Essential Physics I

E 英語で物理学の
エッセンス I

Lecture 11: 25-06-15

Last lecture: review
Wave is a moving oscillation. It carries energy but not matter.
s
F
v= = fv = 2⇡ 2⇡
T µ k= !=
T
String
If oscillation is SHM: y(x, t) = A cos(kx ± !t)
✓ ◆
P P I
I= = = 10 log
A 4⇡r2 I0

2 fixed m
L= m = 1, 2, 3, ....
2
Standing waves:
1 fixed, m
1 open L= m = 1, 3, 5 ....
4
Last lecture: review
Travelling wave:

y(x, t) = 4.0 cos(15x 30t)
What is the wave speed?
 k !
2⇡ 2⇡
k= !=
T
(a) 4 m/s
! 30
v= = f=
= = 2 m/s
(b) 2 m/s T k 15

(c) 0.5 m/s

(d) 120 m/s

(e) 60 m/s
Last lecture: review
A boat bobs up and down on a water wave. 

It moves a vertical distance of 2 m in 1s.
A wave crest moves a horizontal distance of 10 m in 2 s.

What is the magnitude of the wave speed?


(a) 2.0 m/s

(b) 5.0 m/s

(c) 7.5 m/s

(d) 10.0 m/s

Last lecture: review
A boat bobs up and down on a water wave. 

It moves a vertical distance of 2 m in 1s.
A wave crest moves a horizontal distance of 10 m in 2 s.

What is the magnitude of the wave speed?


Matter (boat) speed Wave speed

(a) 2.0 m/s
A wave moves energy, but not matter.
(b) 5.0 m/s
x 10 m
(c) 7.5 m/s v= = = 5.0 m/s
t 2s

(d) 10.0 m/s

Slinky Experiment

What happens when the top of the slinky is released?

(a) the bottom drops first (c) top and bottom drop together

(b) the top drops first (d) top and bottom approach the
centre
Slinky Experiment
At the start, the spring is being held.
At the top, the hand’s contact force
FT and gravity balance.

At the bottom, gravity and tension

balance.

Fg
The top is released.

The top knows it has lost its upwards

force and starts to fall.
But the bottom does not yet know the
upwards force has gone.
The bottom stays still.
Slinky Experiment
The information about the lost
upwards force travels down the
spring in a wave.

When the wave reaches the bottom,

the bottom knows it has lost the
upwards force.

The bottom falls.

Fluids
What is a fluid?
A fluid is something that takes the shape of its container.

liquids are fluids gases are fluids solids are not fluids
What is a fluid?
liquid molecules are close together.
Difficult to push closer.
Liquids are incompressible.
m
Density is constant: ⇢ =
V

gas molecules are far apart.

Easy to push closer.
Gases are compressible.

Density changes.
What is a fluid?
Fluid properties
we could use the laws of mechanics to
calculate fluid motion....

....and apply Newton’s laws to each

molecule in the fluid.

But a drop of water contains

1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
molecules.

So it would take the fastest computer

many times the age of the Universe to
calculate the motion!
Fluid properties
Consider fluid as continuous, rather than made from discrete
(separate) particles.
Macroscopic (large-scale) properties:

m
Density: ⇢=
V

F 2
Pressure: P = [N/m ] = [Pa] pascal
A

Pressure is a scalar (non-vector). A

F
It applies in all directions.
Fluid properties
F 2
Pressure: P = [N/m ]
A

If the force is applied across a large area, the pressure is small:

If the pressure is distributed over many

nails, it is not enough to pop the balloon.

If just one nail is used, the pressure is high

and the balloon pops.
Hydrostatic equilibrium
If the fluid is at rest ( v = 0 ), F̄net = 0
= hydrostatic equilibrium
F
Since: P = ,
A
constant P
F̄net = F̄1 + F̄2 = A(P1 P2 ) = A P

if F̄net = 0 , P = constant

Without external forces, hydrostatic equilibrium

needs constant pressure

A pressure difference gives a force.

increasing P
Hydrostatic equilibrium
With gravity, the pressure force balances the
gravitational force.

