Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

DOI 10.1007/s12517-017-3014-0

ORIGINAL PAPER

Rock types of the Kangan Formation and the effects of pore-filling

minerals on reservoir quality in a gas field, Persian Gulf, Iran
Ali-Akbar Irajian 1 & Kamaladdin Bazargani-Guilani 2 & Rahim Mahari 3 & Ali Solgi 1 &
Alireza Moshrefizadeh 4 & Hossein Alnaghian 5

Received: 27 March 2015 / Accepted: 28 April 2017 / Published online: 20 June 2017
# Saudi Society for Geosciences 2017

Abstract One of the major problems with carbonate reser- effect on reservoir quality but blocky cements reduced it. And
voirs is to understand the relationship between porosity, per- finally, fracture-filling cements may or may not affect the res-
meability, and irreducible water saturation (Swir). The quality ervoir quality. The best types of porosities are intercrystalline
of a carbonate reservoir can be directly related to porosity and interparticle, prevailing in lower part of the Kangan
types, varieties of pore throat size, and various diagenetic min- Formation. In this study, six reservoir rock types (RRTs) have
erals. This has made it difficult to distinguish the areas with the been defined on the basis of special core analysis (SCAL) as
highest permeability and the lowest Swir. Accordingly, the well as thin section description. The RRT-1 is the best type of
Kangan Formation comprises three types of replacive dolomite reservoir, and toward the RRT-6, the reservoir quality reduces.
textures (Rd1, Rd2, Rd3), two types of dolomite cement tex-
tures (Cd1, Cd2), two types of anhydrites structures (noduls Keywords Kangan Formation . Triassic . Rock types .
and beds), six types of anhydrites textures (needle, crystalline, Diagenetic minerals . Reservoir quality
radial, disordered, fibrous, mixture), and four types of calcite
cements (fiber/bladed, blocky, mold filling, fracture filling).
Among these, the replacive dolomite types improved the res- Introduction
ervoir quality (porosity and permeability) and the dolomite
cements reduced the porosity without having had any major Choquette and Pray (1970) developed a classification of po-
effects on permeability. Anhydrite nodular structure had no rosity that is widely used by sedimentary and petroleum
major effect on reservoir quality while anhydrite-bedded struc- geologists. This system of classification is closely linked to
ture affected it through creating some barriers in flow path. sedimentological fabric so that pore types can be predicted on
Moreover, fiber/bladed and mold-filling cements had no major the basis of depositional setting and/or diagenetic evolution. It
is particularly useful for the evolution of porosity types, which
is important for hydrocarbon exploration. Classifications pro-
vided by Archie (1952) and Lucia (1995, 1999) are, for
* Kamaladdin Bazargani-Guilani petrophysicists, considered as widespread ones, because they
kbazargani@ut.ac.ir
are more directly linked to pore geometries and flow proper-
ties (Lønøy 2006).
1
Department of Geology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad Depositional conditions and diagenetic processes are
University, Tehran, Iran known as important factors in creating and altering the poros-
2
School of Geology, University College of Science, University of ity. They affect fluid movement and saturation behavior in the
Tehran, P. O. Box 14155-6455, Tehran, Iran reservoir rocks (Aliakbardoust and Rahimpour-Bonab 2013).
3
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Tabriz Branch, Islamic The main minerals causing or destroying porosity are dolo-
Azad University, Tabriz, Iran mite, anhydrite, and calcite. Dolomites are crystalline carbon-
4
Petroleum Engineering and Development Company (PEDEC), ate rocks that are generally multiphase systems of both
Tehran, Iran replacive and cementing dolomite (Sibley and Gregg 1987;
5
Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (RIPI), Tehran, Iran Gregg and Shelton 1990; Choquette and Hiatt 2008;
272 Page 2 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

Bazargani-Guilani et al. 2010). Variations in eustatic sea level, 1997; Konert et al. 2001; Polastro 2003; Rahimpour-Bonab
paleoclimate, oceanic temperatures, and precursor limestone et al. 2010). The basement rock of the Persian Gulf has some
mineralogy are important factors for creation and maturation important faults with different trends as follows: Arabic (N–
of dolomites (especially secondary dolomites) (Choquette and S, extension), Aulitic (NE–SW, sinistral), and Erythean
Hiatt 2008). A number of formations in the Persian Gulf area right turn and Tethys trends (E–W, extension) (Edgell
(such as Asmari, Jahrum, Ilam, Surmeh, Hith, Dashtak, 1996). Different scenarios and settings have been proposed
Kangan, and Dalan) are entirely or partially dolomitized. for development of the Persian Gulf: reactivation of base-
Among them, the Kangan and Dalan formations (both equiv- ment blocks in Gondwana margins (Talbot and Alavi 1996),
alent to Upper Khuff Formation) exhibit the most famous gas strike–slip faults, and pull-apart basins (Talbot and Alavi
reservoirs in the Middle East. Dolomitization occurs in the 1996) or by function of thrust fault and diversions in
Mesozoic carbonate rocks of the Zagros Mountains, mainly strike–slip fault trends (Callot et al. 2007).
in the Triassic Kangan Formation. This paper focuses on the As seen in Fig. 1, the gas field is part of the folded Zagros
Early Triassic Kangan Formation in the North of the Persian structure and its structure has been developed through the end
Gulf which is a gas reservoir with more than 197 m in thick- of the Pliocene. On the other hand, according to Jahani (2009),
ness consisting of limestones, dolomites, and evaporites. salt diapirism (affected by extensional fault) is very important
The aim of this study is to identify the effects of pore-filling in creation of the gas field. So, the combination of these items
minerals including dolomite, anhydrite, and calcite in the is very important in formation of the gas field.
Kangan Formation and to determine reservoir rock types in Figure 2 illustrates the general stratigraphy, sea level
order to estimate the achievable gas in reservoirs defined by changes, and tectonic events of the Persian Gulf and the gas
combining the special core analysis (SCAL) data and thin field.
section description (rock fabric and porosity). In the investigated gas field, in the deepest well, there is a
complete stratigraphic succession ranging from Permian to
recent.
Geological setting The Paleozoic succession comprises the following:

The investigated gas field is located in the south of the Zagros 1- Permian clastic and carbonate–evaporite rocks (Faraghan
tectonostratigraphic unit in the Persian Gulf which is a part of and Dalan formations). The Faraghan Formation was
the collisional Alpine orogenic belt and a part of Zagros formed in an orogenic phase (Hercynian Orogeny), and
Mountains (Stampfli et al. 2001; Agard et al. 2011; Fig. 1). the Dalan Formation was formed in a tensional stress
The Sarchahan Formation (Silurian) is probably the main regime (Neo-Tethys Opening; Fig. 2a).
source rock for gas (Aali et al. 2006).
To develop a better understanding of the gas field, it The Mesozoic succession comprises the following:
would be essential to know about the structural characteris-
tics of Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf is an asymmetrical 2- Lower Triassic carbonate–evaporite rocks (Kangan
basin with more than 650 million-year-old sediments and Formation) which has been formed in a tensional envi-
the most extensive salt diapirism in the world (Edgell 1996). ronment similar to the Dalan Formation (Fig. 2a).
Salt tectonism played a major role in development of the 3- Middle–Upper Triassic evaporite–carbonate and shales
Persian Gulf. It is suggested that the ongoing salt tectonics (Dashtak Formation).
began to develop in the Early Paleozoic (Jahani 2009). The 4- Lower Jurassic argillaceous rocks (Neyriz Formation),
Persian Gulf has been shaped as a result of action of its Middle–Upper Jurassic carbonate rocks, and Upper
surrounding plates and main faults, such as African, Jurassic evaporite rocks (Surmeh and Hith formations).
Arabian, and Asian Plates, Red Sea and Gulf of Adan 5- Lower Cretaceous carbonate, shale, and argillaceous rocks
Rifts, and Zagros Suture. Extensional faults are the most (Fahliyan, Gadvan, Dariyan, Kazhdumi formations).
important structural features having a major role in trigger- 6- Middle Cretaceous carbonate rocks (Sarvak Formation).
ing salt diapirism in the Persian Gulf (Jahani 2009). The All of the formations from Dashtak to Sarvak formed in a
Qatar Arch, a NNE–SSW-trending positive flower structure passive margin environment (Fig. 2a).
of Infracambrian origin, divides the Persian Gulf into two 7- Upper Cretaceous argillaceous and carbonate rocks
troughs (the eastern and the western Hormuz Salt subba- (Laffan, Ilam, and Gurpi formations) which formed in
sins). The structure of the Arch has inherited from the an orogeny environment (First Alpine Orogeny; Fig. 2a).
Amar and Najd tectonic systems (Al-Husseini 2000;
Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2010). Both the arch and the adja- The Cenozoic succession consists of the following:
cent troughs have been rejuvenated and uplifted repeatedly
since the Early Silurian (Murris 1980; Alsharhan and Nairn 8- Paleocene argillaceous rocks (Pabdeh Formation).
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 3 of 21 272

