DESIGN OF ALTERNATIVE POWER SOURCE FOR A SMALL SCALE FARM

BY

PELUOLA JOSEPH OLUSOLA (PD1600027)

OGUNROMBI EMMANUEL KUNLE (PD1600020)

ADEPOJU JOHN ADEWALE (PD1600017)

SADIQ JELILI ADEREMI ( PD1600018)

ADESANYA ADEDAMOLA MIKAHEEL (PD1700016)

A PGD. THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING,

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

LADOKE AKINTOLA UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, P.M.B 4000 OGBOMOSO,

OYO STATE, NIGERIA.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA

(PGD) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

AUGUST,2021
 ATTESTATION

I hereby attest that this research work was carried out in the Department of Civil Engineering,
faculty of engineering and technology, Ladoke Akintola university of Technology Ogbomoso
Nigeria.

------------------------------------- -------------------------------

Head of Department

Dr.(Mrs) O.K. Fagbenro. B. Tech., M.Sc., Ph.D.

Department of Civil Engineering
Ladoke Akintola University Of Technology,

Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria

 DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to God Almighty for his grace and wisdom throughout this
research work.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Certification

Attestation

Dedication

Table of Contents

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Background Information

1.3 Directions of alternative energy sources

1.4 Aim of the Study

1.5 Objectives

1.6 Scope of Work

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Renewable resources

2.2 Renewable energy

2.3 Energy use in agriculture

2.4 Need For Solar Energy Technology In Agriculture

2.4.1 Advantages of the solar energy system

2.4.2 Renewable energy application for sustainable agriculture

2.4.3 Clean energy farming
2.4.4 Greenhouse gas emission mitigation from renewable systems
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 Research Methodology
3.1 Components of a solar power system a small scale farm
3.2 Advantages of Using a Charge Controller
3.3 Working Principle of Solar Panels
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 Proper Planning Prevents Poor Photovoltaic Performance
4.1 Steps in System Sizing Process
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Refrences

CHAPTER ONE
 INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND INFORMATION

As new technological innovations continue to offer new forms of clean and green power, the
ability to live with less using alternative power sources has become a reality. The main goal
of modern energy development all over the world is to make it accessible. Traditional sources
of energy, for many objective and subjective reasons, often can’t achieve this goal. In this
regard, the importance of alternative energy is increasing. Alternative energy is a set of
promising methods to generate energy from renewable sources, which are not as widespread
as traditional but are of interest because of the advantage of using them at low risk of
harming the environment.

Directions of alternative energy sources:

a. Wind power engineering

b. Solar power engineering

c. Alternative hydraulic power engineering

d. Geothermal power engineering

e. Space power engineering

f. Tidal power engineering

g. Hydrogen and hydrosulfuric power engineering

h. Biofuel

i. Distributed power generation.

The recent years were outstanding for the alternative energy sector. A large number of
alternative energy sources have been installed worldwide. Nevertheless, old and new
challenges continue to await an answer. Many challenges have arisen outside the energy
sector. The relevance of our research is that in recent years the energy sector has undergone
several changes, each of which concerned alternative energy to some extent. First, oil prices
have taken a nosedive. Secondly, the energy demand has increased, including demands from
the developing and young world economies. Thirdly, the political situation has negatively
impacted trade with Russia, including the energy sector. Fourthly, several long-term contracts
have been signed around the world for the purchase of alternative energy at record-low
tariffs. Fifthly, the governments of many countries have shown interest in alternative energy
sources and supported innovation in this area. And sixthly, in 2015 in Paris, a global climate
summit took place, which consolidated the world community.

The study is aimed at designing an alternative power source for a small scale farm

To achieve this goal, it is planned to solve several interrelated tasks:

1. To estimate trends in the development of renewable and alternative energy in the world

2. To estimate the energy requirement for a farm building

3. To estimate possibilities and give experience in applying the alternative energy sources in
the farm building.

4. To design a solar energy system to meet the energy requirement for the farm building.

5. Construction of a solar energy system for a farm building.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The priority direction of alternative energy is the search for and use of alternative (non-
traditional) energy sources. The need for mankind in energy is inexhaustible and constantly
increases. At the same time, fossil natural energy sources are finite and the reserves are
reduced every year. Therefore, renewable or “green” energy is of great interest (Foley et al.,
2011). The basic principle of renewable energy is the extraction of energy from sources that,
on a human scale, are inexhaustible (Pittman et al., 2011; Hill et al., 2006). At the same time,
many renewable energy technologies have long been used by man and can be considered
traditional. For example, the use of kinetic energy of water: The production of hydroelectric
power in 2016 reached a value of 1096 GW (Russian Atomic Association, 2017). Also,
energy production by burning biofuel is a traditional and oldest method of obtaining energy
(Skorobogatov, 2017). But in addition to traditional renewable energy, there is also
alternative energy, based on non-traditional production methods. The reason for searching for
alternative energy sources is the need to get it from the energy of renewable or almost
inexhaustible natural resources and phenomena. Environmental friendliness and economy can
also be considered (Reay, 2011; Sims, 2004). Solar and wind power engineering have got the
largest development. Almost none of the researchers doubts the need to develop these
alternative energies (Hill et al., 2006; Northrop and Connor, 2016). The analysis of literary
sources has shown that the use of different types of alternative energy largely depends on the
following factors:

•Natural-climatic regional conditions (Shibu and Thallada,2015),

•Demands of industry and population for energy (Epstein,2014),

•Technical possibilities (Fargione et al., 2008),

•Governmental support (Reay, 2011).

