds of association between objects, there are several
varieties of Metonymy.

Thus a Metonymy may result from the use of :

- The sign for the person or thing symbolized ; as, you must address the
chair (i.e, the chirman).
From the cradle to the grave (i.e, from infancy to death).
- The container for the thing contained ; as,
The whole city went out to see the victorious general.
- The instrument for the agent ; as,
The pen is mightier than the sword.
- The author for his works ; as,
We are reading Cinua Achebe
- The name of a feeling or passion for its object ;
He turn‟d his charger as he spake
Upon the river shore,
He gave the bridle-reins a shake,
Said Adieu for evermore, My love !

And adieu for evermore.

 Synecdoche, In Synecdoche a part is used to designate the whole or

the whole to designate a part.
 A part used to designate the whole ; as,
Give us this day our daily bread (i.e., food)
All the best brains in Europe could not solve the problem.
He has many mouths to feed.
 The whole used to designate a part, as, England won the first test
match against Australia.
 Litotes, In Litotes an affirmative is conveyed by negation of opposite,
the effect being to suggest a strong expression by means of a weaker.
It is the opposite of Hyperbole.
 - 25 -

Examples :

- The man is no fool (=very clever).

- It wasn‟t easy meaning. It was very difficult.
 Interrogation, Interrogation is the asking of a question not for the sake
of getting an answer but to put a point more effectively. This figure of
speech is also known as Rhetorical Question because a question is
asked merely for the sake of rhetorical effect.

Example: Am I my brother‟s keeper ?

Apostrophe : An apostrophe is a direct address to the dead, to the absent, or

to a personfied object or idea. This figure of speech is a special form of
personification.

Example : O death ! Where is your sting ? O grave ! Where is your victory ?

Alliteration

Repetition of identical consonant sounds at the beginning of a word or of

stressed syllable within a word in verse.

Example : After life fitful fever.

Nowadays there is medial and final alliteration. The main aim of aliteration is
to enforce meaning.

Assonance

Repetition of similar vowel sounds in stressed syllables that end with different
consonant sound.

Example : Lake and fate, side write wide ; clean/cream.

Archaism (Barbarism)
Using different languages in conversation or writing. The words which are not
acceptable in that language (language used) because it is Foreign. ln short
this term refers to the borrowed words.
 - 26 -

Onomatopoeia
The formation of words by the imitation of sounds resemb!ing those
associated with the object instead of object itself. Or, the use of words that
by their sounds suggest their meaning, i.e. "hiss" "buzz'', "whir". "sizzle".
Tone/Voice
Attitude toward the subject and toward the audience implied in a literary
work. This is common in poetry. In the fundamental attitude which the poet
takes towards his subject or audience and to his entire understanding so as to
communicate his feeling.
Tone can be expressed in the following ways:
a) Satire
A literary manner that blends a critical attitude with humour and wit for the
purpose of improving human institutions or humanity.
b) Sarcasm
Bitterness or touching reproachfullness. It may not be ironical but it is always
cutting bitter or ill natured. It aims at inflicting pain.
c) Humour
Funny and amusing. It can be a comic speech, a comic behaviour or comic
appearance.
d) Sympathy (sympathetic)
Feeling of pity and sorrow; capacity for sharing the feelings of others.
e) Happiness, romantic, lovely, sad, angry, serious, ctc.
Other Literary Devices and terms
 Ellipsis: Is the omission of words or letters to avoid repetition in the
sentences. It is a figure of speech characterized by the omission of one
or more words that, while essential to the grammatical structure of the
sentence, are easily supplied by the reader.
 Contrast: A device by which one element is thrown into opposition to
another for the sake of emphasis or clarity.
 Allusion: A figure of speech that makes brief reference to a historical or
literary figure, event or object.
 - 27 -

 Ambiguity: The expression of an idea in language that gives more than

one meaning and leaves uncertainty as to the intended significance of
the statement.
 AIlegory: A form of extended metaphor in which objects, persons and
actions in narrative, either in prose or verse, are equated with meanings
that lie outside the narrative itself.
 Persona: This is a person or thing that is speaking in a poem. The
speaker
or the narrator of a poem can be a woman or a man, an oppressor,
colonialist, a freedom fighter, etc.
 Addressee : This is a person to whom the poem is addressed. It can be
colonised people, peasants, oppressed or humiliated people, etc
Theme
A central or dominating idea in a literary work. It is the abstract concept that
is made concrete through its representation in person, action, image in the
work of art. It is the basic or general idea expressed in the book, or the major
topic discussed in the book.
The following are the main themes in African Lirerature. Comon themes in
African Literature : are Betrayal, African traditions, position of women in the
society as well as corruption.
Other themes are: death, racial segregation/discrimination, colonialism,
friendship, unemployment, classes, torture, oppression, protest, alienation
(isolation), violence, unity, self-awareness (consciousness), sacrifice, love,
affairs, poverty. etc.
Conflict

In a story or drama, an encounter between opposing forces which creates

interest and suspense in the reader or viewer. The simplest conflict to
recognize and one frequently used is between the „„good guy‟‟ and the
„„bad guy‟‟. There may be a conflict between characters and their
environment or circumstances; or a character may be at war with himself,
feeling an InternaI struggle berween conflicting ideas, thoughts or feelings.
 - 28 -

There are Five Types of Conflicts in Literary Work

- Economic conflicts i.e. rich people vs poor people
- Social conflicts i.e. family conflicts, etc.
- Personal conflicts i.e. internaI feelings, ideas, thoughts of a certain
character himself/herself.
- Political conflicts i.e. ruling party vs opposition party.
- Philosophical conflicts i.e. idea vs idea, feelings vs feclings. etc.
Climax

The movement when the crisis of the play or narrative reaches the highest
point and is resolved. The major crisis may be preceded by minor ones.

1.5.Functions of Literature
According to the Marxist ideology, literature is one of the forms of social
consciousness. Literature is a reflection of life in all aspects political, social,
economic as well as cultural.
Literature is the study of man and the artistic expression of his feelings or
emotions, his needs, his relationship to his society, his response to his
environment, the conflicts within himself and the conflicts of his society, and
his response to these conflicts.
Good literature is critical and constructive. It provides awareness to the
masses for revolution.
Literaure has got ditferent roles in the society. Among the Most important
Functions are:
(i) To educate people
It educates the people by bringing them the sense of awareness and self
actulalization i.e. literature develops the mind of the people by giving them
knowledge of the existing social realities. Literature makes people think,
and remember. It develops the faculties of the mind. Literature is used to
educate the young people in the society. It is used to educate them on how
to live in accordance with the demands of the society. In fact
Literature is used to educate people on the roles they are expected to fulfil in
their society.
 - 29 -

(ii) To Express People 's Culture

(Culture is the total sum of people‟s ways of life which include customs.
beliefs, practices, skills, crafts, values, language, norms, religions and
many others). Literature is then used to promote good or useful aspects
of culture i.e. the good norms, values, practices, etc. so that people may
follow them. Literature is also used to rnake people abandon bad practices,
norms, and beliefs. It is often argued that literature can make people recall
their lost traditions.
Literarure is also used to tell the people about the culture of other people in
order to develop positive attitudes towards them.
(iii) Literature is Used to Entertain People
Through reading, watching and listening to literature works people get
pleasure and enjoyment. The kind of pleasure obtained from literature is
not a kind of pleasure we get from eating food or drinking soft drinks. The
kind of pleasure we gel from eating and drinking appeals to our senses senses
only, but the pleasure from literature works appeals to the mind. It is
called aesthetlc pleasure. Aesthetic pleasure stimulates the sense of
appreciation of literary works.
(iv) Literature is Used to Influence People in the Society
Through reading and watching literature works people may be influenced
to act or do in some way. Also it may instil revolutionary ideas which may
later make people stage a revolution i.e (social, political revolution, peaceful
or armed). It has been observed that young people are more influenced by
literature works they are exposed to (i.e. TV, video plays, novel). In fact, some
urban youth in big cities have been completely destroyed by literature
works and that is why censorship is approved upon some literature works.