Fig. 1 Summery of growth

folding at folded Zagros from end
of Eocene until now (after
Hessami 2002). The location of
the investigated gas field
indicated by the arrow

9- Eocene carbonate rocks (Jahrum Formation). Both Material and methods

Pabdeh and Jahrum have been formed in a compressional
phase (Zagros Subduction; Fig. 2a). This paper is based on stratigraphic data from two wells,
10- Oligocene carbonate rocks (Asmari Formation). including 550 thin sections and more than 197 m cores
11- Miocene detrital evaporite and argillaceous rocks (from well A) and gamma and sonic logs and productivity
(Gachsaran and Mishan formations). test from well B. Following Dickson (1965) and Hitzman
12- Pliocene–recent coral rocks (Khark Formation equal to (1999) techniques, Alizarin Red-S has been used to identify
Agha Jari and Bakhtiari formations) and Asmari to re- dolomite from calcite. Furthermore, SCAL data have been
cent rocks formed in a collisional phase (Fig. 2a). used for capillary pressure analysis in ambient (centrifuge
method) conditions and relative permeability tests in ambi-
In the study area, the Lower Triassic Kangan Formation ent conditions. Sample selection for SCAL test was done by
lies with a disconformity on the Permian Dalan Formation core lab of Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (RIPI)
and is overlied by the Middle–Upper Triassic Dashtak (Bakhtiari et al. 2011). For gas–water drainage tests, brine-
Formation. The Kangan Formation can be subdivided into saturated samples were each loaded into individual centri-
two major reservoir units including K1 and K2 from top to fuge core holders and spun at incremental rotational speeds
bottom. The K1 unit is mainly composed of dolomites and (up to 12,000 rpm) effecting capillary pressure. Water was
anhydrites while the K2 unit, which contains major gas forced further away from the center of rotation out of the
reservoirs, comprises limestones and dolomites (Figs. 2b core plug and into a receiving tube. Each speed was main-
and 11). tained until production was stable, and an equivalent capil-
The Kangan Formation (upper Khuff equivalent) crops out lary pressure was calculated from the centrifugal force. The
and has been documented by other researchers working on speed was then raised to the next higher speed. In the end of
Zagros Mountains and other gas fields in the Persian Gulf the drainage test, the samples were saturated with water and
(Al-Aswad 1997; Alsharhan and Kendall 2003; Insalaco loaded in centrifuge apparatus. In this study, absolute water
et al. 2006; Tavakoli et al. 2011). permeability was chosen as the base permeability for gas–
272 Page 4 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

b
Geological Time Scale Seq. Tectonic
Formation Persian Strati
Lithology Gulf Description graph
ERA Period Epoch (Thickness) Events
y
Sudair

Dolomite,
Passive
Middle Dashtak Evaporite,
Margin
Shale/Clay
e
K1

(High Stand Sequence Set)

(148 m)

Dolomite,
Mesozoic

Triassic

Anhydrite
HST, TST
Kangan
(197 m)

Khuff

Neo-Tethys opening
Early

K2 Dolomite,
(49m) Limestone

d
Lopingian

(Transgrassive
Sequence Set)
HST, TST

Dolomite,
Khuff

Dalan
Anhydrite,
(229 m)
Paleozoic

Limestone
Permian

c
Guadal
upian b
Cisuralian

Hercynian
Unayzah

Orogeny

Faraghan a Clastics
 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 5 of 21 272

ƒFig. 2 a) General litho-stratigraphic units and tectonic events of the the Dalan Formation and conformably covered by the
Persian Gulf and the gas field. The lithologies and symbols used in the Dashtak Formation (Szabo and Kheradpir 1978,
figure are standard. b) General litho-stratigraphic units, sea level change,
and tectonic events of the Persian Gulf and the gas field. At the studied
Lasemi 2000). In general, five major facies belts can
area (shown by the arrow), the interval can be divided into two reservoir be recognized in the gas field: 1—supratidal facies char-
units: K1 and K2. The line between Paleozoic and Mesozoic is an uncon- acterized by anhydrites and dolo-mudstones with lay-
formity (P–T boundary). Legends for b are: a detritals, b anhydrite, c ered, massive, and nodular (chicken-wire) structures
limestone, d dolomites, and e shales
(Fig. 3a); 2—intertidal facies, which consists of
dolomicrites with fenestral and homogeneous fabrics as
water relative permeability. For determination of gas–water well as boundstone and anhydrite crystals (Fig. 3b); 3—
relative permeability at ambient conditions, the clean sam- lagoon facies composed of peloidal packstones and lam-
ple was fully saturated with brine. Considering the absolute inated mudstones having bioturbation (Fig. 3c); 4—
permeability to air and also brine permeability and length shoal facies, composed of the grainstones having ooids,
and cross-sectional area of the sample, the pressure of bioclasts, intraclasts, and current structures (Fig. 3d);
injecting gas is predetermined. The gas was then injected and 5—offshoal facies including mudstones which gen-
into the confined sample under this constant pressure. Water erally have small foraminifera fossils.
and gas production together with time and pressure data As seen in Fig. 3, the depositional environment of the
were monitored at specific time steps. The type of gas for Kangan Formation is from sabkha to open marine. The
injection was air (Bakhtiari et al. 2011). The rock types are Kangan Formation underwent an intense near surface and buri-
classified on the basis of the irreducible water saturation al diagenesis. Generally, there are three major diagenetic envi-
(Swir) and the capillary pressure. ronments in the gas field: eodiagenesis and mesodiagenesis,
meteoric diagenesis, and burial diagenesis. From these, the
latter dominates the area.
Results According to the depositional environment and details pre-
sented in the BDepositional environment and diagenesis^ sec-
Depositional environment and diagenesis tion, it can be said that carbonate sequences may not provide
all the required conditions to generate quality reservoir rocks,
The Kangan Formation in the gas field is composed of but mainly the latest diagenetic processes (associate with salt
dolomites, evaporites, limestones, and shales, with a diapirism) control conditions of a sequence of rocks which is
thickness about 197 m. It is unconformably overlying reservoir or non-reservoir.

a b c d e

Fig. 3 General depositional environment and petrographic in supratidal facies. b) Stromatolite/thrombolite formed in intertidal fa-
characteristics of the Kangan Formation in the Persian Gulf (and the cies. c) Bioclast packstone formed in lagoon facies. d) Bioclast-ooid
gas field) (after Tavakoli et al. 2011). a) Nodular dolo-mudstone formed grainstone formed in shoal. e) Dolo-mudstone with foraminifera fossils
272 Page 6 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