Renewable resources

A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural processes

at a rate comparable with or faster than its rate of consumption by humans. Solar radiation,
tides, winds, and hydroelectricity are perpetual resources that are in no danger of long-term
availability. Some natural renewable resources such as geothermal power, fresh water,
timber, and biomass must be carefully managed to avoid exceeding the environment’s
capacity to replenish them. A life cycle assessment provides a systematic means of evaluating
renewability. The term has a connotation of sustainability of the natural environment.
Gasoline, coal, natural gas, diesel, and other commodities derived from fossil fuels are non-
renewable. Unlike fossil fuels, a renewable resource can have a sustainable yield.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy technologies consume primary energy resources that are not subject to
depletion. Examples of renewable technologies include solar energy, wind energy,
geothermal energy, and biomass. Given this definition and the fact that water supplies are
replenished in the annual hydrologic cycle, hydropower is considered part of the mix of
renewable technologies (Frey and Linke, 2002). Solar energy is the energy derived directly
from the Sun. Along with nuclear energy, it is the most abundant source of energy on Earth.
The fastest-growing type of alternative energy, increasing at 50 percent a year, is the
photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into electricity. The Sun delivers yearly
more than 10 000 times the energy that humans currently use. Sustainable energy is energy
that, in its production or consumption, has minimal negative impacts on human health and the
healthy functioning of vital ecological systems, including the global environment. It is an
accepted fact that renewable energy is a sustainable form of energy, which has attracted
more attention during recent years. A great amount of renewable energy potential and
environmental interest, as well as economic consideration of fossil fuel consumption and high
emphasis on sustainable development for the future, will be needed. Nearly a fifth of all
global power is generated by renewable energy sources, according to a book published
by the IEA (2003). The power generation from renewables, their status, and prospects claim
that they are the second-largest power source after coal (39%) and ahead of nuclear(17%),
natural gas (17%), and oil (8%) (Omer, 2008). From1973 to –2000 renewables grew at 9.3%
a year, and it is predicted that this will increase 10.4% a year to 2010 (Omer,2008). Wind
power grew fastest at 52% and will multiply by seven times to 2010, overtaking biopower
(Omer, 2008). The reduction in greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved by the production
of environmentally-friendly power generation technologies (e.g. wind, solar, fuel cells, etc.).
The challenge is to match leadership in greenhouse gas reduction and production
of power from renewable energy resources by developing a major research and
manufacturing capacity of environmentally-friendly technologies (Omer, 2008). More than
50% of the world’s area is classified as arid, representing the rural and desert parts, which
lack electricity and water networks. The inhabitants of such areas obtain water from borehole
wells utilizing water pumps, which are driven by diesel engines. Diesel motors are associated
with maintenance problems, high running costs, and environmental pollution. Alternative
methods are pumping by PV or wind systems. Renewable sources of energy are regional and
site-specific. It has to be integrated into the regional development
plans (Omer, 2008). Wind power is derived from uneven heating of the Earth’s surface from
the Sun and the warm core. Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity
by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current utilizing an electrical
generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical
machinery to do physical work, such as crushing grain or pumping water. Hydropower is
energy derived from the movement of water in rivers and oceans (or other energy
differentials), and can likewise be used to generate electricity using turbines, or can be used
mechanically to do useful work. It is a very common resource. Geothermal power directly
harnesses the natural flow of heat from the ground. The available energy from the natural
decay of radioactive elements in the Earth’s crust, and mantle is approximately
equal to that of incoming solar energy, especially during the day. Alcohol derived from corn,
sugar cane, switchgrass, etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Similarly, oils from plants
and seeds can be used as a substitute for non-renewable diesel. Methane is also considered a
renewable source of energy.

Energy use in agriculture

The various sources of energy, e.g. solar, wind, hydraulic, biomass, organic wastes, biofuels,
and combined heat and power provide a simple, sustainable, effective solution for the Solar
energy can be utilized in its varied forms, e.g. solar PV, direct solar thermal, and renewable
fuels and wind can offer the solution to the world’s energy problems and ultimately make the
environment sustainable for future generations by reducing environmental pollution from
fossil fuel energy usage. Table I shows the sources of renewable energy in agricultural farms.
Solar radiation arriving on earth is the most fundamental renewable energy source in nature.
It powers the biosystem, the ocean, and atmospheric current system and affects the global
climate (Omer, 2008). Reliable radiation information is needed to provide input data in
modeling solar energy devices and a good database is required in the work of energy
planners, engineers, and agricultural scientists (Omer, 2008). Energy in agriculture is
important in terms of crop production and agro-processing for adding value. Human, animal,
and mechanical energy are extensively used for crop production in agriculture. Energy
requirements in agriculture are divided into two groups, being direct and indirect. Direct
energy is required to perform various tasks related to crop production processes
such as land preparation, irrigation, intercultural, threshing, harvesting, and transportation of
agricultural inputs and Energy use in agriculture farm produce. It is seen that direct energy is
directly used on farms and fields. Indirect energy, on the other hand, consists The various
sources of energy, e.g. solar, wind, hydraulic, of the energy used in the manufacture, packing,
and transport of biomass, organic wastes, biofuels, and combined heat and fertilizers,
pesticides, seeds and farm machinery (Tab. II). As power provides a simple, sustainable,
effective solution for the name implies, indirect energy is not directly used on the farm.
Calculating energy inputs in agricultural production is more difficult in comparison with the
industry sector due to the high number of factors affecting agricultural production. However,
a considerable number of studies have been conducted in different countries on energy use in
agriculture (Omer, 2008; Yaldiz et al., 1993; Baruah, 1995; Thakur and Mistra, 1993).