Since the pressure force comes from pressure

difference ( P ), it increases with depth.
Consider forces on a column of fluid:
FP = FP 0 + Fg P A = P0 A + mg P0 A
since: m = ⇢V = ⇢A h
h
PA P0 A = ⇢A hg P = P0 + ⇢g h mg
for liquid (constant ⇢) P
More generally:
P dP
= ⇢g = ⇢g Hydrostatic equilibrium
h dh
Hydrostatic equilibrium Quiz
Through which hole will the water come out fastest?

A
(a)
(b)
(c) P = P0 + ⇢g h
B
F
P =
A
P is higher at (C), therefore force
is greater and velocity is higher.
C
 Hydrostatic equilibrium Quiz

Two dams are identical in size and shape and the

water levels at both are the same.
1 dam holds back a lake containing 2,000,000 m3
of water while the other holds back a
4,000,000 m3 lake.
Which statement is correct?

(1) The dam with the larger lake has twice the average force on it.

(2) The dam with the smaller lake has twice the average force on it.

(3) The dam with the larger lake has a slightly larger average force.
if h the same,
(4) None of the above P = P0 + ⇢g h
P the same
Hydrostatic equilibrium Quiz
Find the pressure at a depth of 10 m below the surface of a lake if
the pressure at the surface is 1 atm (atmosphere).

1atm = 101kPa
⇢ = 103 kg/m3

(a) 1 atm
(b) 199,000 atm
(c) 1.97 atm
(d) 199 atm
Hydrostatic equilibrium Quiz
Find the pressure at a depth of 10 m below the surface of a lake if
the pressure at the surface is 1 atm (atmosphere).

1atm = 101kPa
⇢ = 103 kg/m3

(a) 1 atm P = P0 + ⇢g h
3 3 2
(b) 199,000 atm = 101 kPa + (10 kg/m )(9.81 m/s )(10 m)
(c) 1.97 atm = 199 kPa = 1.97 atm
(d) 199 atm
Pascal’s Law
Since: P = P0 + ⇢g h

An increase in Gives the same increase in

pressure here pressure everywhere in the fluid
Pascal’s law:
A pressure increase anywhere is felt everywhere in the fluid.
Application: hydraulic lift
F1
small force F1 , gives pressure P =
A1
This pressure is felt at the right-hand
end to give: F2 = A2 P

The area is larger, so the force is bigger.

Pascal’s Law Quiz
The large piston in a hydraulic lift has a radius of 20 cm. What
force must be applied to the small piston of radius 2 cm to raise a
car of mass 1500 kg?
2
Fcar = mg = (1500 kg)(9.81 m/s )
4
(a) 14.7 N = 1.47 ⇥ 10 N
(b) 1470 N
F1 F2 A1 2
⇡r1
(c) 147 N P = = F1 = F2 = 2 mg
A1 A2 A2 ⇡r2
(d) 15 N
2 cm2 4
= ⇥ 1.47 ⇥ 10 N
20 cm2

= 147 N (⇠ 331 lb)

Archimedes’ Principal
Float or sink?

FP
Pressure (P) on a volume of fluid.
Pressure and gravity balance.
FP = Fg = mg
Fg
If we replace that volume with a solid object, the
remaining fluid is the same.

Therefore, P (and FP ) is the same.

The pressure force on the object is the buoyancy force.

It is equal to the weight of fluid displaced (removed).
Archimedes’ Principal
FP
FP = Fg,f = m(fluid) g

Fg

FP If the object is heavier than the fluid, its gravitational

force will be bigger than the buoyancy (P) force.

Fg
FP < Fg,o = m(object) g Object will sink.

FP If the object is lighter than the fluid, its gravitational

force will be smaller than the buoyancy (P) force.
Fg
FP > Fg,o = m(object) g Object will float.
Archimedes’ Principal Quiz

The wood and iron have equal volumes. The wood floats and the
iron sinks. Which has the great buoyant force?

