Water Treatment Process

Disinfection

Redwan-Ul-Islam
Lecturer
UITS
Conventional Surface Water Treatment
Raw water
Screening Filtration

sludge sludge
Alum
Coagulation Cl2 Disinfection
Polymers

Flocculation Storage

Sedimentation Distribution
sludge
Requirement of Drinking Water?
Completely free of any pathogenic microorganism

 Sedimentation: removed bacterial and other pathogens (99%)

 Filtration: removed bacteria and other pathogens (99.5%)

 Complete removal of all pathogenic microorganisms –can not be achieved ??

 Disinfection
 The removal of Pathogenic micro-organisms from Water (not necessarily removal
of ALL micro-organisms).
Sterilization: Total destruction of all
 Killing of pathogenic microorganisms. microorganisms in water.

Aim: to make water safe (free from pathogenic microorganisms)

 BD, WGO, USEPA guideline: Nil/100 mL of water.

Requirements of a good disinfection are:

 It should be toxic to microorganisms at concentrations well below the toxic threshold

to humans and higher animals
 It should have a first rate of killing
 Should be persistent enough to prevent re-growth of microorganisms in the
distribution systems.
 Residual protection
 Economic
 Mechanisms of Disinfection
 Damage to cell wall
 Alteration of cell permeability
 Alteration of the colloidal nature of protoplasm
 Inhibition of enzyme activity.

Disinfection process is considered as first order kinetics:

𝑑𝑁
= −𝑘𝑁
𝑑𝑡
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
Disinfection Methods
PHYSICAL

 Boiling - Household use, temporary, expensive, emergency measure.

- Kills bacterial, viruses + other microorganisms.

 UV light - effective for bacteria + viruses if Turbidity is low

(a) Simple storage in glass containers - effective but not very practical

(b) Tubular, jacketed, UV lamps

- Need power supply
- Used in operating theatres + isolated communities.

(c) Impounding and storage Reservoirs

 Sunlight
CHEMICAL METHODS

Mostly Oxidising Agents

Large Scale: Chlorination

(Municipal Water Supply) Sodium / Calcium hypochlorite
Chlorine gas
Chlorine dioxide
Ozonation
UV disinfection

Small Scale: Silver

Iodine
Potassium permanganate
Chlorine compounds
 Factors influencing disinfection process

 Nature and number of organisms to be destroyed

 Type and concentration of disinfectant used and the form in which it applied
 Intensity and nature of physical agent
 Temperature of the water to be disinfected; higher the temperature, more rapid is
disinfection.
 Time of contact; the disinfection effect is complete when the disinfectant remains in
water longer.
 pH (acidity/ alkalinity) of water; it controls the forms of disinfectant present in water.
 Mixing of water; good mixing ensures proper dispersal of disinfectants throughout
the water to promote the disinfection process.
 Chemical Disinfection

Cost-effective disinfection in water industry/water treatment.

A good chemical disinfectant possesses the following important characteristics:

 Quick and effective in killing pathogenic micro-organisms present in water

 Rapidly soluble in water in concentrations required for disinfection and capable of

providing a residual for subsequent protection of water

 Not imparting taste, odor, color or turbidity to water

 Not toxic to human and animal life

 Easy to detect and measure in water

 Easy to handle, transport, apply and control

 Readily available at moderate cost.

 Chlorination
 First large-scale chlorination was used in Chlorine is the most widely used water
1908 at the Boonton Reservoir of the Jersey treatment disinfectant because of its many
City Water Works in USA. attractive features:

 Widely used in USA, Bangladesh  It is effective against a wide range of

pathogens commonly found in water,
 Typical dosage (1.0 to 5.0 mg/L)
particularly bacteria and viruses.
 variable, based on the chlorine demand
 It leaves a residual to prevent the re-
 goal of 0.2 mg/L residual
growth of microorganisms in the
 Trihalomethanes (EPA primary standard is
distribution systems.
0.08 mg/L)  It is economical and easily measured and
 Chlorine oxidizes organic matter controlled.
 Chlorination
Following factors affect the chlorination process:

 Chemical form of chlorine (Chlorine gas, bleaching power, NaOCl)

 pH of water

 Concentration of chlorine

 Contact time

 Types of organisms in water

 Suspended solids in water

 Temperature of water.
 Chlorination
 Ca(OCl)2: 70% available chlorine
 NaOCl: 5-15% available chlorine
Ca(OCl)2 Ca+2 + 2OCl- (hypochlorite ion)
NaOCl Na+ + OCl-
If ammonia is present in water, monochloramine, dichloramine and nitrogen trichloride
are formed according to the following reactions:

NH3 + HOCl → NH2Cl + H2O These reactions are depends on:

NH2Cl + HOCl → NHCl2 + H2O pH of water,Temperature
NHCl2 + HOCl → NCI3 + H2O Contact time, Ratio of chlorine and ammonia.

