Turkey

Coordinates: 39°N 35°E

Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye, pronounced  [ˈtyɾcije]), officially the Republic of

Türkiye (Turkish: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti [ˈtyɾcije dʒumˈhuːɾijeti] ( listen)), Republic of Türkiye
is a transcontinental country located mainly on the Anatolian Peninsula in Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (Turkish)
Western Asia, with a small portion on the Balkan Peninsula in Southeast
Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia to the northeast;
Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east; Iraq to the southeast; Syria and
the Mediterranean Sea to the south; the Aegean Sea to the west; and Greece
and Bulgaria to the northwest. Cyprus is off the south coast. Most of the
country's citizens are ethnic Turks, while Kurds are the largest ethnic
Flag
minority.[4] Ankara is Turkey's capital and second-largest city; Istanbul is its
largest city and main financial centre. Anthem: 
İstiklal Marşı (Turkish)
One of the world's earliest permanently settled regions, present-day Turkey "The Independence March"
was home to important Neolithic sites like Göbekli Tepe, and was inhabited
0:00 / 0:00
by ancient civilizations including the Hattians, Hittites, Anatolian peoples,
Greeks, Assyrians, Persians, and others.[11][12][13][14]

Following the conquests of Alexander the Great which started the

Hellenistic period, most of the ancient Anatolian regions were culturally
Hellenized, and this continued during the Byzantine era.[12][15] The Seljuk
Turks began migrating to Anatolia in the 11th century, which started the
Turkification process. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum ruled Anatolia until the
Mongol invasion in 1243, when it disintegrated into small Turkish
principalities.[16] Beginning in the late 13th century, the Ottomans united
the principalities and conquered the Balkans, while the Turkification of
Anatolia further progressed during the Ottoman period. After Mehmed II
conquered Constantinople (now Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman expansion
continued under Selim I. During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the
Ottoman Empire became a global power.[11][17][18]
Capital Ankara
From the late 18th century onwards, the empire's power declined with a 39°N 35°E
gradual loss of territories.[19] Mahmud II started a period of modernization Largest city Istanbul
in the early 19th century.[20] The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 restricted 41°1′N 28°57′E
the authority of the Sultan and restored the Ottoman Parliament after a 30-
year suspension, ushering the empire into a multi-party period.[21][22] The
Official languages Turkish[1][2]
Three Pashas took control with the 1913 coup d'état, and the Ottoman Spoken languages Predominantly Turkish[3]
Empire entered World War I as one of the Central Powers in 1914. During
List
the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its
Kurdish
Armenian, Greek and Assyrian subjects.[23][24] After its defeat in the war,
Zaza
the Ottoman Empire was partitioned.[25]
Arabic
The Turkish War of Independence against the occupying Allied Powers Circassian
resulted in the abolition of the Sultanate on 1 November 1922, the signing Laz
of the Treaty of Lausanne (which superseded the Treaty of Sèvres) on 24 Greek
July 1923 and the proclamation of the Republic on 29 October 1923. With Armenian
the reforms initiated by the country's first president, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Albanian
Turkey became a secular, unitary and parliamentary republic. Turkey Bosnian
remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the closing Bulgarian
stages of the war on the side of the Allies. Various others
Turkey played a prominent role in the Korean War and joined NATO in Ethnic groups 70–75% Turks
1952. During the Cold War years, the country endured two military coups (2016)[4] 19% Kurds
in 1960 and 1980, and a period of economic and political turmoil in the
1970s. The economy was liberalized in the 1980s, leading to stronger 6–11% others
economic growth and political stability. Since 2002, the country's political
system has been dominated by the AKP and its leader Recep Tayyip Religion See religion in Turkey
Erdoğan, under whom a decade of rapid growth in nominal GDP took place Demonym(s) Turkish · Turk
until 2013,[26][27] which was followed by a period of recession and
Government Unitary presidential
stagnation in terms of USD-based nominal GDP between 2013 and
constitutional republic
2020,[27] and high inflation as of 2023.[28] The AKP government's initial
economic achievements, which were financed through privatization • President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
revenues and loans, were overshadowed by democratic backsliding and an • Vice President Fuat Oktay
erosion in the separation of powers and civil liberties, which gained • Assembly Speaker Mustafa Şentop
momentum after the parliamentary republic was replaced by an executive • Chief Judge Zühtü Arslan
presidential system with a referendum in 2017.[29][30] Legislature Grand National Assembly

Turkey is a regional power with a geopolitically significant strategic Establishment

location.[31][32] The economy of Turkey, which is a founding member of • Ottoman Empire c. 1299
the OECD and G20, is classified among the E7, EAGLEs and NICs, and • War of 19 May 1919
currently ranks 19th-largest in the world by nominal GDP and 11th-largest Independence
by PPP. Turkey is a charter member of the United Nations, the IMF and the • Government of the 23 April 1920
World Bank; a founding member of the OSCE, OIC, BSEC, ECO, Grand National
MIKTA, TURKSOY and OTS; and an early member of NATO. After Assembly
becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, • Treaty of Lausanne 24 July 1923
Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU • Republic declared 29 October 1923
Customs Union in 1995, and started accession negotiations with the • Current 9 November 1982[5]
European Union in 2005. Turkey has a rich cultural legacy shaped by constitution
centuries of history and the influence of the various peoples that have Area
inhabited its territory over several millennia; it is home to 19 UNESCO • Total 783,356 km2
World Heritage Sites and is among the most visited countries in the world. (302,455 sq mi) (36th)
• Water (%) 2.03 (2015)[6]
Name Population
• December 2022 85,279,553[7] (18th)
The name Turkey appeared in Western estimate
sources after the Crusades.[33] The English • Density 111[7]/km2 (287.5/sq mi)
name Turkey (from Medieval Latin (107th)
Turchia/Turquia)[34] means "land of the GDP (PPP) 2023 estimate
Turks".
• Total $3.573 trillion[8] (11th)
Middle English usage of Turkye is evidenced • Per capita $41,412[8] (46th)
in an early work by Geoffrey Chaucer called GDP (nominal) 2023 estimate
The Book of the Duchess (c. 1369). The
• Total $1.029 trillion[8] (19th)
phrase land of Torke is used in the 15th-
century Digby Mysteries. Later usages can be • Per capita $11,932[8] (71st)
found in the William Dunbar poems, the 16th Gini (2019)  41.9[9]
Turkey in Europe, 1818
century Manipulus Vocabulorum (Turkie) and medium
Francis Bacon's Sylva Sylvarum (Turky). The
modern spelling Turkey dates back to at least HDI (2021)  0.838[10]
very high · 48th
1719.[35] The name Turkey has been used in
the texts of numerous international treaties to Currency Turkish lira (₺) (TRY)
define the Ottoman Empire, such as in the
Time zone UTC+3 (TRT)
texts of the Treaty of Paris (1856)[36][37] and
the Treaty of Berlin (1878).[38][39] Date format dd.mm.yyyy (CE)

Turkey in Asia, 1813 In the 14th-century Arabic sources, Turkiyya Driving side right
is usually contrasted with Turkmaniyya Calling code +90
(Turkomania), probably to be understood as
Oghuz in a broad sense.[40] In the 1330s, Ibn Battuta defined the region as ISO 3166 code TR
Barr al-Turkiyya al-ma'ruf bi-bilad al-Rûm ("the Turkish land known as the Internet TLD .tr
lands of Rûm").[41]
The disintegration of the country after World War I strengthened Turkish nationalism, and the Türkler için Türkiye ("Turkey for the
Turks") sentiment rose up. With the Treaty of Alexandropol signed by the Government of the Grand National Assembly with
Armenia, the name Türkiye entered international documents for the first time. In the treaty signed with Afghanistan in 1921, the
expression Devlet-i Âliyye-i Türkiyye ("Sublime Turkish State") was used, likened to the Ottoman Empire's name.[33]

Official name change in other languages

In December 2021, President Erdoğan issued a circular, calling for exports to be labeled "Made in Türkiye".[42] The circular also
stated that in relation to other governmental communications, the "necessary sensitivity will be shown on the use of the phrase
'Türkiye' instead of phrases such as 'Turkey' (in English), 'Türkei' (in German), 'Turquie' (in French), etc."[42][43] The reason given
in the circular for preferring Türkiye was that it "represents and expresses the culture, civilization, and values of the Turkish nation
in the best way".[42]

The Turkish government notified the United Nations and other international organizations in May 2022, requesting that they use
Türkiye officially in English instead of Turkey, which the UN immediately agreed to do.[44][45][46] The United States Department
of State officially began using Türkiye in January 2023.[47]

History

Prehistory of Anatolia and Eastern Thrace

The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest
permanently settled regions in the world. Various ancient Anatolian populations have lived
in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic until the Hellenistic period.[12] Many of these
peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language
family.[49] Given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some
scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European
languages radiated.[50] The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has been
Some henges at Göbekli Tepe were inhabited since at least 40,000 years ago, and is known to have been in the Neolithic era by
erected as far back as 9600 BC, about 6000 BC.[13] The spread of agriculture from the Middle East to Europe was strongly
predating those of Stonehenge, correlated with the migration of early farmers from Anatolia about 9,000 years ago, and
England, by over seven millennia.[48] was not just a cultural exchange.[51] Anatolian Neolithic farmers derived a significant
portion of their ancestry from the Anatolian hunter-gatherers.[52]

Göbekli Tepe is the site of the oldest known man-made structure in the world, a temple dating to circa 9600 BC,[48] while
Çatalhöyük is a very large Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in Anatolia, which existed from approximately 7500 BC to 5700
BC. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date.[53] Nevalı Çori was an early Neolithic settlement on the middle
Euphrates, in Şanlıurfa. The Urfa Man statue is dated c. 9000 BC, to the period of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic, and is defined as "the
oldest known naturalistic life-sized sculpture of a human".[54] It is considered to be contemporaneous with Göbekli Tepe. Troy was
first settled in the Neolithic Age, with inhabitation continuing into the Byzantine period. Troy's Late Bronze Age layers are
considered potential historical settings for the later legends of the Trojan War.[55][56][57]

The earliest recorded inhabitants of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians, non-Indo-European peoples who lived in Anatolia,
respectively, as early as c. 2300 BC. Indo-European Hittites came to Anatolia and gradually absorbed the Hattians and Hurrians c.
2000–1700 BC. The first empire in the area was founded by the Hittites, from the 18th through the 13th centuries BC. The
Assyrians conquered and settled parts of southeastern Turkey as early as 1950 BC[58] although they have remained a minority in
the region.[59]

Following the collapse of the Hittite empire c. 1180 BC, the Phrygians, an Indo-European people, achieved ascendancy in Anatolia
until their kingdom was destroyed by the Cimmerians in c. 695 BC.[60] The most powerful of Phrygia's successor states were
Lydia, Caria and Lycia.

Assyrian king Shalmaneser I (1263–1234 BC) recorded a campaign in which he subdued the entire territory of "Uruatri".[61][62]
Urartu re-emerged in Assyrian inscriptions in the 9th century BC.[63] Starting from 714 BC, the Urartu state began to decline, and
finally dissolved in 590 BC, when it was conquered by the Medes.[64]
The city of Sardis served as the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia. As one of the
seven churches of Asia, it was addressed in the Book of Revelation, the final book of the
New Testament.[65] The Lydian Lion coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring
alloy of gold and silver. During the reign of King Croesus, the metallurgists of Sardis
discovered the way of separating gold from silver, thereby producing both metals of a
purity never known before.[66]

Antiquity The Sphinx Gate of Hattusa, the

capital of the Hittites
Starting around 1200 BC, the coast of Anatolia
was settled by Aeolian and Ionian Greeks.
Numerous important cities were founded by these
colonists, such as Miletus, Ephesus, Halicarnassus,
Pergamon, Aphrodisias, Smyrna (now İzmir) and
Byzantium (now Istanbul), the latter founded by
Greek colonists from Megara in c. 667 BC.[67]
The gymnasium complex in Sardis, Some of the most prominent pre-Socratic
the capital of Lydia philosophers lived in the city of Miletus. Thales of The Temple of Zeus in the ancient
Miletus (c. 624 BC – c. 546 BC) is regarded as the city of Aizanoi in Phrygia
first philosopher in the Greek tradition,[68][69] and
is also historically recognized as the first individual known to have engaged in scientific
philosophy.[70][71] Thales is often referred to as the "Father of Science".[72][73] In Miletus, he was followed by two other
significant philosophers, Anaximander (c. 610 BC – c. 546 BC) and Anaximenes (c. 585 BC – c. 525 BC) (known collectively, to
modern scholars, as the Milesian school). For several centuries prior to the first Persian invasion of Greece, perhaps the greatest and
wealthiest city of the Greek world was Miletus, which founded more colonies than any other Greek city,[74] particularly in the
Black Sea region. Diogenes the Cynic was one of the founders of the Cynic philosophy, born in an Ionian colony, Sinope, on the
Black Sea coast of Anatolia, in 412 BC.[75]

The first state that was called Armenia by the neighboring peoples was the state of the
Armenian Orontid dynasty, which included parts of what is now eastern Turkey,
beginning in the 6th century BC. In northwestern Turkey, the most significant tribal
group in ancient Thrace was the Odyrisians, founded by Teres I.[79]

All of modern-day Turkey was conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire during the
6th century BC.[80] The Greco-Persian Wars started when the Greek city states on the
coast of Anatolia rebelled against Persian rule in 499 BC. Queen Artemisia I of the
ancient Greek city-state of Halicarnassus, which was then within the Achaemenid satrapy
The Sebasteion of Aphrodisias, a city
of Caria, fought as an ally of Xerxes I, King of Persia, against the independent Greek
named after Aphrodite, the Greek
city-states during the second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC.[81][82]
goddess of beauty. In 2017, it was
inscribed on the UNESCO World
Anatolia fell to Alexander the Great in 334 BC,[83] which led to increasing cultural
Heritage Site list.[76]
homogeneity and Hellenization in the area.[12] Following Alexander's death in 323 BC,
Anatolia was subsequently divided into a number of small Hellenistic kingdoms, all of
which became part of the Roman Republic by the mid-1st century BC.[84] The process
of Hellenization that began with Alexander's conquest accelerated under Roman rule, and
by the early centuries of the Christian Era, the local Anatolian languages and cultures had
become extinct, being largely replaced by ancient Greek language and culture.[15][85]

From the 1st century BC up to the 3rd century AD, large parts of modern-day Turkey
were contested between the Romans and neighboring Parthians through the Roman-
Parthian Wars.
The Library of Celsus in Ephesus was
Galatia was an ancient area in the highlands of central Anatolia inhabited by the Celts.
built by the Romans in 114–117.[77]
The term "Galatians" came to be used by the Greeks for the three Celtic peoples of
The Temple of Artemis in Ephesus,
Anatolia: the Tectosages, the Trocmii, and the Tolistobogii.[86][87] By the 1st century BC built by king Croesus of Lydia in the
the Celts had become so Hellenized that some Greek writers called them 6th century BC, was one of the Seven
Hellenogalatai.[88] Galatia was named after the Gauls from Thrace (cf. Tylis), who Wonders of the Ancient World.[78]
settled here and became a transient foreign tribe in the 3rd century BC, following the
supposed Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC.
The Kingdom of Pontus was a Hellenistic kingdom, centered in the historical region of Pontus and ruled by the Mithridatic dynasty
of Persian origin,[89][90][91][92] which may have been directly related to Darius the Great.[93][92] The kingdom was proclaimed by
Mithridates I in 281 BC and lasted until its conquest by the Romans in 63 BC. The Kingdom of Pontus reached its largest extent
under Mithridates VI the Great, who conquered Colchis, Cappadocia, Bithynia, and the Greek colonies of the Tauric Chersonesos.
After a long struggle with Rome in the Mithridatic Wars, Pontus was defeated.