(a) wood

(b) iron Iron displaces the greater weight of water.

(c) same
Archimedes’ Principal Example
3
A cork has a density of 200kg/m . Find the fraction of the volume
of the cork that is submerged when the cork floats in water.

Buoyant force = weight of water displaced

0
= mW g = (⇢W V )g

Gravitational force: ⇢c gV
0
To float: Gravitational force = Buoyant force V
=?
V
⇢c gV = ⇢W gV 0
0 3
V ⇢c 200kg/m 1
= = 3
=
V ⇢W 1000kg/m 5
Archimedes’ Principal Quiz
On land, the most massive concrete block you can carry is 25 kg.
If concrete’s density is 2200kg/m3, how massive a block could you
carry underwater?

FP 1 + Fapp FP 2 + Fapp 3
⇢W = 1000kg/m

Fg Fg

(a) 55 kg (c) 46 kg

(b) 266 kg (d) 100 kg

Archimedes’ Principal Quiz
On land, the most massive concrete block you can carry is 25 kg.
If concrete’s density is 2200kg/m3, how massive a block could you
carry underwater? F +F F +F
P1 app P2 app

In water: FP 2 + Fapp mc g = 0
Fg Fg
Fapp = mc g FP 2

Max Fapp = 25 kg ⇥ g
mc
Buoyancy force FP 2 = ⇢W gVc = ⇢W g
⇢
✓ c ◆
mW ⇢W
(25 kg)g = mc g ⇢W g = mc g 1
⇢c ⇢c
✓ ◆
⇢c
mc = 25 = 46 kg
⇢c ⇢W
Conservation of Mass
x2

x1

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid

entering in time
=
t exiting in time t
m = ⇢1 V 1 m = ⇢2 V 2
= ⇢ 1 A1 x 1 = ⇢ 2 A2 x 2
= ⇢ 1 A1 v 1 t = ⇢ 2 A2 v 2 t

=
Conservation of Mass
x2

x1

Mass of fluid Mass of fluid

entering in time
=
t exiting in time t
m = ⇢1 V 1 m = ⇢2 V 2
= ⇢ 1 A1 x 1 = ⇢ 2 A2 x 2
= ⇢ 1 A1 v 1 t = ⇢ 2 A2 v 2 t
⇢Av = constant along flow mass flow rate
for liquid (constant ⇢)
Av = constant along flow volume flow rate
Conservation of Mass Quiz
Water flows through a pipe that has a constriction in the middle
as shown. How does the speed of the water in the constriction
compare to the speed of the water in the rest of the pipe?

(A) It is bigger Av = constant along flow

(B) It is smaller

(C) It is the same

Conservation of Mass Quiz

A stream of water falls from a tap.

Its cross-sectional area changes from
2 2
A0 = 1.2cm to A1 = 0.35cm

The 2 levels are separated by h = 45mm.

What is the initial velocity and volume

flow rate?
(Hint: use constant acceleration equations)
3
(a) v0 = 31.1cm/s volume flow rate: 37cm /s
(b) v0 = 9.1cm/s volume flow rate: 10.9cm3 /s
(c) v0 = 28.6cm/s volume flow rate: 34cm3 /s
Conservation of Mass Quiz

A stream of water falls from a tap.

Its cross-sectional area changes from
2 2
A0 = 1.2cm to A1 = 0.35cm

The 2 levels are separated by h = 45mm.

