CAA Flight Instructor Guide Web

Flight
Instructor
Guide
CONTENTS
Instructional theory 4 Basic concepts 57
This section of the Flight Instructor Guide

Taxiing 58
supports the Instructional Techniques Course
required for an instructor rating.
Effects of controls 63
Instructional theory introduction 5 Straight and level 73
Learning theory 7 Climbing and descending 80
Human behaviour 15 Medium, climbing and descending turns 89
Effective communication 19 Slow flight 96
The teaching process 22 Basic stalling 101
Teaching methods 25
Circuit training 109
Evaluation 34
Circuit introduction 110
Instructional aids 42
Circuit considerations 120
Role modelling 45
Engine failure after take-off 127
References for instructional theory 48

Flapless landings 135
Briefings 51 Crosswind circuit 140
Briefings introduction 52 Glide approach 147
Vacating and joining at aerodromes 152
Radio failure 159
Cover photo: iStock.com/Harbucks
2 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

Advanced manoeuvres 163 Visual navigation 273
Forced landing without power – pattern 164 1 Dead-reckoning navigation 274
Forced landing without power – considerations 174 2 Landing away 281
Steep turns 182 3 Weather avoidance and diversion 285
Advanced stalling 189 4 Inadvertent IMC and lost procedure 288
Maximum rate turns 196 Supervision of solo cross‑country 291
Wing-drop stalling 203 Appendices 293
Short field take-off and landing 208 Appendix 1 Ground course 294
Low flying introduction 216 Appendix 2 Sign-out checklist 296
Low flying consolidation 222
Precautionary landing 228
Terrain and weather awareness 234
Basic mountain flying 239
Instrument flying 245
Compass use 246
Instrument flying introduction 253
Limited panel 258
Unusual attitudes 262
Night flying 266
Contents 3
Instructional
theory
Instructional theory introduction
This section of the Flight Instructor Guide supports the
Instructional Techniques Course required for an instructor rating.
The expert flight instructor is master of many skills The five senses are acted on by the environment (the
and fields of knowledge. What is taught demands cockpit, classroom or instructor) and the information is
technical competence in these areas, but how passed by the nervous system to the sensory register.
the teaching is accomplished depends on your The information remains in its original form for only a
understanding of how people learn and the ability fraction of a second while pattern recognition takes
to apply that understanding. The following gives place, giving form and shape to the information.
some insights into the learning process and is meant
to guide you into areas of further study. Teaching The information passed to the short-term or working
is a rewarding experience, but those rewards are memory, is coded as a concept. For example, the word
not easily achieved. It is doubtful that anyone has aeroplane takes on meaning, but information received
a natural ability to teach or understand how others from long-term memory may modify that concept, say
learn, therefore the professional instructor continues to a jet aeroplane. This re-coded information is passed
the life-long process of learning not only flying skills to long-term memory for storage or is acted on.
but also teaching skills.
Information from either short-term or long-term
It is intended that this section be reviewed regularly memory is passed to the response generator, or
so that you gain the most benefit from it. As your decision-maker, and this information is passed
experience widens, you will need to draw on a wider through the nervous system to the body’s muscles,
and wider variety of teaching methods so that you which act on the environment.
can maximise your student’s learning. Refreshing this
section should help you remember those teaching This whole process is affected by expectancies. For
methods that you may not use very often. example, you will probably have had an experience
of seeing what you wanted to see, rather than what
was actually there. Expectancies affect the way
information is perceived, the way it is coded, and the
generated response.
Information processing
The process is further affected by the strategies used
To understand how a person learns, we first need to to encode the information – learning strategies. For
consider a basic model of information processing1 example, the use of mnemonics or mind-mapping to
(see diagram below). store information can greatly affect later retrieval.
Figure 1
Information processing
Definition of learning
Learning strategies Expectancies
To define learning, it is necessary to analyse what

happens to the individual. As a result of a learning
Muscles
Response
generator
experience, an individual’s way of perceiving,
thinking, feeling and doing may change. Therefore,
Environment
Long
term
memory
learning can be defined as “a change in behaviour as
a result of experience that persists”1. The behaviour
Five senses
Sensory Short term can be physical and overt, or it can be intellectual or

register memory
attitudinal, and therefore not easily seen. Learning
occurs continuously throughout a person’s lifetime.
Instructional theory 5
Learning outcomes are multiple
Characteristics of learning
If instructors see their objective as being only to
train their student’s memory and muscles, they
Learning comes from experience underestimate the potential of the teaching situation.
Students may learn much that you did not intend,
The student can only learn from individual experience.
for they did not leave their thinking minds or feelings
A person’s knowledge is a result of experience, and
at home, just because these were not included in
no two people have had identical experiences.
your lesson plan. Learning can be classified by type
Even when observing the same event, two people
as: verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem
react differently; they learn different things from
solving and emotional. These divisions are artificial,
it, according to the manner in which the situation
however. For example, a class learning problem
affects their individual needs. Previous experience
solving may learn by trying to solve real problems.
conditions a person to respond to some things and
In doing so it is also engaged in verbal learning and
ignore others.
sensory perception. Each student approaches the
task with preconceived ideas and feelings, and for
All learning is by experience3, but it takes place
many students these ideas change as a result of
in different forms and in varying degrees. Some
the experience. The learning process, therefore, may
experiences involve the whole person, while others
include many types of learning, all taking place at the
only the ears and memory. You are faced with
same time.
the problem of providing experiences that are
meaningful, varied and appropriate; for example,
In another sense, while learning the subject at hand,
by repeated drill, students can learn to say a list
students may be learning other things as well. They
of words, or by rote they can learn to recite certain
may be developing attitudes about aviation, good or
principles of flight. However, they can only make
bad, depending on what they experience. You must
them meaningful if they understand them well
always display a professional attitude, regardless of
enough to apply them correctly to real situations.
whether or not instruction is actually taking place.
If an experience challenges the learner, requires
This learning is sometimes called incidental5, but it
involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past
may have a great impact on the total development
experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective
of the student.
than an experience in which all the learner has to do
is commit something to memory2.
Learning is an active process
It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical
piloting skill requires experience in performing that You cannot assume that students remember
skill. However, mental habits are also learned through something just because they were present in the
practice. If students are to use sound judgement and classroom, briefing or aircraft when you taught it.
solve problems well, they must have had learning Neither can you assume that the students can apply
experiences in which they have exercised judgement what they know because they can quote the correct
and applied their knowledge of general principles in answer from the book. For the students to learn,
the solving of realistic problems.4 they must attend to instruction, react and respond
by relating information to their knowledge and
experience, construct meaning from that interaction,
Learning must have relevance and attribute results to their own effort2. If learning
is a process of changing behaviour, that process must
Each student sees a learning situation from a
be inter-active and observable.
different viewpoint. Each student’s past experience
affects readiness to learn. Most people have fairly
definite ideas about what they want to achieve.
Therefore, each student has specific goals and their
needs and attitudes may determine what they learn
as much as what you are trying to get them to learn.
Students learn from any activity that tends to further
their goals. The effective instructor must discover the
student’s goals and seek ways to relate new learning
to those goals1.

INSTRUCTIONAL THEORY
Learning theory
must the student recognise the symptoms of
Learning components the approaching stall? Where does this lesson
fit with those covered previously, and those
lessons ahead?
Psychologists over the years have proposed
various theories on learning, and from these
we can gain an insight into the learning Repetition
process. Listed below are some of the most
widely accepted learning components, Those things most often repeated are best
sometimes referred to as ‘Laws of learning’. remembered6. Every time practice occurs,
learning continues. Students do not learn
crosswind landings from one instructional
Primacy flight. You must provide opportunities for
practice and must see that this process is
What is taught first, often creates a strong,
directed toward a goal.
almost unshakeable impression. Therefore
what is taught, and what is learnt, must
be right the first time. Un-teaching is more Rewards, reinforcement, or conditioning
difficult than teaching.
“One of the most powerful forms of reward
available to the instructor is praise”7. Learning
Readiness is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling and weakened
The student learns best when they are
when associated with an unpleasant one.
ready to learn, motivated, and understand
Termed the ‘Law of effect’, it is based on
clearly the objectives for the lesson. Being
the emotional reaction of the learner. An
ready to learn also entails consideration
experience that produces feelings of defeat,
of Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs
frustration, anger, confusion or futility is
(see Human behaviour). A student distracted
unpleasant for the student. If, for example,
by fatigue, stress, home or relationship issues,
an instructor attempts to teach landings
etc, will not be ready to learn.
during the first flight, the student is likely to
feel overwhelmed. Impressing the student
Relevance / Belonging with a difficult manoeuvre can make the
later teaching task difficult. It is better to
Individuals learn best when they see a reason
tell students that a manoeuvre or problem,
for learning. If students have a clear objective,
although difficult, is within their capabilities to
and a well defined reason for learning, they
perform or understand. Whatever the learning
make rapid progress. You must explain the
situation, it should affect the student positively
relevance of each lesson. For example, why
and give them a feeling of satisfaction.
Instructional theory: Learning theory 7

As flight instructors deal with adult or early adult
Intensity or arousal education, how these differences affect adult
A vivid, dramatic or exciting learning experience learning is of some importance.
teaches more than does a routine or boring • Adults need to know why; they need to see a
experience. This implies that the student will learn use for their learning.
more from the real thing. In contrast to in-flight
• Adults have a self-concept of being responsible
instruction, the classroom limits the amount of realism
for their own lives. They resent and resist
that can be brought into the teaching. Instructors
situations in which they feel others are imposing
should use imagination in the briefing. Photographs,
their wills on them.
mock-ups, and audio-visual aids can add vividness
to classroom instruction. • Adults have a greater quantity and quality
of experience, therefore more emphasis is placed
on techniques which use that experience, such as
Recency group discussion and simulation exercises.
The things most recently learned are best • Adults become ready to learn when they see a
remembered. Instructors recognise recency when they need for learning in order to deal with real-life
carefully plan a summary of their pre-flight briefing situations.
or post-flight critique. You must repeat, restate
or re‑emphasise important points at the end of • Adults learn most effectively when the context
the lesson. is orientated so they can see that the learning
will help them deal with tasks or problems.
• Adults are affected by external motivation,

Feedback
but they posses a far more powerful internal
Feedback on knowledge, skills and attitudes as motivation through job satisfaction or self‑esteem.
learning takes place is important guidance for
assessment on performance and progress. This Recommended reading
feedback should be linked to the objectives of the
lesson and focused on steps to take for next lesson For a fuller explanation of how these factors affect
or for improvement. It should guide the student the adult learner, flight instructors are encouraged
in developing their own ‘self-reflection’ skills for to read The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species by
assessing their own performance when flying solo. MS Knowles (1988), Chapter 3.
How adults learn Perception
One view of learning that is of particular importance Initially, all learning comes from perceptions that
to the flight instructor, is that proposed by MS are directed to the brain by one or more of the
Knowles36 on how adults should be treated five senses. Psychologists have determined that
differently from children, based on their psychological normal individuals acquire about 75 percent of their
differences. knowledge through the sense of sight, 13 percent
through hearing, 6 percent through touch, 3 percent
• Children need to know what the teacher teaches through smell and 3 percent through taste. They
if they want to pass. have found that learning occurs most rapidly when
information is received through more than one sense.
• The child’s self-concept is one of dependence on
the teacher. Perception involves more than receiving stimuli from
• The child’s past experience is of little worth; it is the five senses. Perceptions result when a person
the teacher’s experience that matters gives meaning to sensations. People base their
actions on the way they believe things to be, and this
• The child is ready to learn when the teacher tells
will depend on many factors within each person8.
them to learn.
The experienced flight instructor, for example, will
• The child is orientated toward subject matter. interpret engine rough running quite differently to an
inexperienced student. Because perceptions are the
• The child is motivated to learn by external
basis of all learning, some of the factors that affect
forces, eg, grades, parents.
the perceptual process are discussed below.

a “deficit in memory”11, for example, during the
Goals and values initial practice of steep turns, a student may focus
Every experience and sensation that is funnelled into attention on the altimeter and completely disregard
the brain is coloured by the individual’s own beliefs outside visual references. Anything an instructor
and value structure. Spectators at a rugby game does that is interpreted as threatening makes the
may ‘see’ an infraction or foul differently depending student less able to accept the experience you
on which team they support. The precise kinds of are trying to provide. It adversely affects all the
commitments and philosophical outlooks that the student’s physical, emotional and mental faculties.
student holds are important for you to know, since Hence the extensive use, in flight instruction, of the
this knowledge will assist in predicting how the follow‑me‑through exercise.
student will interpret experiences and instructions.
The student gains perception from the feel of control
For example, the student with an interest in crop-
inputs but more importantly in the early stages,
dusting will perceive instruction differently from those
the student gains from the elimination of fear. You
interested in airlines or helicopters. Motivation is also
need to build a climate of confidence in which the
a product of a person’s value structure; those things
student realises that you will not allow them to put
most highly valued are pursued while those of less
the aircraft into a dangerous situation, and so the
importance are not.
student’s confidence in performing the manoeuvre
grows. Learning is primarily a psychological process.
Self-concept As long as the student feels capable of coping
with a situation, each new experience is viewed as
A student’s self-image, described as ‘confident’ or
a challenge.
‘insecure’ has a great influence on the perception
process. How a person sees themselves is a powerful Teaching is consistently effective only when those
factor in learning. The student who attributes success factors that influence perceptions are recognised and
to hard work, and failure to lack of effort, will perform taken into account.
better than a student who attributes success to luck
and failure to lack of ability9.
Time and opportunity Insights

