Quantum Physics

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QUANTUM PHYSICS

 Interference, diffraction and polarization of light could be explained by wave theory of light.
 Wave theory of light is failed to explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect, absorption and
emission of radiation by substances. But all of this can be explained by quantum theory of
light.
 According to Einstein, the energy of light can be concentrated into small region. This
represents smallest quantity called PHOTON.
 Hence light shows wave nature at one hand and particle nature on other hand.
 In 1924, De-Broglie introduce that electron should have dual nature.

lamda= h/p

lamda is wavelength of electron, h is planck’s constant =6.62*10^-34 joules-sec, and p is


momentum of particles.

MATTER WAVES
De-Broglie proposed the dual nature of matter is based on:

 Matter and light both are form of energy and each of them can be transformed into the
other,
 Both are governed by the space time symmetries of the theory of relativity.
 A moving matter particle is surrounded by a wave whose wavelength depends upon the
mass of the mass of the particle and its velocity. These waves associated with the matter
particles are known as matter wave or De-Broglie waves.

PROPERTIES
Matter waves possesses following properties:

 Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.


 The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
 Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.
 Matter waves are generated only when the material particles are in motion.
 The velocity of matter waves depends upon the velocity of material particle.
 De-Broglie’s wave are not electromagnetic waves.
 The matter waves are generated only when the material particle are in motion.

WAVE FUNCTION(SIE):
According to De-Broglie concept of matter wave, every moving particle of matter is associated with a
wave. Schrodinger introduced a mathematical function represented by SIE which is a variable
quantity associated with the moving particle, and is a complex function of a space, coordinates of
the particle of the time, SIE is called a wave function.

PROPERTIES
 The wave function must be normalize.
 The wave function must be single valued.
 The wave function must be finite everywhere.
 Th wave function must be continuous and should have a continuous first derivative
everywhere.
 Orthogonal and orthonormal functions.
 Degenerate eigen functions.

OPERATORS
Any mathematical operation, differentiation, integration, division, multiplication, addition,
subtraction, etc. can be represented by specific symbol known as operators. In otherwords an
operator O is a mathematical operation which may be applied to a function f(x) which changes the
function to another function g(x). This can be represented as

O f(x) = g(x)

Second quantization, also referred to as occupation number representation, is a formalism used


to describe and analyze quantum many-body systems. In quantum field theory, it is known as
canonical quantization, in which the fields (typically as the wave function of matter) are thought
as field operators, in a manner similar to how physical quantities (position, momentum, etc.) are
thought of as operators in first quantization. The key ideas of this methods were introduced in
1927 by Paul Dirac, and were developed, most notably, by Vladimir Fock and Pascual Jordan
later.

HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE


In 1927 the German physicist Werner Heisenberg provided an interesting addition to
the meaning of the wave particle concept. He started a very important principle, known as the
uncertainty principle. The principle can be started as follows:

It is impossible to determine the exact position and momentum of a particle simultaneously.

Proof of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle :


 Position and momentum uncertainty relation. It is possible to prove the
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle by assuming that a particle in motion can be
taken as a group of waves, the group velocity being equal to the particle
velocity. It is a well established fact that a moving particle must be considered
to be a De-Broglie wave group rather than a localised entity. This means that
there is always a limit to the accuracy with which one can measured its particle
properties.
 When we talk about a database, wee must differentiate between NOte that
declarative DMLs are usually easier to learn and use than are procedural DMLs.
However, since a user does not avoid the thinking of the person in which we
include the therapy in which he decide that a technique linguistic. Since
linguistic technique or devices may be used in order to make the style objective
and factual. These devices include the use of impersonal language, passive
voice, and factual expression.
 Since technical communication is more concerned with ‘what was done’, ‘what
happened’ or ‘what was looked into’, i.e., ‘action’ rather than ‘who did what’
I.e., ‘actor’, one should use impersonal language. The use of Impersonal
language involves the use of impersonal passive and the exclusion of personal
elements and personal pronouns. The impersonal passive is and the exclusion
most important linguistic device used to make technical communication
impersonal, objective, and formal. Impersonal passive may be used to describe
scientific experiments, rules, procedures, and processes.
 Note the use of impersonal passive forms (underlined) in the following
description:
 “Certain solids such as iron are strongly attracted to magnets. Such materials
are called ferromagnetic. Other substances such as oxygen gas and copper
sulfate are weakly attracted to magnets. They are called paramagnetic. Still
other substances, such as sodium chloride, are very feebly repelled by magnets
and are called diamagnetic. Ferromagnetism is exclusively a property of the
solid state, but all three types of magnetic believed to arise from electrons in
atoms”.
 You may use a passive infinitive to change the auxiliary + infinitive combination
into a passive form:
 Generalisation are general statements that cover a wide range of conditions,
situations, events, and times. As they do not refer to a single situation or
condition, but cover a wide range when to use a comment are almost always a
good things. Most programmers don’t

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