(v) Literature is Used to Develop Language

As literature uses language as its medium, it develops the language skills
(listening, speaking, writing and reading). It is a fact that students improve
their vocabulary and grammar by reading different story books and listening
to literature works. Writers of literature create new words, new phrases,
 - 30 -

idioms, figures of speech, which all together contribute to the development

of language.

(vi) To Liberate People (Physically, Mentally)

Literature may awaken people and inform them of the social realities e.g.
the existence of oppressive governments, presence of exploitation of people
by a smaller group, political domination of masses by a small social group
etc. Through literature people learn that oppression is not political or social
oppression only but also all other obstacles of human development like
ignorance, poverty and disease. As Iiterature directs people towards their
problems they may decide to liberate themselves through struggle. This
struggle may be peaceful or armed.
(vii) To Criticise Society
The writer of literature may decide to criticise the society. He does so by
pointing out the "burning issues" and requests the society to resolve them.
He also points out the weaknesses, which exist in the society. He points
out the good things and urges the society to preserve them ; he points out
bad ones and asks the society to discard them. A good critic should give
his views on what the society should do given the existing circumstances.
 - 31 -

CHAPTER II. SOME AFRICAN BELIEFS AND CONCEPTIONS

African belief about Polygamy

Polygamy in Africa has been a culture/or a traditional practice for a very long
time. Although some culture, due to a level of westernization of religion will
only look at it as outdated practice, it is still highly practiced in some societies
and cultures.

This happens in many forms. For example, in some African practices, when a
man dies, his brother will inherit his wife and children. Therefore, if the brother
was already married he is immediately found himself in a polygamous
marriage with two wives and a handful of extra children. In South Africa, the
Customary Marriages Act protects the woman if she does not want to marry
the late husband‟s brother.

In other societies, older women would select a younger female to be her

husband‟s new wife in order to share the large amount of work load in the
household.

Granted in some cultures, polygamy is forced upon women, sometimes

young girls are forced into this life. In some African cultures, the first wife
generally has a word to say on who the husband chooses as his second wife
and the third wife and so forth. She has to approve of the woman before she
is brought into the house.

Polygamy is culturally alive in Africa and we should not pretend as if it is a

taboo. It is not. There are reasons why polygamy is believed in and practiced
as culturally legitimate. Only capable men can marry more than one wife for,
it entails being wealthy and popular. It can result from so many factors:
wealth, barrenness, separation from home, etc.

African belief about death and life

According to African belief system, life does not end with death, but
continues in another realm. Death is viewed as a rite of passage for those
 - 32 -

who die at an acceptable (old) age. In death, the whole people still exist and
inhabit the spirit world and he can be reincarnated into several people.
Becoming an ancestor after death is a desirable goal of every individual.
Ancestors are seen as being able to intercede on behalf of the living, as
messengers between humans and God. As spirits who were once humans
themselves, they are perceived as being better to understand human
problems and needs than would a divine being understand. Many people
believe that death is the loss of a Soul. Although there is recognition of the
difference between the physical person that is buried and the non-physical
person who lives on, this must not be confused with a Western dualism that
separates “physical from “spiritual” when a person dies. There is not some
“part” of that person that lives on−it is the whole person who continues to live
in the spirit world, receiving a new body identical to the earthly body, but with
powers to move as an ancestor. The death of children is regarded as an evil
event and many people give special names to their children to try to ward off
the reoccurrence of untimely death.

African conception on Marriage and Families

The concept of Marriage

Like many social issues, marriage is essentially a contentious concept.

Marriage and the idea of marriage are universal but there is no one generally
acceptable definition of marriage. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
defines marriage as the legal relationship between a husband and wife.
Marriage occupies an important position in the affairs of Africans, especially in
the past. Without marriage, there is no family and without a family, one could
not bear children. The connection between marriage and family can hardly
be separated in African traditional societies. In recognition of this, Ayisi
(1997:15) writes:

The family is then the logical outcome of marriage.

A family consists of a man, his wife and child or
children. By this definition, a childless marriage is not
 - 33 -

a family. An individual belongs to at least one family

in his lifetime.

Since the family is the basic unit of any political and social organizations, the
process of erecting it should and was given serious attention among the
traditional African societies. Marriage, for Africans, though is purposely for
procreation, is more than that. Marriage serves other purposes. According to
Mbiti (1969:133): “For African peoples, marriage is the focus of existence. It is
the point where all the members of a given community meet: the departed,
the living and those not yet born. All the dimensions of time meet here and
the whole drama of history is repeated, renewed and revitalized. Marriage is
a drama in which everyone becomes an actor or actress and not just a
spectator.”

African traditional conception of marriage is teleological. It is primarily for

procreation. Marriage can be dissolved on the ground of childlessness. The
importance attached to children is however without basis. One major reason
for that attachment to children is what Mbiti (1969:131) calls “personal
immortality. When a man dies, he needs somebody to bear his name, so that
his name cannot die.”

Traditional versus Modern Marriage

Westernization, modernization and Christianity have all affected African

cultures. One area of the impacts of these is on the marriage system in Africa.
Today, marriage system has changed significantly, and many people forget
that there was a marriage system in Africa before the coming of Christianity
and civilization. The concept of family too has changed drastically. Family is
now deemed to be composed of the father, the mother and their children.
Other relatives are seen as foreigners to the family.

Today, parents play little or no role in the choice of whom to marry. The
decision is now for the individuals involved and that of the church or mosque
that they belong to. When these two groups or either of them must have
 - 34 -

made the decision, parents may not be informed. When they do, if they raise
any objection and refuse to participate in it, even for good reasons, the
church and the court are ready to grant their prayers. Marriage is thus seen as
the union of a man and a woman, with or without the support of their parents.
In some cases where the church and the court demand the consent of the
parents, the latter are hired for the purpose of marriage. What is lost is the
place of investigation which played a significant role in the success and
stability of marriage in the past. The outcome of this negligence is instability at
home, and marriage that was meant to be enjoyed becomes bitter.

People married in the past because they wanted to shoulder responsibilities.

The man had been taught what it means to be a husband and a father. The
wife has learnt the roles of a wife and mother at home and both of them
were prepared for the task ahead of them. For the lady, returning to live with
her parents after marriage was like a taboo. For the man, failure to live up to
responsibility at home was a great shame. Comparing marriage in the past
with the modern one, a writer writes:

In the old days, two people met twice and got married on the third time –
and these marriages lasted a lifetime. Today, couples date for three years
and get divorced 6 months after finally getting married
(www.africanmarriage.info).

Traditionally, people accept their places at home. No competition, no

supremacy and no struggle. Yoruba women were taught that “the husband is
the head of the family” before getting married, women had known this and
they were prepared to accept this position. Then, there was no feminist to
advocate the equality of man and woman.
Dowry in African traditional marriages

One of the most essential items normally required in most traditional marriages
in Africa is the dowry. It is the money usually given to the bride‟s family by the
man who intends to marry the lady. It can also be termed as the bride price.
 - 35 -

The amount usually paid differs from one country to the other and from one
tribe to the other. Some tribes in Nigeria for example do not collect cash as
dowry but insist on cowries or heads of cow as the bride price. There are
many reasons given for the payment of dowry in the contemporary African
society. Below are seven reasons why this practice is still recognized in most
African countries.