Learning depends on previous perceptions
Insights involve the grouping of perceptions into
(experience) and the availability of time to relate new
meaningful wholes. To ensure that these occur, it is
perceptions to the old. Therefore sequence and time
essential to help the student realise the way each
available affect learning1. A student could probably
piece relates to all the other pieces of the total
stall an aircraft on the first attempt, regardless of
pattern of the task to be learned8.
previous experience. But the stall cannot be really
learned unless some experience in normal flight has As an example, in straight-and-level flight, in an
been acquired. Even with such previous experience, aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller, the RPM will
time and practice are needed to relate the new increase when the throttle is opened and decrease
sensations and experiences associated with stalls in when it is closed. RPM changes, however, can also
order to develop a perception of the stall. The length result from changes in pitch attitude without changes
and frequency of an experience affect the learning in power setting.
rate. The training syllabus must provide time and
opportunity. As a general guide for ab initio flight Therefore engine RPM, power setting, airspeed and
instruction little and often is best10. attitude are inter-related. Understanding the way
in which each of these factors may affect all of the
others, and understanding the way in which a change
The element of threat
in any one of them may affect changes in all of the
Fear adversely affects a student’s perception by others, is imperative to true learning. This mental
narrowing their perceptual field. The field of vision relating and grouping of associated perceptions is
is reduced, for example, when an individual is called insight.
frightened and all perceptual faculties are focused
on the thing that has generated fear. Anxiety or Insights will almost always occur eventually,
worry (milder forms of fear) take up processing whether or not instruction is provided. Instruction,
space in the working memory and may produce however, speeds this learning process by teaching

the relationship of perceptions as they occur, This is usually achieved through the verbal
thus promoting the development of insights by introduction to the pre-flight brief. The attractive
the student. features of the activity to be learned can provide a
powerful motivation. Students are anxious to learn
It is a major responsibility of the instructor to organise skills that may be used, and if they can be made to
demonstrations, explanations and student practice understand how each learning task relates to their
so that the learner has the opportunity to understand goals, they will be eager to pursue it.
the inter-relationship of experiences.
The desire for personal comfort and security is a
Pointing out the relationships as they occur, providing motivation that is often inadequately appreciated
a secure and non-threatening environment in by instructors. All students want secure, pleasant
which to learn, and helping the student acquire conditions and states of being. If they recognise that
and maintain a favourable self-concept are most what they are learning may promote this objective,
important in the learning process. their interest is easier to attract and hold. Insecure
and unpleasant training situations retard learning.
Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury. Students are

Motivation likely to learn actions and operations that they realise
may prevent injury. This is especially true when the
Motivation is the dominant force that governs the student knows that the ability to act correctly in an
student’s progress and ability to learn12. Motivations emergency results from adequate learning.
may be negative or positive, tangible or intangible,
Group approval is a strong motivating force. Every
or subtle or obvious.
person wants approval of friends and superiors13.
Negative motivations are those which engender fear. Interest can be stimulated and maintained by
They are not characteristically effective in promoting building on this natural force. Most students enjoy the
efficient learning. feeling of belonging to a group and are interested in
attaining prestige among their fellow students.
Positive motivations are provided by the promise
or achievement of rewards. These rewards may be Every person seeks to establish a favourable self-
personal or social; they may involve financial gain, image. This motivation can best be fostered by you
satisfaction of the self-concept, or public recognition. through the introduction of perceptions which are
Some motivations that can be used to advantage based on facts previously learned and which are
by you include the desire for personal gain, the easily recognised by the student as achievements
desire for personal security, the gaining of a sense of in learning. This process builds confidence, and
achievement, the desire for group approval, and the motivation is strengthened as a result.
achievement of a favourable self-image.
Positive motivation is essential to learning. Negative
The desire for personal gain, either the acquisition of motivations in the form of reproof and threats should
things or position, is a basic motivation for all human be avoided with all but the most overconfident and
endeavours. An individual may be motivated to dig a impulsive students.
ditch or to design an aircraft solely by the desire for
Slumps in learning are often due to slumps in
financial gain.
motivation. Motivation does not remain at a uniform
Students are like all other workers in wanting a level and may be affected by outside influences,
tangible return for their efforts. If such motivation is such as physical fitness or inadequate instruction.
to be effective, they must believe that their efforts You must tailor instruction to maintain the highest
will be suitably rewarded. These rewards must be possible level of motivation and should be alert to
constantly apparent to the student during instruction, detect and counter lapses in motivation.
whether they are to be financial, self interest or public
While the flight instructor must consider the
recognition.
motivation of students, it is also essential for the
The student may not appreciate why they are professional flight instructor to consider their own
learning a particular lesson. If motivation is to be motivation. “The potential influence of an instructor is
maintained it is important that you ensure the student so great that it merits a career path and status” of its
is aware of the applications of the lesson. own, while “the use of flight instruction as a transient

position to accumulate the hours needed to progress
to an airline position is a hackneyed strategy and an Learning a skill
unfortunate syndrome for the industry”14.
Even though the process of learning has many

aspects, the purpose of instruction is usually to learn
a concept or skill. The process of learning a skill
Levels of learning appears to be much the same whether it is a motor
(physical) or mental skill. To provide an illustration of
Learning may be accomplished at any of several motor learning, follow the directions below:
levels. From the lowest to progressively higher levels
• Write the word learning 15 times with your left
of learning, these are:
hand (or right hand if you are left-handed). Try to
• rote learning, the ability to repeat back improve the speed and quality of your writing.
something one has been taught without
understanding or being able to apply it, In the learning task just completed, several principles
of motor learning are involved and are discussed
• understanding what has been taught,
below.
• application of what has been learnt, and
• correlating what has been learnt with other

Physical skills involve more than muscles
things previously learned.
The above exercise contains a practical example of
For example, a flight instructor may tell a beginning the multifaceted character of learning. It should be
student pilot to enter a turn by banking the aircraft obvious that, while a muscular sequence was being
with aileron and applying sufficient rudder in the learned, other things were happening as well. The
same direction to prevent slip or skid. A student who perception changed as the sequence became easier.
can repeat these instructions has learned by rote. Concepts of how to perform the skill were developed
This will not be very useful to the student if there is no and attitudes were changed1.
opportunity to make a turn in flight (application) or if
the student has no knowledge of the function of the
aircraft controls (correlation). Motivation
Where there is a desire to learn, rapid progress in
Through instruction on the effect and use of the improving the skill will normally occur1. Conversely,
flight controls and experience in their use in straight- where the desire to learn or improve is missing,
and-level flight, the student can develop these old little progress is made. In the exercise above, it is
and new perceptions into an insight on how to unlikely that any improvement occurred unless there
make a turn. At this point the student has developed was a clear intention to improve. To improve, one
an understanding of the procedure for turning the must not only recognise mistakes, but also make
aircraft in flight. This understanding is basic to an effort to correct them. The person who lacks the
effective learning but may not necessarily enable the desire to improve is not likely to make the effort and
student to make a correct turn on the first attempt. consequently will continue to practise errors.
When the student understands the procedure for

entering a turn, and has practised turns until an Patterns to follow
acceptable level of performance can be consistently
The best way to prepare the student to perform a
demonstrated, the student has developed the skill to
task is to provide a clear, step-by-step example1.
apply what has been taught.
Therefore all exercises start with a demonstration.
Further understanding of the associated concepts The demonstration is another way of stating the
are covered in the instructional techniques course lesson objective – here is what you (the student)
syllabus when considering Bloom’s Taxonomy for will be able to do at the end of this lesson. The
Cognitive (head), Psycho-motor (hands), and Affective demonstration is followed with a step‑by‑step
(heart) Domains. follow‑me‑through example.

unlikely. Such a development is a learning plateau,
Perform the skill and it may signify any of a number of conditions. The
Since you have now experienced writing a word with learner may have reached capability limits, may be
the wrong hand, consider how difficult it would be to consolidating a level of skill, may have their interest
tell someone else how to do it. Demonstrating how wane, or may need a more efficient method for
to do it will not result in a person learning the skill. increasing progress. Keep in mind that the apparent
Obviously practice is necessary1. As the student gains lack of increasing proficiency does not necessarily
proficiency in a skill, verbal instructions mean more. mean that learning has ceased16. In learning motor
Whereas a long detailed explanation is confusing skills, a levelling off process or plateau is normal and
to the student during early practice, comments are should be expected after an initial period of rapid
more meaningful and useful after the skill has been improvement. This situation may cause impatience
partially mastered. in the student. To avert discouragement, you should
prepare them for this situation.
Knowledge of results
Duration and organisation of lessons
In learning some simple skills, students can discover
their own errors quite easily. In learning others, In planning for student performance, a primary
such as complex flight manoeuvres, mistakes are consideration is the length of time devoted to
not always apparent. Or the learner may know practice. A beginning student reaches a point
something is wrong but not know how to correct it. In where additional practice is not only unproductive
either case, you provide a helpful and often critical but may be harmful. When this point is reached,
function in making certain that the student is aware errors increase and motivation declines. The skilful
of their progress. They should be told as soon after instructor ends the learning experience before this
the performance as possible1, for they should not be point is reached. As a guide, when the basics of
allowed to practise mistakes. It is more difficult to un- the manoeuvre have been achieved, it’s time to end
learn a mistake and then learn it correctly, than it is the lesson. For example, in the initial basic stall,
to learn correctly in the first place. It is also important when the student performs the actions of control
for students to know when they are right. column forward centrally and then full power, the
basics of the manoeuvre have been achieved. It is
for future lessons to build on this success, ie, aiming
Progress follows a pattern for coordination of control column and power,
keeping straight and minimising height loss. As a
The experience of learning to write with the wrong
student gains experience, longer periods of practice
hand probably confirmed what has been consistently
are profitable.
demonstrated in laboratory experiments on skill
learning. The first trials are slow and coordination
is lacking. Mistakes are frequent, but each trial Evaluation versus critique
provides clues for improvement in subsequent trials.
The learner modifies different aspects of the skill, If an instructor were to evaluate the fifteenth writing
how to hold the pencil, how to execute finger and of the word learning, only limited help could be given
hand movements. Skill learning usually follows the toward further improvement. You could judge whether
same pattern15. the written word was legible, evaluate it against
some standard, or perhaps assign it a grade. None
Figure 2 of these would be very useful to a beginning student.
Typical progress pattern The student could profit, however, by having someone
watch the performance and critique it constructively
Percentage
of correct
to help eliminate errors. In the initial stages, practical
performances suggestions are more valuable to the student than
Plateau
a grade.
Periods of practice As the instructor will not always be in the aircraft to

give a judgement, self critique should be encouraged
The graph above shows a typical progress pattern. as a learning goal for the student.
There is rapid improvement in the early trials, then
the curve levels off and may stay level for significant
periods of effort. Further improvement may seem

Recommended reading
Visualisation or imagery
Flight instructors are encouraged to read Essentials
“Research on motor skill learning has provided of Learning for Instruction by RM Gagne and MP
evidence for using mental practice”1. If you were to Driscoll (2nd ed) (1988).
visualise yourself raising an arm out to the side, it
would be possible to monitor activity in the deltoid
muscles even though no physical movement had
occurred. Imagery therefore has the effect of priming
Forgetting and retention –
the appropriate muscles for subsequent physical
action. The messages passed to the brain by the
theories of forgetting
muscular system during visualisation are also
retained in the memory. This means that physical skills Why people forget may point the way to helping
can be improved even when they are only practised them remember.
in the mind. The use of handouts and questionnaires
on completion of the lesson can aid the student in
Disuse
reliving the experience in their mind.
A person forgets those things that are not used.
But the explanation is not that simple. Experimental
Application of skill studies show, for example, that a hypnotised person
The final and critical problem is use. Can the student can describe specific details of an event that would
use what has been learned? Two conditions must normally be beyond recall. Apparently the memory is
be present: there, locked in the recesses of the mind. The difficulty
is summoning it up to consciousness8.
• The student must learn the skill so well that it
becomes easy, even habitual, to perform.
Interference
• The student must recognise the types of
situations where it is appropriate to use the From experiments, two conclusions about interference
skill. This second condition involves transfer can be drawn:
of learning.
• Closely similar material seems to interfere with
memory more than dissimilar material.
• Material not well learned suffers most from

Transfer of learning interference17.
Transfer of learning is concerned with how well the

Repression
learned material is applied in actual situations. For
example, the student may have learned the symptoms Repression is the submersion of ideas into the
of the approaching basic stall and the recovery unconscious mind. Material that is unpleasant or
technique. But are these symptoms recognised and produces anxiety may be treated this way, but not
acted on when observed in a turn? intentionally. It is subconscious and protective. This
type of forgetting is rare in aviation instruction.
Transfer cannot occur if the knowledge itself has not
been initially mastered.
Retention of learning
This points to a need to know a student’s past When a person forgets something it is not lost; rather
experience and what has already been learned. In it is unavailable for recall. Hunt and Poltrock offer the
lesson planning, instructors should plan for transfer analogy of books in a library that are never removed
by organising lesson material to build on what the from the shelves, whereas the index cards may be
student already knows. Also, each lesson should lost. Your problem then, is how to make certain that
prepare the student to learn what is to follow. the student’s learning is always available for recall.
The following suggestions can help.