What is the initial velocity and volume

flow rate?
(Hint: use constant acceleration equations)
Conservation of mass: A0 v0 = Av ! v02 = A2 v 2 /A20
2 2
v = v0 + 2gh
s
2ghA2 3
v0 = = 28.6 cm/s Volume flow rate: A 0 v 0 = 34 cm /s
A20 A2
Conservation of Energy
Fluid moves along pipe
1 2 2
K = m(v2 v1 )
2
v1 = work done

y Fluid to the left exerts pressure

force at (1) as fluid moves x1
1 v2 W 1 = F 1 x 1 = P1 A 1 x 1
2
Fluid to the right exerts opposite
pressure force at (2) as fluid moves
x2
W2 = F2 x 2 = P2 A 2 x 2

Work done against gravity: Wg = ⇢V g(y2 y1 )

Conservation of Energy
K = W1 + W2 + Wg

1 2 2
m(v2 v1 ) = P1 A 1 x 1 P2 A 2 x 2 ⇢V g(y2 y1 )
2 V V
For incompressible fluids: A1 x1 = A2 x2 = V
1 2 2
P1 P2 ⇢g(y2 y1 ) = ⇢(v2 v1 )
2
1 2 1 2
P1 + ⇢gy1 + ⇢v1 = P2 + ⇢gy2 + ⇢v2
2 2

1 2
P + ⇢gy + ⇢v = constant Bernoulli’s equation
2
Conservation of Energy Quiz
Two empty pop cans are placed about ¼” apart on a frictionless
surface. If you blow air between the cans, what happens?

A) The cans move toward each other.

B) The cans move apart.
C) The cans don’t move at all.

velocity increases, so
pressure decreases between
the cans.
g a ir
The higher outside pressure Bl owin
pushes them towards each
other. 1 2
P + ⇢gy + ⇢v = constant
2
Conservation of Energy Quiz
3
A liquid with density ⇢ = 791kg/m flows through a horizontal pipe
that narrows from A1 = 1.2 ⇥ 10 3
m 2 to A2 = A1 /2 .

The pressure difference between wide and narrow sections is

4120 Pa.
What is the volume flow rate Av?

3 3
(a) 4.48 ⇥ 10 m /s
3
(b) 2.24 ⇥ 10 m3 /s
6 3
(c) 3.03 ⇥ 10 m /s

(d) 6.06 ⇥ 10 6 3
m /s
 Conservation of Energy Quiz
3
A liquid with density ⇢ = 791kg/m flows through a horizontal pipe
that narrows from A1 = 1.2 ⇥ 10 3
m 2 to A2 = A1 /2 .
The pressure difference between wide and narrow sections is
4120 Pa. What is the volume flow rate Av?
A1 v 1 = A2 v 2 = R v (volume flow rate)
1 2 1 2
Bernoulli: P1 + ⇢gy + ⇢v1 = P2 + ⇢gy + ⇢v2
2 2
1 2 1 2
Rv P1 + ⇢v1 = P2 + ⇢v2 Rv 2Rv
v1 = 2 2 v2 = =
A1 A2 A1
s s
2(P1 P2 ) 3 (2)(4120 Pa) 3
R v = A1 = 1.2 ⇥ 10 = 2.24 ⇥ 10 m3 /s
3⇢ 2
(3)(791 kg/m )
Lift and curve
How do aeroplanes fly?

Aeroplane wing:

The distance travelled

above the curved wing is
larger than below it.

From conservation of mass, the air flow must take the same time
to go over and under the wing.
Therefore, air above the wing moves faster.
1 2
From Bernoulli’s equation: P + ⇢gy + ⇢v = constant
2
A higher velocity gives a lower pressure above the wing.
This pressure difference gives an upwards force.
Lift and curve
Similarly for a curving ball:

Bottom of ball, the spin and air

velocity are in the same direction.
The ball drags that air, making it faster.
Velocity is higher and so pressure is
lower.
Pressure difference gives downwards
force.
Lecture 11 : Summary
Fluid properties: pressure, density, flow velocity

Archimedes’ Principal: buoyancy force from pressure is equal

to the weight of the displaced fluid by an object.
Objects less dense that fluid will float
Object more dense will sink

Continuity Equation: conservation of matter

⇢Av = constant along flow

Bernoulli's Equation: conservation of energy

1 2
P + ⇢gy + ⇢v = constant
2
(relate flow speed and pressure)