1. It is an African custom

Traditionally speaking, the payment of a bride price whenever marriages are

contracted in African societies has long been recognized in its entirety. It is a
practice which has long been accepted by clan heads and traditional rulers
alike. The amount to be paid is usually fixed by each community and it may
vary sparingly depending on individual families.

2. It creates stability in traditional marriages

It is common to see brides running away from their marital homes due to
pressures from within and outside. The payment of dowry, however, helps
create stability within traditional marriages and hence prevents the lady from
running away from her new home.

3. It shows the man is capable

It is generally assumed that the payment of the bride price is a sign of the
ability of the man who is coming for the hand of the lady. The payment of this
important item during traditional marriage ceremonies is a serious test of the
man‟s financial capability and strength.

4. Dividend of parents effort on their daughter

Parents of the girl whose dowry is to be paid by the man believe that they are
getting the dividend of the labour spent in training and taking care of their
daughter from infancy to adulthood.
 - 36 -

5. It gives the lady a sense of value

When a girl attains the age of maturity and eventually gets ready for
marriage, her sense of value tremendously increases with the payment of
bride price, as she is assumed not to be cheap.

6. It is an indication that the man is serious about the marriage

When a man proposes to a lady marriage and informs the parents of the
lady, it is assumed to be mere information until the man takes the step by
formally paying the bride price. If that step is done, it is assumed that the man
is serious.

7. The Bible Holy Bible supports the payment of dowry

When Jacob was about to get married, he was made to work for seven years
as a measure of payment for Rachel‟s bride price. The payment of bride price
is supported by the Bible and practiced by the Israelites and other tribes.
 - 37 -

CHAPTER III : AFRICAN FICTION IN ENGLISH

0. African novelists

CHINUA ACHEBE (1930 – 2013)

Chinua Achebe was born in Ogidi in Eastern Nigeria on November 16, 1930, to
Isaiah Okafor Achebe and Janet Achebe. His parents, though they instilled in
him many of the values of their traditional Igbo culture, were devout
evangelical Protestants; his childhood, therefore, was marked by the rich
ambivalence of a complex inheritance. He attended mission schools, for
example, but remained emotionally close to many of his relatives who were
not Christians.

In 1944 Achebe enrolled at the prestigious Government College in Umuahia.

Four years later he entered the London-affiliated University College at Ibadan
to study medicine, but soon abandoned medicine in favour of literature,
Philosophy and History. He became involved in a variety of political and
cultural activities on campus.

In 1958 Achebe published his first novel, Things Fall Apart. Heinemann
Educational Books published it rather reluctantly – the editors were unsure if
Western readers would buy a novel by an African and printed only 2,000
copies. But the novel became a stunning success: since its first publication, it
has been translated into nearly fifty languages and has sold millions of copies
internationally. Though it was not the first novel published in English by an
African author, its spectacular worldwide success inaugurated a new era in
African literary history and helped secure a firm foundation for an emerging
tradition. Achebe has published four other novels, two collections of essays, a
book of short fiction, a volume of poetry, and numerous miscellaneous pieces,
but Things Fall Apart remains his most widely read work.

One of Africa‟s most outspoken intellectuals, Achebe has been and

continues to be a public figure deeply involved in the political life of his
nation. He remains a keen observer of Nigeria‟s turbulent politics and
 - 38 -

continues to be a fearless critic of the military dictators whose coups and

countercoups have profoundly destabilized his nation‟s democratic
foundations.

Achebe is a superb storyteller, a gifted poet, an insightful literary critic, and a

brilliant cultural commentator; his phenomenal career as a professional writer
spans five decades. Among the numerous honours he has received are the
Jock Campbell Award for Literature (1964), the Commonwealth Poetry Prize
(1972), the Nigerian National Merit Award (1979), and over a dozen honorary
doctorates. He has held professorships at numerous African as well as North
American universities. Achebe and his wife, Dr. Christie Okoli Achebe have
four children: Chinelo, Ikechukwu, Chidi and Nwando.

To appreciate fully the achievement of Chunua Achebe, one must

understand his artistic credo, which he has eloquently articulated in “The
Novelist as Teacher” (Source: Parekh, P.N & alii. 1996. Post-colonial African
writers: A Bio-bibliographical critical sources book.– an essay that first
appeared in London‟s New Statesman (1957). Achebe views himself, first and
foremost, as a teacher who reflects as well as shapes the communal visions
and values of his people. He summarily rejects the modern Western notion of
the artist as an alienated individual who projects a private vision forged in
isolation. To Achebe, the artist is an integral part of his or her community; what
he or she creates, therefore, must have functional value and relevance to
those individuals who make up the community.

Works and themes

History and the struggle to come to terms with it is an obsessive theme in

virtually all post-colonial literatures. Our coming to terms with our problematic
historical inheritance, after all, is essential for racial self-retrieval, for forging an
authentic and liberating sense of personal and cultural wholeness. Indeed,
our meaningful reconnection with our history is indispensable for healing the
cultural fracture caused by the catastrophic impact of colonial intrusion; it is a
prerequisite for cultural reclamation, for continued resistance. It is precisely
 - 39 -

this vital and fundamental nexus between establishing a valid connection

with the past and achieving a wholesome sense of self that prompts the post-
colonial writer to engage in constant dialogue with history.

Chinua Achebe‟s Things Fall Apart is one of the most brilliant literary works by
Chinua Achebe. A landmark piece of post-colonial fiction, Things Fall Apart is
set in the Igbo village of Umuofia in Eastern Nigeria; the action takes place
during the closing decades of the nineteenth century. The narrative, divided
into three parts, focuses on the rise and fall of its strong-willed protagonist,
Okonkwo and the Igbo culture. Okokwo was a respected and influential
leader within the Igbo community of Umuofia in Eastern Nigeria. He is a
Wealthy farmer, a husband to three wives, a title holder and champion
Wrestler. He first earns personal fame and distinction and brings honour to his
village when he defeats Amalinze the cat in a Wrestling match. Okonkwo
hates his father‟s idle ways. Okonkwo‟s father unoka is a lazy and Wasteful
man. He borrows money and squanders it on palm−wine. Within the
community, Unoka is viewed as a failure. He is referred to as Agbala. Through
hardwork and determination, Okonkwo emerges a key figure in the village‟s
power structure, but his ruthlessness makes him brutal. When he accidentally
murders a son of Ezeulu, a priest, Okonkwo is banished to the nearby Igbo
village of Mbata for seven years. When Okonkwo returns to Umuofia he hopes
to reintegrate himself into the village life. Umofia during his absence has
changed drastically. Things have begun to fall apart: colonial administrative
structures, now securely in place, have radically altered traditional life. British
missionaries have injected new values that have undermined tribal cohesion.
Okonkwo‟s own son Nwoye, adopts the Christian faith and rejects his father.
Okonkwo‟s violent resistance to change lands him in jail, his kinsmen, afraid of
the colonial administrators, offer him little support. Unwilling to come to terms
with the new realities, Okonkwo commits suicide.

No Longer At Ease, Achebe‟s second novel, was published in 1960. At the

center of the action is Obi, the son of Nwoye and grandson of Okonkwo.
Here, as in Things Fall Apart, the narrative records the rise and fall of its
 - 40 -

protagonist. But the fictional milieu, however, is radically different: the work is
set in the Nigeria of the 1950s, on the eve of the nation‟s political
independence. As its title suggests, the novel explores the malaise of modern
Nigeria: the uneasy coexistence of traditional ethos and European values and
the absence of a coherent cultural framework that can give a firm direction
to the country in general and to its educated elite in particular.