All ancient regions and territories corresponding to modern Turkey eventually became
part of the Roman Empire, and many of them retained their historic names in classical
antiquity as Roman provinces.

Early Christian and Roman period

According to the Acts of Apostles,[94] Antioch (now Antakya), a city in southern

Turkey, is where the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians". The city quickly
became an important center of Christianity.[95][96] Apostle Paul of Tarsus traveled to The Roman Empire at the time of
Ephesus and stayed there, probably working as a tentmaker.[97] He is claimed to have Constantine the Great's death in 337. In
performed miracles and organized missionary activity in other regions.[98] Paul left 330, Constantinople (Istanbul) became the
Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot.[98] new Roman capital.

According to extrabiblical traditions, the Assumption of Mary took place in Ephesus,

where Apostle John was also present. Irenaeus writes of "the church of Ephesus,
founded by Paul, with John continuing with them until the times of Trajan."[100]
While in Ephesus, Apostle John wrote the three epistles attributed to him. John was
allegedly banished by the Roman authorities to the Greek island of Patmos, where he
wrote the Book of Revelation. The Basilica of St. John near Ephesus, built by
Justinian the Great in the 6th century, marks the burial site of Apostle John, while the
nearby House of the Virgin Mary is accepted by the Catholic church as the place
where Mary, mother of Jesus, lived the final days of her life, before her Assumption. The Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
Saint Nicholas, born in Patara, lived in nearby Myra (modern Demre) in Lycia. (Istanbul) was built by the Eastern Roman
emperor Justinian the Great in 532–
In 123 CE, Roman emperor Hadrian traveled to Anatolia. Numerous monuments 537.[99]
were erected for his arrival and he met his lover Antinous from Bithynia.[101] Hadrian
focused on the Greek revival and built several temples and improved the cities.
Cyzicus, Pergamon, Smyrna, Ephesus and Sardes were promoted as regional centres
for the Imperial cult (neocoros) during this period.[102]

Byzantine period
The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in
After defeating Licinius (the senior co-emperor (augustus) of the East in Nicomedia) 555 under Justinian the Great, at its
at the Battle of Chrysopolis (Üsküdar) in 324 (thus bringing an end to the Tetrarchy greatest extent since the fall of the
system and becoming the sole emperor), Constantine the Great chose the nearby city Western Roman Empire in 476.
of Byzantium across the Bosporus as the new capital of the Roman Empire and
started rebuilding and expanding the city. He resided mostly in Nicomedia (modern
İzmit) during the construction works in the next six years. In 330 he officially proclaimed it as the new Roman capital with the
name New Rome (Nova Roma), but soon afterwards renamed it as Constantinople (Constantinopolis, modern Istanbul). Under
Constantine, Christianity did not become the official religion of the state, but enjoyed imperial preference since he supported it with
generous privileges.

Theodosius the Great made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire
with the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 and was instrumental in establishing the Nicene
Creed as the orthodox doctrine for Christianity with the First Council of
Constantinople in 381.

Following the death of Theodosius the Great in 395 and the permanent division of the
Roman Empire between his two sons, Constantinople became the capital of the
Eastern Roman Empire. This empire, which would later be branded by historians as
the Byzantine Empire, ruled most of the territory of present-day Turkey until the Late
Mosaic of Jesus at the Pammakaristos
Middle Ages;[103] although the eastern regions remained firmly in Sasanian hands
Church in Istanbul. Byzantine mosaics are
until the 7th century. The frequent Byzantine-Sassanid Wars, a continuation of the
the most celebrated form of Byzantine art. centuries-long Roman-Persian Wars, took place between the 4th and 7th centuries.
Several ecumenical councils of the early Church were held in cities located in present-day Turkey, including the First Council of
Nicaea (Iznik) in 325 (which resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed), the First Council of
Constantinople (Istanbul) in 381, the Council of Ephesus in 431, and the Council of Chalcedon (Kadıköy) in 451.[104] During
most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.[105]
Established in the Roman period, the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople is the oldest continuously active institution in
Istanbul.[106] The First Council of Constantinople in 381 recognized that the rights of the bishop of Constantinople are equal to
those of the bishop of Rome.[106]

Great Seljuk Empire

The House of Seljuk originated from the Kınık branch of the Oghuz Turks who
resided in the Yabgu Khaganate, on the periphery of the Muslim world, in the 9th
century.[108] In the 10th century, the Seljuks started migrating from their ancestral
homeland into Persia, which became the administrative core of the Great Seljuk
Empire, after its foundation by Tughril.[109] In the latter half of the 11th century, the
Seljuk Turks began penetrating into medieval Armenia and Anatolia. In 1071, the
Seljuks defeated the Byzantines at the Battle of Manzikert, starting the Turkification
process in the area; the Turkish language and Islam were introduced to Anatolia. The
The Great Seljuk Empire in 1092, upon
slow transition from a predominantly Christian and Greek-speaking Anatolia to a
predominantly Muslim and Turkish-speaking one was underway. the death of Malik Shah I[107]

The Mevlevi Order of dervishes, established in Konya during the 13th century by Sufi
poet Mevlânâ Rûmî, played a role in the Islamization of the diverse people of Anatolia.[110][111] Thus, alongside the Turkification
of the territory, the culturally Persianized Seljuks set the basis for a Turko-Persian principal culture in Anatolia.[112][113][114]

İnce Minareli Medrese in Konya (left), Çifte Minareli Medrese in Erzurum (center) and Divriği Great Mosque and Hospital (right) are
among the finest examples of Seljuk architecture.

The defeat of the Seljuk armies by the Mongols in 1243 caused the territories of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm (Anatolia) to slowly
disintegrate into small Turkish principalities.[16]

Ottoman Empire

In the early 14th century, the Ottoman Beylik founded by Osman I started expanding its territory and annexing the nearby Turkish
beyliks (principalities) in Anatolia. Within a few decades, during the reign of Murad I (r. 1362–1389), the Ottoman State began
expanding into the Balkans, eventually becoming known as the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans completed their conquest of the
Byzantine Empire by capturing its capital, Constantinople, on 29 May 1453: their sultan and commander-in-chief Mehmed II
thenceforth being known as Mehmed the Conqueror. Mehmed II further expanded the territories of the Ottoman Empire in Anatolia
and the Balkan peninsula. His expedition to Italy (1480–1481), commanded by Gedik Ahmed Pasha, began with the Ottoman
invasion of Otranto and the nearby areas in Apulia. The invasion, which had the goal of establishing a foothold on the Italian
peninsula for a subsequent conquest of Rome, started on 28 July 1480 and ended on 10 September 1481, four months after
Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481.[115]

Following the end of the Reconquista, which resulted in the expulsion of non-Christians (Jews and Muslims) from Iberia and
southern Italy controlled by the Crowns of Castile and Aragon (and later by the Spanish Empire), a large number of Sephardic
Jews and Andalusian Muslims emigrated to the Ottoman Empire during the reigns of Sultan Bayezid II and his successors, settling
primarily in Istanbul, Izmir, Selanik, Bursa and Edirne.[116]

In 1514, Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) successfully expanded the empire's borders by defeating Shah Ismail I of the Safavid dynasty
in the Battle of Chaldiran. In 1517, Selim I expanded Ottoman rule into Algeria and Egypt, and created a naval presence in the Red
Sea. Subsequently, a contest started between the Ottoman and Portuguese empires to become the dominant sea power in the Indian
Ocean, with a number of naval battles in the Red Sea, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf. The Portuguese presence in the Indian
 Ocean was perceived as a threat to the Ottoman monopoly over the ancient trade routes
between East Asia and Western Europe. Despite the increasingly prominent European
presence, the Ottoman Empire's trade with the east continued to flourish until the second
half of the 18th century.[119]

The Ottoman Empire's power and prestige peaked in the 16th and 17th centuries,
particularly during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, who personally instituted
major legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation and criminal law.

The empire was often at odds with the Holy Roman Empire in its steady advance
towards Central Europe through the Balkans and the southern part of the Polish–
Lithuanian Commonwealth.[120]

The Ottoman Navy contended with several Holy Leagues, such as those in 1538, 1571,
Topkapı and Dolmabahçe palaces in
1684 and 1717 (composed primarily of Habsburg Spain, the Republic of Genoa, the
Istanbul were the primary residences
of the Ottoman Sultans in 1465–
Republic of Venice, the Knights of St. John, the Papal States, the Grand Duchy of
Tuscany and the Duchy of Savoy), for the control of the Mediterranean Sea.
1856[117] and 1856–1922,[118]
respectively.
In the east, the Ottomans were
often at war with Safavid
Persia over conflicts between
the 16th and 18th centuries.[121] The Ottoman wars with Persia
continued as the Zand, Afsharid, and Qajar dynasties succeeded the
Safavids in Iran, until the first half of the 19th century.

Even further east, there was an extension of the Habsburg-Ottoman

conflict, in that the Ottomans also had to send soldiers to their farthest
and easternmost vassal and territory, the Aceh Sultanate[122][123] in
Southeast Asia, to defend it from European colonizers as well as the
Latino invaders who had crossed from Latin America and had
Christianized the formerly Muslim-dominated Philippines.[124]

From the 16th to the 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire also fought
twelve wars with the Russian Tsardom and Empire. These were initially
about Ottoman territorial expansion and consolidation in southeastern
and eastern Europe; but starting from the Russo-Turkish War (1768–
The second Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 (the first
1774), they became more about the survival of the Ottoman Empire,
siege was in 1529) initiated the Great Turkish War (1683–
which had begun to lose its strategic territories on the northern Black
1699) between the Ottomans and the Holy League.
Sea coast to the advancing Russians.

From the second half of the 18th century onwards, the Ottoman Empire
began to decline. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by Mahmud II in 1839, aimed to modernize the Ottoman state in line with the
progress that had been made in Western Europe. The efforts of Midhat Pasha during the late Tanzimat era led the Ottoman
constitutional movement of 1876, which introduced the First Constitutional Era, but these efforts proved to be inadequate in most
fields, and failed to stop the dissolution of the empire.[125]

As the empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth; especially after the
Ottoman economic crisis and default in 1875[126] which led to uprisings in the Balkan
provinces that culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878); many Balkan
Muslims migrated to the Empire's heartland in Anatolia,[127][128] along with the
Circassians fleeing the Russian conquest of the Caucasus. According to some
estimates, 800,000 Muslim Circassians died during the Circassian genocide in the
territory of present-day Russia, the survivors of which sought refuge in the Ottoman
Empire, mostly settling in the provinces of present-day Turkey. The decline of the
Ottoman Empire led to a rise in nationalist sentiment among its various subject
peoples, leading to increased ethnic tensions which occasionally burst into violence,
The Süleymaniye Mosque is the largest such as the Hamidian massacres of Armenians, which claimed up to 300,000
Ottoman imperial mosque in Istanbul, lives.[129]
located on the Third Hill in the city's
historical peninsula. The mosque was The loss of Rumelia (Ottoman territories in Europe) with the First Balkan War (1912–
commissioned by Suleiman the 1913) was followed by the arrival of millions of Muslim refugees (muhacir) to
Magnificent and designed by the imperial Istanbul and Anatolia.[130] Historically, the Rumelia Eyalet and Anatolia Eyalet had
architect Mimar Sinan. formed the administrative core of the Ottoman Empire, with their governors titled
Beylerbeyi participating in the Sultan's Divan, so the loss of all Balkan provinces
beyond the Midye-Enez border line according to the London Conference of 1912–13 and the Treaty of London (1913) was a
major shock for the Ottoman society and led to the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état. In the Second Balkan War (1913) the Ottomans
managed to recover their former capital Edirne (Adrianople) and its surrounding areas in East Thrace, which was formalized with
the Treaty of Constantinople (1913). The 1913 coup d'état effectively put the country under the control of the Three Pashas,
making sultans Mehmed V and Mehmed VI largely symbolic figureheads with no real political power.