Petrography of dolomites overgrowth cements in optical continuity with crystals

they enclose partially or completely, but they normally
Dolomites are crystalline carbonate rocks that are gen- develop only on portions of crystals that adjoin
erally multiphase systems of both replacive and intercrystal pores and micropores, as well as larger
cementing dolomite. Currently, the term replacive or pores (molds, vugs, fenestrae, and synsedimentary
some variations, thereof, appear to be eclipsing second- cracks); 2—laterally linked partial overgrowths in opti-
ary. Many replacement dolomites have cloudy cores cal continuity with their substrate crystals, which en-
(initial growth phase is rich in undigested host-rock close multiples (clusters) of dolomite rhombs (cf.
mineral inclusions or early, metastable precipitates) and Choquette et al. 1992) or forming Bisopachous^ cements
clear exteriors as well (compare to Sibley 1982; Kyser on crystals lining such larger voids; and 3—compound
et al. 2002). Replacive dolomitization by itself or asso- layered cements, most of which conspicuously are in
ciated with patchy anhydrite has generally enhanced the large vugs and bigger reefal or karst cavities, and which
reservoir quality. Wherever anhydrite cement is domi- are characterized by alternating layers of dolomite and
nated, as a result, the porosity and permeability will calcite cement commonly of internal sediment.
decrease (Lucia 1999; Rahimpour-Bonab et al. 2010). Generally, secondary dolomites in sabkha environments
Dolomite cement is defined as dolomite chemically or are formed through the following replacement formula
biochemically precipitated from aqueous solution onto (Lippmann 1973)
the faces of dolomite crystals (Choquette and Hiatt
2008). It generally occurs as optically syntaxial over- CaCO3 þ Mg2þ þ CO3 2− ↔CaMgðCO3 Þ2
growths that are mostly clear (limpid) but may contain
According to Warren (2000) and Mckenzie and Vasconcelos
inclusions and have different faces ranging from planar
(2009), the way through which dolomite is created in sabkha
to saddle-shaped ones. Compositional zoning in dolo-
and a lagoon environments is due to the act of microbes and
mite cement is generally concentric and may also be
follows this formula
oscillatory and/or sectoral, but usually is occult in
polarized Light (Choquette and Hiatt 2008). According
Ca2þ þ Mg2− þ 2SO4 2− þ 2CH3 COOH→CaMgðCO3 Þ2
to Choquette and Hiatt (2008), three morphologic fea-
tures are seen in dolomite cements: 1—rhombic þ2H2 S þ 2H2 O þ 2CO2 :

Fig. 4 Photomicrographs of
different dolomite types (thin
sections). a) Rd1 and Rd2 Cal Rd1 Rd2
dolomites with cloudy core; Rd1
is being converted to Rd2. The
core of dolomites is composed of
calcite. b) Rd2 dolomite with Rd2
cloudy core. c) Rd3 and Cd1
dolomite and anhydrite filling the
available porosity in Rd3. Some
of Cd1 were replaced with
anhydrite (arrow). d) Saddle
dolomites (Cd2) filling the ooids a
pores. Cal calcite
b

Cd2 Rd3
Rd3
Cd1

c d
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 7 of 21 272

We suggest other researchers to investigate the micro- – Rd2 dolomite

bial dolomitization in Kangan Formation in Zagros
Mountains.
The dolomites formed in evaporite environment tend The Rd2 dolomite is the most abundant type. This is
to follow stoichiometry formula and those formed in dolosparite that mainly occurs as euhedral (idiotopic-E) mo-
other environments follow non-stoichiometry (Warren saic crystals of about 70 μm in size scattered in a micrite
2000). matrix. Rd2 crystals commonly display a sharp extinction
There are two important advantages of dolomite under cross-polarized light. The relatively coarse crystals have
compared to limestone. Dolomite has greater stability a cloudy core (euhedral or irregular) and a clear rim (Fig. 4b).
in burial depths and maintains its porosity and perme- Locally, the core can also consist of calcite (Fig. 4a). In the gas
ability. In addition, because of being less reactive than field, Rd2 is converted to Rd3 (Rd2 ➔ Rd3). Spaces between
calcite, it thus preserves its porosity with an increase in Rd2 are filled by calcite, Rd1, and anhydrite. The Rd2 is more
the depth of burial. frequent in mudstones and in the matrix of wackestones. Rd2
Five types of dolomites were distinguished on the basis of type corresponds volumetrically to about 35% of all
crystal size, the crystal boundary shape (non-planar or planar), dolomites.
and the conditions of formation. In this paper, the classifica-
tion of dolomites is based on the classifications made by – Rd3 dolomite
Sibley and Gregg (1987), Gregg and Shelton (1990),
Mazzullo (1992), Chen et al. (2004), Nader et al. (2004), The Rd3 dolomite is a medium crystalline mosaic
and Bazargani-Guilani and Faramarzi (2008). dolomite, whose crystals are about 80 μm in size. Rd3
dolomite type consists of planar-s or subhedral to
& Replacive dolomites anhedral (xenotopic) crystals with straight faces
(idiotopic-s), which display a sharp extinction under
– Rd1 dolomite cross-polarized light (Fig. 4c, d). The crystals have a
mostly cloudy nucleus due to the presence of many
The Rd1 dolomite type occurs as anhedral crystals with inclusions and occasionally clear rims. It is commonly
less than 10 μm in size (Fig. 4a); therefore, they are called fabric destructive and has strongly obliterated the origi-
dolomicrite. According to Sibley and Gregg (1987), Warren nal depositional or earlier diagenetic features. This type
(2000), Choquette and Hiatt (2008), Bazargani-Guilani et al. of dolomites occurs more frequently in grainstones
(2010), and other researches, this type of dolomite is common- (Fig. 4d). This type volumetrically accounts for about
ly observed in sabkha and restricted platform environments. In 30% of all dolostones.
the gas field, formation sequence of the Rd1 can be shown in The sequence of dolomites formed is: Rd1 ➔ Rd2 ➔ Rd3.
this way: mudstone ➔ Rd1 ➔ Rd2 (Fig. 4a). The Rd1 may Considering the fact of a widespread dolomitization of Rd2
have better porosity, but not good permeability (see Table 1 and Rd3 in the carbonate platform (especially lagoon and
and rock type-6 in the next section). Furthermore, it occurs in barrier) and a widespread anhydrite precipitation as well, the
the matrix of wackestones, packstones, and grainstones. Rd1 mechanism of dolomitization is probably a brine-reflux
volumetrically constitutes about 25% of all dolomites. (seepage-reflux) one.