The novel begins with the trial of Obi, a promising young official in the
Nigerian Civil Service, who has been arrested on charges of bribery. A brilliant
student in his village, Obi is sponsored by the Umufia Progressive Union to
study at an English University; upon his return he enters the prestigious Civil
Service. Unable to integrate his anglicised attitudes and indigenous values, he
increasingly finds himself rootless and alienated. He rejects certain Igbo
cultural practices, such as the caste system that ostracizes the osu; yet he
does not have the moral courage to marry his girlfriend Clara, because his
parents violently object to having an osu daughter-in-law. His failure to
formulate a coherent set of moral values to live by ultimately destroys him. He
begins to accept bribes – a pervasive practice among government officials –
but does so ineptly and gets caught. The novel ends with Obi‟s conviction.

Here, as in Things Fall Apart, Achebe is concerned with the debilitating

impact of colonialism on the individual as well as on the national psyche. But
in No Longer At Ease the theme of cultural dislocation – a recurrent theme in
post-colonial writing in general is particularized even more poignantly: the
focus is not on a community in disarray but on the private dilemmas of an
individual post-colonial.

Published in 1964, Arrow of God is Achebe‟s third novel. Here he returns to

Nigeria‟s past and, as in Things Fall Apart, explores the impact of change –
profound and traumatic change – on individuals and communities. Arrow of
God is set in the Igbo territory of Umuaro in eastern Nigeria; it narrates the
story of Ezeulu, a tribal priest, who is faced with the gradual loss of his authority
because of the advent of Christianity, the encroachment of colonialism, and
 - 41 -

the emergence of intertribal rivalries. When Captain Winterbottom, the District

Commissioner, appoints him as a chief warrant officer – as part of the new
British effort to decentralize political power and impose indirect rule – Ezeulu
rejects the patronizing offer. He is jailed for disobeying imperial authority, but
he is released when Winterbottom becomes ill. Now seemingly triumphant
over colonial power, Ezeulu returns to his village. But he refuses to perform the
Feast of the New Yam, which authorizes each new harvest, because he had
not eaten the ritual yams to mark each new moon while he was in jail. The
people go hungry. Seizing a fine opportunity to gain more converts, the local
missionaries offer a Christian version of the Feast of the New Yam. The people
respond by abandoning their traditional faith and by adopting the new
religion. Stunned by the dramatic erosion of his priestly authority, Ezeulu sinks
into madness, and the Christian conquest of Umuaro is now complete.

Like Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart, Ezeulu resists change and defies the
inexorable flow of history. Predictably, and tragically, he fails. Here, as in his
first novel, Achebe assesses the disruptive nature of Africa‟s encounter with
Europe, but the much more elaborate anthropological information that he
has integrated into Arrow of God makes it less entertaining as a work of
fiction. Nevertheless, the novel is a powerful meditation on the nature of
individual authority and the question of political power – the issues that will
dominate his next two novels.

A Man of the People, Achebe‟s fourth novel, generated considerable interest

and curiosity, for it seemed to predict, at the time of its publication in 1966,
Nigeria‟s first military coup. The novel, set in an unnamed African country that
resembles Nigeria, ends on a grim description of a military takeover, within the
civilian government. Most Nigerian readers were hardly surprised by the
coincidence. Many, in fact had anticipated the coup for months. But some
critics of Achebe speculated, without any evidence, that the author might
have been part of the conspiracy that culminated in the coup.
 - 42 -

Narrated by Odili, an idealistic university-educated young man, A Man of the

People dramatizes a complex set of political events that push his country to
the brink of anarchy. The central conflict in the novel is between Odili and
Chief Nanga, a corrupt and ruthless but widely popular politician who views
himself as a man of the people. The anglicised narrator considers himself
superior to a majority of his fellow citizens and finds their cultural institutions
and practices odious and uncouth. In contrast, Nanga, though corrupt and
opportunistic, has finely honed political instincts that allow him to connect
with the people and earn their affection. Ironically, Nanga is indeed the man
of the people while Odili, despite his idealism, is a mere misfit.

Though Odili and Nanga are friendly to each other in the beginning, Odili
gradually begins to view Nanga‟s political indecencies with distaste. He
becomes hostile when Nanga, with little effort, seduces Elsie, Odili‟s girlfriend.
Seeking revenge, Odili joins his friend, Max, to found a new political party –
the Common People’s Convention to challenge Nanga‟s re-election. The
Campaign becomes violent. Odili is severely beaten by Nanga‟s hired thugs.
While he is recovering at a hospital, Max is killed by a campaign vehicle that
belongs to Chief Koko, one of Nanga‟s colleagues; Koko, in turn, is shot dead
by Max‟s girlfriend, Eunice. Nanga‟s vicious thugs inflict havoc, the country
slips into political chaos, and the army responds by staging a coup. A Man of
the People reflects Achebe‟s deep personal disappointment with what
Nigeria has become since its independence. It is also a brilliant political satire.

Selected works by Chinua Achebe

- Things Fall Apart. London: Heinemann, 1958.

- No Longer at Ease. London: Heinemann, 1960.
- Arrow of God. London: Heinemann, 1964.
- Chike and the River. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966.
- A Man of the People. London: Heinemann, 1966.
- Beware, Soul Brother. London: Heinemann, 1971.
- Girls at War and Other Stories. London: Heinemann, 1972.
 - 43 -

- Morning Yet on Creation Day. London: Heinemann, 1975.

- The Drum. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension, 1977.
- The Flute. Enugu, Nigeria: Fourth Dimension, 1977.
- The Trouble with Nigeria. London: Heinemann, 1983.
- Anthills of the Savannah. London: Heinemann, 1987

T.M ALUKO

Aluko was born in Ilesha in Nigeria and studied at Government College,

Ibadan and Higher College, Yaba in Lagos. He then studied Civil Engineering
and Town planning at the University of London. He held a number of
administrative posts in his home country, including Director of public Works in
Western Nigeria. He departed from civil service in 1966 and from then until
retirement in 1978, he pursued a Career as an academic, earning a
doctorate in municipal engineering in 1976.

He received several awards and honours including Officer of the Order of the
British Empire (OBE) in 1963 and Officer Order of the Nigeria (OON) in 1964.

Works and themes

His novels, including One Man, One Wife (1959), One Man, One Matchet
(1964), Kinsman and Foreman (1966), Chief the Honorable Minister (1970) and
his Worshipful Majesty (1973), are satirical in tone and deal with the clash of
new and the old values in a Changing Africa. T.M Aluko died on 1 may 2010 in
Lagos, aged 91.

One Man, One Wife (1959)

One Man, One Wife is about polygamy and church politics in newly
Christianized society. Elder Joshua, a recent convert to Christianity was
distressed when he learned that the new religion forbade him to marry a
second wife, yet he had already paid the bride price on a pre-adolescent girl
named Toro. In order not to lose his money, he planned to marry Toro off to his
grown up son Jacob but Jacob refused to go along with the idea, insisting
 - 44 -

that he needed a marriageable girl. Joshua then arranged for him to Wed
Joke who, four days after the marriage, was pregnant by another man.
Raymond, a church member was suspected of being responsible.

One Man, One Matchet (1964)

Most of the incidents centre on the activities of Benjamin Benjamin, an ill-

educated politician and Journalist who made trouble for a newly-appointed
African District officer by encouraging his people to refuse to pay taxes and
to oppose government measures to cut down diseased cocoa trees in the
district. At the same time, he exploited his people by collecting huge sums of
money from them to be used, he said, for paying legal expenses in court
cases which will benefit the district. Most of the money he collected went into
his own pockets. For a while, Benjamin Benjamin succeeded in preventing the
government from reaching its goal but when his leadership resulted in
bloodshed and rioting, he was killed by one of his own followers. Though
“Benja Benja”, as the villagers called him was the liveliest Character, T.M
ALUKO‟s hero was really Udon Akpan, the African District officer who
struggled to undo the damage done by the rogue politician. An Idealistic
young man, Akpan was despised by the villagers because he occupied a
Whiteman‟s post and refused to take bribes. He gained a reputation as a
“black Whiteman” who sided with the colonial government instead of with his
own people.