Need For Solar Energy Technology In Agriculture

It is common to use kerosene, diesel, or propane to power generators in agricultural

operations. While these systems can provide power where needed, there are some significant
drawbacks, including:

•fuel has to be transported to the generator’s location, which may be quite a distance over
some challenging roads and landscape;

•their noise and fumes can disturb livestock;

•fuel costs add up, and spills can contaminate the land;

•generators require a significant amount of maintenance and, like all mechanical systems,
they break down and need replacement parts that are not always available.

Advantages of the solar energy system

Renewable energies represent a cornerstone to steer our energy system in the direction of
sustainability and supply security. Generating electricity, heat, or biofuels from renewable
energy sources has become a high priority in the energy policy strategies at a national level as
well as on a global scale. Challenging goals for these “new” supply options to meet our
energy demands have been set, e.g. at the European level by the commitment of meeting 20%
of the overall energy demand from renewable energy sources by 2020. Solar energy is one of
the renewable energy resources widely used in the agriculture sector for various applications
(Gustav et al., 2008). For many agriculture needs, the alternative is solar energy. Modern,
well-designed, simple-to-maintain solar systems can provide the energy that is needed at the
given location and for the given period. These are systems that have been tested and proven
around the world to be cost-effective and reliable, and they are already raising levels of
agricultural productivity worldwide (Gustav et al., 2008).

In general, there are two types of solar systems – those that convert solar energy into direct
current power and those that convert solar energy into heat. Both types have many
applications in agricultural settings, making life easier and helping to increase the operation’s
productivity (Gustav et al., 2008). The advantages of solar energy applications are as follows:

•no fuel, low running costs;

•modular nature;

•long life;

•reliability;

•low maintenance;

•clean energy avoids greenhouse gas emissions.

Photovoltaic for electricity generation

Solar cells convert sunlight into direct current electricity using the photovoltaic effect. The
solar cells in a photovoltaic module are made from semiconductor materials. When light
energy strikes the cell, electrons are knocked loose from the material’s atoms. Electrical
conductors attached to the positive and negative sides of the material allow the electrons to be
captured in the form of a direct current. This electricity can then be used to power a load,
such as a water pump, or it can be stored in a battery. It is a simple fact that photovoltaic
modules produce electricity only when the sun is shining, so some form of energy storage is
necessary to operate systems at night. One can store the energy as water by pumping it into a
tank while the sun is shining and distributing it by gravity when it is needed after dark. For
electrical applications at night, one will need a battery to store the energy generated during
the day. Photovoltaic is a well-established, proven technology with a substantial international
industry network. The photovoltaic systems are increasingly more cost-effective compared
with either extending the electrical grid or using diesel generators in remote locations. The
cost per peak watt of today’s photovoltaic power is about $1 to $5 per peak wattage of the
photovoltaic system (WP).

Photovoltaic systems are very economical in providing electricity in remote locations on

farms, ranches, orchards, and other agricultural operations. PV systems can be much cheaper
than installing power lines and step-down transformers in applications such as electric
fencing, area or building lighting, and water pumping either for livestock watering or crop
irrigation. Water pumping is one of the simplest and most appropriate uses for photovoltaic.
From crop irrigation to stock watering to domestic uses, photo voltaic-powered pumping
systems meet a broad range of water needs. Most of these systems have the added advantage
of storing water for use when the sun is not shining, eliminating the need for batteries,
enhancing simplicity, and reducing overall system costs.