The Ottoman Empire entered World War I on the side of the Central
Powers and was ultimately defeated. The Ottomans successfully defended
the Dardanelles strait during the Gallipoli campaign (1915–1916) and
achieved initial victories against British forces in the first two years of the
Mesopotamian campaign, such as the Siege of Kut (1915–1916); but the
Arab Revolt (1916–1918) turned the tide against the Ottomans in the
Middle East. In the Caucasus campaign, however, the Russian forces had
the upper hand from the beginning, especially after the Battle of Sarikamish
(1914–1915). Russian forces advanced into northeastern Anatolia and
controlled the major cities there until retreating from World War I with the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk following the Russian Revolution (1917). During
the war, the empire's Armenian subjects were deported to Syria as part of
Monarchs of the Central Powers on a WWI po
the Armenian genocide. As a result, an estimated 600,000[131] to more than
1 million,[131] or up to 1.5 million[132][133][134] Armenians were killed. Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany;
The Turkish government has refused to acknowledge[23][135] the events as Kaiser and King Franz Joseph of Austria-Hung
genocide and states that Armenians were only "relocated" from the eastern Sultan Mehmed V of the Ottoman Empire;
war zone.[136] Genocidal campaigns were also committed against the Tsar Ferdinand I of Bulgaria
empire's other minority groups such as the Assyrians and
Greeks.[137][138][139]

Following the Armistice of Mudros in 1918, the victorious Allied Powers sought to partition the Ottoman state through the 1920
Treaty of Sèvres.[140]

Republic of Turkey

The occupation of Istanbul (1918) and İzmir (1919) by the Allies in the aftermath of
World War I initiated the Turkish National Movement. Under the leadership of
Mustafa Kemal Pasha, a military commander who had distinguished himself during
the Battle of Gallipoli, the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923) was waged
with the aim of revoking the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres (1920).[141]

In 1922, the Greek, Armenian and French armies had been expelled,[142] and the
Turkish Provisional Government in Ankara, which had declared itself the legitimate
government of the country on 23 April 1920, started to formalize the legal transition
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder and first from the old Ottoman into the new Republican political system. On 1 November
President of the Turkish Republic, with the 1922, the Turkish Parliament in Ankara formally abolished the Sultanate, thus ending
Liberal Republican Party leader Fethi 623 years of monarchical Ottoman rule.
Okyar (right) and Nermin Kırdar (Fethi
Okyar's daughter) in Yalova, 13 August The Treaty of Lausanne of 24 July 1923, which superseded the Treaty of
1930 Sèvres,[140][141] led to the international recognition of the sovereignty of the newly
formed "Republic of Turkey" as the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, and the
republic was officially proclaimed on 29 October 1923 in Ankara, the country's new
capital. [143] The Lausanne Convention stipulated a population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[144]

Mustafa Kemal became the republic's first President and introduced many reforms. The reforms aimed to transform the old religion-
based and multi-communal Ottoman constitutional monarchy into a Turkish nation state that would be governed as a parliamentary
republic under a secular constitution.[146] With the Surname Law of 1934, the Turkish Parliament bestowed upon Mustafa Kemal
the honorific surname "Atatürk" (Father Turk).[141]

The Montreux Convention (1936) restored Turkey's control over the Turkish Straits, including the right to militarize the coastlines
of the Dardanelles and Bosporus straits and the Sea of Marmara, and to block maritime traffic in wartime.[147]

After the establishment of the republic, some Kurdish and Zaza tribes, which were feudal (manorial) communities led by chieftains
(agha) during the Ottoman era, became discontent due to a mix of anti-nationalist sentiment, and opposition to Atatürk's reforms,
including secularism (the Sheikh Said rebellion, 1925)[148] and land reform (the Dersim rebellion, 1937–1938),[149] and staged
armed revolts.
İsmet İnönü became the country's second president following Atatürk's death on 10
November 1938. In 1939, the Republic of Hatay voted in favor of joining Turkey with a
referendum. Turkey remained neutral during most of World War II, but entered the
closing stages of the war on the side of the Allies on 23 February 1945. Later that year,
Turkey became a charter member of the United Nations.[150] In 1950 Turkey became a
member of the Council of Europe.

The Democrat Party won the 1950, 1954

and 1957 general elections and remained in
power for a decade, with Adnan Menderes
as the prime minister and Celâl Bayar as the Eighteen female deputies joined the
president. After fighting as part of the UN Turkish Parliament with the 1935
forces in the Korean War, Turkey joined general elections. Turkish women
NATO in 1952, becoming a bulwark against gained the right to vote and to hold
Soviet expansion into the Mediterranean. elected office as a mark of the far-
Turkey subsequently became a founding reaching social changes initiated by
member of the OECD in 1961, and an Atatürk.[145]
associate member of the EEC in 1963.[151]
Roosevelt, İnönü and Churchill at the
Second Cairo Conference, 1943 The country's transition to multi-party democracy was interrupted by military coups in
1960 and 1980, as well as by military memorandums in 1971 and 1997.[152][153]
Between 1960 and the end of the 20th century, the prominent leaders in Turkish
politics who achieved multiple election victories were Süleyman Demirel, Bülent Ecevit and Turgut Özal. Tansu Çiller became the
first female prime minister of Turkey in 1993.

Following the liberalization of the economy in the 1980s, Turkey experienced stronger GDP growth and greater political stability in
the last two decades of the 20th century; but inflation remained high throughout this period, and the GDP growth was interrupted
by three economic crises in 1990, 1994 and 2000–2001.[154]

Turkey applied for full membership of the EEC in 1987, joined the European Union
Customs Union in 1995 and started accession negotiations with the European Union
in 2005.[155][156] In a non-binding vote on 13 March 2019, the European Parliament
called on the EU governments to suspend EU accession talks with Turkey, citing
violations of human rights and the rule of law; but the negotiations, effectively on
hold since 2018, remain active as of 2023.[157]

In 2014, Turkish prime minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan won Turkey's first direct Anıtkabir, the mausoleum of Mustafa
presidential election.[158] On 15 July 2016, an unsuccessful coup attempt tried to oust Kemal Atatürk in Ankara, is visited by
the government.[159] crowds during national holidays, such as
Republic Day on 29 October.
With a referendum in 2017, the parliamentary republic has been replaced by an
executive presidential system. The office of the prime minister has been abolished and
its powers and duties have been transferred to the president. On the referendum day, while the voting was still underway, the
Supreme Electoral Council of Turkey lifted a rule that required each ballot to have an official stamp.[160] The opposition parties
have claimed that as many as 2.5 million ballots without a stamp were accepted as valid.[160]

In 2018, Erdoğan won the presidential election for a second term, which ends in 2023. The 2023 Turkish presidential and
parliamentary elections took place on 14 May 2023, with the presidential election going into second round on 28 May
2023,[161][162] which was won by Erdoğan.[163][164] According to Article 101 of the Constitution of Turkey: "A person can be
elected as President maximum two times" (Turkish: "Bir kimse en fazla iki defa Cumhurbaşkanı seçilebilir").[165][166] No
amendments have been made to this definition in Article 101 with the referendum in 2017.[165][166]

Administrative divisions
Turkey has a unitary structure in terms of administration and this aspect is one of the most important factors shaping the Turkish
public administration. Turkey does not have a federal system, and the provinces are subordinate to the central government in
Ankara.

When three powers (executive, legislative and judiciary) are taken into account as the main functions of the state, local
administrations have little power. Local administrations were established to provide services in place and the government is
represented by the province governors (vali) and town governors (kaymakam).
 Other senior public officials are also appointed by the central government, except for
the mayors (belediye başkanı) who are elected by the constituents.[167] Turkish
municipalities have local legislative bodies (belediye meclisi) for decision-making on
municipal issues.

Within this unitary framework, Turkey is subdivided into 81 provinces (il or vilayet)
for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts (ilçe), for a total of
973 districts.[168] Turkey is also subdivided into 7 regions (bölge) and 21 subregions
for geographic, demographic and economic purposes; this does not refer to an
Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the administrative division.
country's second largest city.

Kırklareli Bartın Sinop

Edirne Istanbul Zonguldak Kastamonu
Tekirdağ Artvin
Samsun Rize Ardahan
Kocaeli Düzce Karabük Trabzon
Yalova Sakarya Amasya Ordu Giresun
Çankırı Kars
Bolu Çorum Gümüşhane
Çanakkale Bursa Bilecik Tokat Bayburt
Ankara Iğdır
Erzurum
Balıkesir Kırıkkale Yozgat Ağrı
Eskişehir Sivas Erzincan
Kütahya
Kırşehir Tunceli Bingöl Muş
Manisa
Uşak Afyonkarahisar Nevşehir Elazığ
İzmir Van
Kayseri Malatya Batman Bitlis
Aksaray
Konya K. Maraş Diyarbakır Siirt
Aydın Denizli Isparta Niğde Adıyaman Hakkâri
Burdur Şırnak
Osmaniye Mardin
Muğla Karaman
Antalya Adana Gaziantep Şanlıurfa
Mersin Kilis
Hatay

Government and politics

Turkey is a presidential republic within a multi-party system.[169] The current
constitution was approved by referendum in 1982, which determines the government's
structure, lays forth the ideals and standards of the state's conduct, and sets out the state's
responsibility to its citizens. Furthermore, the constitution specifies the people's rights
and obligations, as well as principles for the delegation and exercise of sovereignty that
belongs to the people of Turkey.[170] Turkish politics have become increasingly
The Grand National Assembly,
associated with democratic backsliding, being described as a competitive authoritarian
the legislative chamber in Ankara
system.[171][172]

In the Turkish unitary system, citizens are subject to three levels of government:
national, provincial, and local. The local government's duties are commonly split
between municipal governments and districts, in which the executive and legislative
officials are elected by a plurality vote of citizens by district. Turkey is subdivided into
81 provinces for administrative purposes. Each province is divided into districts, for a
total of 973 districts.
The Presidential Complex, residence
The government, regulated by a system of separation of powers as defined by the and workplace of the President of
constitution of Turkey, comprises three branches: Turkey

Legislative: The unicameral Parliament makes laws, debates and adopts

the budget bills, declares war, approves treaties, proclaims amnesty and
pardon, and has the power of impeachment, by which it can remove
incumbent members of the government.[173]
Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the military, can veto
legislative bills before they become law (subject to parliamentary override),
can issue presidential decrees on matters regarding executive power with The Court of Cassation is Turkey's
the exception of fundamental rights, individual rights and certain political supreme court for reviewing verdicts
rights (parliamentary laws prevail presidential decrees), and appoints the given by courts of criminal and civil
justice.
 members of the Cabinet and other officers, who administer and enforce national laws and policies.[174]
Judicial: The Constitutional Court (for constitutional adjudication and review of individual applications concerning
human rights), the Court of Cassation (final decision maker in ordinary judiciary), the Council of State (final
decision maker in administrative judiciary) and the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes (for resolving the disputes
between courts for constitutional jurisdiction) are the four organizations that are described by the Constitution as
supreme courts. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and the parliament.[5]

The Parliament has 600 voting members, each representing a constituency for a five-year term. Parliamentary seats are distributed
among the provinces by population, conforming with the census apportionment. The president is elected by direct vote and serves a
five-year term. The president can't run for re-elections after two terms of five-years, unless the parliament prematurely renews the
presidential elections during the second term of the President. Elections for the Parliament and presidential elections are held on the
same day. The Constitutional Court is composed of fifteen members. A member is elected for a term of twelve years and can't be
re-elected. The members of the Constitutional Court are obliged to retire when they are over the age of sixty-five.[175]

Parties and elections

Elections in Turkey are held for six functions of government: presidential elections (national),
parliamentary elections (national), municipality mayors (local), district mayors (local), provincial or
municipal council members (local) and muhtars (local). Apart from elections, referendums are also
held occasionally.

Every Turkish citizen who has turned 18 has the right to vote and stand as a candidate at elections.
Universal suffrage for both sexes has been applied throughout Turkey since 1934 and before most
countries. In Turkey, turnout rates of both local and general elections are high compared to many
other countries, which usually stands higher than 80 percent.[176] There are 600 members of
parliament who are elected for a five-year term by a party-list proportional representation system
from 88 electoral districts. The Constitutional Court can strip the public financing of political parties
that it deems anti-secular or having ties to terrorism, or ban their existence altogether.[177][178] The Recep Tayyip Erdoğan
Interior Ministry can block new parties from elections even if a court rules in favour of the President
party. [179] The electoral threshold for political parties at national level is seven percent of the
votes.[180] Smaller parties can avoid the electoral threshold by forming an alliance with other parties,
in which it is sufficient that the total votes of the alliance passes 7%. Independent candidates are not subject to an electoral
threshold.

After World War II, starting from 1946, Turkey operated under a multi-party system. On the right side of the Turkish political
spectrum, parties like the Democrat Party (DP), Justice Party (AP), Motherland Party (ANAP) and Justice and Development Party
(AKP) became the most popular political parties in Turkey, winning numerous elections. Turkish right-wing parties are more likely
to embrace the principles of political ideologies such as conservatism, nationalism or Islamism.[181] On the left side of the
spectrum, parties like the Republican People's Party (CHP), Social Democratic Populist Party (SHP) and Democratic Left Party
(DSP) once enjoyed the largest electoral success. Left-wing parties are more likely to embrace the principles of socialism,
Kemalism or secularism.[182]

The 12th President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (AKP), winner of the 2023 presidential election and former prime minister, is currently
serving as the head of state and head of government. Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu (CHP) is the main opposition leader in Turkey. Mustafa
Şentop is the Speaker of the Grand National Assembly.

The 2023 parliamentary election was held for voting into office the members of the 28th Parliament of Turkey (600 seats), which
had an initial composition of 268 seats for the Justice and Development Party (AKP), 169 seats for the Republican People's Party
(CHP), 61 seats for the Party of Greens and the Left Future (YSGP), 50 seats for the Nationalist Movement Party (MHP), 43 seats
for the Good Party (İP), 5 seats for the New Welfare Party (YRP) and 4 seats for the Workers' Party of Turkey.[183] The next
parliamentary election is scheduled to take place in 2028.

Law

With the founding of the Republic, Turkey adopted a civil law legal system, replacing Sharia-derived Ottoman law. The Civil
Code, adopted in 1926, was based on the Swiss Civil Code of 1907 and the Swiss Code of Obligations of 1911. Although it
underwent a number of changes in 2002, it retains much of the basis of the original Code. The Criminal Code, originally based on
the Italian Criminal Code, was replaced in 2005 by a Code with principles similar to the German Penal Code and German law
generally. Administrative law is based on the French equivalent and procedural law generally shows the influence of the Swiss,
German and French legal systems.[184] Islamic principles do not play a part in the legal system.[185]
Turkey has adopted the principle of the separation of powers. In line with this principle,
judicial power is exercised by independent courts on behalf of the Turkish nation. The
independence and organization of the courts, the security of the tenure of judges and
public prosecutors, the profession of judges and prosecutors, the supervision of judges
and public prosecutors, the military courts and their organization, and the powers and
duties of the high courts are regulated by the Turkish Constitution.[186]

According to Article 142 of the Turkish Constitution, the organization, duties and
jurisdiction of the courts, their functions and the trial procedures are regulated by law. In
line with the aforementioned article of the Turkish Constitution and related laws, the Istanbul Justice Palace in the Şişli
court system in Turkey can be classified under three main categories; which are the district on the European side
Judicial Courts, Administrative Courts, and Military Courts. Each category includes first
instance courts and high courts. In addition, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes rules on
cases that cannot be classified readily as falling within the purview of one court
system.[186]

Law enforcement in Turkey is carried out by several agencies under the jurisdiction of
the Ministry of Internal Affairs. These agencies are the General Directorate of Security,
the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command. Furthermore,
there are other law enforcement agencies with specific (National Intelligence
Organization, General Directorate of Customs Protection, etc.) or local (Village guards, Istanbul Anadolu Justice Palace in the
Municipal Police, etc.) assignments that are under the jurisdiction of the president or Kartal district on the Asian side
different ministries.