The novel touches on many topical Nigerian problems-exploitation of the

educated by the uneducated, political irresponsibility, bribery,
misappropriation of public funds.

Kinsman and Foreman (1966)

It focuses on Titus Oti. When he returned from London as the first professionally
qualified Nigerian civil engineer to join the public works department, he was
made District Engineer of Ibala, his home town. This position left him prey to his
relatives and to the local Church that expected generous financial
 - 45 -

contributions from him. Worse still, he soon discovered that Simeone Oke, his
Kinsman and a Foreman in the public works department was totally corrupt.
Should he bring charges against his Kinsman? Titus was spared answering this
question when another man brought Simeon to justice for dishonest practices.
After a lengthy trial, Simeon was acquitted. Titus Oti‟s troubles were over when
Simeon was transferred to a different region.

Chief the Honourable Minister (1970)

Chief the Honourable Minister centres on Alade Moses, a school principal who
had been appointed Minister of works in the corrupt government of
Afromacoland. Moses liked luxurious offices and regal quarters. He was
married to an uneducated woman whom he considered beneath his station
in life. Everyone who had eyes to see knew that Bose was not beautiful and
that she was not a wife that the headmaster of a grammar school would be
encouraged to introduce to his friends. It was obvious that she was going to
become an even greater embarrassment to him now that he had become a
Minister. So Moses took up with a pretty young nurse who was happy to serve
as both his mistress and confidante. His remarkable academic career and
solid reputation as a headmaster had made him the most respected citizen in
the village of Newtown and his people pressured him into politics because
they wanted their village to be represented in parliament by its most eminent
and distinguished Son. Consequently, Moses ran for office. He was then
known as chief the honourable Alade Moses. Alade Moses‟ problem turned
out to be that he was an honest man thrust into dishonest position. He was
surrounded by corrupt people who had interest in keeping him in power in
order to exploit the prestige and prerogatives of his office.

Cyprian Ekwensi

Cyprian Odiatu Duaka Ekwensi was born at Minna in Northern Nigeria on

September 26, 1921. He later lived in Onistsha in the Eastern area. He was
educated at Achimota College, in Ibadan, the Gold Coast and at the
Chelsea School of pharmacy of London University. He lectured in pharmacy
 - 46 -

at Lagos and was employed as a pharmacist by the Nigerian medical

corporation. Ekwensi married Eunice Anyiwo and they had five children.

Works and themes

He published several novels among which we can list:

- A People of the City (1954)

- The Drummer Boy (1960)
- JaguaNana (1961)
- Burning Grass (1961)
- An African Nights Entertainment (1962)
- Beautiful Feathers (1963)

People of the City

It centres on Amusa Sango who was a journalist and a popular musician and
the women in his life, Beatrice and Beatrice the second.

When Sango Amusa was evicted from the flat by his landlord, he struggled to
find another residence in the crowded city, but in vain. His decline was
related to his relationship with Aina, a young woman of the streets whose love
he rejected because of his ambitions. She was soon jailed for theft. He
retained shaky connection with her after her release as she, claiming to be
pregnant, extorted money from him. Driven to desperation by her demands,
he beat her and caused a miscarriage. When he lost his job as a reporter, he
married the infatuated Beatrice the second and they decided to start life
anew in the Gold Coast (in later Ghana).

What matters in the novel is its criticism of city life: prostitution, bad housing
conditions and the unscrupulous landlords.

Ekwensi‟s next novel is Jagua Nana. It centres on Jagua, an aging prostitute

who had an affair with Freddy, a young teacher. She was so infatuated with
him that she promised to send him to England. Ekwensi delighted in Jagua‟s
nakedness. The book opened with Jagua, combing her hair, having just come
 - 47 -

from the bathroom. He gave teasing descriptions of “the dark naked hair
under armpits” and of “her breasts hanging down in a pendulous way”.
Jagua‟s irresistible attraction was demonstrated by the succession of men
who fell in love with her, a trinket dealer who felt “she is killing him off with
temptation when she stood before him in her chemise. Uncle Taiwo who
made love to her brutally with “mouth lips close on the nipple” and chief
Ofubara who was carried away by ecstasy and proposed marriage to her,
later he changed his mind and promised her a pile of pound notes.

Jagua Nana is a book with a popular theme and a study of conflict in a

woman‟s mind. Ekwensi stated that he is a writer for the masses and not a
literary stylist and this is noticeable in Jagua Nana and in People of the City.
In Jagua Nana, there are expressions such as “dancing hips” and “lips, soft
aggressively kissable”.

Burning Grass

Cyprian Ekwensi‟s Burning Grass is a story about the life of Fulani herdsmen
narrated through Mai Sunsaye. Mai Sunsaye was a leader of his people and a
medicine man who knew how to treat people. One day while with his sons
grazing their cattle, an incident occurred that would affect their lives
including the children. A Fulani girl, a slave of the fearful man shehu was
being chased by a man with whips. Mai Sunsaye paid for Fatimeh with his
cattle and ordered the man to leave. Thus, Fatimeh became free. Rikku, the
youngest son of Mai Sunsaye loved Fatimeh and the girl also showed signs of
affection toward him. However, it was Hodio who eloped with her. As a
leader of Dokan toro, Mai Sunsaye had been opposed by Ardo. One day
Ardo‟s men released a bird with magic which inflicted people with Sokogo, a
magic that turned studious men into wanderers, that led husbands to desert
their wives, chiefs their people and sane men their reason. Drawn by the bird
and with his household burnt, Mai Sunsaye began a journey that would take
him to several places, meeting several people and participating in several
activities. He would meet his eldest son Jalla, who would run from him and
 - 48 -

move on to Old Chanka and then to New Chanka. His son Rikku would follow
him and so would his wife and daughter in search of their father and
husband. Initially, Mai Sunsaye set out after the bird, and then the search
turned into a search for his son, Jalla. When Jalla was found, it turned into a
search for Fatimeh so that his son Rikku who had suffered emotionally and
physically with the elopement, would be fine again.

Beautiful Feathers

In Beautiful Feathers, Ekwensi introduces politics into confusion of big city life.
Wilson Iyari was a Lagos pharmacist, the father of three children and the
leader of the Nigerian Movement for African and Malagasy solidarity. But
though he was a success in his public life, at home all was not well. He was
completely disregarded by his wife. As his success with the movement
increased, conditions at home deteriorated. When the members of the
movements demonstrated to make their views known to the prime Minister
Wilson‟s wife ran off to Benin. The leaders of the movement were arrested,
including Wilson Iyari but he was later released on bail. After leading a
delegation to a conference of African Unity in Dakar where he was involved
in a shooting incident, he returned to Nigeria to find that his movement was
breaking up. He decided to dissolve it by himself. His wife, then, reconciled
with him was stubbed but recovered.

Ekwensi shows a delicate ability in the handling of his theme, for the point he
made was apparent through the story. Wilson could not be really considered
a success if his home life was a failure. Ekwensi suggested that although
Wilson publicly failed, in the end he was much happier and had really
achieved something within the private framework of his family.

Elechi Amadi

Born on May 12, 1934, died in Aug 2016. He was one of the founding
generation of African novelists in English. His work was greatly admired by his
fellow writers in Nigeria. He was educated at Government College, Umuahia
 - 49 -

where he read mathematics and physics. After graduating, Amadi worked

briefly as a land surveyor before becoming a teacher at the Nigerian Military
School in Zaria, Northern Nigeria.