Teach thoroughly and with relevance. Material Repetition
thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting.
Each repetition gives the student an opportunity to
Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationships
gain a clearer and more accurate perception of the
in the student’s consciousness. Whereas rote learning
subject to be learned, but mere repetition does not
is superficial and is not easily retained, meaningful
guarantee retention. Practice gives an opportunity
learning goes deep because it involves principles and
for learning but does not cause it. Three or four
concepts anchored in the student’s own experience.
repetitions provide the maximum effect, after which
the rate of learning and probability of retention fall
Long-term memory is enhanced if information is well
off rapidly.
encoded, put into several different files by being
explained in different ways and thus well cross-
indexed (association). Retention can be assisted
by stimulation of interest.
Principles
The following are five significant principles that are
generally accepted as having a direct application
to remembering:
Praise
Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be
repeated. Absence of praise or recognition makes
recall less likely.
Association
Each bit of information or action, which is associated
with something already known by the student, tends
to facilitate later recall.
Favourable attitudes
People learn and remember only what they wish to
know. Without motivation there is little chance for
recall. The most effective motivations are internal,
based on positive or rewarding objectives.
Multiple senses
Although we generally receive what we learn through
the eyes and ears, other senses also contribute to
most perceptions. When several senses respond
together, fuller understanding and a greater chance
of recall is achieved.

Human behaviour
By definition, learning is – To students, the instructor is a role model,

a symbol of authority. Students expect
a change of behaviour you to exercise certain controls, and they
resulting from experience recognise and submit to authority as a valid
that persists. To successfully means of control. The controls the instructor
exercises – how much – how far – to what
accomplish the task of degree – should be based on generalisations
helping to bring about this of motivated human nature.
change, you must know
• Physical and mental effort in work is as
why human beings act the natural as play. Work may be a source of
way they do. Knowledge satisfaction and, if so, will be performed
of basic human needs voluntarily.
and defence mechanisms • A human being will exercise self-direction
will aid you in organising and self-control in the pursuit of goals to

which they have committed themselves.
student activities and
• Commitment to a goal relates directly to
in promoting a climate the perceived reward for achievement, the
conducive to learning. most significant of which is satisfaction
of ego.
The relationship between you and the student
• Shirking responsibility and lack of
has a profound impact on how much, and
ambition are not inherent in human
what, the student learns. Consider your own
nature. They are usually the consequence
experiences with your first flight instructor.
of experience.
You probably thought your instructor was the
best, and you probably strove to emulate and • The capacity to exercise a relatively
please your instructor. The power and impact high degree of imagination, ingenuity
of role modelling must not be underestimated. and creativity in the solution of common
The instructor directs and controls the problems is widely, not narrowly,
student’s behaviour, guiding them toward distributed in the population.
their goals, by creating an environment that
• Under the conditions of modern life, the
enables the student to help themselves.
intellectual potential of the average
human being is only partially used.
Instructional theory: Human behaviour 15

Your ingenuity must be used in discovering how to
realise the potential of the student. The responsibility Safety needs
rests squarely on you. If the student is perceived Protection from danger, threat or deprivation are
as lazy, indifferent, unresponsive, uncooperative or called safety or security needs. These needs, as
antagonistic, the cause may lie in your methods of perceived by the student, are real and will affect
control. The raw material is there, and the shaping student behaviour.
and directing of it lies in the hands of those who have
the responsibility of controlling it.
Social needs
A productive relationship with the student depends
If individuals are physically comfortable and have no
on your knowledge of students, as human beings and
fear for their safety, their social needs then become
of the needs, drives and desires they continually try to
the prime influence on their behaviour. These needs
satisfy in one way or another.
are to belong, to associate, and to give and receive
friendship and love. Many studies have demonstrated
that a tightly knit, cohesive group, under proper
conditions, will be more effective than an equal
Human needs number of separate individuals. As students are
usually separated from normal surroundings, their
The needs of students, and of all humans, are given need for association and for belonging will be more
labels by psychologists and are generally organised pronounced.
in a series of levels. The ‘pyramid of human needs’
has been suggested by Abraham Maslow.
Egoistic needs
Figure 1
The egoistic needs will usually have a direct influence
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
on the student-instructor relationship. These needs
are two kinds:
• Those that relate to self-esteem through

Self self-confidence, independence, achievement,
fulfillment
competence and knowledge.
Egoistic • Those that relate to reputation through status,

recognition, appreciation and the deserved
Social respect of peers.
Safety
Self-fulfilment needs
Physical At the apex of the hierarchy of human needs are
those for self-fulfilment, for realising your own
potential, for continued development, and for being
creative in the broadest sense. This need of a student
Physical needs should offer the greatest challenge to you. Aiding
another in realising self- fulfilment is probably the
Individuals are first concerned with their need for
most worthwhile accomplishment an instructor
food, rest, exercise and protection from the elements.
can achieve.
Until these needs are satisfied to a reasonable
degree, they cannot concentrate on learning or
self-expression.
Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides

motivation. Therefore each individual strives to
satisfy the needs of the next higher level.

Resignation
Defence mechanisms
Students may become so frustrated that they lose
Certain behaviour patterns are called defence interest and give up. The most common cause of this
mechanisms because they are subconscious defences takes place when, after completing the early phase
against unpleasant situations. People use defences of a course without grasping the fundamentals,
to soften feelings of failure, to alleviate feelings a student becomes bewildered and lost in the
of guilt, and to protect feelings of personal worth advanced phase. From that point learning is
and adequacy. negligible, although the student may go through
the motions of participating.
Although defence mechanisms can serve a useful
purpose, they can also be hindrances. Because they
involve some self-deception and distortion of reality,
defence mechanisms do not solve problems. They The instructor’s role in
alleviate symptoms, not causes. Common defence human relations
mechanisms are rationalisation, flight, aggression
and resignation.
To minimise student frustration and achieve good
human relations are basic instructor responsibilities.
Rationalisation
If students cannot accept the real reasons for Keep students motivated
their behaviour, they may rationalise. This device
Students gain most from wanting to learn rather
permits them to substitute excuses for reasons.
than being forced to learn. Often students do not
In addition, they can make those excuses plausible
realise how a particular lesson or course can help
and acceptable to themselves. Rationalisation is
them reach an important goal. Each lesson must have
a subconscious technique for justifying actions that
relevance. When they can see the benefits or purpose
otherwise would be unacceptable.
of a lesson or course, their enjoyment and their efforts
will increase.
Flight
Students often escape from frustrating situations by Keep students informed
fleeing, either physically or mentally. To flee physically,
Students feel insecure when they do not know what is
students may develop ailments that give them
expected of them or what is going to happen to them.
satisfactory excuses for removing themselves from
For example, consider your own feelings before your
frustration. More frequent is mental fleeing through
first basic stall lesson.
daydreaming. Mental fleeing provides a simple and
satisfying escape from problems. If students get Instructors can minimise such feelings of insecurity by
sufficient satisfaction from daydreaming they may telling students what is expected of them and what
stop trying to achieve their goals. they can expect, not just the control inputs to use.
Aggression Approach students as individuals

Everyone gets angry. Anger is a normal, universal When instructors limit their thinking to a group
human emotion. In a briefing room, classroom or without considering the individuals who make up
aircraft, extreme anger is relatively infrequent. that group, their effort is directed at an average
Because of social strictures, student aggression is personality which really fits no one18. After giving
usually subtle. Students may ask irrelevant questions the same lesson several times, it is easy for you to
or refuse to participate in class activities. overlook this aspect.
Each individual has a personality which is unique

and which should be constantly considered.
Instructional theory: Human behaviour 17

Give credit when due
When students do well, they wish their abilities
and efforts to be noticed. Otherwise they become
frustrated. Praise from you is usually ample reward
and provides incentive to do even better. Praise given
too freely, however, becomes valueless.
Constructive feedback
Although it’s important to give praise and credit when
deserved, it’s equally (not more) important to identify
mistakes and failures. However, to tell students that
they have made errors and not provide explanations
does not help them. Errors cannot be corrected if they
are not identified, and if they are not identified they
will probably be perpetuated through faulty practice.
If the student is briefed on the errors made, and is
told and shown how to correct them, progress and
accomplishment can be made.
Be consistent
Students want to please their instructor. Therefore,
students have a keen interest in knowing what
is required to please you. If the same thing is
acceptable one day and not the next, the student
becomes confused. Your philosophy and actions must
be consistent. This often leads to a desire by the
student to fly with only one instructor.
Admit errors
No one, including the students, expects an instructor
to be perfect. You can win the respect of students
by honestly acknowledging mistakes. If you try to
cover up or bluff, the students will often sense it.
Such behaviour destroys student confidence in you.
If in doubt about some point, you should admit it.
You should report back to the student after seeking
advice from the supervising instructor, CFI, or
recognised texts.
Good human relations promote

effective learning.

Effective communication
Communicating, for an These elements are interrelated, and that

which affects one influences the others. If a
instructor, is an essential skill. listener has difficulty in understanding the
Improving communication symbols a speaker is using and indicates
skills depends on an confusion, the speaker may become puzzled
and uncertain, losing control of ideas.
understanding of the Communication effectiveness is diminished.
process. In this chapter we On the other hand, when a listener reacts
look at the elements of the favourably, a speaker is encouraged, and force
is added to communication. Communication is
communication process and a complicated two-way process.
the barriers to successful
communication.
The source
Basic elements of the The effectiveness of a person acting in the

communication process role of communicator is related to at least
three basic factors.
Communication takes place when one person
First, their ability to select and use language
transmits ideas or feelings to another person
influences their ability to select meaningful
or group. Its effectiveness is measured by the
symbols for the listener or reader. For example,
similarity between the idea transmitted and
if you want to teach Greek it’s useful to know
the idea received19.
the Greek alphabet.
The basic process of communication is
Second, communicators consciously or
composed of three elements:
unconsciously reveal attitudes about
• The source – sender, speaker, writer, themselves, about the ideas they are trying
instructor, transmitter, etc. to transmit, and about their receivers. These
• The symbols – words, signs, actions, attitudes must be positive if they are to
music, etc. communicate effectively. They must indicate
that they believe their message is important.
• The receiver – listener, reader, Communicators must make it clear to their
student, etc. listeners or readers that they believe there
is a need to know the ideas presented.
Instructional theory: Effective communication 19

Third, successful communicators speak or write from
a broad background. Communicators must exercise Receiver
great care to make certain they communicate ideas
and feelings that are meaningful to their receivers.
Communication succeeds only in relation to the
Often a speaker or writer will depend on a narrow,
reaction of the receiver.
highly technical or professional background, with its
associated vocabulary, which is meaningful only to When the receivers react with understanding and
others of a similar background. change their behaviour accordingly, then – and
only then – has communication been effective21. To
Reliance on technical language to express ideas
understand effective communication, at least three
often impedes effective communication.
characteristics of receivers must be understood19.
First, the receiver’s ability to question and

comprehend the ideas that have been transmitted.
Symbols Communicators can capitalise on this by
providing an atmosphere which encourages
At its basic level, communication is achieved through questioning. Communication is most effective when
the use of simple oral and visual codes. The letters the feedback loop is available to obtain further
of our alphabet when translated into words are a clarity to ensure the message is correctly received.
basic code. Common gestures and facial expressions
and body language form another20. Words and Second, the receiver’s attitude, which may be one
gestures may be projected in isolation, but ideas of resistance, willingness or passive neutrality.
are communicated only when symbols are combined Whatever the attitude, communicators must gain the
into meaningful wholes as sentences, paragraphs receiver’s attention and then retain it. Generally, the
and chapters. Each part is important for effective more varied the communicative approach the more
communication. successful they will be in this respect.
Communicators must carefully select ideas if they Third, the receiver’s background, experience and
are to convey messages which receivers can react education define the target at which communication
to and understand. They must determine which must be aimed. Communicators must assess their
ideas are best suited to starting and concluding the receiver’s knowledge and use that assessment as a
communication, and which ideas clarify, emphasise, guide for selecting techniques for transmission. The
define, limit and explain – all of which form the basis major barriers to effective communication are usually
for the effective transmission of ideas from source found in this particular area.
to receiver.
The development of ideas culminates in the choice of

medium best suited for transmission. Most frequently, Barriers to effective communication
communicators select the channels of hearing and
seeing. Occasionally, the channel of feeling, by The nature of language and the way it is used often
touching or manipulating, can be used effectively. lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings
The most successful communicator, however, uses stem primarily from three barriers to effective
a variety of channels. communication:
• Lack of a common core of experience
• Confusion between the symbol and the

thing symbolised
• Use of abstractions.