Chlorine present in water in chemical combination with ammonia or other nitrogenous

compounds is known as combined available chlorine.
Low pH NHCl2 and NCl3 become more abundant
High Cl:NH3 ratio

NHCl2 Good disinfectant but nasty to taste in water. NCl3 is particularly offensive.
 Chlorination
 The killing power or power to disinfect is regarded as proportional to the product of

contact period and chlorine concentration in water (CT).

 Free available chlorine is much more effective as a disinfectant than combined

available chlorine.

 Free available chlorine is effective in a concentration of 0.05 mg/L for a contact period

of 10-20 minutes, whereas combined available chlorine requires a concentration upto

1.8 mg/L to be comparatively effective within the same reaction period.

 Presence of free available chlorine is therefore essential for effective disinfection of

water.

Total residual chlorine = sum of free available chlorine + combined available chlorine.
 Chlorination Curve

As chlorine is added, readily oxidizable

substances such as Fe+2, Mn+2, H2S and OM,
react with chlorine and reduce most of it to
chloride ion (upto A)
 Chlorination Curve
 After meeting this immediate demand, the chlorine continue to react with ammonia to form

chloramines between A and B.

 Between B and breakpoint C, some chloramines will be converted to nitrogen trichloride,

the remaining chloramines will be oxidized to nitrous oxide (N2O) and N2 and the chlorine
will be reduced to chloride ion.

 With continuous addition of chlorine, most of the chloramines will be oxidizes at the

breakpoint.
NH2Cl + NHCL2 +HOCl = 4HCl • Continues addition of chlorine past the
4NH2Cl + HOCl = N2 + N2O + 10HCL breakpoint will result in a directly
2NH2Cl + HOCl = N2 + H20 +3HCl proportional increase in the available

NH2Cl +NHCl = N2 + 3HCL chlorine.

 Chlorination
 Chlorine Demand: Amount added - present as residual chlorine (free or combined).

 Pre-chlorination: application of chlorine prior to any other treatment. This is done frequently

for the purpose of controlling algae, taste and odour. Pre-chlorination reduces the bacterial
load on the treatment process and oxidizes organic matter present in raw water.

 Post-chlorination: application of chlorine after other treatment processes, particularly after

filtration. Application of chlorine after all other treatments is the standard practice in
chlorination of water supply.

 Double chlorination: It is the application of chlorine at two points in the treatment process.

Double chlorination is essentially pre-chlorination and post-chlorination applied to the final

effluent from the filters.
 Chlorination
 Super chlorination: Super chlorination is the application of an excess amount of

chlorine to water. The dose may vary from less than 1 to 2 ppm. The method is
effective in destroying high concentrations of taste, odour or organic pollutants in
water. In case of water pollution during floods and cyclones super chlorination is
used to destroy excessive bacterial pollution.

 Break point chlorination: addition of chlorine at the break point. It is also termed

free residual chlorination, as the process involves addition of sufficient chlorine to

oxidize all the organic matter, reducing substances and free ammonia in raw water
leaving behind free available chlorine, which possesses strong disinfecting action
against pathogens. The free residual chlorine also makes the water free from all
bad tastes and odours.
 Problems with chlorination

 pH influences effectiveness

 Not effective against Cryptosporidium and limited effectiveness against Giardia lamblia

protozoa.

 Reactions with natural organic matter (NOM) can result in the formation of undesirable

THMs or DBPs.

 The hazards of handling chlorine gas require special equipment and safety programs.

 If site conditions require high chlorine doses, taste and odor problems may arise.
Chlorination Process
 Ozone
 Widely used in Europe
 O3 is chemically unstable
 Must be produced on site
 More expensive than chlorine (2 - 3 times)
 Typical dosages range from 1.0 to 5.3 mg/L (kg/1000 m3 of water)
 Often followed by chlorination so that the chlorine can provide a residual protective.

Ozone Chemistry
𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂 → 𝐻𝑂3+ + 𝑂𝐻 −
𝐻𝑂3+ + 𝑂𝐻 − → 2𝐻𝑂2
𝑂3 + 𝐻𝑂2 → 𝐻𝑂 + 2𝑂2
𝐻𝑂 + 𝐻𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝑂2
The free redicals formed HO2 and HO have great oxidizing power and are probably the
active form in the disinfection process.
 Ozone
Effective of Ozone
 Extremely reactive oxidant

 Bacterial kill occurs directly through cell wall disintegration

 More effective than chlorine

 Does not produce dissolved solids and is not affected by ammonia ion or pH

 Improvement of odor and taste.