Works and themes

Amadi first gained serious attention as a writer with the publication of the
Concubine. It is the novel by which he is well known. The Concubine was the
first of a trilogy completed by Great Ponds (1969) and the Slave (1973). His last
novel Estrangement (1986), revisited the civil war, but in later life, he
concentrated more on plays. Several of these plays such as “Isiburu” (1973)
depict struggles between ordinary people and the supernatural world but
one of them, “the Dancer of Johannesburg” (1977) Commented on
apartheid.Amadi was twice married and had eight daughters and four sons.

His first novel the Concubine is the story of a very beatiful and skillful woman
named Ihuoma. It opens with a battle between two fellow villagers, Emenike
and Madume. They have been quarrelling over a piece of land, and now
Madume decides to beat his fellow because all the villagers have spoken in
favour of Emenike. Madume wins the battle by dashing his fellow villager to
the ground. Emenike‟s side hits the tree ; he gets injured and remains
unhealthy for some days. Anyika, the dibia helps him to recover by providing
him with some medecine. Later on, Emenike dies and Madume starts courting
Emenke‟s wife. Unfortunately, Madume is spitted into his eyes by a cobra. He
finally hangs himself up when his wife runs away with their four daughters.
Nobody in Omokachi can touch Madume‟s corpse because it was an
abominable death. Only a dibia and/ or a stranger can.

Ihuoma was Emenike‟s wife. Now her husband has passed away, she has to
stuggle to take care of the farm, the compound and their four children.
Ihuoma is strongly affected by her husband‟s earlier death. As days go by,
Ihuoma starts to get on with her loneliness.she grows younger and more
beautiful to the point that most of the the men around the village eny her.
 - 50 -

Also, Ihuoma is known as a so well-behaved woman that even her elder

fellows can take advice from her.

There is a young man in Omokachi village named Ekwueme. Ekwueme is still

married and starts growing feelings towards Ihuoma,though the young man
was bound to marry Ahurole. Ahurole is a girl whom Ekwueme was engaged
to since her early infacy. Now Ekwueme has been talking to Ihuoma and he
wishes to marry her instead of Ahurole. By the influence of his his parents ,
Wigwe his father and Adaku his mother, Ekwueme marries Ahurole. Their
marriage is unhappy because of the bride‟s immaturity. The young couple
quarrels more often. One day, Ahurole accuses Ekweme of being in
relationship with the widow Ihuoma. Ahurole goes to her mother and the
latter advises her daughter to give love portion to Ekweme. By doing so,
Ekweme gets mental disturbance that he runs away away from home.
Ahurole herself runs from Wigwe‟s family to her family, Omigwe, realizing that
her in-laws are aware that their son was given love portion. This puts an end to
to Ekwueme and Ahurole‟s household, and Ahurole‟s father, Wagbara pays
back the bride price to Ekweme‟s father, Wigwe.

The village‟s men bring Ekweme back home after a whole night of searching.
Ekweme is found in the morning resting up a tree. He declares that if ever
Ihuoma is not brought, he will stay there up. His village fellows manage tobring
Ihuoma, and then the man descends willingly. The obsessed man continues
with that kind of whim.ihuoma is then the only means to calm down Ekweme.
Only that widow woman can persuade him to take Anyika‟s medecine that
could help him to recover.

After Ekweme‟s recovery, Ihuoma is visiting Wigwe‟s family regularly and

accompanying Ekwueme. Both Ekwueme and Ihuoma grow their feelings
towards each other. They agree to get married. Anyika the dibia asks
Ekwueme‟s father to proceed with the divinations before the young people
can get married . Anyika was suspecting Ihuoma‟s nature and during the
divination he reveals that Ihuoma is the wife of a sea-king. Anyika says that
 - 51 -

such a woman can not get get married with a human being but she could
only be someone‟s concubine. The dibia also reveals that both Emenike and
Madume‟s deaths were caused by the jealousy of that sea-king.

Also Amadi‟s second novel published in 1969 is The Great Ponds. It is about
the battle between two village communities, of Chiolu and Aliakoro over
possession of a pond. For years, the village of Chiolu had fished in the pond of
Wagaba without hindrance. However, when the neighbouring village of
Aliakoro started to use the pond, a war broke out between the two villages
and the people of Chiolu sought to protect their ownship of the pond. The
war was led by Olumba the Greatest warrior in Chiolu and main character in
the novel. His main rival was Wago, the Leopard from Aliakoro. The Ezes
(elders) from either side would not agree to give up the pond. Eze Diali from
Chiolu and Eze Okehi from Aliakoro often met to discuss about ending the
war but in vain.

Both villages became weary after Months of fighting and eventually the
elders of eight other villages interfered to end the war on neutral grounds. The
answer about who owned the pond of Wagaba was anybody‟s guess as
both parties had fished from the same pond at a given time.

Nyoma, Olulba‟s first wife fell sick. Olumba lost his wife and his daughter.
Meanwhile, in the village of Aliakoro, other loses were signaled. With The great
ponds, Amadi addresses the painful effects of war on its victims, the local
population. There are always victims in every war, a message that is as
relevant today as it was for the people of Chiolu and Aliakoro.

Ayi Kwei Armah

Born to Fante−speaking parents and descending on his father‟s side from a

royal family in the Ga nation, Armah was born on 28 October, 1936 in the port
city of Secondi−Tokoradi in Ghana. Having attended Achimota school, he left
Ghana in 1959 to attend Groton school in Groton. After graduating, he
entered Harvard University, receiving a degree in sociology.
 - 52 -

Works and themes

Armah‟s novel The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born appeared in 1968. Ayi
Kwei Armah vividly shows the endless spiral of corruption and moral
decadence in post-colonial Ghana. The novel tells the story of a nameless
man who struggled to reconcile himself with the reality of post-independence
Ghana. Referred to throughout the narrative as simply “man”, he refused to
take a bribe, something that angered his wife. The man kept a humble job
and despite the constant naggings of his wife, he lived an honest life even if
that condemned him to a life of poverty. He represented the common man in
Ghana who had no choice but to reside in the poorest slums and lived from
hand to mouth. On the other hand, are Ghana‟s new leaders the “Black
masters” who proved to be worse than the colonialists. They took corruption
and embodied other vices to such an extent that it became the way of life
for some. Koomson the man‟s friend was one of those politicians. His immense
wealth resulted from his corrupt activities. Other notable characters in the
book included “the teacher”. Like the man, he detested the corrupt society
that Ghana became. He chose to stay away from it by becoming recluse. He
gave up hope that society would ever shake off corruption. Hence, his
symbolic exit from the society. When a military coup occurred, there was
some hope that things would change but sadly, life continued as usual. The
military officers joined in and started to take bribes too.

The man helped Koomson, the politician escaped the country, implying that
even those who avoided corruption were affected by those who engaged in
it.

Although The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born focuses on post-independence
Ghanaian society, it is symbolic of many other developing countries where
corruption remains a major problem at all levels. He also wrote:

- The Healers 2000

- The Eloquence of the Scribes 2006
- Osiris Rising 1995
 - 53 -

- Two Thousand Seasons 1973

- Why are we Blest 1972?

East and South African novelists

NGUGI WA THIONG’O (1938 –)

Ngugi Wa Thiong‟o was born the fifth child of the third of his father‟s four
wives; he had twenty-seven siblings. The family lived in Kamiriithu Village,
twelve miles northeast of Nairobi, Kenya. His father, Thiong‟o Wa Nducu, was
a peasant farmer dispossessed by the British Imperial Land Act of 1915. His
father‟s condition was similar to that of most of the Kikuyu with whom Ngungi
grew up.