Table 1 The average values of saturation properties and petrophysical parameters in each rock type

Rock type Swri (%) phi (85%) phi (60%) phi (35%) phi (16%) K (MD) PHI (%) Dominant fabric and pore types

1 10.57 1.11 2.34 5.1 20.35 846.52 17.91 Dolomite with well-preserved intercrystalline porosity
2 28.26 2.11 16.33 238.54 >910.36 27.41 17.05 Grainstone with interparticle and oomoldic porosities
3 19.69 2.79 10.68 71.97 >920 8.31 17.58 Packstone with intraparticle (intrafossil) porosity
4 18.21 3.42 10.66 65.17 416.33 2.44 15.61 Grainstone with oomoldic porosity
5 17.63 4.03 26.87 281.32 >911.48 0.73 12.89 Grainstone with poorly sorted ooids and intense
compaction
6 16.21 491.31 491.31 >919.1 >919.1 0.61 10.51 Dolo-mudstone with patchy anhydrite cement and
grainstone with plugged porosity

Swir irreducible water saturation, phi (85%) amount of porosity despite 85% of water in core and so on, ˃ the sample broke during testing, phi porosity, K
permeability, PHI total porosity
272 Page 8 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

& Dolomite cements (generally as nodules). The larger crystals may exhibit
pseudo-cubic cleavages (Scholle and Ulmer-Scholle 2003).
– Cd1 dolomite Anhydritization commonly occurs through the evaporation
of seawater in warm sabkha and lagoon areas when concen-
The Cd1 dolomite cement (type idiotopic-c) consists of tration of brine reaches up to five to six times more than the
planar-e, euhedral to subhedral crystals of about 150 μm in original seawater. Southern coast of the Persian Gulf is a good
size (Fig. 4c). All the crystals show sharp extinction and zon- example of this (Melim and Scholle 2002; El-Tabakh et al.
ing. The dolomite crystals are precipitated as cements filling 2004; Warren 2006, 2010).
solution vugs and the moldic porosity of grainstones or along There has been very little effort to classify anhydrite
stylolite seams. Some of the dolomites are replaced with an- (Murray 1964; Maiklem et al. 1969; Meyer 2005).
hydrite (Fig. 4c). The Cd1 volumetrically accounts for about Murray’s classification has been focused more on mor-
9% of the dolomites. phology of anhydrite. Maiklem’s classification has been
focused on structure (external form, relationship between
– Cd2 dolomite anhydrite and matrix, bedding, and distortion) and texture
(size, shape, and relationship of anhydrite crystals within
The Cd2 or saddle (baroque) dolomite cement occurs as non- the mass of anhydrite). In addition, Meyer’s classification
planar (idiotopic-C) crystals of about 150 μm in size (Fig. 4d). It is more a shape-named system. There has not been any
has curved or lobate crystal faces with sweeping extinction and relationship between the morphology of anhydrite and its
cleavage. Almost all crystals are cloudy in appearance as a result sedimentary environment, something that may be the main
of the presence of abundant fluid inclusions. Clear rims have reason for the lack of an accepted classification by the
been occasionally recorded in the baroque dolomite crystals. geologists.
Saddle dolomite crystals are observed to grow from the center The existing anhydrites in the Kangan Formation have the
to the periphery of ooids in grainstones. The Cd2 dolomite ce- following structures and structures:
ment accounts for about 1% of the dolomites.
& Anhydrite structures
Dolomite porosity and permeability
– Nodular structure
Interpretation of dolomites as fluid conduits, or fluid reser-
voirs, requires fundamental understanding of the complex in- The nodular anhydrites (Fig. 5a) have variable morphol-
terrelationships between petrophysical properties (porosity, ogies which are composed of fine and complex textures, being
permeability, and capillary pressure) and crystal textures of called felted ones. The nodules generally occur in sabkha de-
dolomite (Warren 2000). positional environment as a result of penetration of evaporite
Older models believed that the development of dolomite brines into carbonate sediments pores during the early diagen-
reduces volume of rock and thus increase the porosity and esis process (Warren 2000). The structure generally occurs in
permeability (Murray 1960; Weyl 1960). This model assumes dolo-mudstones. In the core samples, there is chicken-wire
that dolomitization occurs within a relatively closed system and bedded anhydrite formed by growth and compaction of
with a local source for Mg2+ and CO32− ions. nodules within host sediment (Fig. 5a). The nodules are white
Later researches have shown that if there is an external or milky in color, and their diameter oscillates between few
source of carbonate and magnesium ions, then dolomiti- millimeters and some centimeters.
zation of limestone typically will result in a volume in-
crease and a loss of total porosity (Lucia and Major – Bedded structure
1994). Therefore, dolomitization does not necessarily im-
prove porosity or permeability.
In many dolomites, permeability is not directly related to This term was first used by Murray (1964). The bedded
the total porosity or crystal size, but it is dependent on the structures can be formed by the compaction of nodules within
connectivity of the pores via the pore throats (Lucia 1995). host sediment (Fig. 5a) or by consequent conversion of gyp-
sum to anhydrite in highly saline water basins. The structure
Petrography of anhydrites generally occurs in dolo-mudstones as well as, during the
early diagenesis, in a tidal flat environment such as southern
Anhydrite commonly occurs as nodules and interbedded strata coast of the Persian Gulf (Warren 2000; Lucia 2007).
structures in carbonate rocks. Under the polarized microscope, Furthermore, bedded structure creates barriers to the flow path
anhydrite crystals have high birefringence. Anhydrite may so that the reservoir is layered. The layers generally have
form large tabular crystals or felted, fibrous crystal masses thicknesses of 1 to 30 cm.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 9 of 21 272

Bedded anhydrite
Nodular

a 2.5Cm

b c d

e f g

h i k

m n
Fig. 5 Textures of anhydrite. a) Nodular (chicken-wire) and bedded an- Moderate and burial anhydritic textures. h, i) Fracture-filling anhydrite
hydrite structures. Bedded anhydrite formed by compaction of nodules shapes: fibrous texture (h) and crystalline texture (i). k, m, n) Pore-filling
within host sediment (arrow). b) Needle-shaped texture in a dolo-mud- anhydrite shapes: interparticle shapes (poikilitopic) in a skeletal ooid
stone. c) Crystalline shape texture in a dolo-mudstone. d) Radial shape grainstone (k, m). Space between the ooids is filled by crystalline shape.
texture in a nodular structure. e) Disordered shape texture in a nodular Moldic shapes in an ooid grainstone. Pores are filled by crystalline or
structure. f) Fibrous texture in a dolo-mudstone. g) Mixture shape texture. radial shapes (n). Photo scale of e, f, and i is 1 mm, as in c
Needle-shaped and fibrous textures side-by-side can be observed.
272 Page 10 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

Both anhydrite structures have been created during the ear- In most cases, all or some of the abovementioned textures
ly diagenesis. The nodular structure may also be formed dur- are seen together (Fig. 5g, m).
ing burial diagenesis (Machel 1993; Amadi et al. 2012).
& Moderate and burial anhydritic textures
& Anhydrite textures
During meso and burial diagenesis when anhydritic brines
These textures are generally associated with specific struc- affect carbonate rocks, the textures are created. They have
tures described above: different names as follows:

– Needle shape – Fracture-filling shapes

In this type of texture, the ratio of length to width of the Most of the abovementioned textures can be observed in
crystal is large (Fig. 5b). The crystals are single spreading in fractures during moderate and burial diagenesis, such as crys-
the background of dolo-mudstone. These crystals are parallel tal and fibrous shape textures (Fig. 5h, i).
to semi-parallel to each other. The texture occurs in the tidal
flat environment during the early diagenesis. – Pore-filling shapes

– Crystalline shape Some anhydritic textures have filled the pores such as in-
terparticle, moldic, and so on; thus, they are cements (Murray
In this type, the ratio of length to width of the crystal is 1964; Ehrenberg 2006; Lucia 2007) (Fig. 5k, m).
approximately equal having different dimensions and shapes
(Fig. 5c–m). The texture occurs more in tidal flat to sabkha Interparticle shapes (poikilotopic)
environments during the early diagenesis. However, it can be
found in all environments and all diagenesis conditions being In this texture, anhydrite includes several allochems or fos-
under the control of anhydritization. sils (Fig. 5k–n). The anhydrites are usually crystalline textures.