In the years of government by the AKP and Erdoğan, particularly since 2013, the independence and integrity of the Turkish
judiciary has increasingly been said to be in doubt by institutions, parliamentarians and journalists both within and outside of
Turkey; due to political interference in the promotion of judges and prosecutors, and in their pursuit of public
duty.[187][188][189][190] The Turkey 2015 report of the European Commission stated that "the independence of the judiciary and
respect of the principle of separation of powers have been undermined and judges and prosecutors have been under strong political
pressure."[187]

Foreign relations

Turkey is a founding member of the United Nations (1945),[191] the OECD (1961),[192]
the OIC (1969),[193] the OSCE (1973),[194] the ECO (1985),[195] the BSEC (1992),[196]
TURKSOY (1993), the D-8 (1997),[197] the G20 (1999),[198] and the OTS (2009).
Turkey was a member of the United Nations Security Council in 1951–1952, 1954–1955,
1961 and 2009–2010.[199] In 2012 Turkey became a dialogue partner of the SCO, and in
2013 became a member of the ACD.[200][201] In 2021, Turkey had the fifth-largest
The 2015 G20 Summit held in diplomatic network in the world.[202]
Antalya, Turkey, a founding member
of the OECD (1961) and G20 (1999) In line with its traditional Western orientation, relations with Europe have always been a
central part of Turkish foreign policy. Turkey became one of the early members of the
Council of Europe in 1950, applied for associate membership of the EEC (predecessor of
the European Union) in 1959 and became an associate member in 1963. After decades of political negotiations, Turkey applied for
full membership of the EEC in 1987, became an associate member of the Western European Union in 1992, joined the EU
Customs Union in 1995 and has been in formal accession negotiations with the European Union since 2005.[155][156]

Turkey's support for Northern Cyprus in the Cyprus dispute and refusal to include the
Republic of Cyprus to the EU-Turkey Customs Union agreement complicates its relations
with the European Union and remains a major stumbling block to the country's EU
accession bid.[203] The Annan Plan for the island's reunification was approved by the
majority of Turkish Cypriots, but rejected by the majority of Greek Cypriots, in separate
referendums on April 24, 2004. The Republic of Cyprus was admitted to the EU a week
later, on May 1, 2004. According to the 1960 Treaty of Guarantee, the United Kingdom,
Greece and Turkey are the three guarantor states on the island.[204]

The other defining aspect of Turkey's foreign policy has been the country's long-standing
strategic alliance with the United States.[205][206] The Truman Doctrine in 1947 enunciated Turkey has been in formal accession
American intentions to guarantee the security of Turkey and Greece during the Cold War, negotiations with the European Union
and resulted in large-scale U.S. military and economic support. In 1948 both countries since 2005.[155][156]
were included in the Marshall Plan and the OEEC for rebuilding European economies.[207]
The common threat posed by the Soviet Union during the Cold War led to Turkey's membership of NATO in 1952, ensuring close
bilateral relations with the US. Subsequently, Turkey benefited from the United States' political, economic and diplomatic support,
including in key issues such as the country's bid to join the European Union.[208] In the post–Cold War environment, Turkey's
geostrategic importance shifted towards its proximity to the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans.[209]

The independence of the Turkic states of the Soviet Union in 1991, with which Turkey
shares a common cultural, historic and linguistic heritage, allowed Turkey to extend its
economic and political relations deep into Central Asia.[211] The International Organization
of Turkic Culture (TURKSOY) was established in 1993, and the Organization of Turkic
States (OTS) was established in 2009. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, a multi-billion-
dollar oil and natural gas pipeline that extends from Baku in Azerbaijan to the port of
Ceyhan in Turkey, forms part of Turkey's foreign policy strategy to become an energy
conduit from the Caspian Sea basin to Europe. Turkey sealed its land border with Armenia
The Turkish Armed Forces in a gesture of support to Azerbaijan (a Turkic state in the Caucasus region) during the First
collectively rank as the second- (1993) and Second (2020) Nagorno-Karabakh Wars, and it remains closed.[212] Armenia
largest standing military force in and Turkey started diplomatic talks in order to normalize the relationship between the two
NATO.[210] countries. The discussions include opening the closed borders and starting trade. Turkey
and Armenia have also restarted commercial flights between the two countries.[213]

Following the Arab Spring in December 2010, the choices made by the AKP government
for supporting certain political opposition groups in the affected countries have led to
tensions with some Arab states, such as Turkey's neighbor Syria since the start of the
Syrian civil war, and Egypt after the ousting of President Mohamed Morsi.[214][215] As of
2022, Turkey does not have an ambassador in either Syria or Egypt,[216] but relations with
both countries have started to improve.[217][218][219][220][221] Diplomatic relations with
Israel were also severed after the Gaza flotilla raid in 2010, but were normalized following
a deal in June 2016.[222] These political rifts have left Turkey with few allies in the East
Mediterranean, where large natural gas fields have recently been discovered.[223][224]
There is a dispute over Turkey's maritime boundaries with Greece and Cyprus and drilling
rights in the eastern Mediterranean.[225][226]

After the rapprochement with Russia in 2016, Turkey revised its stance regarding the Members and observers of the
solution of the conflict in Syria.[227][228][229] In January 2018, the Turkish military and the Organization of Turkic States
Turkish-backed forces, including the Syrian National Army,[230] began an operation in
Syria aimed at ousting U.S.-backed YPG (which Turkey considers to be an offshoot of the
outlawed PKK)[231][232] from the enclave of Afrin.[233][234]

Military

The Turkish Armed Forces consist of the General Staff, the Land Forces, the
Naval Forces and the Air Force. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed
by the President. The President is responsible to the Parliament for matters of
national security and the adequate preparation of the armed forces to defend
the country. However, the authority to declare war and to deploy the Turkish
Armed Forces to foreign countries or to allow foreign armed forces to be
stationed in Turkey rests solely with the Parliament.[246]

The Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast Guard Command are law
enforcement agencies with military organization (ranks, structure, etc.) and
TAI TF-X Kaan, a twin-engine, fifth generation air under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior. In wartime, the president
superiority fighter, is currently being produced by can order certain units of the Gendarmerie General Command and the Coast
Turkish Aerospace Industries for the Turkish Air Guard Command to operate under the Land Forces Command and Naval
Force.[235][236][237] The runway tests of the Forces Commands respectively. The remaining parts of the Gendarmerie and
prototype began on March 16, 2023.[238][239] Its
the Coast Guard continue to carry out their law enforcement missions under
maiden flight is scheduled to take place in
the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Interior.
2023.[240][241][242] The runway tests of Anka-3, a
Every fit male Turkish citizen otherwise not barred is required to serve in the
flying wing design UCAV with stealth technology,
military for a period ranging from three weeks to a year, dependent on
began in April 2023, with its maiden flight
education and job location.[247] Turkey does not recognize conscientious
scheduled for May 2023.[243][244][245]
objection and does not offer a civilian alternative to military service.[248]
Turkey has the second-largest standing military force in NATO, after the United States, with an estimated strength of 890,700
military personnel as of February 2022.[249]

Turkey is one of five NATO member states which are part of the nuclear
sharing policy of the alliance, together with Belgium, Germany, Italy, and the
Netherlands.[259] A total of 90 B61 nuclear bombs are hosted at the Incirlik
Air Base, 40 of which are allocated for use by the Turkish Air Force in case of
a nuclear conflict, but their use requires the approval of NATO.[260]

Turkey has participated in international missions under the United Nations and
NATO since the Korean War, including peacekeeping missions in Somalia,
Yugoslavia and the Horn of Africa. It supported coalition forces in the First
Gulf War, contributed military personnel to the International Security
Assistance Force in Afghanistan, and remains active in Kosovo Force,
Eurocorps and EU Battlegroups.[261][262] In recent years, Turkey has assisted
Peshmerga forces in northern Iraq and the Somali Armed Forces with security TCG Anadolu (L-400) amphibious assault ship
and training.[263][264] (LHD and V/STOL aircraft carrier) of the Turkish
Naval Forces at the Golden Horn in
The Turkish Armed Forces have a relatively substantial military presence
Istanbul.[250][251][252][253][254][255] Baykar MIUS
abroad,[265] with military bases in Albania,[266] Iraq,[267] Qatar,[268] and Kızılelma is a jet-engined UCAV designed to
Somalia.[269] The country also maintains a force of 36,000 troops in Northern operate on TCG Anadolu.[250][256][257][258]
Cyprus since 1974.[270]

Human rights

The human rights record of Turkey has been the subject of much controversy and
international condemnation. Between 1959 and 2011 the European Court of Human Rights
made more than 2400 judgements against Turkey for human rights violations on issues
such as Kurdish rights, women's rights, LGBT rights, and media freedom.[271][272]
Turkey's human rights record continues to be a significant obstacle to the country's
membership of the EU.[273]

In the latter half of the 1970s, Turkey suffered from political violence between far-left and
Feminist demonstration in Kadıköy,
far-right militant groups, which culminated in the military coup of 1980.[274] The
Istanbul, on 29 July 2017
Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK, designated a terrorist organization by Turkey, the United
States,[275] and the European Union[276]) was founded in 1978 by a group of Kurdish
militants led by Abdullah Öcalan, seeking the foundation of an independent Kurdish state based on Marxist-Leninist ideology.[277]
The initial reason given by the PKK for this was the oppression of Kurds in Turkey.[278][279] A full-scale insurgency began in
1984, when the PKK announced a Kurdish uprising. With time the PKK modified its demands into equal rights for ethnic Kurds
and provincial autonomy within Turkey.[280][281][282][283] Since 1980, the Turkish parliament stripped its members of immunity
from prosecution, including 44 deputies most of which from the pro-Kurdish parties.[284]

In 2013, widespread protests erupted, sparked by a plan to demolish Gezi Park but soon growing into general anti-government
dissent.[285]

On 20 May 2016, the Turkish parliament stripped almost a quarter of its members of immunity from prosecution, including 101
deputies from the pro-Kurdish HDP and the main opposition CHP party.[286][287] By 2020, under the pretext of responding to a
failed coup attempt in 2016,[288][289] authorities had arrested or imprisoned more than 90,000 Turkish citizens.[290] According to
the Committee to Protect Journalists, the AKP government has waged crackdowns on media freedom.[291][292] Many journalists
have been arrested using charges of "terrorism" and "anti-state activities".[293][294] In 2020, the CPJ identified 18 jailed journalists
in Turkey (including the editorial staff of Cumhuriyet, Turkey's oldest newspaper still in circulation).[295]

LGBT rights

Homosexual activity has been legal in Turkey since 1858.[297] LGBT people have had the right to seek asylum in Turkey under
the Geneva Convention since 1951.[298] However, LGBT people in Turkey face discrimination, harassment and even violence
from their relatives, neighbors, etc.[299] The Turkish authorities have carried out many discriminatory practices.[300][301][302]
Despite these, LGBT acceptance in Turkey is growing. In a survey conducted by Kadir Has University in Istanbul in 2016, 33% of
respondents said that LGBT people should have equal rights, which increased to 45% in 2020. Another survey by Kadir Has
University in 2018 found that the proportion of people who would not want a homosexual
neighbor decreased from 55% in 2018 to 47% in 2019.[303][304] A poll by Ipsos in 2015
found that 27% of the Turkish public was in favor of legalizing same-sex marriage and
19% supported civil unions instead.[305]

When the annual Istanbul Pride was inaugurated in 2003, Turkey became the first Muslim-
majority country to hold a gay pride march.[306] Since 2015, all types of parades at Taksim
Square and İstiklal Avenue (where, in 2013, the Gezi Park protests took place) have been
denied permission by the AKP government, citing security concerns, but hundreds of Istanbul Pride was organized in 2003
people have defied the ban each year.[296] Critics have claimed that the bans were in fact for the first time. Since 2015,
ideological.[296] parades in Istanbul have been denied
permission by the government.[296]
Geography
Turkey is a transcontinental country bridging Southeastern Europe and Western
Asia. Asian Turkey, which includes 97 percent of the country's territory, is
separated from European Turkey by the Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the
Dardanelles. European Turkey comprises only 3 percent of the country's
territory.[307] Turkey covers an area of 783,562 square kilometres (302,535
square miles),[308] of which 755,688 square kilometres (291,773 square miles) is
in Asia and 23,764 square kilometres (9,175 square miles) is in Europe.[309] The
country is encircled by seas on three sides: the Aegean Sea to the west, the Black
Topographic map of Turkey Sea to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Turkey also contains the
Sea of Marmara in the northwest.[310] The geographical centre of all land
surfaces on Earth is at 39°00′N 34°00′E, in Kırşehir Province, Turkey.[311]

Turkey is divided into seven geographical regions: Marmara, Aegean, Black Sea, Central Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia, Southeastern
Anatolia and the Mediterranean. The uneven north Anatolian terrain running along the Black Sea resembles a long, narrow belt.
This region comprises approximately one-sixth of Turkey's total land area. As a general trend, the inland Anatolian plateau
becomes increasingly rugged as it progresses eastward.[310] Pamukkale terraces are made of travertine, a sedimentary rock
deposited by mineral water from the hot springs. The area is famous for a carbonate mineral left by the flowing of thermal spring
water.[312][313] It is located in Turkey's Inner Aegean region, in the River Menderes (Meander) valley, which has a temperate
climate for most of the year. It was added as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988 with Hierapolis.