In 1947 his parents separated, and in that same year, at the age of nine,
Ngugi attended the mission-run school at Kamaandura. After two years he
was transferred to Maanguu Karinga School. This was part of the Independent
Schools Movement run by the native Kenyans, and instruction was in Gikuyu.
In 1954, however, the government took over control of the school and made
English the medium of instruction.

From 1955 till 1959 he attended Alliance High School in Kikuyu, a bit closer to
Nairobi. It was run by a consortium of the various Protestant denominations in
Kenya and was the first secondary school specifically for Africans. Ngugi was
the first from his area of the country to attend.

Early in his adolescence several events took place that had a defining effect
on Ngugi‟s life. In 1953 he underwent the initiation ceremony of circumcision.
The following year his stepbrother was shot dead and his older brother joined
the Mau Mau. His mother was subsequently tortured. In 1955 his village was
destroyed as part of the anti-Mau Mau campaign. Meanwhile, at Alliance
High School he was gaining an impressive familiarity with the Bible. The
combination of these events strongly affected his novels: while his family was
not Christian, Ngugi himself was devoutly Christian at one time. He published
his earliest work as James Ngugi. He later explicitly rejected Christianity, but its
 - 54 -

implicit message of liberation, coupled with the colonizing impulses of many

of its exponents, inspired Ngugi‟s later employment of biblical themes against
the British and neo-colonial Kenyans.

In 1959, he entered Makerere University College in Kampala, Uganda (then

affiliated with London University), and in 1964 he graduated with an Upper
Second Degree (having written on Joseph Conrad). In 1961 he had married,
and over the next seventeen years, his wife, Nyambura gave birth to six
children.

In 1964 Ngugi went to Leeds University on a British Council Scholarship and

wrote on the theme of alienation in the novels of the West Indian George
Lamiming; he did not, however, complete his master‟s thesis. While there, he
also encountered the writings of Marx and Frantz Fanon. Their influence is
apparent in A Grain of Wheat, which he wrote at Leeds.

Works and themes

Ngugi is a novelist, dramatist, essayist, short-story writer, journalist, and critic.

Throughout the development of his career as a writer, his abiding principal
theme has been the struggle of the common people of Kenya to come to
terms with the effects on their culture of colonialism and the neo-colonialism
that followed. In the second half of his career he has signalled to the larger
world community his decision to make the Kikuyu his first audience, generally
writing first in Gikuyu, then translating the work – often into Kiswahili first, and
then into English.

His first novel Weep Not Child (1964) deals with the Mau−Mau uprising and the
bewildering dispossession of an entire people from their ancestral land. It
focuses on Njoroge, the main character whose main goal throughout the
novel was to become as educated as possible. His family lived on the land of
Jacob, an African made rich by his dealings with white settlers mainly Mr how
lands, the most powerful land owner in the area. Njoroge met Mwihaki who
was Jacob‟s daughter. She was one year ahead of him in School. Njoroge
 - 55 -

admired and befriended her. Njoroge‟s family was fond of sitting together
and told stories. One day, Njoroge‟s father narrated the story about how the
land, which was then owned by the Landlords, originally belonged to their
ancestors. One day, a strike was called for high wages for the black workers.
Ngotho did not know if he would participate because he was likely to lose his
job. Finally, however, he decided to go to the gathering although his two
wives did not agree.

At the demonstration, there were calls for higher salary. Suddenly, Jacob,
Mwihaki‟s father appeared with the white police inspector. He wanted to put
an end to the strike. The police brought him at the gathering to pacify the
native people. Ngotho attacked Jacob. The result was a big tumult with two
people being killed. Nevertheless, Jacob survived and swore revenge.
Ngotho‟s family was forced to move and Ngotho lost his Job. Jacob and the
white land owner Mr Howlands fought against the rising activities of the
Mau−Mau, an organization striving for economic, political and cultural
independence. Jacob accused Ngotho of being the leader of the
Mau−Mau. Ngotho is eventually castrated and tortured to death, his brothers
meet similar fates. Howlands own son is subsequently killed. Ngotho‟s
contemporary, Jacob, cooperates with them and is rewarded with wealth.
Weep not child explores harmful effects of colonialism and imperialism.

The River Between is told in the third person through the eyes of an omniscient
narrator. It is set in the late 1920s and 1930s and portrays an allegorical
opposition between Christianity and the earlier Kikuyu culture. The community
situated on the ridge of Makuyu comes to represent the Christian believers
who reject the earlier ways of evil; the community on the ridge of Kameno, on
the other hand, is the home of the protagonist, Waiyaki, and had been the
home of his ancestor, the Kikuyu prophet Mugo Kibiro.

Waiyaki‟s father, Chege, sees the advantages of Western knowledge, but

sees its dangers as well. He encourages Waiyaki to become a student in the
missionaries‟ schools, but warns him not to be won over to their ways. Another
 - 56 -

member of Chege‟s generation, on the other hand, represents those who are
sincere converts to Christianity: Joshua, in fact, wishes to transform his society
by bringing more Kikuyu to the waters of baptism. Waiyaki and Joshua‟s two
daughters, Muthoni and Nyambura, prefer to avoid such rigid dichotomies. In
the course of the novel they seek to combine the two cultures.

For Waiyaki, this synthesis is to take form of revelation, in which he learns as a

child that he is to assume a messianic role, acquire Western knowledge, and
then unite his people (the book was originally entitled The Black Messiah). He
begins this task by resigning from the Christian school and starting an
independent Kikuyu school. Muthoni‟s attempt to combine the two worlds
ends tragically. As a Christian, she has been forbidden to undergo female
circumcision, but as a Kikuyu this is a necessary rite of initiation into
womanhood. She therefore defies her father and goes ahead with the
ceremony. Her consequent death ironically pushes the two factions farther
apart. Waiyaki, meanwhile, supports the Kiama, a secret society that wishes
to maintain Kikuyu culture and lands. But he himself is symbolically torn apart
when he falls in love with the Christian Nyambura (Muthoni‟s sister), who is
rejected by the Kiama because she refuses circumcision. She, in turn, rejects
Waiyaki‟s offer of marriage, though she loves him, and instead supports her
father.

Another member of Chege‟s generation, Kabonyi, is the leader of the Kiama

faction, and he turns the group against Waiyaki. He usurps Waiyaki‟s role as
prophet and charges the younger man with betrayal of Kikuyu customs. He
further plans to lead an attack on the Christians, forcibly circumcising them
and burning their huts. Waiyaki warns Joshua, and the Kiama completely
abandon him. At this point Nyambura consents to the marriage proposal and
is consequently rejected by her father, as her sister had been.

As the Christians prepare for Christmas and the traditional Kikuyus prepare for
the circumcision ritual, Waiyaki addresses both groups. He speaks near the
Honia, the river between these two communities; its name, ironically, means
 - 57 -

“regeneration.” He has recognized (but too late), he tells the people, that
education will not be enough: some political activity to regain Kikuyu lands
will be needed. But Kabonyi interrupts by demanding that Waiyaki denounce
the “unclean” Nyambura. When he refuses, the Kiama faction arrests the
couple.

Among the typical themes announced by this novel were, first, the need for
action rather than well-meaning ideals, and, second, the persistence of self-
defeating infighting among the Kikuyu and, by extension, among many
colonized peoples. By a variation in the point view in the novel, Ngugi also
begins his exploration of the different sorts of psychological damage that
colonialism has left behind.

Devil on the cross

Devil on the cross is a 1980 novel which centers on Kenyan Woman Jancinta
Wariinga as she attends the “Devil‟s Feast”, a celebration of Kenya‟s
exploitation by the forces of Western capitalism, attended by both Western
businessmen and the Kenyan bourgeoisie who help them in their exploitation
of Kenyan Wealth. During an affair with “Rich old Man of Ngorika”, Wariinga
became pregnant. The Rich old Man abandoned her. Wariinga had her
baby and returned to secretarial school, finding a job at champion
construction. Soon, her boss Kihara made advances on her and Wariinga was
forced to leave her job. This did not prevent her from losing her boyfriend,
John Kinwana, who believed she had slept with Kihara.