– Radial shape Moldic shapes

This type of anhydrite texture is formed more within This texture occurs when the anhydrite occupies the dis-
nodular structures (Fig. 5d, e). However, it can be found solved space within allochems and fossils (Fig. 5k–n). They
in all pores and environments being under the control of can be crystalline or radial or fibrous (Fig. 3n).
anhydritization (Fig. 5n). In the gas field, this texture has The sequence of anhydrite formed by increasing depth
been found in all environments (from sabkha to shoal) and burial is as follows: nodules ➔ layers ➔ cements.
diagenesis conditions (from early to burial, respectively)
(Fig. 5d, e, m). Petrography of calcite

– Disordered shape In carbonate rocks, calcification can occur through different

stages of diagenesis (eogenetic, mesogenetic, and telogenetic).
This texture is generally seen within nodules (Fig. 5d, e). It Any of these calcifications can result in filling the porosity and
is similar to the needle-shaped texture, but the needles are reducing the impermeability of rock. In the aforementioned
disordered. gas field, two types of calcification processes occur: 1—
Calcitic cementation (sparry calcite) filling the existing poros-
– Fibrous shape ity in between allochems and fossils (interparticles) which
reduce both porosity and impermeability, and 2—calcitic ce-
In this texture, the ratio of length to width of the crystal mentation (sparry calcite), filling the existing moldic porosity
is less than the needle-shaped texture; consequently, the and fissures, which reduce the porosity but not necessarily the
crystals are wider (Fig. 5f). The fibers are often oriented permeability.
parallel to semi-parallel. The crystals are spread in the & Interparticle sparry cement: This type of cement can fill
background of dolo-mudstones, and the texture occurs the existing porosity in between allochems.
more in sabkha to tidal flat environments and during the & Fiber/blade sparry cement: In general, it is a phreatic ma-
early diagenesis. rine cement filling the areas around ooids and fossils
(Fig. 6a). Due to outspread and size of the fibrous cement,
– Mixture shape it is clear that this type of cementation does not have a
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 11 of 21 272

major role in reduction of porosity and permeability. Just a and permeability, fractures do not control the permeabil-
ghost of the cement is visible under microscope. This ce- ity unless they can connect the ineffective porosity to the
ment occupies less than 10% of porosity. effective one. In the field of the Kangan Formation, the
& Blocky sparry cement (Drusy): Blocky cement is the majority of fractures are filled with anhydrite and dolo-
next generation after fibrous cements, and fills the re- mite and a less amount is filled with calcite. The study of
maining voids between the allochems (Fig. 6b). Due to thin sections does not show that calcite cement can reduce
its outspread and size, blocky cement seems to be the the permeability effectively (Fig. 6d). Calcite cement is
main cement reducing porosity and permeability. This not common and less than 1% of porosity is filled by it.
type of cementation happens during both eodiagenesis
and mesodiagenesis phases and fills the voids. As men- The age of the Kangan Formation, its sedimentary texture,
tioned previously, blocky cement is replaced with dolo- the types of cementation, and its depth over 3000 m, indicate
mite and anhydrite during shallow burial diagenesis. that Kangan has spent most of its life in a mesodiagentic zone
This type of cement is well extended and fills 90% of and still is being affected by burial diagenesis. Therefore, the
voids. conditions of burial diagenesis are highly effective on Kangan
& Moldic and joint-filling calcite cement: The moldic poros- and its reservoir.
ity may represent meteoric diagenesis and generate sec-
ondary porosity. It might be related to eogenetic and Types of porosity in the Kangan Formation
telogenetic zones if calcium carbonate saturated water
flows in between allochems. Joints are the results of struc- Several attempts have been made to create a comprehensive
tural movements, which are common in telogenetic zone. classification of porosity, among which the following classifica-
Calcite sparry cement-filling moldic porosity: Moldic po- tions can be pointed out: Archie’s (1952), Choquette and Pray’s
rosity is common in the Kangan Formation (Fig. 6b) (1970), and Lucia’s (1995) classifications. Archie (1952) made
mainly filled by dolomite and anhydrite cements. A lesser the first attempt in this regard. His classification includes rock
amount of calcite cement is observed filling the entire fabrics and petrophysical rock properties in carbonate rocks. The
molds (Fig. 6c, d). Calcite cement is not common, and aim of Archie’s classification is estimating porosity; however, it
less than 1% of porosity is filled by it. is also useful for permeability and capillary properties. Although
Calcite cement-filling fractures: Filling of fractures his method is still useful for estimating petrophysical properties,
means less recovery. In reservoirs with enough porosity it has been difficult to relate these descriptions to geologic

Fig. 6 Texture of calcite

cements. a) Fiber/bladed sparry Moldic porosity
cement in a ooid–grainstone.
Interparticle and intraparticle
porosities can be observed (black
color). b) Blocky (or drusy)
cement filling the spaces between
oomolds (porosity inversion) in a
ooid–grainstone. Some ooids
were filled by dolomite (brown Moldic porosity
color). c) Calcite sparry cement
(Ca) filling oomolds in a ooid–
grainstone. d) Fracture-filling a b
calcite and oomold-filling calcite
(Ca) together
Ca
Ca Ca

Ca
Ca Ca Ca

Ca
Ca
Calcite mineral filling a fracture
Ca
c d
272 Page 12 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

models because the descriptions cannot be defined in deposition- – Interparticle porosity

al or diagenetic terms. The researches on carbonate pore space
(Murray 1960; Choquette and Pray 1970; Lucia 1995) have Mud-free carbonate sediments are dominated by intergran-
shown the importance of relating the pore space to depositional ular porosity at the time of deposition. In the Kangan
and diagenetic fabrics and distinguishing between interparticle Formation, it is commonly developed within ooid and dolo-
(intergrain and intercrystal) and other types of pore spaces. mitic peloidal skeletal grains in intermittent intervals of K1
Choquette and Pray (1970), to resolve this problem with and K2 (Fig. 7a, b). According to Lucia’s classification
Archie’s classification, discussed about the geologic concepts (1995), the porosity is an interparticle (IP) type.
surrounding carbonate pore space and presented a classification
that has been widely used. They emphasized the importance of – Intraparticle porosity
pore space genesis. Their divisions of pore spaces are based on
the genetic and not petrophysical basis. The basic concept of
Lucia’s classification (1995) is that pore-size distribution, being Intraparticle porosity may be formed in various ways. This
the spatial distribution of pore sizes within the rock, controls type of porosity generates within individual particles or grains.
permeability and saturation and that it is related to the rock It is abundant in carbonate sediments and can be a kind of
fabric. primary porosity which preserved in carbonate rocks.
In this paper, the classifications provided by Choquette and Intraparticle porosity of post-depositional origin is chiefly
Pray (1970) and Lucia (1995) have been used. formed by solution (Fig. 7a–c). The amount of intraparticle
porosity is controlled by the abundance of skeletal debris, and
& Primary porosity, fabric selective the size of these pores is determined by the type and size of the

Intraparticle + Interparticle+Fracture

Intraparticle Intraparticle

Shelter

Interparticle

a b c

Intercrystallin Rd1
Moldic Channel
Rd2

Rd3
d e f
Rd1
Rd3

Enlarged
Breccias

g h i
Fig. 7 Types of porosities. a) Interparticle porosity between ooids in an e) Moldic porosity in ooid grainstone. A moldic porosity filled with
ooid grainstone. b) Intergranular and intragranular porosity in ooid anhydrite (see upper part of the picture). f) Channel porosity in dolomite.
grainstone. Both porosities are connected to each other by fracturing. Fracture is partially filled with anhydrite. g) Enlarged porosity in dolo-
This type of porosity is suitable for permeability and the flow of gas. c) mite. h) Stylolite porosity (arrow) in dolomite. i) Breccias and fracture
Shelter and intraparticle porosity in ooid-skeletal grainstone. The shelter porosity in mudstone
porosity created by bivalve shell. d) Intercrystalline porosity in dolomite.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 13 of 21 272

organism. According to Lucia, it is a porosity of the separate Some of the vuggy porosity progress is dissolution and
vug (SV) type. creates an enlarged porosity (Fig. 7g). This type of porosity
is rare in the Kangan Formation. According to Lucia, the
– Shelter porosity porosity is the TV type.