For these reasons, ozonation is considered available alternative to chlorination.

Disadvantages
 No residual remains
 Ozone is chemically unstable, must produce onside and used immediately
 Ozone has low solubility in water, so it must be mixed thoroughly with water to ensure
adequate mixing.
 Cost is about 2-3 times higher than cost of chlorination.
 Ozone
 Ozone normally leaves no measureable residual, it is necessary to use
small amounts of chlorine after ozonation to provide continuous protection
against re-growth of microorganisms in the distribution system.
 Ozone is increasingly being used for disinfecting drinking water supplies in
developed countries.
 The high installation and operation costs and the need for constant power
supply are discouraging for its use in developing countries.
UV Disinfection
 UV Disinfection
 Widely used in bottle water industries and small scale water industry

 Application of UV light of wave length < 300 nm

 Low pressure mercury lamps at 254 nm.

 Water must be free of turbidly and color

 UV does not introduce any chemicals into the water and causes little or no
chemical change in water.
 Therefore, overdosing does not cause any water quality problems.
 It leaves no residual, it can serve only as a primary disinfectant and must
be followed by some form of chemical secondary disinfection, generally
chlorine or chloramine.
 Characteristics of UV Disinfection
 Short contact time of 1 to 10 seconds. Ozone and chlorine require 10-50 minutes for large
reaction tanks.
 UV radiation can be run on a flow-through basis.
 Destroys most viruses and bacteria without chemical additives.
 Leaves no residual disinfection potential in the water so that, for water entering a
distribution system, light chlorination is still needed to provide prolonged disinfection.
 Low overall installation costs. Ozone generators are expensive. Chlorine metering
systems are not especially expensive, but large reaction tanks and safety systems are
high cost items.
 Not influenced by pH or temperature. Chlorination and ozonation work best at lower pH.
Chlorination and ozonation both require longer contact time at lower temperatures.
 No toxic residues, thus formation of THMs or other DBPs is minimal.
 Necessity of having clear water (turbidity free)
 No odor, or taste problems and need no chemical to add.
 Disinfection Byproducts (DBPs)
DBPs include the following, not all of which pose health risks:
 Halogenated organic compounds, such as trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids,
haloketones, and other halogenated compounds that are formed primarily when chlorine
or ozone (in the presence of bromide ion) are used for disinfection.
 Organic oxidation byproducts, such as aldehydes, ketones, assimilable organic carbon
(AOC), and biodegradable organic carbon (BDOC). The latter two DBPs result from
large organic molecules being oxidized to smaller molecules, which are more available
to microbes, plant, and aquatic life as a nutrient source. Oxidized organics are formed
when strong oxidizing agents (ozone, permanganate, chlorine dioxide, or hydroxyl
radical) are used.
 Inorganic compounds, such as chlorate, chlorite, and bromate ions. These are formed
when chlorine dioxide and ozone disinfectants are used.
 Strategies for Controlling Disinfection Byproducts
Once formed, DBPs are difficult to remove from a water supply. Therefore, DBP
control is focused on preventing their formation. Chief control measures for DBPs
are:

 Lowering NOM concentrations in source water by coagulation, settling, filtering,

and oxidation

 Using sorption on granulated activated carbon (GAC) to remove DOC

 Moving the disinfection step later in the treatment train, so that it comes after all

processes that decrease NOM

 Limiting chlorine to providing residual disinfection, following primary disinfection

with ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramines, or ultraviolet radiation

 Protection of source water from bromide ion.

 Disinfectant Monitoring Requirements
 Disinfectant residual of water entering the distribution system be continuously
monitored by water systems serving a population of more than 3,300.

 The residual cannot be less than 0.2 mg/L for more than 4 h during periods when
water is being served to the public.

 Anytime the residual falls below this level, the water system must notify the state.

 Systems serving a population of less than 3,300 may take grab samples on an
ongoing basis in place of continuous monitoring.

 Samples must be collected at least as frequently as given in Table 10.4. The

regulated level for disinfectants and disinfectants byproducts are presented in
Table 10.5.
Example: 1mg of chlorine is added to 1.0L of water. The water was stored in a dark at 10OC and chlorine residual was
measured periodically. The results of the chlorine decay experiment are given below:
Time (hr) 0 1 2 3 5 8 9 12
Con (mg/L) 0.97 0.80 0.69 0.63 0.54 0.45 0.39 0.30
Estimate the first order decay rate k of Chlorine. Assume that the activation energy Ea is 62 kJ/mol, what k at 25OC and the
residual chlorine at the end of the experiment at 25OC?
Acknowledgement
Professor Rezaul Karim
ITN BOOK
Online Sources
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Ve-ks-fU3M
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FiuOy12mK5Q
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AH84LOwnhUU