East Thrace, the European portion of Turkey, is located at the easternmost edge the
Balkans. It forms the border between Turkey and its neighbors Greece and Bulgaria. The
Asian part of the country mostly consists of the peninsula of Anatolia, which consists of a
high central plateau with narrow coastal plains, between the Köroğlu and Pontic mountain
ranges to the north and the Taurus Mountains to the south.

The Eastern Anatolia Region mostly corresponds to the western part of the Armenian
Highlands (the plateau situated between the Anatolian Plateau in the west and the Lesser Pamukkale
Caucasus in the north)[314] and contains Mount Ararat, Turkey's highest point at 5,137
metres (16,854 feet),[315] and Lake Van, the largest lake in the country.[316] Eastern
Turkey has a mountainous landscape and is home to the sources of rivers such as the
Euphrates, Tigris and Aras. The Southeastern Anatolia Region includes the northern
plains of Upper Mesopotamia.

The Lakes Region (Turkish: Göller Yöresi) contains some of the largest lakes in Turkey,
such as Lake Beyşehir, Lake Eğirdir, Lake Burdur, Lake Akşehir, Lake Eber and Lake
Işıklı. Lake Tuz, Lake Nemrut, Lake Çıldır, Lake İznik, Lake Uluabat, Lake Manyas,
Cappadocia
Lake Sapanca, Lake Salda, Lake Meke and Lake Uzungöl are among other renowned
lakes in Turkey. The rocks along the shoreline of Lake Salda were formed over time by
microbes that trap minerals and sediments in the water.[317][318] These so-called
microbialites were once a major form of life on Earth and provide some of the oldest
known fossilized records of life on our planet.[317][318] NASA's Mars 2020 mission
Perseverance rover searches for signs of ancient life on the surface of Mars.[317][318]
Studying these microbial fossils from Lake Salda has helped scientists prepare for the
mission.[317][318] In 2021, NASA reported that its Mars surface-exploring rover Lake Salda
Perseverance showed that "the minerals and rock deposits at Lake Salda are the nearest
match on Earth to those around the Jezero Crater where the spacecraft landed."[319]
Far from the coast the climate of Turkey tends to be continental but elsewhere temperate, and has become hotter, and drier in parts.
There are many species of plants and animals.

Most of Turkey is vulnerable to earthquakes.[320] A large portion of the country's landmass is on the Anatolian Plate, which is
separated from the Eurasian Plate by the North Anatolian Fault, and from the Arabian Plate by the East Anatolian Fault. On
February 6, 2023, the southern and southeastern provinces of the country were devastated by two major earthquakes (a Mw 7.8
earthquake at 04:17 TRT, followed by a Mw 7.7 earthquake at 13:24 TRT on the same day); as well as more than 10,000
aftershocks in the three weeks that followed (including a Mw 6.3 on February 20, 2023);[321] which caused the deaths of more than
50,000 people,[322] along with damages at an estimated cost of $104 billion as of March 2023.[323]

Biodiversity

Turkey's position at the crossroads of the land, sea and air routes between the three Old
World continents and the variety of the habitats across its geographical regions have
produced considerable species diversity and a vibrant ecosystem.[324] Anatolia is the
homeland of many plants that have been cultivated for food since the advent of agriculture,
and the wild ancestors of many flowers and plants that now provide staples for humankind
still grow in Turkey. The diversity of Turkey's fauna is even greater than that of its flora.
The number of animal species in the whole of Europe is around 60,000, while in Turkey
there are over 80,000 animal species (over 100,000 counting the subspecies).[325]
Sumela Monastery on the Pontic
Mountains, which form an ecoregion
The Northern Anatolian conifer and deciduous forests is an ecoregion which covers most
with diverse temperate rainforest
of the Pontic Mountains in northern Turkey, while the Caucasus mixed forests extend
types, flora and fauna in northern
across the eastern end of the range. The region is home to Eurasian wildlife such as the
Anatolia Eurasian sparrowhawk, golden eagle, eastern imperial eagle, lesser spotted eagle,
Caucasian black grouse, red-fronted serin, and wallcreeper.[326] The narrow coastal strip
between the Pontic Mountains and the Black Sea is home to the Euxine-Colchic deciduous
forests, which contain some of the world's few temperate rainforests.[327] The Turkish pine (Pinus brutia) is mostly found in
Turkey and other east Mediterranean countries. The forests of Turkey have other species of Pinus (pine), the Turkey oak and
numerous other species of oak. The most commonly found species of the genus Platanus (plane) is the orientalis. Several wild
species of tulip are native to Anatolia, and the flower was first introduced to Western Europe with species taken from the Ottoman
Empire in the 16th century.[328][329]

There are 40 national parks, 189 nature parks, 31 nature preserve areas, 80 wildlife protection
areas and 109 nature monuments in Turkey such as Gallipoli Peninsula Historical National
Park, Mount Nemrut National Park, Ancient Troy National Park, Ölüdeniz Nature Park and
Polonezköy Nature Park.[330] In the 21st century, threats to biodiversity include desertification
due to climate change in Turkey.[331]

The Anatolian leopard is still found in very small numbers in the northeastern and southeastern
regions of Turkey.[332][333] The Eurasian lynx, the European wildcat and the Caracal are
other felid species which are currently found in the forests of Turkey. The Caspian tiger, now
extinct, lived in the easternmost regions of Turkey until the latter half of the 20th
century.[332][334]
A white Turkish Angora cat with
Renowned domestic animals from Ankara, the capital of Turkey, include the Angora cat, odd eyes (heterochromia), which
Angora rabbit and Angora goat; and from Van Province the Van cat. The national dog breeds is common among the Angoras
are the Kangal (Anatolian Shepherd), Malaklı and Akbaş.[335]

Climate

The coastal areas of Turkey bordering the Aegean and Mediterranean Seas
have a temperate Mediterranean climate, with hot, dry summers and mild to
cool, wet winters.[336] The coastal areas bordering the Black Sea have a
temperate oceanic climate with warm, wet summers and cool to cold, wet
winters.[336] The Turkish Black Sea coast receives the most precipitation and
is the only region of Turkey that receives high precipitation throughout the
year.[336] The eastern part of the Black Sea coast averages 2,200 millimetres
Köppen climate classification of Turkey (87  in) annually which is the highest precipitation in the country.[336] The
coastal areas bordering the Sea of Marmara, which connects the Aegean Sea
and the Black Sea, have a transitional climate between a temperate
Mediterranean climate and a temperate oceanic climate with warm to hot, moderately dry summers and cool to cold, wet
winters.[336] Snow falls on the coastal areas of the Sea of Marmara and the Black Sea almost every winter, but usually melts in no
more than a few days.[336] However, snow is rare in the coastal areas of the Aegean Sea and very rare in the coastal areas of the
Mediterranean Sea.[336] Winters on the Anatolian plateau are especially severe. Temperatures of −30 to −40 °C (−22 to −40 °F) do
occur in northeastern Anatolia, and snow may lie on the ground for at least 120 days of the year, and during the entire year on the
summits of the highest mountains. In central Anatolia the temperatures can drop below −20 °C (−4 °F) with the mountains being
even colder.

Mountains close to the coast prevent Mediterranean influences from extending inland, giving the central Anatolian plateau of the
interior of Turkey a continental climate with sharply contrasting seasons.[336]

Economy
Turkey is a founding member of the OECD and G20, and is classified
among the E7 countries and EAGLEs. It is a newly industrialized country
with an upper-middle income economy, which is the 19th-largest in the
world by nominal GDP, and the 11th-largest by PPP. According to IMF
estimates, Turkey's GDP per capita by PPP is $41,412 in 2023, while its
nominal GDP per capita is $11,932.[8] Approximately 11.7% of Turks were
at risk of poverty or social exclusion as of 2019.[345] Unemployment in
Turkey was 12% in 2021.[346] According to the World Bank, the middle
class population in Turkey rose from 18% to 41% of the total population
between 1993 and 2010.[347]
Akbank, Türkiye İş Bankası, Yapı Kredi, QNB
As of October  2021, the foreign currency deposits of the citizens and Finansbank and Garanti BBVA are among the
residents in Turkish banks stood at $234 billion, equivalent to around half of Turkish banks headquartered in Levent, Istanbul.
all deposits.[348][349] As of March 2023, the foreign currency reserves of the The 352 m (1,154 ft 10 in) tall Turkish Central Bank
Turkish Central Bank were $62.6 billion (a 2.3% increase compared to the Tower [337][338][339][340][341][342] and the
previous month), its gold reserves were $52.2 billion (a 7.2% increase headquarters of the state-owned banks are at the
compared to the previous month), while its official reserve assets stood at Istanbul Financial Center (IFC) in the Ataşehir
[343][344]
district since 2023.
$122.4 billion (a 4.3% increase compared to the previous month).[350]

The EU–Turkey Customs Union in 1995 led to an extensive liberalization of

tariff rates, and forms one of the most important pillars of Turkey's foreign trade policy.[351] Foreign direct investment (FDI) in
Turkey peaked at $22.05 billion in 2007 and was $19.26 billion in 2015, but has dropped to $13.22 billion in 2021.[352]

Togg T10X SUV[353] and Togg T10S sedan produced by Togg,[354] a Turkish automotive company which manufactures
EVs.[355][356][353]

The automotive industry in Turkey is sizeable, and produced 1,352,648 motor vehicles in 2022, ranking as the 13th largest
producer in the world (production peaked at 1,695,731 motor vehicles in 2017, when Turkey also ranked 13th).[357] Turkish
automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg, or
Turkey's Automobile Joint Venture Group Inc., is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey. Turkish shipyards are highly
regarded both for the production of chemical and oil tankers up to 10,000 dwt and also for their mega yachts.[358] Turkish brands
like Beko and Vestel are among the largest producers of consumer electronics and home appliances in Europe, and invest a
substantial amount of funds for research and development in new technologies related to these fields.[359][360][361]

Other key sectors of the Turkish economy are banking, construction, home appliances, electronics, textiles, oil refining,
petrochemical products, food, mining, iron and steel, and machine industry. According to a Turkish Statistical Institute survey in
2021, which used the available data for 2020, it was estimated that 46.7 percent of total disposable income was received by the top
20 percent of income earners, while the lowest 20 percent received only 6.1 percent.[362]

In 2020 the International Energy Agency stated that fossil fuel subsidies should be redirected, for example to the healthcare
system.[363] Fossil fuel subsidies were around 0.2% of the GDP during the first two decades of the 21st century,[364][365] and are
higher than clean energy subsidies.[366] The external cost of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of
GDP.[367] In 2020 the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development offered to support a just transition away from
coal.[368] Increasing the share of renewable energy could reduce inflation.[369]

As of 2023, two Turkish tech startups, Getir and Trendyol, have market valuations above $10 billion.[370][371] Turkey has seen a
growth in the video gaming industry in recent years. Numerous game developing companies have been established and gained
investment from venture capitalists.[372] TaleWorlds Entertainment, Peak Games, Bigger Games and Dream Games are the current
leaders in this sector.[373]

Tourism

Tourism in Turkey has increased almost every year in the 21st century,[374]
and is an important part of the economy. The Turkish Ministry of Culture
and Tourism currently promotes Turkish tourism under the project Turkey
Home. Turkey is one of the world's top ten destination countries, with the
highest percentage of foreign visitors arriving from Europe; specially
Germany and Russia in recent years.[374] In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in
the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals behind Italy,
Marmaris in the Turkish Riviera
with 51.2 million foreign tourists visiting the country.[375] Turkey has 19
UNESCO World Heritage Sites, and 84 World Heritage Sites in tentative
list. Turkey is home to 519 Blue Flag beaches, which makes it in the third
place in the world.[376] Istanbul is the tenth most visited city in the world with 13,433,000 annual visitors as of 2018.[377] Antalya
is the second most visited city in Turkey, with over 9 million tourists in 2021.[378]

Infrastructure

In 2013 there were 98 airports in Turkey,[383] including 22 international

airports.[384] Istanbul Airport is planned to be the largest airport in the world,
with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers a year.[385][386] Turkish
Airlines uses Istanbul Airport, which has a current annual capacity of serving
90 million passengers, as its main hub and several other airlines operate in
the country. Turkish Airlines has scheduled services to 315 destinations in
Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas, making it the largest mainline carrier
in the world by number of countries served.[387][388][380]

The motorway network spans 3,523 kilometres (2,189 miles) as of 2020.

The network is expected to expand to 4,773 kilometres (2,966 miles) by
The main terminal of Istanbul Airport has an annual
2023 and to 9,312 kilometres (5,786 miles) by 2035.[389] passenger capacity of 90 million and is the world's
largest terminal building under a single roof. It is the
Istanbul Metro is the largest metro network in the country with 495 million
hub of Turkish Airlines, which serves more
annual ridership.[390] There are 9 metro lines under service and 6 more
destinations than any other airline in the world[379]
under construction.[391] and flies to 129 countries, more than any other
airline.[296][380][381][382]
Opened in 2013, the Marmaray tunnel under the Bosphorus connects the
railway and metro lines of Istanbul's European and Asian sides; while the
nearby Eurasia Tunnel (2016) provides an undersea road connection for
motor vehicles.[392]

The Bosphorus Bridge (1973), Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (1988) and Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (2016) are the three suspension
bridges connecting the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus strait in Istanbul.
 The Çanakkale 1915 Bridge (2022) on the Dardanelles strait, connecting
Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.[396][395] The
Osman Gazi Bridge (2016) connects the northern and southern shores of the
Gulf of İzmit.

Turkish State Railways operates both conventional and high speed trains on
12,532 kilometres rail length. The government-owned national railway
company started building high-speed rail lines in 2003. The Ankara-Konya
line became operational in 2011, while the Ankara-Istanbul line entered
service in 2014.[397] Konya-Karaman line started its operations in 2022 and
406 km (252 mi) long Ankara-Sivas line is to open in 2022.