Lack of a common core of experience Use of abstractions
Probably the greatest single barrier to effective Concrete words refer to objects that we can
communication is the lack of common experience experience directly. Abstract words, on the other
between communicator and receiver. Communication hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly
can be effective only to the extent that the experienced, for things that do not call forth mental
experiences – physical, mental or emotional – of images in the mind of the receiver. For example,
the people concerned are similar22. Words do not assuming a similar core of experience, if a
transport meanings from speaker to listener in the communicator is discussing a particular fighter
same manner as a truck carries bricks from one aircraft and refers to it as the stealth-fighter, the
location to another. Words never carry precisely the listeners immediately get a mental image of this
same meaning from the mind of the communicator aircraft (clearly the accuracy of that image will be
to that of the receiver. affected by experience). The name stealth-fighter
represents a concrete reality that can be seen,
Consider your own experience as a communicator. heard and touched. If, however, the communicator
Recall telling someone of your experiences on holiday. uses just the words fighter aircraft the listeners do
Although you tried to describe the experience vividly, not necessarily form a specific mental image of the
you may have felt that the receiver didn’t get the full stealth-fighter because there are a number of aircraft
picture of your holiday. Words, spoken or written, do that fit that description. If the communicator uses
not transfer meanings; they are merely stimuli that just the word aircraft, the term is so abstract that
a communicator uses to arouse a response in the the listeners cannot form a mental image of the
receiver. The nature of the response is determined by stealth-fighter at all.
the receiver’s past experience with the words and the
things to which they refer20. These experiences give Abstract words do not bring forth specific items
the words their meaning – which is in the mind of the of experience in the minds of receivers. Although
receiver, not in the words themselves. abstractions are convenient and useful, they can lead
to misunderstandings. When abstractions are used
Words cannot communicate meaning unless the in communication, they should be linked with specific
listener or reader has had some experience with experiences through examples and illustrations.
the concepts or objects to which the words refer23. The level of abstraction should be reduced wherever
Consider the effect of your communication if your possible by using concrete and specific words24.
listener had never been on a holiday. In this way the communicator narrows and gains
better control of the image produced in the mind
of the listener or reader.
Confusion between the symbol

and the thing symbolised
Words are simply representations. They represent

anything that exists or that is experienced. Consider
language as a map. A useful map accurately
represents some specified territory; language
should correspond to the objects or concepts
that it represents. Like a map that contains errors,
a statement that contains inaccuracies implies a
relationship that does not exist.
Instructional theory: Effective communication 21

The teaching
process
Effective teaching must be A close examination of the teaching process

reveals that different recognised authorities
based on the principles specify a varying number of steps. Here we
of learning discussed will concern ourselves only with the four basic
in Learning theory. The steps25 that can be applied either to ground
lectures or flight instruction. They are:
learning process does
not seem to be naturally • Preparation
divisible into a definite • Presentation
number of steps. • Application
• Review and evaluation.

Sometimes it occurs almost instantaneously,
as when a child learns about heat from
touching a hot stove. In other cases, learning
is acquired only through long, patient study
and diligent practice.

experienced a stall. Therefore, assuming the student
Preparation achieved the above objective under the conditions
stated, the following learning outcomes would result:
For each lesson or instructional period, you must • the student can read a list from top to bottom; or
refer to the syllabus and determine what can
• the student has memorised a list from top to
reasonably be covered in the time available. From
bottom.
this information, the objective of the lesson is set. The
objective is a statement of what the student will be To write a lesson objective, ask yourself these
able to do on completion of the lesson26. questions:
For an objective to result in the desired learning • What is it I expect the student to be able to do
outcome it must: at the end of this lesson?
• How will I know that they are doing it?

• Be achievable. The objective must be something
the student could reasonably be expected to be • How well should they do it? and, if applicable,
able to do, given their past experience. • Under what conditions?
If the student cannot achieve the objective,
motivation may be adversely affected. Preparing objectives in this way not only gives the
student a clear idea of what is expected of them at
• Be observable. The objective must be the end of the lesson, but, more importantly, also
observable by both student and instructor. focuses your attention directly on what it is you want
For example, “The student will know the your student to achieve as a result of your instruction.
symptoms of the approaching stall” is not an
observable objective, whereas “The student will To achieve a desired learning outcome, multiple
state the symptoms of the approaching stall” objectives may be required. If you find you have
is observable. more than three objectives for a lesson, serious
consideration should be given to breaking the lesson
The observed performance is what evaluation down into smaller units.
should be based on.
Preparation must involve the development of a
• Be measurable. The objective must have some detailed written lesson plan if the instructional period
limits by which both you and student can is to be effective. The lesson plan is your statement
measure acceptable performance27. For example, of lesson objectives, the procedures and facilities
“State the symptoms of the approaching stall in to be used in presenting it, and the specific goals
the correct order without error”. to be attained. The development of lesson plans by
The parameters stated need not be perfection or instructors signifies, in effect, that they have taught
final test parameters. They should relate directly the lessons to themselves before teaching the lesson
to what it is you expect the student to be able to to students. The use of a lesson plan should:
do at the end of this lesson. • Assure a wise selection of material and eliminate
unimportant details.
In addition a statement may be made as to the
conditions under which the student must perform, • Ensure due consideration is given to each part
for example, whether by using a briefing handout of the lesson.
or from memory. • Aid the presentation of material in a suitable
sequence.
In summary, in the objectives you spell out what the
student is expected to do, how well, and under what • Give the inexperienced instructor confidence.
conditions28. In your instructional techniques course,
this will be described as Performance, Standard, Preparation should also include pre-lesson
and Conditions. handouts29 or assigned reading to be completed by
the student before the lesson.
Care must be taken in preparing an objective to
ensure that it accurately describes the desired As part of the preparation, you should make certain
learning outcome. The objective “to state the that all necessary supplies, materials and equipment
symptoms” is aimed at the knowledge level and are readily available and that the equipment is
could be achieved without the student ever having operating properly before the student arrives.
Instructional theory: The teaching process 23

After reasonable competence has been attained, the
Presentation manoeuvre or operation should be practised until
correct performance becomes almost automatic.
It is your presentation of the knowledge and skills

that make up the lesson. The choice of the method
of presentation is determined by the nature of the
subject matter and the objective. Review and evaluation
The lecture method is suitable for presenting new Review and evaluation is an integral part of each
material, for summarising ideas and for showing classroom or flight lesson. Before the end of the
relationships between theory and practice. For instructional period, you should review what has been
example, it is suitable for the presentation of a covered and require students to demonstrate the
ground school lesson on aircraft weight and balance. extent to which the lesson objectives have been met.
This method is most effective if accompanied by
instructional aids and training devices. In the case of Evaluation may be informal and noted only for use
a lecture on weight and balance, a whiteboard could in planning the next lesson, or it may be recorded
be used effectively, so could a seesaw. to certify the student’s progress. In either case, the
student should be aware of their progress.
The demonstration-performance method is desirable
for presenting a skill, such as use of the flight In flight training, you must remember that it is
navigation computer. Great care must be taken in difficult for students to obtain a clear picture of their
using this method, to ensure that the demonstration progress, since they have little opportunity for a
follows the correct steps in the proper order, so the direct comparison with others, especially in the early
student gets a clear picture of each separate part phases of training. The students recognise that they
of the operation. are in a competitive situation unlike any previously
experienced. The unseen competitor is that intangible
competency which must be achieved. The student’s
own evaluation can only be subjective. Direct
Application comparisons for them are only possible with the
performance of the instructor. Only you can provide a
realistic evaluation of performance and progress.
Application is the student’s use of the ideas
presented by you. This is where you discover if the
In addition to knowledge and skills learned during
images transmitted are similar to those received by
the period just completed, each lesson should review
the student, and if transfer of learning has occurred.
things previously learned. If faults not associated
In a classroom situation, the student may be asked to
with the present lesson are revealed, they should be
explain the new material, or to perform an operation.
pointed out. Such corrective action as is practical
For example, at the end of a lesson on the use of
within the limitations of the situation should be taken
the navigation computer, the student may be asked
immediately; more thorough remedial action must be
to work a flight-planning problem involving the
included in future lesson plans.
computation of groundspeed and drift.
The evaluation of student performance and
In classroom and flight instructing situations,
accomplishment during a lesson should be based
portions of your explanation and demonstration are
on the stated objective30. For example, in the taxiing
alternated with student practice. It is rare that you
briefing, if you have stated the objective that the
complete an explanation and demonstration and
student should watch for potholes, then you cannot
then expect the student to complete the performance.
evaluate the student’s performance as poor when
the student taxies through a pothole, especially if the
It is very important that the student perform the
student states that they saw the pothole.
manoeuvre or operation the right way the first few
times, for this is when habits are established. Faulty
habits are difficult to correct. Recommended reading
Effective Aviation Instruction by RA Telfer (1993)
The emphasis is on the correct sequence – not the
in Aviation Instruction and Training14 p219-236
speed at which it is performed. Speed of performance
may be an important goal, but it should not take Preparing Instructional Objectives26 by RF Mager
precedence in the early stages of instruction. (1984)

Teaching
methods
The instructor’s skill is The use of programmed instruction will also

be discussed, as many organisations employ
determined to a large the principles of this type of instruction,
degree by the ability to primarily through computers when it is known
organise material and to as Computer-Based Training (CBT).
select and utilise a teaching

method appropriate to a
particular lesson. Of the Organising material
various teaching methods
Regardless of the teaching method used,
in common use, only you must organise the material in a logical
the lecture method, the sequence31. One effective way to organise
guided discussion and the the lesson, and the simplest, is:
demonstration-performance • Introduction
method will be covered • Development
here. The pre‑flight briefing • Conclusion25
will be discussed at length
Appendix A expands on this sequence.
in the Briefings section.
There is no definite line of division between
Introduction
these methods; some material requires the use
of more than one method or a combination The introduction serves several purposes:
of methods25. For example, a demonstration • To establish common ground between
of how to use the aircraft radio, followed by a you and the students
thorough explanation, is essentially a lecture.
• To capture and hold the attention of the
student or group
Instructional theory: Teaching methods 25

• To establish the objectives of the lesson
Development
• To indicate what material is to be covered and
how this relates to the entire course The development of the lesson is the main part.
Here you develop the subject matter in a manner
• To point out why the student should learn the
that helps the students achieve the desired outcome
material and what benefits the student can
or objective.
expect
• To establish a receptive attitude toward the You must organise the material logically to show
lesson the relationships of the main points34. Usually these
primary relationships are shown by developing the
• To lead into the lesson development.
main points in one of the following ways25:
The introduction should be free of stories or incidents • from past to present

that do not help the students focus their attention
• from simple to complex
on the lesson objective. Also, a long or apologetic
introduction should be avoided, as it will dampen • from known to unknown
student interest in the lesson. The introduction sets • from most to least frequently used.
the stage for learning by gaining the student’s
attention, providing motivation and giving an
From past to present
overview of the material to be covered and its
relevance to the course goals. In development from past to present, the subject
matter is arranged chronologically. This is most
Attention suitable when history is an important consideration,
eg, when tracing the development of GPS (Global
For information to be perceived, it first must be Positioning System).
attended to32. Gaining and maintaining the student’s
attention, therefore, is of prime importance to you.
From simple to complex
One of the most effective methods is novelty24. For
example, a lesson on aircraft weight and balance The simple to complex pattern helps you lead
might start with two students, of obviously different the student from simple facts or ideas to an
weights, being asked to balance out a see-saw. understanding of complex concepts. In studying lift,
Or you might make an unexpected or surprising for example, the student might begin by considering
statement, eg, “for most aircraft a rearward C of G the action of a river as it enters and leaves a narrow
increases airspeed!” and then inviting debate by gorge – and finish with the lift formula.
asking why. Or you might begin by telling a true story
of an incident that relates to the subject and thereby From known to unknown
establishes a background or reason for learning.
No matter how you introduce the lesson, the main By using something the student already knows you
concern should be to gain the student’s attention can develop concepts. For example, in discussing the
and focus it on the subject33. properties of the magnetic compass you could revise
the previously learned properties of a simple bar
magnet.
Motivation
The introduction should offer the students specific From most to least frequently used
reasons for needing to be familiar with, to know,
to understand, to apply or to be able to perform Some information or concepts are common to all who
whatever they are about to learn. This motivation use the material. This pattern starts with the most
should appeal to each student personally. common use before progressing to rarer ones. For
example, dead-reckoning techniques for navigation
are learnt before applying them to lost procedures.
Overview
Every lesson introduction should contain an overview Under each main point in a lesson the subordinate
that tells the student or group what is to be covered points should lead naturally from one to another.
during the lesson. A clear, concise presentation of With this arrangement, each point leads logically into,
the objective and the key ideas is absolutely critical, and serves as a reminder of, the next. Meaningful
for it gives the student a road map of the route to transitions keep the students oriented, aware of what
be followed. they have covered and what is to come25.