Unable to pay her rent, Wariinga was kicked out of her studio apartment by
three Violent persons acting on her landlord‟s orders. In despair, Wariinga took
herself to the railway tracks where she intended to kill herself. However, she
was prevented by the arrival of a man named Munti, who persuaded her to
give life another Chance and gave her an invitation to the “Devil‟s Feast”.
 - 58 -

The cross upon which the Devil is crucified and then saved is a symbol of the
incomplete process of decolonization and independence. White peasants
believe that they have won freedom through political independence; the
Devil reappears as did Christ according to Christian theology and rises again
in a new form of neo˗colonialism. Devil on the cross explores economic
exploitation as well as the specific form of exploitation suffered by Women
and the forms of abuse perpetrated by intellectuals and liberals.

A Grain of Wheat

The central story takes place in the four days leading up to Kenya‟s
independence in 1963. In the village of Thaibai, a man named Muggo desires
to live a solitary life now that he has been released from the detention camps.
But he is unwillingly engaged by the movement, Kenya‟s league of Freedom
Fighters and nationalists aiming at reclaiming their Sovereignty from the British
colonialists. The movement seems pervasive throughout rural Kenya. Although
no one is sure exactly when or how it began, it is generally assumed that it
was formed shortly after the first white missionaries arrived from England who
slowly and deceitfully took power and land for themselves before making
way for British soldiers and administrators. Mugo has only had one interaction
with the movement, at a meeting where he heard Kihika, the revolutionary
leader speak as a young man. Not long after that meeting, Kihika becomes a
leader of the Freedom Fighters based in Thabai and was known as the terror
of the Whiteman. Even if he is finally captured and killed, Kihika‟s martyrdom
becomes a symbol of the Movement. Representatives from the party and
influential members of the village, a shop keeper named Gikongo and two
village elders who devoted their entire lives to the movement, Warui and
Wambui ask Mugo to lead their independence celebration in a few days and
become a village chief, as everyone knows that Mugo helped Kihika hide
from the Colonial Soldiers after he killed a colonial Districk officer. Further, two
of Kihika‟s comrandes have discovered that Kihika was betrayed to his death
and hope to reveal the culprit during the independence celebration and
bring the traitor to justice. Mugo is disturbed by this since it was he who
 - 59 -

betrayed Kihika, though no one in the village knows his crime. Another Thabai
villager, Karanja works for the British colonizers in a nearby agricultural
research station in Githima. Though he has betrayed his country men‟s quest
to rid themselves of the British and be free, Karanja enjoys the power that his
proximity to the Whiteman affords him, especially in the eyes of his fellow
villagers since Karanja is himself afraid of white people.

The title suggests one of Ngugi‟s continuing themes: the people‟s tie to the
soil. Its biblical allusion also suggests the self-sacrificial nature that must be part
of the community‟s efforts to rebuild (“unless a grain of wheat die”). Mugo
seems to embody the older notion of personal messiahship espoused by
Njoroge and Waiyaki, but Kihika speaks of Ngugi‟s newer sense of shared
sacrifice and leadership. While intolerant of the misuse of power, Ngugi shows
compassion even for those who have betrayed the community if they move
forward toward honesty and generosity. He encourages the move from
isolation to community.

Peter ABRAHAMS

Abrahams was born in Vrededorp a suburd of Johannesburg on March 1919.

When he was five, his father died and Abrahams was sent to live with relatives
in rural Elseburg. On his return to Johannesburg, he entered school at about
eleven years old. After a few years however, his education was interrupted by
depression and he was forced to seek work. Working at the Bantu men‟s
centre, Abrahams was exposed to the works of African-American authors,
principally W.E.B; du Bois and writers such as Langston Hughes, Countée
Cullen and Stering Brown. He would later be influenced by Richard Wright as
well. After working at the Bantu men‟s centre, Abrahams began attending St
Peter‟s Secondary School, one of the best South African schools for
nonwhites. There, Abrahams had essential experiences which shaped his
vision as a writer.

Work and themes

 - 60 -

While at Peter‟s, Abrahams had his first contacts with whites who influenced
his ideas about the possibility of interracial harmony among certain
individuals, a theme that runs through his works. His works also dealt with
political and social issues especially about Racism.

While working in London, Abrahams lived with his wife Daphne at Loughton.
He met several important black leaders and writers including George
Padmore, a leading figure in the Pan-African community, Kuame Nkrumah of
the Gold Coast and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, both later heads of State of
their respective countries.

According to Nigerian Scholar, Kolawole Ogungbesan, Mine Boy became the

first African novel written in English to attract international attention. Published
in 1946, Peter Abraham‟s Mine Boy was one of the first books to look at what
life as a black person meant in South African society during the days of
Apartheid. It centres on Xuma who was a man in transition. He left his home in
the North to go and find employment in the big city of Johannesburg in the
gold mines. He ended up in Malay camp, a suburb for blacks. There, he met
Leah a kind woman who gave him a place to stay. Though everyone in
Leah‟s house did not like the idea of Xuma working in the Mines, he was
determined to work there, despite the harsh conditions that blacks were
forced to work under.

Leah brewed alcohol, something illegal for blacks but not for whites. When
other women in Leah‟s camp were arrested, Xuma felt bad because Leah
did not warn them. Xuma was naïve about the city and its ways. On his first
walk around the city, he was shocked to notice that whites ill-treated blacks
when they did no harm. When a policeman attacked him, he struck him
back. This gave him a reason to flee. His friends called him a fool because of
his naivety. Among the other people that lived in Leah‟s household were
Johannes and Daddy who used to take liquor. Xuma fell in love with Leah‟s
niece, Eliza who was a teacher and dressed like the white folks. She loved
Xuma but as she had passion for the Whiteman‟s things, she wanted someone
 - 61 -

who spoke like them. Consequently, she broke off with Xuma. Abandoned,
Xuma turned to Maisy whose love he had earlier turned down. At the mines,
Xuma‟s strength made him a successful mine boy. Paddy befriended Xuma
despite the fact that he was not black. To paddy man is a man first and then
colour comes second. But as Xuma realized, as a black man, he remained a
second-class citizen under the apartheid regime.

List of references

- Antia, O.R.U 200 . Akwa Ibom cultural Heritage : Its incursion by Western
Culture and its Renaissance. Uyo: Abbny Publisher.
- Bello, S.1991. Culture and Decision Making in Nigeria. Lagos : National
council For Arts and Culture.
- Etuk, U.A. 2002. Religion and Cultural Identity. Ibadan: Hope Publication.
- Gakwandi, S.A. 1977. The Novel and Contemporary Experience in
Africa. London: Heinemann.
- Killian, G.D. 1980. An Introduction to Writings of Ngugi wa Thiong’o.
London: Heinemann Kenya.
- Leitch, R. (1967). African Woman. New−York: Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
- Ogungbemi; S. 1997. A Critique of African Cultural belief. Lagos: Pumark
Nig. Limited.
- Palmer, E. 1976. An introduction to the African Novel. London:
Heinemann.
- Parekh, P.N., Jagne, S.F.1996. Postcolonial African writers: A
bio−bibliographical cultural Sourcebook. London: Routledge Taylor and
Francis group.
 - 62 -

- Taylor, E.B. 1871. Primitive Culture: Researches into Development of

Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom. 2nd ed.
London: John Murray
- W.w.w. African marriage. Info
- Wren, R. Achebe’s World: The Historical and Cultural context of Novels
of Chinua Achebe. 1981. England: Three Longman.