This type of porosity is observed in the Kangan Formation & Uncertain fabric selective porosity
(Fig. 7c). According to Lucia, it is a SV type.
– Stylolite porosity
& Secondary porosity, fabric selective
Stylolites have been regarded as a direct result of dissolu-
– Intercrystalline porosity tion in response to stresses during the burial (Wanless 1979;
Zheng 1999). Fluid movement occurs during stylolite to re-
Intercrystalline porosity associated with Rd1, Rd2, and Rd3 move the dissolved minerals in a dolomite (Fig. 7h).
dolomites form an important type of reservoir in a number of
settings ranging from supratidal/sabkha to normal marine facies. – Breccias porosity
In the Kangan Formation, all the intercrystalline porosity types
occurred between very fine, fine, and somewhat coarse dolomite Brecciation of carbonate rock sequences can occur in a
crystals (Fig. 7d). According to Lucia’s classification (1995), the number of conditions including evaporite solution collapse,
porosity is the interparticle (IP) type. limestone solution collapse (Fig. 7i), and so on. According
to Lucia’s classification (1995), it is a porosity of the TV type.
– Moldic porosity
Porosity and permeability destruction
This is the most widespread type of porosity in the dolo-
mites of the lower part of K1 and limestone and in anhydritic Understanding porosity destruction is very important to know
dolomite intervals of K2. It is mainly developed within ooid how to create its process (Ehrenberg 2006). Precipitation from
and skeletal facies (oomolds and biomolds) (Fig. 7e). This chemical fluid occludes pore space and, therefore, reduces per-
type of porosity may occur in the early diagenesis (Simo meability (Immenhauser 2012). Major processes in destroying
et al. 1994). According to Lucia, the porosity is the SV type. porosity and permeability in the Kangan Formation include
mechanical and chemical compactions as well as dolomite,
& Not fabric selective porosity anhydrite, and calcite minerals that fill the pore spaces. There
are other very scarcer minerals such as celestite and quartz.
– Fracture porosity
Mechanical compaction
Fracture porosity is generally used for the porosity occurring
along breaks in a sediment or rock body where there is a little Some mechanical compaction must have occurred during the
mutual displacement of the opening blocks. Fractures in carbon- burial and reduced porosity and permeability in unlithified
ates are commonly filled with a variety of mineral species in- Kangan Formation (Figs. 8a and 10e). Compaction of ooid
cluding calcite, dolomite, anhydrite, galena, sphalerite, celestite, and bioclastic fragments during the burial with an increase
strontianite, and fluorite. In the Kangan Formation, this type of in depth is very important to reduce the primary porosity,
porosity is filled with anhydrite and calcite cements (Fig. 7b). but not necessarily the permeability.
According to Lucia, the porosity is the touching vug (TV) type.
Chemical compaction
– Channel porosity
Chemical compaction occurs as a result of increasing the dis-
The irregular shape of a large, porous fracture indicates that solution in the points of grains contact due to the weight of top
some solution enlargement occurred across the matrix, thus beddings (Wanless 1979). If compaction is followed by ce-
creating channel porosity. Channel porosity is rather rare with- ment forming, stylolite will usually be formed. Numerous
in the Kangan Formation, only within mudstones and studies (e.g., Wanless 1979; Braithwaite 1989) have suggested
wackestones. Small amounts of channel porosity are pre- that some stylolites represent the former open pathways of
served (Fig. 7f), and the rest of them are filled with calcite diagenetic fluids (Fig. 8b). Stylolites can both be formed in
or anhydrite cement. mud-rich microfacies and in facies which are enriched with
grains of various types and forms (Fig. 8c). Dissolution of
– Enlarged porosity calcite during stylolite creation is the main source of the coarse
272 Page 14 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

a b c

Cd1

Cd1
d e f
Fig. 8 a) Mechanical compaction process in an ooid grainstone. and often decrease porosity and permeability. Sometimes, stylolites create
Allochems got closer together and decreased porosity and permeability a way to run fluids (b). d–f) Types of dolimitic porosity destructions: bio
prior to the cementation process in shallow marine waters. b, c) Stylolites. and oomoldic filling in bioclastic ooid grainstone (d), intergranular filling
During burial diagenesis, the stylolites decrease the volume of limestones in ooid grainstone (e), and fracture filling in mudstone (f)

calcite spar which is observed to be the physical cause of a loss cements; therefore, the porosity and permeability decreased.
of porosity (Ehrenberg 2006). Sometimes, after fracturing of carbonate rocks during burial
diagenesis, calcite minerals fill the fractures and sometimes
Dolomite oomoldic porosity is filled with the calcite; consequently, the
porosity decreases. For more information about the types of
Dolomite porosity was inherited from the precursor limestone. calcite cements, see the BPetrography of calcites^ section.
However, porosity is frequently reduced due to cement pre-
cipitation (Lucia 2004). According to Mazzullo (1992), dolo-
mite can enhance or reduce porosity depending on the mode Discussion
and timing of the dolomitization process. Among the various
types of dolomites (fabric retentive, fabric destructive, and Determination of reservoir rock types
dolomite cement), the destructive types and dolomite cements
are important for porosity destruction. The dolomites play the Due to a relatively real estimation of hydrocarbon in the res-
role of porosity filling such as bio and oomoldic fillings ervoirs, we need to determine reservoir rock types (RRTs).
(Fig. 8d), intergranular (Fig. 8e), fracture filling (Fig. 8f), The rock types of reservoir are classified based on the ability
and so on. These dolomites often decrease the porosity but of fluid movement (permeability) and the amount of irreduc-
not necessarily the permeability. ible water saturation (Swir) of rocks. Therefore, we must con-
sider depositional fabric, diagenetic features, petrophysical
Anhydrite properties, and dynamic characteristics. According to
Aliakbardoust and Rahimpour-Bonab (2013), the rock typing
Anhydrite is a common mineral in dolomite reservoirs. One of process has two parts: static rock typing which includes geo-
the important porosity-destroying processes is anhydrite ce- logical and petrophysical studies and dynamic rock typing
mentation. Anhydrite cements range from patchy to nodular in which includes fluid distribution and fluid-rock interaction
distribution. Anhydrite is observed in most of the facies and characteristics in the reservoir.
fills pores as interparticle, moldic, and fenestral cements Six different RRTs have been distinguished in the Kangan
(Ehrenberg 2006; Lucia 2007). For more information about Formation (Table 1):
the structures and textures of anhydrite, see the BPetrography & RRT-1:
of anhydrites^ section.
– Dolomite: The RRT-1 is composed of dolomite with well-
Calcite preserved intercrystalline porosity (Fig. 9a, b). Most of
the dolo-rhombs are planar-e and planar-s. In addition, the
When the allochems were deposited in marine environments, rock texture is sucrose. Lithologically, it is the best reser-
space (porosity) between them was filled with carbonate voir rock in comparison to the others. The rocks have the
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 15 of 21 272