The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge on the Dardanelles

Much energy in Turkey comes from Russia.[398] As of 2018 Turkey
strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest
consumes 1700 terawatt hours (TW/h) of primary energy per year, a little
[393][394][395] over 20 megawatt hours (MW/h) per person, mostly from imported fossil
suspension bridge in the world.
fuels.[399] Although the energy policy of Turkey includes reducing fossil-
fuel imports, coal in Turkey is the largest single reason why greenhouse gas
emissions by Turkey amount to 1% of the global total. Renewable energy in Turkey is being increased and the Akkuyu Nuclear
Power Plant is being built on the Mediterranean coast. However, despite the overcapacity in national electricity generation, fossil
fuels are still subsidized.[400]

In 2019 Turkey had the fourth-highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal power in the world,[401] and produced 45.6%
of its electricity from renewable sources.[402]

TCDD HT80000 (left) and TCDD HT65000 (right) high-speed trains of the Turkish State Railways at the ATG terminal in Ankara

Many natural gas pipelines span the country's territory.[169] Blue Stream, a major trans-Black Sea gas pipeline, delivers natural gas
from Russia to Turkey as does the undersea pipeline, Turkish Stream.[403] The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline, the second longest
oil pipeline in the world, was inaugurated in 2005.[404]

As of 2022, almost all gas consumed in Turkey is imported, but production from the Sakarya Gas Field, a sweet gas field in the
Black Sea discovered by TPAO in 2020,[405] is due to start in 2023.[406] A pipeline will connect the gas field to the Filyos Natural-
gas Processing Plant,[407] and TPAO plans to begin production in 2023,[408] with an estimated peak production of 40 bcm in
2026.[409] By the end of December 2022, the total volume of natural gas Turkey has discovered in the Black Sea amounted to 710
billion cubic metres (bcm) after a new field was located and a previous find was revised higher.[410]

Science and technology

TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and

innovation policies in Turkey.[412] TÜBA is an autonomous scholarly
society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[413] TAEK is the
country's official nuclear energy institution, focused on academic research
and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear
technology.[414] It is supervising the construction of Turkey's first nuclear
facility, Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant in Mersin, at the cost of $20 billion;
the plant is expected to be operational in May 2023,[415] and is projected to
meet around 10% of the country's electricity demand.
The Presidential Library in Ankara is the largest
library in Turkey, with a collection of over 4 million The Turkish government invests heavily in research and development of
printed books[411] and over 120 million electronic military technologies, including Turkish Aerospace Industries, Aselsan,
editions[411] published in 134 languages.[411] HAVELSAN, Roketsan, and MKE. Turkey is a global leader in unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAV); the Bayraktar TB2, manufactured by private defence
company Baykar, has been exported to over a dozen countries and played a
decisive role in several conflicts, including the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[416][417]
Turkey has made significant inroads in aerospace technology into the 21st century. In 2013, it initiated the Turkish Space Launch
System (UFS) to develop an independent satellite launch capability[418][419][420] up to an altitude of 550 km (342 mi)[420] with the
Roketsan Şimşek-1 rocket by 2027,[420] and the longer range Şimşek-2 by 2028,[420] including the construction of a spaceport, the
development of satellite launch vehicles,[419][420] and the establishment of remote Earth stations.[421][422][423]

Türksat, the country's sole communications satellite operator, has launched a series of
satellites into orbit; likewise, the Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center
(UMET)—a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National
Defence and operated by the TAI—has launched the Göktürk series of Earth observation
satellites for reconnaissance; BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific Earth observation
satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute.

In 2015, Aziz Sancar, a Turkish professor at the University of North Carolina, won the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on how cells repair damaged DNA;[424] he is one Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3
of two Turkish Nobel laureates, and the first in the sciences. Other prominent Turkish are the Earth observation satellites
scientists include physician Hulusi Behçet, who discovered Behçet's disease; of the Turkish Ministry of National
mathematician Cahit Arf, who defined the Arf invariant; and immunologists Uğur Şahin Defense, while state-owned Türksat
and Özlem Türeci, whose German biotechnology company, BioNTech, developed one of operates the Türksat series of
the first efficacious vaccines against COVID-19. communications satellites.

Turkey is among the top fifty most innovative countries in the world, ranking 41st in the
Global Innovation Index in 2021; this represents a considerable increase since 2011, where it was ranked 65th.[425]

Demographics
According to the Address-Based Population Recording System of Turkey, the country's
population was 85,279,553 in 2022,[426] 93.4% of whom lived in province and district
centers,[426] while only 6.6% lived in towns and villages.[426] In 2022, Turkey had an
average population density of 111 people per km2 .[426] People within the 15–64 age group
constituted 68.1 percent of the total population; the 0–14 age group corresponded to 22.0
percent; while senior citizens aged 65 years or older made up 9.9 percent.[426]
Istanbul is the most populous city in
Article 66 of the Turkish Constitution defines a "Turk" as "anyone who is bound to the
Turkey and the country's largest
Turkish state through the bond of citizenship"; therefore, the legal use of the term "Turkish"
economic and financial centre.[426]
as a citizen of Turkey is different from the ethnic definition.[427] However approximately
70 to 80 percent of the country's citizens are ethnic Turks.[428][4] It is estimated that there
are at least 47 ethnic groups represented in Turkey.[429] Reliable data on the ethnic mix of the population is not available, because
Turkish census figures do not include statistics on ethnicity.[430]

Kurds are the largest non-Turkish ethnicity at anywhere from 12–25 per cent of the
population.[432][433] The exact figure remains a subject of dispute; according to Servet
Mutlu, "more often than not, these estimates reflect pro-Kurdish or pro-Turkish sympathies
and attitudes rather than scientific facts or erudition".[429] Mutlu's 1990 study estimated
Kurds made up around 12 per cent of the population.[434] The Kurds make up a majority
in the provinces of Ağrı, Batman, Bingöl, Bitlis, Diyarbakır, Hakkari, Iğdır, Mardin, Muş, Total fertility rate in Turkey by
Siirt, Şırnak, Tunceli and Van; a near majority in Şanlıurfa Province (47%); and a large province (2022)[431]
minority in Kars Province (20%).[435] In addition, due to internal migration, Kurdish    3–4
diaspora communities exist in all of the major cities in central and western Turkey. In    2–3
Istanbul, there are an estimated three million Kurds, making it the city with the largest
   1.5–2
Kurdish population in the world.[436] Non-Kurdish minorities are believed to make up an
   1–1.5
estimated 7–12 percent of the population.[4]

The three "Non-Muslim" minority groups recognized in the Treaty of Lausanne were
Armenians, Greeks and Jews. Other ethnic groups include Albanians, Arabs, Assyrians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz,
Pomaks, and Roma.[4][437][438][439][440] Turkey is also home to a Muslim community of Megleno-Romanians.[441]

Before the start of the Syrian civil war in 2011, the estimated number of Arabs in Turkey varied from 1 million to more than 2
million.[442] As of April 2020, there are 3.6 million Syrian refugees in Turkey, who are mostly Arabs but also include Syrian
Kurds, Syrian Turkmen, and other ethnic groups of Syria. The vast majority of these are living in Turkey with temporary residence
permits. The Turkish government has granted Turkish citizenship to refugees who have joined the Syrian National
Army.[443][444][445]
 Largest cities or towns in Turkey  
TÜİK's address-based calculation from December 2017.
Rank Name Province Pop. Rank Name Province Pop.
1 Istanbul Istanbul 14,744,519 11 Mersin Mersin 1,005,455
2 Ankara Ankara 4,871,884 12 Urfa Şanlıurfa 921,978
3 İzmir İzmir 2,938,546 13 Eskişehir Eskişehir 752,630
4 Bursa Bursa 2,074,799 14 Denizli Denizli 638,989
Istanbul 5 Adana Adana 1,753,337 15 Kahramanmaraş Kahramanmaraş 632,487 İzmir
6 Gaziantep Gaziantep 1,663,273 16 Samsun Samsun 625,410
7 Antalya Antalya 1,311,471 17 Malatya Malatya 618,831
8 Konya Konya 1,130,222 18 İzmit Kocaeli 570,077
9 Kayseri Kayseri 1,123,611 19 Adapazarı Sakarya 492,027 Bursa
Ankara 10 Diyarbakır Diyarbakır 1,047,286 20 Erzurum Erzurum 422,389

Immigration

Millions of Kurds fled across the mountains to Turkey and the Kurdish areas of Iran during the Gulf War in 1991. Immigration to
Turkey is the process by which people migrate to Turkey to reside in the country. Turkey's migrant crisis in the 2010s and early
2020s resulted in the influx of millions of refugees and immigrants; by 2014, international migrants comprised 2.5% of the
country's population.[446] According to the UNHCR, in 2018 Turkey hosted 3,564,919 registered refugees from Africa and the
Middle East in total, which corresponded to 63.4% of all refugees in the world.[447] Turkey hosts the largest number of refugees in
the world, including 3.6 million Syrian refugees, as of April 2020.[443] The Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency
manages the refugee crisis in Turkey.

Languages

The official language is Turkish, which is the most widely spoken Turkic language in the
world.[448][449] It is spoken by 85.54 percent of the population as a first language.[450]
11.97 percent of the population speaks the Kurmanji dialect of Kurdish as their mother
tongue.[450] Arabic and Zaza are the mother tongues of 2.39 percent of the population, and
several other languages are the mother tongues of smaller parts of the population.[450]
Turkic languages speaking areas
Endangered languages in Turkey include Abaza,
Abkhaz, Adyghe, Cappadocian Greek, Gagauz,
Hértevin, Homshetsma, Kabard-Cherkes, Ladino (Judesmo), Laz, Mlahso, Pontic Greek,
Romani, Suret, Turoyo, Ubykh, and Western Armenian.[451] Megleno-Romanian is also
spoken.[441]

Turkey is a founding member of the Organization of Turkic States and International

Organization of Turkic Culture, comprising other independent Turkic states, such as
Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. It is an
intergovernmental organization whose overarching aim is promoting comprehensive Members of the International
cultural cooperation among Turkic-speaking states. Organization of Turkic Culture

Religion

Turkey is a secular state with no official state religion; the Turkish Constitution provides
for freedom of religion and conscience.[454][455] A 2016 survey by Ipsos, interviewing
17,180 adults across 22 countries, found that Islam was the dominant religion in Turkey,
adhered to by 82% of the total population; religiously unaffiliated people comprised
13% of the population, while 2% were Christians.[456] The level of religiosity study by
Konda found that 9.7% of the population who are 'fully devoted', 52% who 'strives to
fulfill religious obligations', 34.3% who 'does not fulfill religious obligations' and 3.2%
'Nonbeliever/Irreligious'.[457][458] Another poll conducted by Gezici Araştırma in 2020
Selimiye Mosque was built by the interviewed 1,062 people in 12 provinces and found that 28.5% of the Generation Z in
imperial architect Mimar Sinan.[452] The Turkey identify as irreligious.[459][460] According to a survey by World Values Survey
mosque was included on UNESCO's In 2017 98.0% Identified as Muslims, while 1.2% Identified with no Religion and 0.8 as
World Heritage List in 2011.[453] other.[461]
According to a survey by the pollster KONDA, the percentage of atheists in Turkey has tripled in 10 years and rose from 1% in
2008 to 3% in 2018, the percentage of non-believers or agnostics rose from 1% to 2%, and that 90% of irreligious Turks were
under 35 years old. The survey was conducted in Turkey through face-to-face interviews with 5,793 people in their households, in
April, 2018 while in 2008 6,482 people were interviewed in face-to-face in Turkey.[462][463][464]

The CIA World Factbook reports that Islam is the religion of 99.8% of the population, with Sunni Muslims as the largest sect, while
0.2% are Christians and Jews.[465] However, there are no official governmental statistics specifying the religious beliefs of the
Turkish people, nor is religious data recorded in the country's census.[466] Academics suggest the Alevi population may be from 15
to 20 million, while the Alevi-Bektaşi Federation states that there are around 25 million.[467][468] According to Aksiyon magazine,
the number of Twelver Shias (excluding Alevis) is three million (4.2%).[469]

Christianity has a long history in present-day Turkey, which is the birthplace of numerous
Christian apostles and saints. Antioch (Antakya) is regarded by tradition as the spot where
the Gospels were written, and where the followers of Jesus were called Christians for the
first time. Constantinople is generally considered to be the center and the "cradle of
Orthodox Christian civilization".[471][472] The percentage of Christians in Turkey fell from
17.5% (three million followers) in a population of 16 million to 2.5% percent in the early
20th century.[473] mainly as a result of the Armenian genocide, the population exchange
between Greece and Turkey and the emigration of Christians that began in the late 19th
century and gained pace in the first quarter of the 20th century.[474][475] Today, there are
more than 120,000–320,000 people of various Christian denominations,[476] representing
less than 0.2% of Turkey's population,[477] including an estimated 80,000 Oriental
Orthodox, 35,000 Roman Catholics,[478] 18,000 Antiochian Greeks,[479] 5,000 Greek
Orthodox, smaller numbers of Protestants,[480] and 512 Mormons.[481] Currently, there are
398 churches open for worship in Turkey.[482]
There are 234 active churches and
Modern-day Turkey continues to have a small Jewish population;[483] with around 26,000 chapels in Istanbul,[470] including the
Jews, the vast majority of whom are Sephardi.[484] Turkey has the biggest Jewish Church of St. Anthony of Padua on
community among the Muslim-majority countries.[485][486] İstiklal Avenue in Beyoğlu (Pera).