Renewable energy application for sustainable agriculture

Energy is one of the major parameters for establishing the growth and progress of a country,
rather than the standard of living, which depends directly upon the per capita energy
consumption. An analysis of the distribution of the major energy forms in rural India reveals
that out of 11.42 × 1012 kcal, the share of non-commercial energy is 65%, human and animal
energy 15%, and commercial energy 20%: thus, 80% of rural energy is met from renewable
sources. Most of the energy on the Earth is received from the Sun. Solar energy creates a
circulation of wind and ocean water and causes water evaporation and consequent
precipitation. Plants use solar energy for photosynthesis and store carbohydrates, protein,
fats, oils, alcohols, cellulose, and lignin. Humans and animals consume plant materials as
primary food to utilize their digestive energy. Plant and animal remains are converted into
coal and
petroleum products over millions of years, which provide the main energy sources for
modern life.
Clean energy farming
Across the world, as energy prices climb, farmers and ranchers are turning more and more to
clean energy practices.
From energy-saving light bulbs to solar panels to fuel grown and processed on the farm,
farmers are making their operations more profitable, efficient, and cleaner. In the process,
they are helping the nation. Generating renewable energy and using
fossil fuels more efficiently reduces dependence on foreign oil, providing greater local and
national energy security. It also curbs global warming pollution and offers new economic
opportunities for communities. In short, clean energy practices are quickly becoming core to
the operations of farmers and ranchers across the world, and especially in America (SARE,
2006).
Clean energy farming explores this emerging trend in agriculture and explains to farmers the
following key points:
• improve energy efficiency while saving money;
• implement farming practices that both save energy and protect natural resources;
• produce and use renewable energy.
For example, Busto’s solar-heated greenhouse can eliminate most fossil fuel costs. Energy
audits, such as those recently performed on 25 farms on Maryland’s Eastern Shore, revealed
potential total savings of almost $115 000 annually for the participating
farmers (SARE, 2006).
While energy efficiency measures are generally the fastest and cheapest way to reduce
energy-related costs, many farmers are now turning to their land and operations to generate
renewable energy.
Greenhouse gas emission mitigation from renewable systems
The typical values of CO2 emission reduction from renewable energy systems are given by
Tsoutsos et al. (2008) as follows:
(i) Wind energy (Tsoutsos et al., 2008)
• The average value of annual reduction of CO2 emissions from wind energy systems is 600
tons of CO2/GW h.
• For the wind generators, the average value of hours of operation per year (in the productive
phase) lies between 6000 and 7000 h/year. This value coincides to a good degree with data
applicable to the Greek mainland and islands (Papathanasiou and Boulaxis,2006).
• Applying the previous indicators to the installed power of 360.30 MW, from the contracted
investments in the wind systems, by mid-2005, the annual reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions is 1405.2 kilotons CO2. The respective figure for the end of 2005 is 480 MW, but
this is an unofficial one (Papadopouloset al., 2008). In any case, the respective CO2 figure
would increase linearly.
• Of interest is also the value of the indicator “turn-key cost of the investment”, which varies
between 770 and 1000 h/kW, being in line with most similar investments in Southern Europe.
(ii) Small hydroelectric plants (Tsoutsos et al., 2008)
• The average value of annual reduction of CO2 emissions due to small hydroelectric projects
is 3200 tons of CO2/MW.
• Applying the previous indicator to the installed power of 45 MW, from the contracted
investments in small hydroelectric projects, the annual reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
is some 144 kilotons CO2.
• Examining the value of the indicator “turn-key cost of the investment” one can notice that
this varies between 600 and 2000 h/kW for installations rated between 1 and 10 MW,
between 1300 and 4500 h/kW for smaller installations rated between 0.5 and 1.0 MW, and
between 1500 and 6000 h/kW for small installations of less than 0.5 MW.
(iii) Solar thermal systems (Tsoutsos et al., 2008)
• The average value of annual reduction CO2 emissions from Solar Thermal Systems is
840kg of CO2/m2, whereby the reference area is the surface of the collector.
• Applying this indicator to the installed collectors’ surface of 7510 m2, from the contracted
investments, results in an annual greenhouse gas emission reduction of 6.3 kilotons CO2. It
has to be noted that this figure refers to centralized systems only.
• The value of the indicator “turn-key cost of the investment” varies between 300 and 500
h/m2.(iv) Photovoltaics (Tsoutsos et al., 2008)
• The average value of annual reduction of CO2 emissions due to photovoltaic systems is 0.6
kg of CO2/kW h.
• The average annual value of energy production from photovoltaic systems for countries in
Southern Europe varies between 1000 and 1400 kW h/kWp.
• Applying this indicator in the installed power of 1869 kWp from the contracted investments
in photovoltaic systems until now results in an annual reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
of 1.6 kilotons CO2.
• The value of the indicator “turn-key cost of the investment” varies between 4.30 and 9.50
h/WP.
Concerning photovoltaics, it has to be noted that the legislation valid until April 2005
foresees a very low buyback rate, of some 0.078 h/kW h. This is the main
reason for the almost negligible interest in photovoltaic.
The new law regulating the buy-back rates for renewable energy technology is expected to
raise this figure to 0.45 h/kW h, providing, after all, a reasonable rate
(Tsoutsos et al., 2008).
(v) Passive solar systems/passive solar buildings for storage of agricultural products
The greenhouse gas emission reductions from passive building concepts are reported in the
literature. The use of the Trombe wall for heating a honey storage building in a farmhouse
was reported by Chel et al. (2008). Similarly, the energy conservation and greenhouse gas
emission mitigation from the earth to the air heat exchanger for heating/cooling of a building
is reported by Chel and Tiwari (2009). The energy-saving potential of passive building in
India and its embodied energy analysis was reported by Chel and Tiwari (2009b).
 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR POWER SYSTEM FOR A SMALL SCALE FARM
PV Panel
Photovoltaics (PV) or solar cells are the building blocks of solar panels. They are made of
semiconductor materials as described in Unit 2. They convert sunlight into direct current
(DC) electricity. In practice, a typical silicon PV cell produces a voltage of 0.5 – 0.6 DC
under open-circuit, no-load conditions. The current (and power) output of a PV cell depends
on its efficiency and size (surface area) and is proportional to the intensity of sunlight striking
the surface of the cell. For example, under peak sunlight conditions a typical commercial PV
cell with a surface area of 160cm􀈼 will produce about 2 watts of peak power. Groups of PV
cells are electrically configured into modules/panels which can be connected into arrays to
achieve desired power and voltage outputs. Photovoltaic modules consist of PV cell circuits
sealed in an environmentally protective laminate, while panels include one or more PV
modules assembled as a pre-wired, field-installable unit. A photovoltaic array is the complete
power-generating unit, consisting of any number of PV modules and panels. In practice, each
solar panel has a distinct rated power output which is determined by the voltage and current
that the solar panel can produce. In general, solar panels produce either 12 or 24 volts. The
amount of current that the solar panel produces determines the amount of power produced by
the solar panel.