Organising a lesson so that the students will grasp
the logical relationships of ideas is not an easy Planning the lecture
task. The use of a lesson plan provides guidance on The competent instructor knows that careful
how to link ideas in a logical sequence. This type of preparation is a major factor in the successful
organisation is necessary if the students are to learn. presentation of a lecture. Preparation should start
Poorly organised information is of little or no value to well in advance of the presentation.
the student.
Four steps should be followed in the planning phase
of preparation:
Conclusion
• Establish the desired outcome and therefore
An effective conclusion retraces the important
the objective
elements of the lesson and relates them to the
objective. This review and wrap-up of ideas reinforces • Research the subject
the student’s learning and improves retention. It will • Organise the material
generally include some assessment of whether or not
the learning has been achieved. • Plan interactive classroom activities.
No new ideas should be introduced in the conclusion.

Developing the lecture
In supporting key points or ideas in the lesson, you
must work on the assumption that the student may
Lecture method neither believe nor understand the points to be
covered. In developing the lesson you should use the
You should know how to prepare and present a recommended text for the subject as well as statistics,
lecture and should understand the advantages and comparisons and meaningful examples.
limitations of this teaching method.
After completing the preliminary planning and writing
The lecture is used primarily to introduce students to the lesson plan, you should rehearse the lecture to
a new subject, but it is also a valuable method for build self-confidence. During rehearsal the mechanics
summarising ideas, showing relationships between of using notes, visual aids and other instructional
theory and practice, and re- emphasising main techniques can be smoothed out. You should have
points35. The lecture method is adaptable and has your supervisor attend the practice sessions and
several advantages. observe the presentation critically. This critique will
help you judge the adequacy of supporting materials
Lectures may be given to either small or large groups, and visual aids.
they may be used to introduce a complete training
program or a single unit of instruction, and they may
Suitable language
be combined with other teaching methods to give
added meaning and direction. During the lecture, simple rather than complex words
should be used whenever possible. Errors in grammar
The success of a lecture depends on your ability to and vulgarisms detract from an instructor’s dignity
communicate effectively as well as the ability to plan, and reflect upon the intelligence of the students.
develop and review the lesson.
If the subject includes technical terms, you should
In other methods of teaching (demonstration- clearly define each one so that no student is in doubt
performance, guided discussion) the instructor about its meaning12. Whenever possible, you should
receives direct reaction from the students in the form use specific rather than general words. For example,
of verbal or motor activity. During a lecture, however, the specific words “a leak in the fuel line” tell more
feedback is not as direct and is therefore harder to than the general term “mechanical defect”.
interpret. You must develop a keen perception for
subtle responses from the class (facial expressions, Another way you can enliven the lecture is to
apparent interest or disinterest) and be able to use sentences of varying length. Too many short
interpret the meaning of these reactions and adjust sentences result in a choppy style; long sentences,
the lesson accordingly. unless carefully constructed, are difficult to follow.
To ensure clarity and variety, you should use a mixture
of short and medium length sentences25.

Whatever the style adopted by you, a display of and unobtrusively, but make no effort to hide them
enthusiasm will greatly affect the success of any from the students. Notes should be written legibly
presentation. “Probably the best teachers of adults or typed, and they should be placed on the lectern
are people who are enthusiastic amateurs in their where they can be consulted easily, or held if you
subject – at least, amateurs at teaching it”36. walk about the platform.
Delivery methods Formal versus informal lectures

You can deliver a lecture in one of four ways, by: The lecture may be conducted in either a formal
or informal manner.
• reading written notes
• reciting memorised material Learning is best achieved if students participate

actively in a friendly, relaxed atmosphere. Therefore,
• speaking without notes from an outline
use of the informal lecture, which includes active
• speaking impromptu without preparation. student participation, is encouraged. A formal lecture,
however, is still to be preferred on some occasions,
The lecture is probably best delivered by speaking such as introducing new subject matter.
without notes from an outline. You speak from a
mental or written outline but do not read or memorise You can achieve active student participation in
the material to be presented. Because the exact the informal lecture through the use of questions27.
words with which to express an idea are left to In this way, the students are encouraged to make
the moment, the lecture is more personalised and contributions that supplement the lecture. You can use
provides more opportunity for enthusiasm, than one questions for one or more of the following purposes:
which is read or spoken from memory. Since you
• to determine the experience and background
talk directly to the students, rather than head down
of the students
reading from notes, the reactions of the students can
be readily observed, and adjustments can be made • in order to tailor the lecture to them,
to their responses.
• to add variety and stimulate interest, or
You have better control of the situation, can change • to check student understanding.
the approach to deal with any situation as it arises,
and can tailor each idea to suit the individual It remains your responsibility to plan, develop and
responses of the students. For example, if you realise present the lesson. The students should not be
from their puzzled expressions that a number of relied on for any significant portion of the lesson
students fail to grasp an idea, that point can be development.
elaborated upon until the reactions of the students
indicate that they understand.
Advantages of the lecture
Overall, this method reflects your personal In a lecture, you can present many ideas in a
enthusiasm and is more flexible than other methods. relatively short time. Facts and ideas that have been
For these reasons it is likely to hold the interest of logically organised can be concisely presented in
the students. rapid sequence. Lecturing is the most economical
teaching method in terms of the time required to
present a given amount of material. It is also a
Use of notes
convenient method for large groups.
An instructor who is thoroughly prepared can usually
speak effectively without notes. If the lecture and The lecture can be used to ensure that all students
outline have been carefully prepared and rehearsed have the necessary basic information background
there should be no real difficulty. However, if your to learn a new subject12. You can offer students with
preparation has been limited, you may find it varied backgrounds a common understanding of
necessary to use notes. principles and facts. For example, in learning about
aircraft performance, the factors affecting aircraft
Notes do have certain advantages. They assure take-off and landing distances could be covered
accuracy, jog the memory, and dispel the fear of in a lecture, before moving on to a demonstration-
forgetting. An instructor should not, however, be performance on the use of take-off and landing
overly dependent on notes. Use them sparingly performance charts.

If students do not have the time required for research after the students have gained some knowledge and
or access to reference material, information they need experience, during classroom periods or pre-flight
can be presented in a lecture. The lecture can usefully and post-flight briefings. This method is particularly
and effectively supplement other teaching methods. applicable to CPL and your own instructor training.
A brief introductory lecture can give direction
and purpose to a demonstration. For example, a Fundamentally, the guided discussion is the reverse of
lecture on the triangle of velocities could precede a the lecture method. You should aim to draw out what
demonstration of the use of the navigation computer. the students know, rather than telling them. You must
A lecture can also prepare students for a discussion remember that the more intense the discussion and
by telling them something about the subject matter the greater the participation, the more effective the
to be covered. For example, the effects of fatigue learning will be. You must be sure that all members
on pilot performance followed by discussion on of the group follow the discussion, and that all are
individual experiences. treated impartially. You must encourage questions,
exercise patience and tact, redirect questions to other
members of the group where possible, and comment
Disadvantages of the lecture on all responses.
As a teaching method the lecture cannot provide for
all desired learning outcomes. Motor skills can not be
Use of questions
learned by listening to a lecture.
In the guided discussion, learning is produced
Too often the lecture does not provide for student through the skilful use of questions38. The instructor
participation and, as a consequence, many students often uses a question to open up an area for
willingly let you do all the work. discussion, which may be directed at the entire group
to stimulate thought or a response from each group
Learning is an active process, and the lecture tends to member. Its purpose is to get discussion started.
foster passiveness and teacher-dependence on the For example, “What can you tell me about lift?”
part of the students12.
The rhetorical question is similar in nature because
The lecture does not enable you to estimate the it also spurs group thought. For example, “What is
student’s progress before additional material lift?” you answer the rhetorical question, however,
is introduced. Within a single period, you may and it is more commonly used in the lecture. After
unwittingly present more information than students the discussion develops, you may ask a follow-up
can absorb. The lecture method provides no accurate question to guide the discussion. For example, “What
means of checking student learning. is the relationship between true airspeed and lift?”
The reasons for using a follow-up question may vary.
Instructors find it difficult to hold the attention of all You may want a student to explain something more
the students throughout a lecture37. The successful thoroughly, or may need to bring the discussion back
lecture relies heavily on your skill in speaking. to a point from which it has strayed. If, however,
a response is desired from a specific individual,
Recommended reading perhaps to encourage participation, a direct
question may be asked of that student. Be certain
53 Interesting Things to do in Your Lectures33 by
to acknowledge the response.
G Gibbs et al (1991)
Rather than give a direct answer to a student’s
Planning an Instructional Sequence27 by WJ Popham
question, you may elicit the answer by redirecting
et al (1970)
the original question (or a modified version of it)
back to the individual, to another student, or to the
entire group.
Guided discussion method Questions used to evaluate or measure student

learning should require a specific answer relating to
In contrast to the lecture, where you provide the material covered. For example, “If true airspeed
information, the guided discussion relies on the is doubled, and everything else remains constant,
students to provide ideas, experiences, opinions by how much will the lift increase?” The question,
and information. An instructor may use this method “Any questions?” should rarely, if ever, be used.

Questions should: Organise the main points of the lesson
• Have a specific purpose
in a logical sequence
The guided discussion has three main parts –
• Have a clear meaning
introduction, discussion and conclusion. The
• Contain a single idea introduction consists of gaining attention, motivation
• Stimulate thought and overview. During the discussion, you should
ensure that the main points build logically to the
• Require definite answers objective, minimising the possibility of a rambling
• Relate to previously taught information. presentation. The conclusion consists of the summary
and re-motivation.
Planning a guided discussion

Plan at least one question for each desired
Planning a guided discussion is similar to planning a learning outcome
lecture. In addition the following suggestions27 may help:
In preparing questions, you should remember that
the purpose is to bring about discussion, not merely
Select a topic the students can to get answers. Questions that require only short
profitably discuss answers such as “yes” or “four” should be avoided25.
Unless the students have some knowledge to Questions framed to encourage discussion usually
exchange with each other, they cannot reach the start with “how” or “why”. For example, “Why does
desired learning outcomes by the discussion method. altitude affect take-off performance?” rather
If necessary, set assignments that will give the than “Does altitude affect take-off performance?”
students an adequate background for discussing the The first question invites discussion, the
lesson topic. For example, “Research factors which second, an answer of “yes”.
may influence the successful outcome of an engine
failure after take-off”.
Student preparation
“Involving the student so that learning becomes
Establish a lesson objective and desired
co‑operative produces superior results to
learning outcomes
those achieved by competitive or individual
Through discussion, the students develop an approaches.”14 It is your responsibility to encourage
understanding of the subject by sharing knowledge, students to accept responsibility for their learning,
experiences and backgrounds. Consequently, the by contributing to and profiting from, the discussion.
objective is normally stated at the understanding Students should be made aware of the lesson
level of learning. For example, “To explain the factors objective and be given pre-lesson research or study
which may influence the successful outcome of an to complete.
engine failure after take-off”. The learning outcomes
should stem from and be related to the objective. If you have no opportunity to assign preliminary
For example, “Recognise the value of a pre-take-off work, it is advisable to give the students a brief
emergency brief, develop situational awareness and general overview of the topic during the introduction.
be aware of aircraft performance limitations”. Under no circumstances should students without
some background in a subject be asked to discuss
Conduct adequate research to become that subject.
familiar with the topic
While researching, you should always be alert Guiding a discussion
for ideas on the best way to tailor a lesson for a
particular group of students. For example, a lecture Introduction
or discussion on the use of the aircraft radio could A guided discussion is introduced in the same
profitably be combined with a visit to the control manner as a lecture. The introduction should
tower. During the research process, you should collect include an attention step, a motivation step
(or set an assignment for the students to collect) and an overview of key points. To encourage
appropriate background reading material. Such enthusiasm and stimulate discussion, you should
material should be well organised and based on show enthusiasm, “it’s infectious”14, and create a
the fundamentals. relaxed, informal atmosphere. Each student should