In a mid-2010s poll, 2.9% of Turkish respondents identified as atheists.[487] The

Association of Atheism, the first official atheist organization in the Balkans and the Middle East, was founded in 2014.[488][489]
Some religious and secular officials have claimed that atheism and deism are growing among Turkish people.[490][491][492][493]

Education

The Ministry of National Education is responsible for pre-tertiary education.[495] This is

compulsory and lasts twelve years: four years each of primary school, middle school and
high school.[496] All 12 years compulsory education is free of charge in public
schools.[497]

Basic education in Turkey is said to lag behind other OECD countries, with significant
Istanbul University (1453) was differences between high and low performers.[498] Access to high-quality school heavily
founded by Sultan Mehmed II as a depends on the performance in the secondary school entrance exams, to the point that some
Darülfünûn. On 1 August 1933, as students begin taking private tutoring classes when they are ten years old.[498]
part of Atatürk's reforms, it was
reorganized and became the As of 2022, there are 209 universities in Turkey.[499] Except for the Open Education
Republic's first modern Faculties (AÖF) at Anadolu, Istanbul and Atatürk University; entrance is regulated by the
university.[494] national Student Selection and Placement System (Turkish: Öğrenci Seçme ve Yerleştirme
Sistemi, ÖSYS) examination, after which high school graduates are assigned to universities
according to their performance.[500] According to the 2012–2013 Times Higher Education
World University Rankings, the top university in Turkey is Middle East Technical University, followed by Bilkent University and
Koç University, Istanbul Technical University and Boğaziçi University.[501] All state and private universities are under the control
of the Higher Education Board (Turkish: Yükseköğretim Kurulu, YÖK), whose head is appointed by the President of Turkey; and
since 2016 the President directly appoints all rectors of all state and private universities.[502]

Turkey is a member of Socrates programme, Erasmus Programme and Erasmus+ Programmes. These student exchange
programmes are organized by the European Union.[504] Also it is a member of Erasmus Student Network which is a Europe-wide
student organization which has more than 15.000 volunteers across the Europe.[505]
Turkey has become a hub for foreign students in recent years. The number of foreign
students in Turkey was 795.962 in 2016.[506] The government has announced a vision to
draw around 500,000 foreign students at its universities by offering attractive
scholarships.[507] Türkiye Scholarships is international scholarship programme funded by
Government of Turkey. In 2021, in response to Türkiye Scholarships, that was advertised
in January 2021, Turkish Government received 165,000 applications from 178 countries of
the World.[508][509][510]

Health
Istanbul Technical University (1773)
The Ministry of Health has run a universal public is the world's third-oldest technical
healthcare system since 2003.[511] Known as university dedicated to engineering
Universal Health Insurance (Genel Sağlık sciences.[503]
Sigortası), it is funded by a tax surcharge on
employers, currently at 5%.[511] Public-sector
funding covers approximately 75.2% of health expenditures.[511] Despite the universal
health care, total expenditure on health as a share of GDP in 2018 was the lowest among
Acıbadem Hospital in the Altunizade OECD countries at 6.3% of GDP, compared to the OECD average of 9.3%.[511] The
neighborhood of Üsküdar, Istanbul lower health care expenditure is due to lower median age in Turkey which is 32.4,
compared to Italy which is 47.3.[512] Aging population is the prime reason for higher
healthcare expenditure in the developed world.[513]

Average life expectancy in Turkey is 78.6 years (75.9 for males and 81.3 for females), compared with the EU average of 81
years.[511] Turkey has high rates of obesity, with 29.5% of its adult population having a body mass index (BMI) value that is 30 or
above.[514] Air pollution in Turkey is a major cause of early death.[515]

There are many private hospitals in the country. In recent years, Turkey has benefited from medical tourism, which has generated
revenues of more than $1 billion in 2019.[516] Around 60% of the income has been obtained from plastic surgery and a total of
662,087 patients have received service in the country within the scope of health tourism in 2019.[516]

Culture
Turkey has a very diverse culture that is a blend of various elements of the Turkic,
Anatolian, Byzantine and Ottoman cultures (the latter was in many aspects a continuation
of both the Greco-Roman and Islamic cultures) with Western culture and traditions, a
process that started with the Westernization of the Ottoman Empire and still continues
today.[517][518] This mix originally began as a result of the encounter of the Turks and their
culture with those of the peoples they came across during their migration from Central Asia
to the West.[517][519] Contemporary Turkish culture during the republican period is a
product of efforts to create a "modern" Western society, while maintaining traditional,
religious and historical values.[517]

Turkish culture has also influenced European art and fashion, particularly between the 16th
and 18th centuries, during the peak of Ottoman power — a phenomenon that was called
Turquerie.

Ortaköy Mosque is an example of

Visual arts the Westernization of Islamic-
Ottoman architecture. Many Baroque
Ottoman miniature is linked to the Persian miniature tradition and is likewise influenced by architecture elements can be seen in
Chinese painting styles and techniques. The words tasvir or nakış were used to define the it.
art of miniature painting in Ottoman Turkish. The studios the artists worked in were called
nakkaşhane.[520] The miniatures were usually not signed, perhaps because of the rejection
of individualism, but also because the works were not created entirely by one person; the head painter designed the composition of
the scene, and his apprentices drew the contours (which were called tahrir) with black or coloured ink and then painted the
miniature without creating an illusion of depth. The head painter, and much more often the scribe of the text, were indeed named
and depicted in some of the manuscripts. The understanding of perspective was different from that of the nearby European
Renaissance painting tradition, and the scene depicted often included different time periods and spaces in one picture. They
followed closely the context of the book they were included in, more illustrations than standalone works of art.[521] Nakkaş Osman
and Matrakçı Nasuh (1480–1564) are among the most prominent artists of this era.
 Turkish painting, in the
Western sense, developed
actively starting from the
mid 19th century. The first
painting lessons were
scheduled at what is now
the Istanbul Technical
University (then the
Imperial Military
Engineering School) in
1793, mostly for technical
purposes.[522] In the late
19th century, human figure
16th century map of Istanbul by Matrakçı Nasuh (left) and Two Musician Girls by Osman Hamdi Bey (right) in the Western sense was
being established in
Turkish painting, especially
with Osman Hamdi Bey (1842–1910). Impressionism, among the contemporary trends, appeared later on with Halil Pasha
(c. 1857–1939). Other important Turkish painters in the 19th century were Ferik İbrahim Paşa (1815–1891), Osman Nuri Paşa
(c. 1839–1906), Şeker Ahmet Paşa (1841–1907), and Hoca Ali Riza (1864–1939).[523]

The young Turkish artists sent to Europe in 1926 came back inspired by contemporary trends such as Fauvism, Cubism and
Expressionism, still very influential in Europe. The later "Group D" of artists led by Abidin Dino, Cemal Tollu, Fikret Mualla,
Fahrünnisa Zeid, Bedri Rahmi Eyüboğlu, Adnan Çoker and Burhan Doğançay introduced some trends that had lasted in the West
for more than three decades.[524] Other important movements in Turkish painting were the "Yeniler Grubu" (The Newcomers
Group) of the late 1930s; the "On'lar Grubu" (Group of Ten) of the 1940s; the "Yeni Dal Grubu" (New Branch Group) of the
1950s; and the "Siyah Kalem Grubu" (Black Pen Group) of the 1960s.[525] Internationally acclaimed Turkish sculptors in the 20th
century include Ali Hadi Bara, Zühtü Müridoğlu, İlhan Koman, Kuzgun Acar and Ali Teoman Germaner.[526]

Carpet (halı) and tapestry (kilim) weaving is a traditional Turkish art form with roots in pre-
Islamic times. During its long history, the art and craft of weaving carpets and tapestries in Turkey
has integrated numerous cultural traditions. Apart from the Turkic design patterns that are
prevalent, traces of Persian and Byzantine patterns can also be detected. There are also similarities
with the patterns used in Armenian, Caucasian and Kurdish carpet designs. The arrival of Islam in
Central Asia and the development of Islamic art also influenced Turkic patterns in the medieval
period. The history of the designs, motifs and ornaments used in Turkish carpets and tapestries
thus reflects the political and ethnic history of the Turks and the cultural diversity of Anatolia.
However, scientific attempts were unsuccessful, as yet, to attribute a particular design to a specific
ethnic, regional, or even nomadic versus village tradition.[527]

The earliest examples of Turkish paper marbling, called ebru in Turkish, are said to be a copy of
the Hâlnâme by the poet Arifî. The text of this manuscript was rendered in a delicate cut paper
découpage calligraphy by Mehmed bin Gazanfer and completed in 1540, and features many İznik tiles and Kütahya tiles
marbled and decorative paper borders. One early master by the pseudonym of Şebek is mentioned were used for the interior
posthumously in the earliest Ottoman text on the art known as the Tertib-i Risâle-i Ebrî, which is decorations in Ottoman
dated based on internal evidence to after 1615. The instructions for several ebru techniques in the architecture. Turquoise
text are accredited to this master. Another famous 18th-century master by the name of Hatip (meaning "Turkish" in French)
Mehmed Efendi (died 1773) is accredited with developing motifs and perhaps early floral and various shades of blue
designs, although evidence from India appears to contradict some of these reports. Despite this, were the most commonly
marbled motifs are commonly referred to as hatip designs in Turkey today.[528] used colors in Ottoman tiles.

Literature and theatre

Turkish literature is a mix of cultural influences. Interaction between the Ottoman Empire and the Islamic world along with Europe
contributed to a blend of Turkic, Islamic and European traditions in modern-day Turkish music and literary arts.[531] Turkish
literature was heavily influenced by Persian and Arabic literature during most of the Ottoman era.

The Tanzimat reforms of the 19th century introduced previously unknown Western genres, primarily the novel and the short story.
Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several genres simultaneously: for instance, the poet Namık Kemal also wrote
the important 1876 novel İntibâh (Awakening), while the journalist Şinasi has written, in 1860, the first modern Turkish play, the
one-act comedy "Şair Evlenmesi" (The Poet's Marriage). Most of the roots of modern Turkish literature were formed between the
years 1896 and 1923. Broadly, there were three primary literary movements during this period: the Edebiyat-ı Cedîde (New
Literature) movement; the Fecr-i Âtî (Dawn of the Future) movement; and the Millî Edebiyat (National Literature) movement.
 The first radical step of innovation in 20th century Turkish poetry was taken by Nâzım Hikmet,
who introduced the free verse style. Another revolution in Turkish poetry came about in 1941 with
the Garip movement led by Orhan Veli, Oktay Rıfat and Melih Cevdet.

The mix of cultural influences in Turkey is dramatized, for

example, in the form of the "new symbols of the clash and
interlacing of cultures" enacted in the novels of Orhan
Pamuk, recipient of the 2006 Nobel Prize in Literature.[532]

The origin of Turkish theater dates back to ancient pagan

rituals and oral legends.[533] The dances, music and songs
performed during the rituals of the inhabitants of Anatolia Nobel-laureate Turkish novelist
Namık Kemal's works had a
millennia ago are the elements from which the first shows Orhan Pamuk and his Turkish
profound influence on
originated. In time, the ancient rituals, myths, legends and Angora cat at his personal writing
Atatürk and other Turkish
stories evolved into theatrical shows. Starting from the space
statesmen who established
the Turkish 11th-century, the traditions of the Seljuk Turks blended
Republic.[529][530] with those of the indigenous peoples of Anatolia and the
interaction between diverse cultures paved the way for new plays.[533][534] Meddah were
storytellers who performed in front of audiences during the Ottoman period.[533] Karagöz and
Hacivat are the lead characters of the traditional Turkish shadow play, popularized during the Ottoman period and then spread to
most ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire.

After the Tanzimat (Reformation) period in the 19th century, characters in Turkish theatre
were modernized and plays were performed on European-style stages, with actors wearing
European costumes. Following the restoration of constitutional monarchy with the Young
Turk Revolution in 1908, theatrical activities increased and social problems began to be
reflected at the theatre as well as in historical plays. A theatrical conservatoire, Darülbedayi-
i Osmani (which became the nucleus of the Istanbul City Theatres) was established in
1914. During the years of chaos and war, the Darülbedayi-i Osmani continued its activities
and attracted the younger generation. Numerous Turkish playwrights emerged in this era;
some of them wrote on romantic subjects, while others were interested in social problems,
and still others dealt with nationalistic themes. The first Turkish musicals were also written Süreyya Opera House is on the
in this period. In time, Turkish women began to appear on stage, which was an important Asian side of Istanbul and Atatürk
development in the late Ottoman society. Until then, female roles had only been played by Cultural Center is the main opera
actresses who were members of Turkey's ethnic minorities. Today there are numerous house on the European side. Zorlu
private theatres in the country, together with those which are subsidized by the government, PSM is the city's largest performing
such as the Turkish State Theatres.[535] arts theater and concert hall.

Music and dance

The roots of traditional music in Turkey span across centuries to a time when the Seljuk
Turks migrated to Anatolia and Persia in the 11th century and contains elements of both
Turkic and pre-Turkic influences. Much of its modern popular music can trace its roots to
the emergence in the early 1930s drive for Westernization.[537]

With the assimilation of immigrants from various regions the diversity of musical genres
and musical instrumentation also expanded. Turkey has also seen documented folk music
and recorded popular music produced in the ethnic styles of Greek, Armenian, Albanian,
Polish and Jewish communities, among others.[538]

Many Turkish cities and towns have vibrant local music scenes which, in turn, support a
number of regional musical styles. Despite this however, western music styles like pop
music and kanto lost popularity to arabesque in the late 1970s and 1980s. It became
popular again by the beginning of the 1990s, as a result of an opening economy and Referred to as Süperstar by the
society. The resurging popularity of pop music gave rise to several international Turkish Turkish media, Ajda Pekkan is a
pop stars such as Ajda Pekkan, Sezen Aksu, Erol Evgin, MFÖ, Tarkan, Sertab Erener, prominent figure of Turkish pop
Teoman, Kenan Doğulu, Levent Yüksel and Hande Yener. Internationally acclaimed music, with a career spanning
Turkish jazz and blues musicians and composers include Ahmet Ertegun (founder and decades and a repertoire of diverse
president of Atlantic Records), Nükhet Ruacan and Kerem Görsev. musical styles.[536]

The Turkish Five is a name used by some authors to identify the five pioneers of Western
classical music in Turkey, namely Ahmed Adnan Saygun, Ulvi Cemal Erkin, Cemal Reşit Rey, Hasan Ferit Alnar and Necil Kazım
Akses.[539] Internationally acclaimed Turkish musicians of Western classical music include pianists İdil Biret, Verda Erman, Gülsin
Onay, the Pekinel sisters (Güher and Süher Pekinel), Ayşegül Sarıca and Fazıl Say;
violinists Ayla Erduran and Suna Kan; opera singers Semiha Berksoy, Leyla Gencer and
Güneş Gürle; and conductors Emre Aracı, Gürer Aykal, Erol Erdinç, Rengim Gökmen and
Hikmet Şimşek.