Charge Controller / Charge Regulator

The solar charge regulator/ charge controller is a voltage and/or current regulator
which is connected between the solar panel and the battery and load. Its main function is
to manage the charge and discharge of the battery and keep the battery pack in good
condition.
The charge controller regulates the voltage and current flowing from the solar panel(s) to
the battery since most solar panels can produce more than the rated voltage
(for example, a solar panel rated 12 volts can produce up to 20 volts).
Without the regulation, the battery will be damaged due to overcharging. This is so because
The maximum voltage for most batteries is between 14 and 15 volts.
The figure below shows a typical solar charge controller. However, they come in various
forms and designs depending on the application and manufacturer. They vary in terms of
their working voltage or system voltage and the current that they are supposed to handle
during operation.
Advantages of Using a Charge Controller
• It monitors the battery voltage, stops charge when the battery is fully charged
• Extends battery life
• Regulates power from the solar panels, protecting the battery from overcharging
• The charge controller ALSO protects our gadgets
Disadvantages of NOT Using a Charge Controller
• Damage of batteries since there is no regulation of power
• Damage of Electrical gadgets
• Damage of the solar panel due to reverse flow of voltage

Solar Batteries
Solar batteries are available in various forms and designs depending on the use and also on
the manufacturer. A solar battery must be able to withstand constant and frequent
charging whilst it delivers the required power/voltage output. A solar battery is not expected
to fail in a short space of time (when it is properly used).
The primary functions of a storage battery in a PV system are:
1. Energy Storage Capacity and Autonomy: to store electrical energy when it is
produced by the PV array and to supply energy to electrical loads as needed by the
system or on-demand.
2. Voltage and Current Stabilization: to supply power to electrical loads at a stable
voltages and currents, by suppressing or 'smoothing out' transients that may occur
in PV systems.
3. Supply Surge Currents: to supply surge or high peak operating currents to
electrical loads or appliances.
Types of Solar Batteries
Solar systems require the use of deep cycle batteries. These differ from standard car batteries
in that deep cycle, batteries have been developed for frequent discharge and slow recharge.
Car batteries are therefore not suitable for use in solar systems.
Deep cycle batteries are either wet/flooded or sealed. There are three types of batteries
within these categories suitable for use in solar systems:
Flooded Type
• This is a lead acid-type battery.
• While these are good batteries, this type needs to be stored outside of your home or in an
area with lots of air as they emit
gas and can be dangerous in your home if not handled carefully.
• This type of battery is economical and will last for years if
maintained properly.
• The most popular brands of this type of battery are Trojan,
Surrette and Deka.
• Make sure to ventilate this type of battery if in an enclosure.
Gel Type
• This type of battery does not have vents and will not emit gas so it is safe to use indoors.
• Being able to use it where the temperature is at a constant is a plus because it helps the
battery to perform better and last longer.
• Although this is a good battery for solar applications, it takes a low charge to recharge
which may cost you more.
Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) Type
• This type of battery has a woven glass mat in between cells to help sustain charging longer.
• This type is considered by most solar users to be the best as it holds charges for longer and
the battery lasts longer.
• They are leak-proof, spill-proof, and do not emit gas, making them the safest and most easy
to maintain.
• Even though this type is more expensive it is worth it.
• These types of batteries are used in airplanes, hospitals, and remote communication centers.
• The most sought after brand of this type are the Sun
Xtender and the Concorde.
Inverter
This is a device that converts DC electricity into AC electricity, allowing the PV system to be
used for appliances that require AC current. Inverters come in various forms and designs,
there are however 3 basic types of inverters which are:
1. Square wave
2. Modified (quasi) square wave
3. Sine wave
Each of these inverters has a specific purpose where it can be used.
Working Principle of Solar Panels
In the previous discussion, it has been established that there is an abundance of solar energy
available to be harvested. A brief discussion of what PV cells is also being covered. We must
understand how these cells generate electricity so that we can design systems that can be in
tandem with these basic concepts. The following discussion will explain how the cells
generate electricity.
Principle: Sun is a powerhouse of energy and this energy moves around in the form of
electromagnetic radiations. These radiations are of several types such as light, radio waves,
etc. depending upon the wavelength of the radiations emitted. A very less percentage of the
sun’s radiations reach the earth’s atmosphere in the form of visible light. Solar cells use this
visible light to make electrons. Different wavelength of light is used by different solar cells.
Solar cells are made up of semiconductor materials, such as silicon, which is used to produce
electricity. The electricity is conducted as a stream of tiny particles called electrons and the
stream is called electric current. Two main types of electric currents are; DC (direct current)
in which the flow of current is in the same direction while in AC (Alternating current) it may
reverse the direction of the current. A typical solar cell has two layers of silicon, which is n-
type at the top and p-type at the bottom. When sunlight strikes the solar cell, the electrons are
absorbed by silicon, they flow between n and p-layers to produce electric current and the
current leaves the cell through the metal contact. The electricity generated is of AC type.
Types of PV Systems
With the growing demand for PV systems, the utilities provided an option for the consumers
to connect their systems to the grid. This step introduced a new term called “Net Metering.”
Net metering allows the consumers to send back the electricity they generate from their PV
systems to the grid. This is possible because of the grid-tied connection enabled by the utility.
Similarly, we also have systems that are independent and do not require themselves to be
connected to the grid such systems are called off-grid systems or standalone systems. Both
the systems have been explained in detail below:
Standalone or Off-Grid Systems
The off-grid system term states the system not relating to the gird facility. Primarily, the
system which is not connected to the main electrical grid is term an off-grid PV system
(Weis, 2013). Off-grid systems also called standalone systems or mini-grids which can
generate the power and run the appliances by themselves. Off-grid systems are suitable for
the electrification of small communities. An off-grid electrification system is viable for the
remote areas in the countries where they do have little or no access to electricity because of
the distinct living and spread population in the vast area. The off-grid system refers to the
support that would be adequate for a living without depending on the grid or other systems.
Electrical energy in the off-grid system produced through the Solar photovoltaic panels needs
to be stored or saved because the requirement from the load can be different from the solar
panel output, battery bank is also used for the purpose generally.
This project is considering the viability of having an off-grid PV system that can be used to
power a small-scale farm. This concept can also be utilized on a larger scale to support all
types of homes which are in remote areas and where the cost of connecting cables and other
infrastructure of electricity to the house is expensive.