be given the opportunity and encouragement to where all ideas on a subject – no matter how weird
discuss aspects of the subject. You must make the – are recorded without criticism and then discussed
student feel a personal responsibility to contribute, by the group. This method is useful for creating an
and that their ideas and active participation are informal, relaxed atmosphere. The use of drop sheets
wanted and needed. “The instructor’s job is not as in small groups is another useful tool in capturing
simple as ensuring that the syllabus is presented to information that may benefit from longer exposure
the student.”14 on the wall compared to cleaning the board.
Discussion Conclusion
You open the discussion by asking one of the A guided discussion is closed by summarising the
prepared questions. After asking a question you material covered. In the conclusion, you should tie
should give the students a chance to react25. You together the various points or topics discussed and
have the answer in mind before asking the question, show the relationships between the facts brought
but the student has to think about the question forth and the practical application of these facts25.
before answering. You must be patient while the As an example, in concluding a discussion on
students figure out the answer. It takes time to engine failure after take-off, an instructor might
recall data, word an answer or think of an example. give statistical results of the attempted turn back
The more difficult the question, the more time the as against other options.
student will need to produce an answer.
The summary should be brief but not to the point of
Sometimes students may not understand the incompleteness. If the discussion revealed that certain
question. Whenever you detect this, the question areas are not understood by one or more members of
should be restated in a slightly different form. the group, you should clarify this material.
Alternatively, the question may need to drop down
a level in Bloom’s Taxonomy for cognitive domain.
Once the discussion is under way, you should listen Demonstration-performance method
attentively to the ideas, experiences and examples
contributed by the students during the discussion.
The demonstration-performance method is used
During preparation, you will have anticipated the
extensively in flight instruction during the air exercise
responses that indicate the students have a firm
and is based on the principle that we learn by doing.
grasp of the subject. As the discussion proceeds,
Students learn physical or mental skills by performing
you may find it necessary to stimulate the students
those skills under supervision. An individual learns
to explore the subject in greater depth or guide the
to write by writing, to weld by welding, and to fly an
direction of the discussion and encourage them to
aircraft by performing flight manoeuvres.
discuss the topic in more detail. By using how and
why follow-up questions, you should be able to guide Great care must be taken in using this method, to
the discussion toward the objective of understanding ensure that the demonstration follows the correct
the subject. steps, in the proper order, so that the student
gets a clear picture of each part of the operation.
Once the students have discussed the ideas that
The demonstration-performance method has five
support the objective, you should summarise what
essential phases:
the students have accomplished.
• Explanation
In a discussion lesson, an interim summary is one
• Demonstration
of the most effective tools available to you to bring
ideas together. In addition, the interim summary may • Instructor supervision
be used to keep the group on the subject or divert • Student performance
the discussion to another member.
• Evaluation.
Throughout the discussion it is desirable to record
ideas, facts and agreements so that the group can
Explanation
see relationships and the progress that has been
made. The whiteboard is suitable for this purpose. “If telling was the same as teaching we would all be
Brainstorming is a special version of this process, so smart we could hardly stand it.”39

In flight training, the explanation phase is served student activity. During this phase, feedback should
by the pre-flight briefing. Explanations must be be gradually reduced and finally eliminated40.
clear, pertinent to the objectives of the lesson, and
based on the known experience and knowledge of Where the demonstration-performance method
the students. is used in group instruction (weight-and- balance
computations, or use of the navigation computer,
You must convey to the student the precise actions for example), before terminating the performance
they are to perform, the expected result of those phase, opportunity should be given for the operation
actions, and the possible effects of those actions to be completed at least once independently, with
on the student. supervision on an as-needed basis.
Before leaving this phase, you should ask questions

so as to determine if there is understanding of the Evaluation
procedure to be followed. In this phase you judge student performance. The
student displays whatever competence has been
attained, and you discover how well the skill has been
Demonstration
learned. From this measurement you determine the
Before the demonstration, you direct the attention of effectiveness of the instruction provided.
the student to no more than two items to be closely
observed during the demonstration. These are the To measure each student’s ability to perform, you
one or two items you consider vital for the execution require the students to work independently. Therefore,
of the skill. For example, in the steep turn, “note the throughout this phase, you must not ride the controls
aircraft nose attitude and bank angle in relation to nor offer verbal or body language cues. Any comment
the horizon”. Then you must show the student the as to how well any individual performed the skill must
actions necessary to perform the skill. be in relation to the stated objective for the lesson,
not necessarily on perfection of the skill or flight
As little unrelated activity as possible should be test parameters.
included in the demonstration if the student is to
clearly understand that you are accurately performing
the actions previously explained. Therefore, there is
no verbal patter during this phase. The demonstration Programmed instruction
serves as a physical restatement of the objective, “here
is what you will be able to do at the end of this lesson”.
Programmed instruction is a method of developing
self-instructional materials in textbook form or for
If, because of unanticipated circumstances, the
computers12.
demonstration does not closely conform to the
explanation, the discrepancy should be immediately
As student’s progress through programmed
acknowledged and explained.
instructional material, they make a response to
each increment of instruction. The material offers
Instructor supervision, student performance them immediate feedback by informing them of
the correctness of their responses. The successful
Instructor supervision and student performance completion of each of these increments takes
involve separate actions, but they are performed the student one step closer to the intended
concurrently, so they are discussed here under a learning outcome.
single heading.
The major characteristics of programmed
During the first phase of instructor supervision, you instruction are:
guide the student through the various components
required to perform the skill through the use of patter • A clear statement of what the student will be
and follow-me-through. Immediately thereafter you able to do after training
should give the student an opportunity to perform the • Careful sequencing of material
skill, coaching as necessary.
• Presentation of material in steps which challenge
The second phase of student performance requires students but do not exceed their ability
the student to practise in order to learn the skills. • Active student responses
Therefore, adequate time must be allocated for this

• Immediate confirmation of answers Proponents of this system14 attribute its success to
the reinforcement it provides and the repetition it
• Test and revision of material until the desired
uses. If a student encounters the same fact, idea or
learning outcome is achieved.
concept in a number of ways, and if reinforcement
This approach carries students, step by step, to the or reward occurs each time a correct answer is made,
learning objectives. In this respect, programmed learning takes place.
instruction is generally more tutorial than typical
Each block of new subject matter contains obvious
classroom instruction. It gives the student not only
cues to the correct response. Thus, a student finds
what they are to learn, but also guides them in how
it virtually impossible to make errors. As a student
they are to learn.
approaches the learning objective, cues are gradually
withdrawn until the student supplies complete
Types of programmed instruction answers without being cued.
Programmed instruction may be branched or linear. For an example of linear type programmed instruction,
see the Climbing and descending briefing – the
Branched presentation of the forces acting on the aircraft in
a climb. To the casual observer, this sequence may
Typically, branched instruction gives more information
seem unduly simple. To the student who is totally
than linear and then requires an answer to be chosen
unfamiliar with the subject matter, however, it offers
from the multiple-choice type. Each answer has a
a sort of learning game.
reference page to turn to. If the correct answer is
chosen, new material will be presented. If an incorrect
answer is chosen, remedial material will explain
where the student went wrong.
For an example of this type of instruction, read

Preparing Instructional Objectives26 by RF Mager.
This type of programmed instruction is well suited
to use with computers41.
Linear
In linear programmed instruction, the material is
itemised and presented in very small steps. A student
is prompted so that invariably the correct response
is given. Materials are carefully designed to offer
as much review as needed to assure the degree
of retention appropriate to the subject matter, the
learning situation and the needs of the student42.
The student responds by writing words into spaces

provided for that purpose. Linear programming
may also be designed to elicit other types of
responses. Answers may be given mentally or orally
and simple tasks may be performed. Sequences of
more complicated tasks that make up a complete
procedure may be required.
After completing the response, the student

immediately confirms the correctness of the response
by comparing it to the programme answer before
continuing. Thus, the student progresses smoothly,
with a continuous awareness of being correct giving
a sense of satisfaction. If the programme is properly
constructed, the student will, at a comfortable rate
and almost effortlessly, learn the material presented43.

Evaluation
Evaluation is an integral Your evaluation may consist simply of

observations of the student’s performance,
part of the learning or it may be accomplished by more
process. Whenever learning comprehensive, systematic and objective
takes place, the result is means, by oral questioning, administering
written tests, or performance testing47.
a change in behaviour.
Evaluation is concerned
with defining, observing
and measuring the new Observations
behaviour. Once instruction Flight instructors have a moral obligation to
has begun, some sort of provide guidance and restraint with respect to
evaluation is essential to the operations of their students. This applies
determine both what and to instructor’s observations of unsafe or inept

operations by pilots who are not aware they
how well the student is are being observed, as well as pilots who
learning, as well as how have requested an instructor’s evaluation
effective the course of or guidance. In the case of an observed
unsatisfactory performance, it is your
instruction has been45. responsibility to try to correct it by the most
Evaluation for these reasonable and effective means. If unable to
purposes may be formative, correct the situation by personal contact and
good advice, you should report the matter to
ie, it is used during a course their supervisor.
of instruction, or summative,
when it is used at the Recording observations
completion of a course
Subjective written records of observed student
of instruction46. performances are known as anecdotal
records. Generally, a system is used to record
student behaviour that cannot be evaluated
by other means, for example, respect for laws,
reaction to authority, persistence or physical
skill. The main advantage of these records

is that they depict behaviour in natural situations.
For example, a student may show good knowledge Oral questioning
of VFR minima but violate them in everyday
situations. These records often form the basis of a
Oral questioning has a wide range of uses in flight
written debrief, and they can be of considerable
instruction. Questions that require the recall from
help to the instructor who is to fly with a previously
memory of a fact usually start with who, what,
unknown student.
when or where. Questions that require the student
to combine knowledge of facts with the ability to
You should record sufficient information about the
analyse a situation, solve problems or arrive at
situations to make the behaviour understood, for
conclusions usually start with why or how. Your
example, “entered cloud while concentrating on
instructional techniques course will provide guidance
instruments in the turn”. Just enough detail should
on ensuring that questions be asked at all levels
be included to make the description meaningful and
of Bloom’s taxonomy as is appropriate to the lesson.
accurate. The description should be as objective
as possible and it should record positive as well
Your use of oral questioning can have a number
as onstructive occurrences.
of desirable results:
A more structured form of anecdotal record is the • It reveals the effectiveness of your instruction.
rating scale. Rating scales provide a systematic
• It checks the student’s retention of what has
procedure for reporting your observations. Its value
been learned.
depends on careful preparation and appropriate
use. For example, it should measure the desired • It reviews material already covered by
learning outcome, and it should be used when the student.
sufficient opportunity exists to make the necessary • It can be used to retain the student’s interest
observations. and stimulate thinking.
A rating scale, as used in the CAA Flight Test • It can be used to emphasise important points.
Standard Guides (FTSG), in the measurement • It checks student comprehension.
of Managing Critical Incidents is given below
as an example. • It may identify points that need more emphasis.
• It promotes active student participation, which

Figure 1
is essential to learning.
Excerpt from a Flight Test Standards Guide
Aircraft Performance and Operating Requirements

Rating 70 85 100
Not yet competent COMPETENT Ideal
(1) Uses inappropriate performance charts, (1) Uses appropriate performance (1) Uses all appropriate performance
tables or data charts, tables and data charts, tables and data
(2) Uses inappropriate conditions for (2) Uses the appropriate conditions to (2) Uses the appropriate conditions to
the calculation of take-off or landing calculate the take-off and landing accurately and quickly calculate the
distance, such that safety would be distance for a private operation take-off and landing distance for a
compromised private operation
(3) Cannot complete the calculations (3) Completes the calculations required (3) Completes the calculations required
required in (1) and (2) within one hour in (1) and (2) within one hour in (1) and (2) within 30 minutes
(4) Fails to ensure sufficient runway length (4) Ensures sufficient runway length is (4) Ensures sufficient runway length is
is available for take-off or landing available for take-off and landing available for take-off and landing by
through local knowledge correctly comparing distance required
to distance available
(5) Is unable to explain or apply the group (5) Explains the use of the group (5) Explains the use of the group rating
rating system rating system system and applies its principles (as
applicable) in flight
(6) Demonstrates inadequate knowledge of (6) Demonstrates a satisfactory (6) Demonstrates a thorough knowledge
factors affecting aircraft performance in knowledge of seasonal factors of all seasonal factors affecting aircraft
winter (ice) or summer (density altitude) affecting aircraft performance performance
Instructional theory: Evaluation 35

Characteristics of effective questions Questions to avoid
Asking “Do you understand?” or “Have you any
Preparation
questions?” have no place in effective questioning.
Effective oral questioning requires preparation. Assurance by the student that they do understand,
You, therefore, should write pertinent questions in or that they have no questions, provides no evidence
advance. The recommended method is to place them of their comprehension.
in the lesson plan. These prepared questions serve
as a framework and, as the lesson progresses, should Catch-em-out questions should be avoided, as the
be supplemented by any impromptu questions you student will soon develop the feeling that they are
consider appropriate. To be effective, these questions engaged in a battle of wits with you. Other types of
must be adapted to the past experience and present questions to avoid are:
ability level of the student.
The puzzle
One idea
“What is the first action you should take if a
Effective questions centre on only one idea. One idea conventional gear aircraft with a weak right brake is
– one question. A single question should be limited swerving left in a right crosswind during a full-flap
to using who, what, when, where, how or why – not a power-on wheel-landing?”
combination.
The oversize
Brief
“What do you do before starting the engine?”
An effective question should be brief and concise.
Enough concrete words must be used to establish the The toss-up
conditions or situation exactly, so that instructor and
student have similar mental pictures. The student’s “In an emergency, should the crew activate the
response should be determined by their knowledge escape slide or control the passengers?”
of the subject – not by their ability to understand the
question. Bewilderment
“In reading the altimeter – you know you set a
Relevant sensitive altimeter for the nearest station pressure
To be effective, questions must apply to the subject of – if you take temperature into account, as when
instruction48. Unless the question pertains strictly to flying from a cold air mass through a warm front,
the particular training being conducted, it serves only what precaution should you take when in a
to confuse the student and divert their thoughts to mountainous area?”
an unrelated subject. Any part of a question that the
student could disregard and still respond correctly Irrelevant
should probably be removed.
The teaching process is an orderly procedure of
building one block of learning on another, and
Only one answer the introduction of unrelated facts and thoughts
Usually an effective question has only one correct will only obscure this process and retard the
answer, although in a problem solving question it student’s progress.
may be expressed in a variety of ways.
Answering a student’s questions