Turkish folk dance is diverse. Hora is performed in East Thrace; Zeybek in the Aegean
Region, Southern Marmara and East-Central Anatolia Region; Teke in the Western
Mediterranean Region; Kaşık Oyunları and Karşılama in West-Central Anatolia, Western
Barış Manço was a Turkish rock
Black Sea Region, Southern Marmara Region and Eastern Mediterranean Region; Horon
musician and one of the founders of
in the Central and Eastern Black Sea Region; Halay in Eastern Anatolia and the Central the Anatolian rock genre.
Anatolia Region; and Bar and Lezginka in the Northeastern Anatolia Region.[540]

Architecture

The Byzantine era is usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great moved the
Roman capital to Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the fall of the Byzantine
Empire in 1453. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture
throughout Europe and the Near East, and became the primary progenitor of the Renaissance
and Ottoman architectural traditions that followed its collapse.[541] When the Roman Empire
went Christian (as well as eastwards) with Constantinople as its new capital, its architecture
became more sensuous and more ambitious. This new style, which would come to be known
as Byzantine architecture, with increasingly exotic domes and ever-richer mosaics, spread
Blue Mosque (1616) in Istanbul
west to Ravenna and Venice in Italy, and as far north as Moscow in Russia.[542] This
influence can be seen particularly in the Venetian Gothic architecture.

The architecture of the Seljuk Turks combined the elements and characteristics of the Turkic
architecture of Central Asia with those of Persian, Arab, Armenian and Byzantine architecture.
The transition from Seljuk architecture to Ottoman architecture is most visible in Bursa, which
was the capital of the Ottoman State between 1335 and 1413. Following the Ottoman
conquest of Constantinople (Istanbul) in 1453, Ottoman architecture was significantly
influenced by Byzantine architecture. Topkapı Palace in Istanbul is one of the most famous Çırağan Palace (1867) in Istanbul
examples of classical Ottoman architecture and was the primary residence of the Ottoman
Sultans for approximately 400 years.[543] Mimar Sinan (c.1489–1588) was the most important
architect of the classical period in Ottoman architecture. He was the chief architect of at least
374 buildings that were constructed in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire in the 16th
century.[544] Sedefkar Mehmed Ağa, the architect of the Blue Mosque in Istanbul, was an
apprentice of Mimar Sinan, later becoming his first assistant in charge of the office of chief
architect during his absence. Mimar Sinan's works had a significant influence on Sedefkar Grand Post Office (1909) in
Mehmed Ağa. Istanbul

Since the 18th century, Turkish architecture has been increasingly influenced by European
styles, and this can be particularly seen in the Tanzimat era buildings of Istanbul like the
Dolmabahçe, Çırağan, Taksim Military Barracks (demolished), Feriye, Beylerbeyi, Küçüksu,
Ihlamur and Yıldız palaces, which were all designed by members of the Balyan family of
Ottoman Armenian court architects.[545] The Ottoman era waterfront houses (yalı) on the
Bosphorus also reflect the fusion between classical Ottoman and European architectural styles
Şakirin Mosque (2009), the first
during the aforementioned period. Italian architect, Raimondo D'Aronco served as the chief
mosque designed by a woman
palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in Istanbul for 16 years. D'Aronco
designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic
features of his works can be classified in three groups: Revivalism, reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms, Art Nouveau and Vienna
Secession. Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and
Ottoman decorations. D'Aronco also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work, which was likewise a notable characteristic of
the designs of Alexander Vallaury in the same period.

The First National Architectural Movement in the early 20th century sought to create a new architecture, which was based on
motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The leading architects of this movement were Vedat Tek (1873–1942), Mimar
Kemaleddin Bey (1870–1927), Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953).[546] Buildings from this
era are the Grand Post Office in Istanbul (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922),[547] Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–
1926),[548] State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930),[549] Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928),[550] the first Ziraat
Bank headquarters in Ankara (1925–1929),[551] the first Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters in Ankara (1926–1929),[552] and Bebek
Mosque.[553]

Cuisine

Turkish cuisine is largely the heritage of Ottoman cuisine.[556][557] In the early years of the
Republic, a few studies were published about regional Anatolian dishes but cuisine did not
feature heavily in Turkish folkloric studies until the 1980s, when the fledgling tourism
industry encouraged the Turkish state to sponsor two food symposia. The papers submitted at
the symposia presented the history of Turkish cuisine on a "historical continuum" that dated
back to Turkic origins in Central Asia and continued through the Seljuk and Ottoman
periods.[558]
Turkish coffee with Turkish
Many of the papers presented at these first two symposia were unreferenced. Prior to the delight. Turkish coffee is a
symposia, the study of Turkish culinary culture was first popularized by the publication of UNESCO-listed intangible cultural
Süheyl Ünver's Fifty Dishes in Turkish History in 1948. This book was based on recipes heritage of Turks.[554][555]
found in an 18th century Ottoman manuscript. His second book was about the 15th century
palace cuisine during the reign of Sultan Mehmed II. Following the publication of Ünver's
book, subsequent studies were published, including a 1978 study by a historian named
Bahaettin Ögel about the Central Asian origins of Turkish cuisine.[558]

Ottoman cuisine contains elements of Turkish, Byzantine, Balkan, Armenian, Georgian,

Kurdish, Arab and Persian cuisines.[556][557][559] It can be described as a fusion and
Turkish cuisine is largely the
refinement of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern, Central Asian, Balkan and Eastern European
heritage of Ottoman
cuisines.[556][557] The country's position between Europe, Asia and the Mediterranean Sea
cuisine.[556][557]
helped the Turks in gaining complete control of the major trade routes, and an ideal landscape
and climate allowed plants and animals to flourish. Turkish cuisine was well established by
the mid-1400s, which marked the beginning of the classical age during the Ottoman Empire's 623-year history. Yogurt salads;
mezes; fish and seafood; grilled, sauteed or steamed meat varieties; vegetables or stuffed and wrapped vegetables cooked with olive
oil; and drinks like sherbet, ayran and rakı became Turkish staples. The empire, eventually spanning from Austria and Ukraine in
the north to Yemen and Sudan in the south, Algeria and the Maghreb in the west to the Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf in the east,
used its land and water routes to import exotic ingredients from all over the world. By the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman
court housed over 1,400 live-in cooks and passed laws regulating the freshness of food. Since the fall of the empire in World War I
(1914–1918) and the establishment of the Turkish Republic in 1923, foreign food such as French hollandaise sauce and Western
fast food have made their way into the modern Turkish diet.[560]

Sports

The most popular sport in Turkey is association football.[561] Galatasaray won the UEFA Cup and UEFA Super Cup in 2000.[562]
The Turkish national football team won the bronze medal at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and
UEFA Euro 2008.[563]

Other mainstream sports such as basketball and volleyball are also popular.[564] The men's
national basketball team won the silver medal at the 2010 FIBA World Championship and
at EuroBasket 2001, which were both hosted by Turkey; and is one of the most successful
at the Mediterranean Games. Anadolu Efes S.K., the most successful Turkish basketball
club in international competitions, won the 2021–22 EuroLeague, 2020–21 EuroLeague
and the 1995–96 FIBA Korać Cup; were the runners-up of the 2018–19 EuroLeague and
the 1992–93 FIBA Saporta Cup; and finished third at the 1999–2000 EuroLeague and the
2000–01 SuproLeague.[565][566] When the 2019–20 EuroLeague Regular Season was
suspended on 12 March 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Anadolu Efes S.K. ranked Turkey won numerous international
1st in the league table. Another successful Turkish basketball club, Fenerbahçe reached the accolades, including the silver medal
Final of the EuroLeague in three consecutive seasons (2016, 2017 and 2018), becoming at the 2010 FIBA World
the European champions in 2017 and runners-up in 2016 and 2018. Galatasaray won the Championship.
2015–16 Eurocup, and Beşiktaş won the 2011–12 FIBA EuroChallenge.[567] The Final of
the 2013–14 EuroLeague Women basketball championship was played between two
Turkish teams, Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, and won by Galatasaray.[568] Fenerbahçe won the 2022–23 EuroLeague Women,
defeating Çukurova Mersin in another all-Turkish final, having participated in the Final Four nine times to date.[569] The women's
national basketball team won the silver medal at the EuroBasket Women 2011 and the bronze medal at the EuroBasket Women
2013. Like the men's team, the women's basketball team is one of the most successful at the Mediterranean Games.
 The women's national volleyball team won the gold medal at the 2015 European Games,
the silver medal at the 2003 European Championship, the bronze medal at the 2011
European Championship, and the bronze medal at the 2012 FIVB World Grand Prix. They
also won multiple medals over multiple decades at the Mediterranean Games.[571]
Women's volleyball clubs, namely VakıfBank S.K., Fenerbahçe and Eczacıbaşı, have won
numerous European championship titles and medals. Fenerbahçe has won the 2010 FIVB
Women's Club World Championship and the 2012 CEV Women's Champions League.
VakıfBank S.K. has won the FIVB Volleyball Women's Club World Championship four
VakıfBank S.K. has won the FIVB times in 2013, 2017, 2018, 2021; and the CEV Women's Champions League six times in
Volleyball Women's Club World 2011, 2013, 2017, 2018, 2022 and 2023.[570] They won their latest CEV Women's
Championship four times in 2013, Champions League title after winning an all-Turkish final game against another Istanbul-
2017, 2018 and 2021; and the CEV based club, Eczacıbaşı Dynavit, on May 20, 2023.[570]
Women's Champions League six
times in 2011, 2013, 2017, 2018, The traditional national sport of Turkey has been yağlı güreş (oil wrestling) since Ottoman
2022 and 2023.[570] times.[572] Edirne Province has hosted the annual Kırkpınar oil wrestling tournament since
1361, making it the oldest continuously held sporting competition in the world.[573][574] In
the 19th and early 20th centuries, Ottoman Turkish oil wrestling champions such as Koca
Yusuf, Nurullah Hasan and Kızılcıklı Mahmut acquired international fame in Europe and North America by winning world
heavyweight wrestling championship titles. International wrestling styles governed by FILA such as freestyle wrestling and Greco-
Roman wrestling are also popular, with many European, World and Olympic championship titles won by Turkish wrestlers both
individually and as a national team.[575]

Media and cinema

Hundreds of television channels, thousands of local and national radio stations,

several dozen newspapers, a productive and profitable national cinema and a
TRT World is the international news platform of rapid growth of broadband Internet use constitute a vibrant media industry in
the Turkish Radio and Television
Turkey.[577][578] The majority of the TV audiences are shared among public
Corporation.[576] broadcaster TRT and the network-style channels such as Kanal D, Show TV,
ATV and Star TV. The broadcast media have a very high penetration as satellite
dishes and cable systems are widely available.[579] The Radio and Television
Supreme Council (RTÜK) is the government body overseeing the broadcast media.[579][580] By circulation, the most popular
newspapers are Posta, Hürriyet, Sözcü, Sabah and Habertürk.[581]

TRT 2 is the public service channel dedicated to culture and art, and TRT Belgesel is dedicated to documentaries. In the 21st
century some reforms have taken place to improve the cultural rights of ethnic minorities in Turkey, such as the establishment of
TRT Kurdî, TRT Arabi and TRT Avaz by the TRT.

Turkish television dramas are increasingly becoming popular beyond Turkey's borders and are among the country's most vital
exports, both in terms of profit and public relations.[582] After sweeping the Middle East's television market over the past decade,
Turkish shows have aired in more than a dozen South and Central American countries in 2016.[583] Turkey is today the world's
second largest exporter of television series.[584][585]

Yeşilçam is the sobriquet that refers to the Turkish film art and industry. The first movie
exhibited in the Ottoman Empire was the Lumiere Brothers' 1895 film, L'Arrivée d'un train
en gare de La Ciotat, which was shown in Istanbul in 1896. The first Turkish-made film
was a documentary entitled Ayastefanos'taki Rus Abidesinin Yıkılışı (Demolition of the
Russian Monument at San Stefano), directed by Fuat Uzkınay and completed in 1914. The
first narrative film, Sedat Simavi's The Spy, was released in 1917. Turkey's first sound film
was shown in 1931. Turkish directors like Metin Erksan, Nuri Bilge Ceylan, Yılmaz
Güney, Zeki Demirkubuz and Ferzan Özpetek won numerous international awards such as
the Palme d'Or and Golden Bear.[587][588] The closing ceremony of the annual
International Antalya Golden Orange
Despite legal provisions, media freedom in Turkey has steadily deteriorated from 2010 Film Festival takes place at the
onwards, with a precipitous decline following the failed coup attempt on 15 July 2016.[589] virtually intact Roman theater in
As of December 2016, at least 81 journalists were imprisoned in Turkey and more than 100 Aspendos.[586]
news outlets were closed.[292] Freedom House lists Turkey's media as not free.[590] The media crackdowns also extend to Internet
censorship with Wikipedia getting blocked between 29 April 2017 and 15 January 2020.[591][592]

See also
Turkey portal

Index of Turkey-related articles

Outline of Turkey

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Further reading
Mango, Andrew (2004). The Turks Today (https://archive.org/details/turkstoday00andr). Overlook. ISBN 978-1-
58567-615-6.
Pope, Hugh; Pope, Nicole (2004). Turkey Unveiled. Overlook. ISBN 978-1-58567-581-4.
Reed, Fred A. (1999). Anatolia Junction: a Journey into Hidden Turkey. Burnaby, BC: Talonbooks [sic]. 320 p., ill.
with b&w photos. ISBN 0-88922-426-9
Revolinski, Kevin (2006). The Yogurt Man Cometh: Tales of an American Teacher in Turkey. Çitlembik. ISBN 978-
9944-424-01-1.
Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2005). Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years, 600–1600. Royal Academy of Arts.
ISBN 1-903973-56-2.
Laiou, Angeliki E.; Morisson, Cécile (2007). The Byzantine Economy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84978-4..
Pounds, Norman John Greville (1979). An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840 (https://archive.org/detail
s/historicalgeogra0000poun). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22379-9..

External links
General

turkey.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20150522160612/http://turkey.com/) – Topical multilingual website about

Turkey.
Turkey (https://web.archive.org/web/20120609183758/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/turkey.htm)
from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Data on Turkey (https://data.oecd.org/turkey.htm) from OECD
Turkey (https://curlie.org/Regional/Middle_East/Turkey) at Curlie
Geographic data related to Turkey (https://www.openstreetmap.org/relation/174737) at OpenStreetMap

Tourism

Wikimedia Atlas of Turkey

Go Türkiye – Turkey's official tourism portal (https://goturkiye.com/)
Official website of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism (http://www.kultur.gov.tr/)

Government

Official website of the Presidency of the Republic of Turkey (https://tccb.gov.tr/en/)

Official website of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (http://global.tbmm.gov.tr/)

Economy
 Official website of Ministry of the Ministry of Economy (http://www.ekonomi.gov.tr/)

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