Integrated or Grid-Tied System

A grid-connected photovoltaic power system is an electricity-generating system that is linked
to the utility grid (energy.gov, n.d.). This photovoltaic system contains a solar panel, inverter,
and equipment to provide a connection to the grid. Grid-connected systems are feasible for
various setups such as residential. Commercial and larger-scale grid-tied systems are different
from off-grid solar power systems. Usually, the grid-connected system does not need battery
backup, because when the system generates energy more than the load it will automatically
transfer to the linked utility grid. In the residential setups grid-connected rooftop systems
usually having the capability of 10 kilowatts which could be enough to meet the house
requirements, and the excess would feed the grid which can be used by other consumers
connected to the grid. The feedback or excess power transfer system works through a meter
to track the transferred power. In some instances, PV system wattage could be less than the
normal consumption due to several different factors and in this scenario, a consumer will
utilize the grid energy.
Methodology of Designing an Off-Grid PV System
Site assessment
In the introduction of solar photovoltaic (PV) clusters for private, commercial, or agricultural
operations; a crucial idea is to determine the merits of the site (Franklin, 2017). Identifying
the place and position of the panels is a crucial step in designing a PV system as the later
components will be streamlined to this step. A few concepts and tips one must keep in mind
while performing the site assessment are:
1. Shade Analysis: Shading can be a problem for solar panels as they decrease the maximum
power that can be generated. Several factors contribute to this issue, the most common cause
of shade on a solar panel are; 1) Shade from neighboring trees and buildings in the vicinity,
2) typical cloudy weather, and 3) shade from adjacent solar panels (Solar Choice, 2016).
While designing a solar PV system one must investigate these factors thoroughly so that
maximum output can be obtained. One of the tools most commonly used is the solar
pathfinder which gives the direction of the sun throughout the year and how much any
specific area will receive sunlight throughout the year (Solar Pathfinder, n.d.). Apart from
having this tool, the site assessment must be done properly to locate the best site keeping in
mind all the aspects.
2. Sun hours: Sun hours are important to know how much radiance will be required to
generate the needed output wattage. This parameter gives us the knowledge of the number of
hours an area will receive maximum sunlight (Franklin, 2017). With advances in technology,
we have this data available online and anyone can use it. We have studied the data from
NREL and NASA but for our project, we will be using data given by
NREL as it is giving information of the Sun hours to closer proximity to Charleston. The
following chart gives the required information of the Sun hours depending on different zones
classified by NREL.
3. Tilt angle: Tilt angle is the setting of the panels one needs to have to get the maximum
radiance. Ideally, the tilt angle is the latitude of the geographic location. It is suggested to
have adjustable panel frames as the sun hours keep changing concerning the tilt in winters
and summers. Hence for any area, a specific tilt angle is calculated to get the maximum
radiance throughout the year for a fixed panel. Also, it is advised to have the panels facing
the south to get the maximum afternoon sun. A couple of devices are used in the process of
finding the tilt angle and the radiance that will fall upon the panel at that tilt angle are the
inclinometer and pyranometer, respectively.
An inclinometer is kept on the panel and the degrees are read to find the latitude of the area
as it is perpendicular to the Sun’s radiations when it is at its highest point in the sky.
Pyranometer measures the solar irradiance that will fall at a given tilt angle. It measures solar
irradiance in Watts per meter Sq. (W/m^2) (Franklin, 2017).
Methods Of Connecting Solar Panels and Batteries
How you wire your panels impacts the performance of your system, and determines the
choice of inverter and charge controller.

First, let's remember that: W = V x A.

The important difference between wiring panels in series or parallel is that it affects the
voltage and amperage of the resultant circuit. In a series circuit, you sum the voltage of each
panel to get the overall voltage of the array. However, the amperage of the overall circuit
stays the same. With panels connected in parallel, the voltage of the overall circuit stays the
same as the voltage for each panel but the amperage of the overall circuit is the sum of the
amperage of each solar panel.

Series

When you connect your solar panels/batteries in a series, you are wiring each panel to the
next. This creates a string circuit. The wire running from the panel's negative terminal is
connected to the next panel's positive terminal and so forth down the line for one path of
current for a continuous, closed-loop.

In a series circuit, you sum the voltage of each panel to get the overall voltage of the array.
However, the amperage of the overall circuit stays the same.