Challenging
The answering of a student’s questions must conform
Effective questions present a challenge to the to certain considerations if it is to be an effective
student. Questions of suitable difficulty serve to teaching method.
stimulate learning. The difficulty of the question
should be appropriate to the student’s level of The question must be clearly understood by you
training. before an answer is attempted. You should display
interest in the student’s question and frame
an answer as direct and accurate as possible.
For example, if the student asks “What is drag?”

an appropriate answer would be, “Drag is the Validity
resistance experienced by a body in motion through
Validity is the most important feature of any written
a fluid”.
test; it is the ability of a test to measure what it is
supposed to measure. The results of a written test
After you complete a response, it should be
are said to be valid only when they are interpreted in
determined whether or not the student is completely
relation to what the test was supposed to measure.
satisfied with the answer. In the example given, this
For example, if instruction has centred on the term
may lead to a discussion on the factors that affect
stalling angle, and the test question refers to the
drag. Organising the answers in this way conforms
critical angle, the test result would be invalid in
with the recommended teaching method for the
relation to the stalling angle, but it may have validity
development of a subject, in this case from simple
if interpreted in relation to a broader knowledge of
to complex.
stalling.
Sometimes it may be unwise to introduce the more
complicated or advanced considerations necessary to Reliability
completely answer a student’s question, for example,
Reliability refers to the consistency of results obtained
the drag formula. In this case, you should carefully
from a test or any other measuring device. A metal
explain to the student that the question was good
rule that expands and contracts with temperature
and pertinent but that the answer would, at this
changes will not give reliable results. By the same
time, unnecessarily complicate the learning task at
token using a device that is highly reliable does
hand. This is particularly true of the pre-flight brief
not necessarily mean the results will be valid. For
where time does not permit irrelevant or in-depth
example, an altimeter incorrectly calibrated will
discussions. If it will not be answered later in the
consistently measure altitude above the wrong
normal course of instruction, you should advise the
datum; the result is reliable, but wrong (not valid).
student to ask the question again later.
On rare occasions, a student asks a question which Useability

you cannot answer; you should freely admit not
Useability is a measure of the test’s practicality
knowing the answer, but should get the answer.
irrespective of other qualities. Tests should be easily
If practicable, you could help the student look it up
administered and scored, produce results that can
in available references.
be accurately interpreted, and be economical in time
and cost.
Instructors should avoid using the one-word answers
“Yes” or “No” if the greatest instructional benefit is to
be gained from the student’s question. Written test questions
In flight instruction the essay-type question is rarely
used and will not be discussed here. Those most
commonly used are:
Written tests
• The short-answer type, which for the purposes
As evaluation devices, written tests are only as good of this discussion includes the true/false type.
as the knowledge and proficiency of the test writer. • The multiple-choice type, which for the purposes
The following are some of the basic concepts of of this discussion includes the matching type.
written test design.
Many publications are available on test Short-answer type

administration, test scoring and test analysis, The short-answer question requires the student
so these topics are not covered in this chapter47. to supply their own answer. The shortest possible
answer will be in response to the true/false question,
and the longest answer extending to perhaps half a
Characteristics of a good written test page. Other than the true/false type, these questions
If a test is to be effective, it must have certain can be difficult to mark. For example, in the simplest
characteristics; the most important of these are one-word answer type, “The aircraft stalls at the
validity, reliability and useability47. _____ angle” the answer could be stalling, critical or
same, and you are sure to get someone who answers
with 15-degree.

The correctness of the answer is subjective The student may be asked to select the one choice
(decreasing reliability as well as validity depending that is the correct answer, the one choice that is the
on how the answer is interpreted). Therefore, the incorrect answer, or the one choice that is the most
same test graded by different instructors may result correct answer.
in different scores. The more latitude the student
has in the answer the more difficult it becomes to These three methods of answering, combined
assess their answer. While the true/false question with the three question forms, give you flexibility
eliminates this problem, it also provides the highest in preparing multiple-choice questions. However,
probability of guessing the answer. For these reasons experience has shown that the direct question form
the multiple-choice or matching type question is is the most successful for instructors inexperienced in
generally favoured. the writing of multiple-choice questions.
Examples:
Multiple-choice type
When properly devised and constructed, the multiple- Stem presented as a direct question
choice type offers several unique advantages that This form is generally better than the incomplete stem
make it more widely used and versatile than either in that it is simpler and more natural.
the matching or true/false question.
Which gas forms the largest part of the
Multiple-choice questions are highly objective; that atmosphere?
is, the results of such a test would be graded the
same regardless of the student taking the test or the a. oxygen
person marking it (reliability). This makes it possible to b. nitrogen
directly compare the performance of students within
c. helium
the same class or in different classes, students under
one instructor with those under another, and student d. hydrogen
accomplishment at one stage of instruction with that
e. neon
at later stages (validity). This type of test question
permits easy marking and allows you to examine
more areas of knowledge, over the same period, than Stem as an incomplete statement
could be done by requiring the student to supply When using this form, care must be taken to avoid
written responses (useability). ambiguity, giving clues and using unnecessarily
complex or unrelated alternatives.
Three major difficulties are encountered in the
construction of multiple-choice test questions: The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, the largest
part being:
• development of a question stem which can be
expressed clearly and without ambiguity; a. oxygen
• an answer which cannot be refuted; and b. nitrogen
• the invention of distracters which will be c. helium

attractive to those students who do not possess d. hydrogen
the knowledge or understanding necessary to
recognise the correct answer. e. neon
The stem Stem supplemented by a diagram

The stem may take several forms: Useful for measuring ability to read instruments or
identify objects.
• it may be a direct question followed by several
possible answers; Name and label the four forces acting on the
• it may be an incomplete sentence followed by aircraft in straight-and-level flight.
several possible completions to the sentence; or
“None of the above” or “all of the above”
• it may refer to a graph or diagram followed by as alternatives
several correct or incorrect statements about the
These are very poor alternatives and should not
graph or diagram.
be used. This is why no example is given here.

The negative variety Principles of multiple-choice type question
construction
These should be avoided as the negative raises
the difficulty of the question. If they must be used, Make each question independent of every other
the negative should be emphasised. question in the test. The wording of a question in the
test should not provide the correct answer to any
Which of the following is NOT used to control other question. For example, avoid pairs of questions
an aeroplane in flight? like this: Q1. If an aircraft has a rate of climb of
a. elevator 500 feet per minute, what amount of altitude will
be gained in one minute? Q2. Define Rate of Climb.
b. aileron Another bad practice is to have the answer to any
c. throttle question dependent on knowing the correct answer
to any other question. For example, this is bad: Q1.
d. cyclic
If an aircraft weighs 1600 lb, how much lift will be
e. rudder required for straight-and-level flight? Q2. If the lift/
drag ratio is 10:1 how much drag is produced in Q1?
Association type
Design questions that call for essential knowledge
This type is useful if a limited number of associations rather than abstract background knowledge or
are to be made. Matching questions serve better if a unimportant facts.
large number of related associations are to be made.
State the question in the working language of the
Which manoeuvre does NOT belong with student. A common criticism of written tests is the
the others? emphasis on the reading ability of the student. If
language comprehension is not the objective of
a. chandelle
the test, failing to use appropriate language will
b. autorotation decrease validity.
c. lazy eight
Include sketches, diagrams or pictures when they can
d. loop present a situation more vividly than words. They add
e. steep turn interest and avoid reading difficulties with technical
language.
Definition type Avoid the negative word or phrase. A student who

These are useful for determining knowledge of basic is pressed for time may identify the wrong response
rules or facts. simply because the negative form was overlooked.
The difference between magnetic north and true Double negatives should be avoided because
north is known as: invariably they cause confusion. If a word such as
“not” or “false” appears in the stem, avoid using
a. turning error
another negative in the alternatives.
b. variation
Catch questions, unimportant details and leading
c. deviation
questions should be avoided as they do not
d. compass error contribute to effective evaluation. Moreover, they
tend to antagonise the student.
e. dip
Research the question stems and appropriate verbs

When multiple-choice questions are used, four or
to use to frame questions at the varying levels of
five alternatives are generally provided. It is usually
Bloom’s Taxonomy.
difficult to construct more than five plausible
responses. If there are less than four alternatives,
the probability of guessing the correct response is
considerably increased. Recent studies suggest three
responses carefully constructed are sufficient to
determine knowledge.

Principles of stem construction Unequal columns: Generally these are preferable to
equal columns.
The stem should clearly present the problem or idea.
The function of the stem is to set the stage for the a. Never exceed speed 1. Va
alternatives that follow.
b. Best angle of climb speed 2. Vno
The stem should be worded in such a way that it does c. Red radial line on the airspeed indicator 3. Vx
not give away the correct response.
d. Design manoeuvring speed 4. Vfe
Put everything that pertains to all alternatives in the
e. Best rate of climb speed 5. Vne
stem. This helps to avoid repetitious alternatives.
6. Vy
Generally avoid using “a” or “an” at the end of the
stem. These may give away the correct choice. Every
Principles of matching-type question
alternative should fit grammatically with the stem.
construction
Unlike the examples above, give specific and
Principles of alternatives construction complete instructions. Do not make the student guess
what is required.
Incorrectness should not be the only criterion for the
distracting alternatives. A common misconception or Also unlike the questions above, test only essential
a statement that is itself true, but does not satisfy the information.
requirements of the problem, may also be used.
Use closely related material throughout the question.
Keep all alternatives of approximately equal length.
Where possible, make all responses plausible.
When alternatives consist of numbers they should be
listed in ascending order. Use the working language of the student.
Arrange the alternatives in a sensible, easily

Matching type
read order.
The matching type question is particularly good
for measuring the student’s ability to recognise If alternatives are not to be used more than once,
relationships. As this question type is a collection of provide extra alternatives to avoid guessing by
multiple-choice questions it samples more student elimination.
abilities in a given period of time. Samples of two
different forms of this type follow.
Equal columns: When using this form, always provide

Effective question writing
for some questions in the response column to be used
more than once, or not at all, to preclude guessing by
Question writing is one of your most difficult tasks.
elimination. For example:
Besides requiring considerable time and effort, the
a. Never exceed speed 1. Va task demands a mastery of the subject, an ability
to write clearly, and an ability to visualise realistic
b. Best angle of climb speed 2. Vno situations for developing relevant questions.
c. Red radial line on the airspeed indicator 3. Vx Because of the time and effort required in the writing
of effective questions, it is desirable to establish a
d. Design manoeuvring speed 4. Vne question bank or pool.
e. Best rate of climb speed 5. Vy
As long as precautions are taken to safeguard
the questions in a pool, the burden of continually
preparing new questions will be lightened (but not
eliminated). The most convenient and secure method
is to record questions on a computer. These can be
added to or amended as required, and using the cut
and paste feature, different examination papers can
quickly be compiled and printed.

Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight
Principles of effective question writing instruction must be based upon established
standards of performance (see the appropriate
FTSG), suitably modified to apply to the student’s
Regardless of the question type or form, the following
experience, stage of development as a pilot and
principles should be followed in writing or reviewing
the conditions under which the demonstration was
questions49.
performed. For the evaluation to be meaningful to
Each question should test a concept or idea that it is you, the student’s mastery of the elements involved
important for the student to know, understand or be in the manoeuvre must be considered, rather than
able to apply. merely the overall performance.
The question must be stated so that everyone who In evaluating student demonstrations of piloting
is competent in the subject would agree on the ability, as in questioning and other instructional
correct response. processes, it is important to keep the student
informed of progress. This may be done as each
The question should be stated in the student’s procedure or manoeuvre is completed or during
working language. the debriefing.
The wording should be simple, direct and free

of ambiguity.
Sketches, diagrams or pictures should be included

if they add realism or aid the student in visualising
the problem.
The question should present a problem that demands

knowledge of the subject. A question that can be
responded to on the basis of general knowledge
does not test achievement.
Performance tests
If a student demonstrates the ability to perform

selected parts of a skill for which they are being
trained, it is assumed that they will be able to perform
the entire skill. Performance testing is a sampling
process. It should be a carefully selected part of an
action process typical of the skill for which training
is being given. For example, successful completion of
a cross-country flight test would assume the student
is able to fly anywhere in New Zealand.
This method of evaluation is particularly suited to

the measurement of student abilities in either mental
or physical tasks. Performance testing is desirable
for evaluating training that involves an operation,
a procedure or a process, and it is used extensively
in flight instruction.