Fig. 9 RRT-1: a) Dolomites (Rd2

and Rd3) with a well-preserved
intercrystalline porosity (black
color) and sucrosic texture. b) Rd2 & 3 Rd2 & 3
Closeup of dolomites that show
planar-e and planar-s rhombs.
RRT-2: c, d) Bioclast-ooid
grainstone with interparticle and
oomoldic porosities (black color).
Most of the pore spaces between
allochems are filled with sparry
cement. e) Dolo-grainstone with
planar-s to non-planar dolomites
and intercrystalline porosity as
a b
well. Some pores are filled with
anhydrite (arrow). RRT-3: f) Moldic
Bioclast packstone with Rd3
intraparticle (intrafossil) porosity Anhy
(black color). Lime mud filled the
space between fossil fragments.
g) Bioclast–ooid grainstone with
oomoldic pores some of them
filled with anhydrite (see the c d e
down right-hand corner of the
picture)

f g

lowest Swir (water saturation) and the highest permeabil- pores are filled with anhydrite (intercrystals and oomolds;
ity (K) (Table 1; Fig. 11a). Thus, the intercrystalline po- Fig. 9e).
rosity is the best pore type which makes an interconnected
system in the reservoir rock samples and helps the fluid The quality of the reservoir in this rock type is very good.
motion. The quality of the reservoir in this rock type is
perfect. RRT-1 is observed more in K2. & RRT-3:

& RRT-2: – Bioclast packstone: It comprises various skeletal frag-

ments as bivalves, ostracods, and so on, with intraparticle
– Bioclast-ooid grainstone: It consists of sorted ooids with (intrafossil) and biomoldic porosities (Fig. 9f). The spaces
interparticle and oomoldic porosities. Most of the pore between fossil fragments are occupied with lime mud,
spaces between allochems are filled with cements having a low permeability and a high Swir (see Table 1).
(Fig. 9c, d). Moldic porosity is caused by trapped fluids; This type of rock is known as a reservoir; however, it is
however, the connectivity of these molds through the in- not a good reservoir rock.
terparticle porosity has been compensating this effect. – Bioclast-ooid grainstone: It comprises various skeletal
The rock would be a good reservoir among the others fragment and oomolds with intraparticle (intrafossil)
(Fig. 11b). The interparticle porosity is one of the best and oomoldic porosities (Fig. 9g). The spaces be-
pore types which make an interconnected system in the tween fossil fragments were occupied with cement
reservoir rock samples and helps the fluid motion. that has a low permeability and high Swir (see
– Dolo-grainstone: It consists of quasi-ooids and neomorph Table 1; Fig. 11c). Some of the oomolds are filled
dolomites with intercrystalline porosity (Fig. 9e). Most of with anhydrite. This type of rock is known as reser-
the dolo-rhombs are planar-s and non-planar types. Some voir albeit not very well.
272 Page 16 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

Moldic

a b c

d e f

g h
Fig. 10 RRT-4: a, b) Grainstone with oomoldic porosity (black color). Packstone with oomoldic and biomoldic pores filled with anhydrite (crys-
Notice that most of oomolds are filled with dolomite (Cd1) and calcite talline shape). There are some vuggy porosities in lime muds (black
(moldic filling) in various sizes. c) Floatstone with vuggy porosity (milky color). RRT-6: g) Dolo-mudstone with patchy anhydrite cement. h)
color) in various sizes. RRT-5: d, e) Grainstone with poorly sorted ooids Grainstone with various porosities. All porosities were filled with anhy-
and intense compaction with oomoldic and some interparticle porosities drite (generally crystalline shape) and dolomite (Cd1) in various sizes
(black color). Some of ooids were distorted, flatted, and broken (e). f)

The quality of the reservoir in this rock type is good. The quality of the reservoir in this rock type is moderate.
& RRT-4:
& RRT-5:
– Ooid grainstone: Oomoldic porosity is dominant,
most of which is occupied by dolomite and calcite. – Ooid grainstone: In this rock, ooids are compacted in-
The spaces between ooids are filled with some cal- tensely and oomoldic porosity is more than interparti-
cite cements and dolomites, and there is some in- cle one (Fig. 10d). Ooids are distorted, flatted, and
terparticle porosity as well (Fig. 10a, b). This type broken (Fig. 10e). Most of the pores (interparticle and
of rock is considered as reservoir but not a good oomoldic) are occupied with sparry cement and dolo-
one (Fig. 11d). mite, respectively. There is some interparticle porosity
– Floatstone: In this rock, vuggy porosity is dominant (Fig. 10d, e). The rocks have a high Swir and a very
(Fig. 10c). This type of rock is considered as a reservoir low permeability (Fig. 11e). It is a non-reservoir rock
but not a good one. due to low permeability.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 17 of 21 272

a b c

d e f
Fig. 11 Capillary pressure curves of the different RRTs. a) RRT-1: With above 20%. Therefore, the permeability of the reservoir rock is not suit-
increasing capillary pressure above 100 psi, Swir stays constant at a level able for extraction of hydrocarbons. It is possible that with creating joints
of 10%. b, c) RRT-2 and RRT-3: same as a; with increasing capillary and fractures, hydrocarbon production increases. e, f) RRT-5 and RRT-6:
pressure above 100 psi, Swir stays constant at a level of 80% and 65%, With increasing capillary pressure above 100 psi, Swir stays constant at a
respectively. a–c Reservoir quality is decreasing. d) RRT-4: With increas- level of 60 and 25%, respectively. So the pressure above 900 psi must
ing capillary pressure above 100 psi, Swir stays constant at a level of increase to achieve Swir above 75 and 50%, respectively. The RRT-5 and
60%, so capillary pressure must increase up to 900 psi to achieve Swir 6 have low permeability and high Swir and so are non-reservoir rock

– Ooid–bioclast packstone: In this rock, most of the anhydrite and dolomite and have a high Swir and the
oomoldic and biomoldic pores are filled with anhydrite lowest permeability (Fig. 11f). It is a non-reservoir.
(Fig. 10f); the spaces between fossil fragments and
obscure-ooid are occupied with lime mud; however, there This rock type does not have a reservoir quality.
is some vuggy porosity in lime muds. The rock has a high The rock types in the Kangan Formation can be distin-
Swir and a very low permeability. It is a non-reservoir guished on the basis of a great escape of water with a little
rock due to low permeability. capillary pressure, a plot of irreducible water saturation
(Swir), and a capillary pressure as well (Table 1; Plot 1).
The quality of reservoir in these rocks type is poor. According to Plot 1, the rock types 2 and 5 are similar to each
other; however, they have different permeabilities. Therefore,
& RRT-6: the movement of hydrocarbons in the rock type 2 is much
easier than in 5.
– Dolo-mudstone: the rock includes dolo-lime mud. The pore
spaces are occupied with anhydrite. It has a high Swir and Evaluation of rock types of the Kangan Formation
the lowest permeability (Fig. 10g). It is non-reservoir rock. in the litho-stratigraphic column
– Oolithic grainstone: the rock is a grainstone with poorly
sorted ooids and skeletal fragments with oobiomoldic po- After determining the reservoir rock types of the Kangan
rosity (Fig. 10h). All the pore spaces are occupied with Formation in the gas field, it is necessary to provide
272 Page 18 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