Parallel

Instead of connecting each panel/battery to the next, with a parallel connection, each panel is
connected to a centralized wire. There is one wire for connecting the wires from all the
positive terminals and one wire for the wires from the negative terminals. With panels/
batteries connected in parallel, the voltage of the overall circuit stays the same as the voltage
for each panel but the amperage of the overall circuit is the sum of the amperage of each solar
panel.
The solar cell, module,
Array.

Charge Controller / Regulator

 Pure SineWave
Inverter

AGM BATTERY GEL BATTEY

GEL BATTEY
Stand-Alone Solar PV System

Integrated or Grid-Tied System

Series connection of solar panels

Parallel connection of solar panels

Series connection of Batteries

 Parallel connection of Batteries

CHAPTER FOUR
STEPS IN DESIGNING A SOLAR-POWERED SYSTEM FOR A SMALL SCALE
FARM
Proper Planning Prevents Poor Photovoltaic Performance
This is the six P’s principle of PV system design.
Sizing a stand-alone system is not particularly complex. This Unit outlines the design process
that must be completed before the purchase and installation of any PV system components.
The process includes the following steps:

1. Estimating electric loads

2. Sizing and specifying PV modules

3. Sizing and specifying batteries

4. Specifying a charge controller

5. Sizing and specifying an inverter

6. Sizing system wiring

This method is not biassed toward any product but will result in generic product
specifications for the system. Each step is described in the following sections based on the
following design situation.

Steps in System Sizing Process

Step 1: Load Assessment

The PV System is designed to operate the loads as given in the table below.
Nine hours of operation per day have been assumed for the color TV, Multichoice decoder,
fluorescent lamps, phones, laptops, refrigerator, pumping machine, and fans.
 Table 4: Load Assessment

LOADS QUANTITY WATTS HRS/DAY WATTS- HOURS

PERDAY
TV 2 600 9 5400
BULBS 70 1050 5 5400
FANS 8 600 9 5400
REFRIGIRATOR 1 600 9 5400
DECORDER 1 35 9 315
PUMPING 1 745.7 2 1491.4
MACHINE
LAPTOPS 2 150 2 300
PHONES 10 180 2 360
TOTAL 3960.7 24006.4

Step 2. Determine the available Sunlight Hours:

Determine the hours per day of available sunlight at the site.
Total available sunlight: 7.18 hrs/day

Note that for Nigeria the average available sunshine hours used are 7.18 hours.

Step 3: Determine the PV array size (Solar Panel size):

Determine the PV array size needed. Divide the energy needed (Step 1) by the number of
available sun hours per day (Step 2). PV array means two or more solar panels.
Total array size required: 3343.5Watts

24006.4 / 7.18 = 3343.5watts

Numbers of panels = 3343.5watts / PV Size

Numbers of panels = 3343.5watts / 300watts =11.15

Provide 11 pieces of 300watts monocrystalline PV

Step 4: Determine the size of the battery bank:

Determine the size of the battery bank.
Multiply the load (Step 1) by 3 (result is watt-hours, Wh). The 1is
the number of days without sunshine.
Then divide by the battery voltage (for example, 12 volts) to get the amp-hour (Ah) rating
of the battery bank.
Load = 24006.4wh / 12v = 2000Ah
Numbers of panels = 2000Ah / Battery amps

Numbers of panels = 2000Ah / 200Ah = 10

Provide 10 pieces of 200Ah AGM Battery

Step 5: Determine the size of the solar charge controller: Solar charge controller rating is
given by the total short circuit current of the PV array (solar panel). The short circuit current
is indicated at the back of the solar panel. Where two or more panels are used, the short
circuit current rating of each will be added together to determine the size of the solar charge
controller.

Step 6: Determine the size of the Inverter to be used:

The input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The
inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery. The inverter size should be
30% bigger than the total Watts of appliances.
The size of the inverter will be given by 3960.7watts x 1.3 = 5148.91watts
5148.91watts /1000 =5.15kva
Provide 5.5kva Inverter
Step 6: Wire Sizing

The wiring is what carries the electricity from the panels through the charge controller to the
batteries and from the batteries through the charge controller out to the loads. Two main
considerations are the wire size and the terminations to avoid too much resistance to the flow
of electricity.

A properly designed wiring system should have a voltage drop of not more than 5%,
and, therefore, on a 12V system, voltage loss should not be more than 0.6V.

The wire-sizing chart below should be used to select the correct wire cross-section for a
given current and length of wire. The voltage loss values given in the table are for 100m
length of wire at a given current. The table can be used for lengths of wire that are less than
100m by first dividing the selected length by 100 and multiplying by the corresponding
voltage drop given in the table to get the correct voltage drop. The wire cross-section that
gives a voltage drop of less than 0.6V will be the most appropriate.
Wire Sizing
Whenever current passes through a wire, voltage is lost as a result of the resistance in the
copper wire(s). In low voltage systems like the 12 Volt system, voltage loss is of significant
importance. For example, losing 2 volts on a 240V system only represents less than 1% of the
voltage lost to resistance, but losing 2 volts on a 12V system represents almost 17% which is
quite significant. The amount of voltage that is lost for given wire size and current flow is
based on how much wire there is, or the length of the wire.

A wire sizing chart is used to determine the wire size for a solar system.

It must be noted that voltage losses in the table are theoretical, calculated using Ohm’s
Law. As such the state of wires must be considered.

CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUSION
The management of energy consumption in agriculture is a worldwide concern because of the
adverse effects of CO2 emissions from fossil fuels, which are generally used as an energy
source for various applications in agriculture such as water heating, irrigation, etc. Renewable
energy technologies are promoted in many parts of the world for various agriculture
applications for mitigating CO2 emissions associated with fossil fuels. The renewable energy
system plays an important role in the agriculture sector in reducing fossil fuel consumption
for various applications.

There is strong scientific evidence that the average temperature of the Earth’s surface is
rising. This is a result of the increased concentration of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere as released by burning fossil fuels. This global warming will
eventually lead to substantial changes in the world’s climate, which will, in turn, have a
major impact on human life and the environment. Therefore, an effort has to be made to
reduce fossil energy use in agriculture and to promote green energies, particularly in the
agriculture
sector. The cost comparison of various technologies for agriculture showed that renewable
energy technologies are suitable for any location in the world with the additional benefit of
earning carbon credits as compared with conventional fossil fuel-based technologies for
agriculture applications.
There are various clean development mechanism (CDM) projects all over the world,
especially in India, for the promotion of renewable energy technologies in the agriculture
sector.
These projects require governmental support for them to be implemented in the agriculture
sector due to high capital cost investments. Hence, for social benefits, renewable technology
in agriculture should be promoted to mitigate climate change, reduce fossil fuel consumption
for agriculture, and protect the environment. Thus, renewable energy technologies for
sustainable agriculture play an important role all over the world and their promotion should
be manifold in the coming years to approach sustainable development in the world.
Fossil fuel energy use reductions in the agriculture sector can be easily achieved by the
promotion of renewable energy technologies for various applications. This study was a step
to demonstrate the use of renewable technology in agriculture for a sustainable environment.
The adoption of green or sustainable approaches to how society is run is seen as an important
strategy in finding a solution to the energy problem.
The key factors to reducing and controlling CO2, which is the major contributor to global
warming, are the use of alternative approaches such as renewable systems for energy
generation and the exploration of how these alternatives are used today and may be used in
the future as green energy sources. These benefits would be dispersed in remote rural areas
where they are greatly needed and can serve as linkages for further rural economic
development. The nations as a whole would benefit from savings in foreign exchange,
improved energy security, and socio-economic improvements. The international community
would benefit from pollution reduction, climate mitigation, and the increased trading
opportunities that arise from new income sources.

REFRENCES
Baille A., Lopez J.C., Bonachela S., Gonzalez-Real M.M., Montero J.I. (2006) Night energy
balance in a heated low-cost plastic greenhouse,
Agric. For. Meteorol. 137, 107–118.Boonlong P. (1984) Solar-assisted tobacco curing, Paper
presented at the Regional Seminar on Solar Drying, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 28–30 August.
Baruah D. (1995) Utilization pattern of human and fuel energy in the plantation, J. Agric.
Soil Sci. 8, 189–192. Chel A., Tiwari G.N. (2009a) Performance evaluation and life cycle
cost analysis of earth to air heat exchanger integrated with adobe building
for New Delhi composite climate, Energy Build. 41, 56–66.
Chel A., Tiwari G.N. (2009b) Thermal performance and embodied energy analysis of a
passive house – case study of vault roof mud-house in India, Appl. Energy 86, 1956–1969.
Chel A., Tiwari G.N. (2010) Stand-alone photovoltaic (PV) integrated with earth to air heat
exchanger (EAHE) for space heating/cooling of adobe house in New Delhi (India), Energy
Convers. Manage. 51,393–409.
Chel A., Nayak J.K., Kaushik G. (2008) Energy conservation in honey storage building using
Trombe wall, Energy Build. 40, 1643–1650.
Chel A., Tiwari G.N., Chandra A. (2009a) Sizing and cost estimation methodology for stand-
alone residential PV power system, Int. J.Agile Syst. Manage. 4, 21–40.
Chel A., Tiwari G.N., Chandra A. (2009b) Simplified method of sizing and life cycle cost
assessment of building integrated photovoltaic
system, Energy Build. 41, 1172–1180. Coninck D., Haake H., Linden F.N. (2007)
Technology transfer in the Clean Development Mechanism, Clim. Policy 7, 444–456.
Corwin D.L., Loague K., Ellsworth T.R. (1999) Assessing non-point source pollution in the
vadose zone with advanced information technologies, in: Corwin D.L., Loague K., Ellsworth
T.R. (Eds.),
Assessment of non-point source pollution in the vadose zone. Geophysical Monogr, 108,
AGU,Washington, DC, USA, pp. 1–20. Dechezlepretre A., Glachant M., Meniere Y. (2008)
The clean development mechanism and the international diffusion of technologies: an
empirical study, Energy Policy 36, 1273–1283. Eker B. (2005) Solar powered water pumping
systems, Trak J. Sci. 3,
Amer, A., ul-Hassan Nasim, F., Batool, K., Bibi, А. (2017), Microbial β-Glucosidase:
Sources, production and applications. Journal of Applied and Environmental
Microbiology, 5(1), 31-46.
Epstein, A. (2014), The Moral Case for Fossil Fuels. New York: Portfolio/ Penguin. p256.
Fargione, J., Hill, J., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., Hawthorne, P. (2008), Land clearing and the
biofuel carbon debt. Science, 319(5867), 1235-1238.
Foley, J.A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K.A., Cassidy, E.S., Gerber, J.S. (2011), Solutions for
a cultivated planet. Nature, 478(7369), 337-342.
Hill, J., Nelson, E., Tilman, D., Polasky, S., Tiffany, D. (2006),