Plot 1 Determination of the rock

600

Capillary pressure, Psi

types on the basis of Swir vs.
capillary pressure. The rock types 500 Type-1
2 and 5 are similar; however, with
referring to Table 1, it reveals that 400 Type-2
they have different permeabilities. 300
Therefore, the movement of Type-3
hydrocarbons in the rock type 2 is 200
Type-4
much easier than in 5. In the plot, 100
type-1: RRT-1; type-2: RRT-2;
0 Type-5
and so on
150 100 50 0 100- Type-6
Swir (%)

information about the location of these rock types within the and sequences cannot provide the necessary conditions
litho-stratigraphic column: to create quality reservoir rocks, and only the latest dia-
genetic processes determines a sequence of rocks be
& RRT-1, 2, and 3: These rock types hold the best and reservoir or non-reservoir.
highest quality reservoir in the Kangan Formation.
These rock types occur in the lower part of K1 and with- For correlation of the rock types, well A has been used
in K2 (Fig. 12). The thickness of this quality reservoir from adjacent well (well B). Available data in the well B
rocks in the K1 is about 35 m, but a thick sequence includes gamma log, sonic log, lithology, and productivity test
(about 10 m) of rocks with poor reservoir quality (Fig. 12). If assign a number to each region having productiv-
(RRT-4, 5, 6) divides the reservoir section into two parts ity test (well B) and correlate its zones with well A, two zones
(with thicknesses of about 25 m each). This part of the can be distinguished:
reservoir (K1) is composed of crystalline carbonates
(dolomites), grainstones, mudstones, and packstones, Zone 1: The productivity test reveals that this zone
which have been dolomitized in various degrees. So (Fig. 12) has gas, gas condensate, and a little water. By
dolomitization process could play a major role in the correlation of the zone with well A, it reveals that rock
creation of the reservoir conditions. types 1, 2, and 3 (best RRTs) in well B are not traceable in
well A. Therefore, as a result of diagenetic processes, this
part of the formation has lost reservoir property (Fig. 12).
K2 has a lot of suitable reservoir rocks. In the section, there Zone 2: There is not any correlation between two wells,
are 27 m of suitable reservoir rocks divided into two main but above and below the zone (in well A), there are suit-
parts with a thick sequence of rocks (about 12 m) with poor able reservoir rock types (Fig. 12). In fact, diagenetic
reservoir quality (Fig. 12). Each part is subdivided into mul- processes have created a shift in the position of the
tiple thinner segments by interlayer rocks with poor reservoir reservoir.
quality. Compared to K1, K2 is composed of limestone (more
grainstone). As mentioned above, occurrence of non-reservoir
rock sequences between the reservoirs, rocks create imperme-
able reservoir barriers and cause compartment of the reservoir. Conclusion
In general, the Kangan Formation has about 52 m of qualified
reservoir rocks (RRT-1, 2, 3). & Various types of porosities are present in the Kangan
Formation. Fabric-selective porosity includes the moldic,
& RRT-4, 5, and 6: These rock types have not necessary shelter, interparticle, intraparticle, and intercrystalline
conditions for being reservoir rock. Referring to the types. Non-fabric selective porosity includes vuggy and
litho-stratigraphic column (Fig. 12), most part of K1 fracture porosities and so on.
and less part of K2 are occupied by these rock types. & Moldic, interparticle, and intercrystalline porosities are the
The important point is that most rocks are composed most common types.
of mudstones, crystalline carbonates, and grainstones. & The total porosity is increased due to the separate vug
Referring to the litho-stratigraphic column (Fig. 12), it porosity type. These types of porosities, however, cause
is clearly visible that these rocks are present in quality fluid entrapment and reduce the oil and gas recovery.
rock types. Therefore, in the case of limestone se- & Pores are commonly filled with calcite, anhydrite, and
quences, it can be stated that depositional environment dolomite cements.
Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272 Page 19 of 21 272

Fig. 12 Litho-stratigraphic column of the Kangan Formation in wells A and B in the gas field. Numbers 1 and 2 in the well B are productivity test zones
(green boxes)
272 Page 20 of 21 Arab J Geosci (2017) 10: 272

& Several types of dolomites are important to increase or Alsharhan AS, Kendall C (2003) Holocene coastal carbonates and evap-
orates of the southern Arabian Gulf and their ancient analogues.
decrease porosity, among which, sucrosic types (such as
Earth-Science Rev 61:191–243
Rd2) are important to increase porosity. This type of do- Alsharhan AS, Nairn AEM (1997) Sedimentary basins and petroleum
lomite creates a network, which consequently preserves geology of the Middle East. Elsevier, Netherlands, 843 pp
intercrystalline porosity. Other dolomites generally fill Amadi FO, Major RP, Baria LR (2012) Origins of gypsum in deep car-
pore spaces; porosity and permeability are reduced by bonate reservoirs: implications for hydrocarbon exploration and pro-
duction. AAPG Bull 96(2):375–390
anhydrite and calcite. Archie GE (1952) Classification of carbonate reservoir rocks and
& The variations in the rock properties, such as depositional petrophysical considerations. AAPG 36(2):278–298
texture pore types, and the cement content determine the Bakhtiari H, Esfahani MR, Sharifi H, Saadat K, Nematzadeh H, Behin R,
effect of these properties on the fluid behavior of the res- Vali R, Kazemzadeh M (2011) Special core analysis report of Kish
gas field. Research Institute of Petroleum Industry (RIPI), p 573
ervoir rock.
Bazargani-Guilani K, Faramarzi M (2008) Petrogenesis and composition
& The findings indicate that the initial rock texture could of Cretaceous dolomites Shahmirzad, central Alborz. J Sci Univ
change to different types of reservoir rock with different Tehran 34:23–36
qualities as a result of diagenetic overprints. Bazargani-Guilani K, Faramarzi M, Nekouvaght Tak MA (2010)
& Rock samples are classified into six classes based on the Multistage dolomitization in the Cretaceous carbonates of the east
Shahmirzad area, north Semnan, central Alborz, Iran. Carbonates
similarity in Swir and the capillary pressure which gener- and Evaporites 25:177–191
ally increase from classes 1 to 6. The quality of the reser- Braithwaite CJR (1989) Stylolites as open fluid conduits. Mar Pet Geol 6:
voir can be classified into six categories from RRT-1 to 93–96
RRT-6 as perfect, very good, good, moderate, poor, and Callot JP, Jahani S, Letouzey J (2007) The role of pre-existing diapirs in
fold and thrust belt development. In: Lacombe O, Lave J, Roure F,
none, respectively. Accordingly, while the quality of the Verges J (eds) Thrust belt and foreland basin. Springer, Berlin, pp
reservoir decreases, the irreducible water saturation and 309–325
capillary pressure at different saturations increase. Chen D, Qing H, Yang C (2004) Multistage hydrothermal dolomites in
& According to the data derived from this study, depositional the Middle Devonian (Givetian) carbonates from the Guilin Area,
South China. Sedimentology 51:1029–1051
paleoenvironment of carbonate sequences may not pro-
Choquette PW, Hiatt EE (2008) Shallow-burial dolomite cement: a major
vide all the required conditions to generate quality reser- component of many ancient sucrosic dolomites. Sedimentology 55:
voir rocks, but mainly, the latest diagenetic courses (asso- 423–460
ciate with salt diapirism) controls a sequence of rocks Choquette PW, Pray LC (1970) Geologic nomenclature and classification
being reservoir or non-reservoir quality. of porosity in sedimentary carbonates. AAPG Bull 54(2):207–250
Choquette PW, Cox AH, Meyers WJ (1992) Characteristics, distribution
& It seems that the method of rock typing, among the others, and origin of porosity in shelf dolomites, Burlington-Keokuk
is the best way to determine the reservoir rock type. Formation (Mississippian), US Mid-Continent. J Sediment Petrol
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Acknowledgements We are grateful to all the experts and managing Nature 205: 4971: 587
director of Petroleum Engineering and Development Company of Iran for Edgell HS (1996) Salt tectonism in the Persian Gulf Basin. Geol Soc
providing us with necessary data. We would also like to express our Lond, Spec Publ 100:129–151
gratitude to editorial handling and Editor-in-Chief of the AJGS and Dr.
Ehrenberg SN (2006) Porosity destruction in carbonate platforms. J Pet
Leila Akbari and Dr. Seyed Mohsen Kariminia for improve the manu-
Geol 29:41–52
script. We also express our thanks to Islamic Azad University, Science
El-Tabakh M, Mory A, Schreiber BC, Yasin R (2004) Anhydrite cements
and Research Branch authorities.
after dolomitization of shallow marine Silurian carbonates of the
Gascoyne Platform, Southern Carnarvon Basin, Western Australia.
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