Instructional aids
An instructional aid is any It is difficult for instructors to use words that

have the same meaning for the student as
device that assists an they do for you. For example, try describing
instructor in the student’s level attitude, using words only, to a student
learning process. They may that has not flown before. The good instructor
makes learning easier and more accurate for
be sight or sound devices, the student by providing visual images53.
or a combination of both.
Instructors use them to It is often difficult for a student to understand
relationships, for example, CL to Angle of Attack.
improve communication If the relationships are presented visually, they
between themselves and are much easier to deal with. Symbols, graphs
their students, but the and diagrams can show relationships of
location, size, time, frequency or value54.
aids do not substitute for
instruction50; they are used Instructors are frequently asked to teach more
to support, supplement or and more in less and less time. Instructional
aids can help them do this.
reinforce teaching.
Guidelines for their use

Reasons for using them
The decision to use any instructional aid
Gaining and holding student attention is
should be based on its ability to support a
essential to learning. Visual aids which
specific point in a lesson55.
support the topic with some degree of novelty
draw attention to the information and cause Aids should be simple and compatible with
both the seeing and hearing channels of the learning outcomes to be achieved. Since
the mind to process the same or similar aids are used in conjunction with a verbal
information51. presentation, words on the aid should be kept
to a minimum and distracting artwork avoided56.
An important goal of all instruction is for the
You should avoid the temptation of using the
student to retain as much of the instruction
aid as a crutch. For example, the introduction
as possible and a significant improvement in
of PowerPoint saw many instructors fall into
student retention occurs when instruction is
this trap, believing that a slide or series of
supported with meaningful aids52.

slides, with everything on them, could substitute for • Organise the board and practise the
the lesson or briefing. A six-by-six rule of thumb can presentation in advance.
be applied to the preparation of slides – 6 words
• Write or draw large enough for everyone in the
across and 6 lines down, maximum.
group to see.
Aids have no value in the learning process if they • Do not overcrowd. Leave a margin around the
cannot be heard or seen. Recordings of sounds and material and space between lines.
speeches should be tested for adequate volume
• Present material simply and briefly.
and quality. Visual aids must be visible to the entire
class, with lettering large enough to be seen by the • Use lower case for presentation of material to
students farthest from the aid. Colours, when used, be learned as the easier interpretation facilitates
should contrast and be easily visible. The surest and learning and leave upper case for titles.
most successful rule is, before the student arrives, test • If necessary, use the ruler or other devices in
visual and aural aids in the environment in which they making drawings.
will be used.
• Use colour for emphasis.
The effectiveness of aids can be improved by proper • Stand to the side of the material being
sequencing57. Sequencing can be emphasised and presented, so that the entire class will have an
made clearer by the use of contrasting colours. unobstructed view.
The effectiveness of aids and the ease of preparation • Do not talk to the board – when speaking, face
can be increased by planning them in rough draft the student or group; when writing, write!
form. The rough draft should be carefully checked
for accuracy, clarity and simplicity. Revisions and
alterations to a draft are easier to make than
Models
changes to a final product. A model is a realistic copy or simulation of a real
piece of equipment. Models are not necessarily
The purpose of all instructional aids is to improve the the same size as the equipment they represent, nor
student’s understanding so care must be taken to are they necessarily workable. However, a model is
present information from the student’s perspective. generally more effective if it works like the original.
For example, when using an attitude window, point With the display of an operating model, the students
out what the attitude looks like from the student’s can observe how each part works in relation to the
(left-seat) perspective. other parts, ailerons for example. As instructional
aids, models are usually more practical than originals
because they are lightweight and easily moved.
Types The most commonly used model in flight instruction

is that of an aircraft. In accordance with the above
Some of the most common aids are whiteboards, general principles the model aircraft should at least
models, illustrations, handouts, projected materials bear some resemblance to the aircraft being used
and computers. for training, high- or low-wing for example.
You should always hold the model aircraft by the

Whiteboard or blackboard nose, so that the tail of the aircraft points toward
the student. This gives the student the perspective
The whiteboard is one of the most widely used aids
of sitting in the pilot’s seat. For example, which
to learning. Its versatility and effectiveness make
aileron goes down and which goes up in the turn
it a valuable aid to most types of instruction. The
is your problem to solve not the student’s.
following practices are fundamental in the use of a
whiteboard or blackboard:
• Keep the board clean. Illustrations
• Erase all irrelevant material. Material should be displayed in a clear, easily

understood format. Safety posters are a good example.
• Keep chalk or pens, erasers, rulers and other A large photograph of the aircraft instrument panel is
equipment readily available to avoid interruption particularly useful. However, as with any other model
of the presentation. representation, it is of little value – even detrimental –
Instructional theory: Instructional aids 43

if it does not represent the aircraft in use. An extreme Films and video are good for gaining and maintaining
example would be using a photograph of an A320 attention, but they do not lend themselves well to
instrument layout for a pilot training in a Cessna. the interactive learning process. Slides combined
with your presentation provide greater opportunity
for interaction.
Handouts
Handouts comprise any written material distributed Use of projected materials requires careful planning
in relation to the lesson. They can include copies and rehearsal by you to adjust equipment, lighting
of your notes, illustrations, articles or overhead and timing.
projection material. They may be distributed during,
or at the completion of the lesson, depending on
your preference.
Computer-based instruction
For the pre-flight briefing, handouts are best utilised
in a systematic manner, linking the exercises being At this time, the computer is by far the most versatile
taught. kind of aid available to instruction58.
For example, at the completion of the straight- Computers combine the features of film or audio in
and-level lesson the student is given a handout on gaining and maintaining attention and can provide
climbing. This first asks relevant questions in regard simulation and interactive feedback. With the
to the practical aspects of straight-and-level. Revision development of touch-screen technology, exciting
questions relating to earlier instruction could also possibilities for interactive instruction and feedback
be included. Then the handout covers the theory have become possible59.
and considerations of climbing in depth. This is in
more detail than would be covered in the pre-flight At first glance, the computer appears to incorporate
brief including, for example, any relevant checklists all the considerations of effective instruction.
or radio procedures. The handout ends with relevant However, the computer still lacks the ability to provide
questions on the climbing text. for an individual’s social and egoistic needs. For
example, belonging, appreciation and recognition.
You now present the pre-flight briefing on climbing, For this reason it is worth stating again that
and the exercise is flown and de-briefed. Then a instructional aids are used in support of your delivery;
handout on descending is given to the student, on they should not substitute for instruction itself.
the first page of which are questions relating to
climbing air exercise – and the cycle is repeated.
The use of handouts in this manner provides a

Future developments
continuous cycle of repetition, recency and arousal.
Recent years have seen an explosion of new materials

Projected material and techniques in the field of instructional aids. The
effective instructor strives to keep abreast of new
Projected material includes motion pictures, video,
devices, new materials, and their potential uses. In
slides, and PowerPoint. The essential factor governing
choosing an appropriate instructional aid, you must
their use, as with all instructional aids, is that the
be receptive to new possibilities and keep in mind the
content supports the lesson.
learning goal to be achieved, as well as the role of
the instructor in human relations60.
Video appeals to students, while packaged lessons
appeal to instructors; care should be exercised to
ensure that the lesson is being supported – not
supplanted.
Video should be previewed and summarised by you

before use.

Role modelling
The influence of a flight If the status of the flight instructor in the

general aviation industry is to be upgraded,
instructor is so great that it must be done through the efforts of flight
it merits a career path and instructors themselves.
status of its own14. In this
The professional flight instructor commands
chapter we discuss the the respect of associates and, most
influence of your behaviour importantly, delivers more effective instruction.
on that of your students.
Sincerity
Professionalism
The student pilot accepts the flight instructor
Professionalism in flight instruction demands as a competent qualified teacher and expert
a code of ethics that is in no way related to pilot. Attempting to hide inadequacy behind
the monetary gains. Flight instructors must a smoke screen of unrelated instruction will
strive for the highest levels of professionalism make it impossible to command the respect
as attempts to operate otherwise as a flight and attention of the student; the professional
instructor can result only in poor performance flight instructor should be straightforward
and deficient students. Anything less than a and honest.
sincere effort will quickly be detected by the
In addition, instruction that emphasises
student, destroying your effectiveness.
safety will be negated if you appear to ignore
Professionalism also includes a flight your own instruction, eg, taxiing quickly, or
instructor’s public image. In the past, flight descending below minimum altitudes.
instructors have all too often been willing
The same applies to your insistence on
to accept a less than professional status in
precision, accuracy and smoothness of
the public view by relaxing their demeanour,
handling. The professional instructor is
appearance and approach to their profession.
constantly under scrutiny and is expected
to excel in aircraft handling.
Instructional theory: Role modelling 45

you is not perceived by the student, some honest
Personal appearance and habits discussion may be required. Once again, it is best
to discuss the resolution of this problem with your
supervisor.
Personal appearance has an important effect on the
professional image of the instructor. Today’s aviation
customers are people who expect their associates
to be neat, clean and appropriately dressed. It
is not intended that the flight instructor should Safety and accident prevention
assume attire foreign to the flight environment, but
as you are engaged in a learning situation, often The flying habits of the flight instructor, both during
with professional people, the attire worn should be instruction and as observed by students, have a
appropriate to a professional status. direct effect on safety. Students consider their flight
instructor to be a paragon of flying proficiency whose
Personal habits have a significant effect on the flying habits they, consciously or unconsciously,
professional image. The exercise of common courtesy attempt to imitate. For this reason, a flight instructor
is perhaps the most important of these. A flight must meticulously observe the safety practices taught
instructor who is rude, thoughtless, impatient or to the students, such as using full runway length for
inattentive cannot hold the respect of the students, take-off.
regardless of piloting ability. Young, confident
flight instructors need to give careful consideration A flight instructor must carefully observe all
to these points when dealing with students older regulations if a professional image is to be
than themselves. maintained. An instructor, who is observed to fly
with apparent disregard for loading limitations,
The professional instructor maintains a genuine weather minima, or runway length creates an image
interest in the student’s learning. Under no of irresponsibility that many hours of conscientious
circumstances should you do or say anything that flight instruction cannot correct.
is derogatory to the student. Acceptance rather
than ridicule, and support rather than reproof will
encourage learning, regardless of whether the
student is quick to learn or is slow and apprehensive. Self improvement
Criticising the student for not learning is not unlike
a doctor criticising a patient for not getting well, “The input of aviation instruction is for as long as
and is totally unacceptable from a professional. a pilot flies.”14 Professional flight instructors must
never become complacent or satisfied with their
The professional image requires a calm,
own qualifications and ability. They should be
thoughtful and disciplined demeanour. Frequently
constantly active and alert for ways to improve
countermanding directions, reacting differently
their qualifications, teaching effectiveness and the
to identical errors, and demanding unreasonable
service they provide to students. Flight instructors are
performance or progress should be avoided.
considered authorities on aeronautical matters and
are the experts to whom many pilots refer questions
On rare occasions a personality conflict may arise
concerning regulations, requirements and operating
between instructor and student. If, for any reason you
techniques.
suspect this, you should discuss the problem with your
supervisor who has the experience to confirm your
It is essential that you maintain access to current
suspicions or offer alternative teaching methods to
copies of Civil Aviation Rules, their associated
overcome conflict.
Advisory Circulars, and Flight Test Standards Guides,
including Flight Training Standards guides. A flight
Cleanliness of body and breath is important to
instructor who is not completely familiar with current
flight instruction. The cabin is a close, tightly sealed
pilot issue and rating requirements cannot do a
area, where an instructor and student work in close
competent job of flight instruction. However, you are
proximity and where little annoyances provide serious
not alone; if confronted with a question to which you
distractions from the learning task. Likewise, the flight
do not know the answer, turn to your supervisor.
instructor should not be subjected to body odour
from the student. If the role model example set by

Better, make use of your supervisor to get answers
before the questions arise. Your supervisor (probably
your role model) is there to assist you – and has
certified your logbook to this effect.
There are many means of self-improvement available

to flight instructors: the CAA website; CAA Vector
magazine; Good Aviation Practice (GAP) booklets;
DVDs; aviation periodicals; recognised texts; seminars
and papers offered by the CAA; Massey, Auckland,
Wellington and Otago Universities; instructional
techniques and advanced instructional techniques
courses, as well as libraries and other websites are all
valuable sources of information for flight instructors.
Although the recommended reference texts are

expensive, a reference library is as essential to the
professional instructor as a navigation computer is
essential to the professional pilot.
Flight instructors have a tremendous influence on

their student’s perception of aviation in general and
piloting in particular. The level of professionalism
shown by flight instructors in the way they conduct
themselves and the attitudes they display directly
affect their student’s flying.
Instructional theory: Role modelling 47

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27 Popham, WJ, and Baker, EL (1970). Planning an instructional sequence, and Systematic instruction.
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
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29 Mayer, RE (1979). Can advance organisers influence meaningful learning? Review of Educational Research,
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32 Telfer, RA and Biggs, J (1988). The psychology of flight training. Ames: Iowa State University Press.
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36 Knowles, MS (1980). The modern practice of adult education: From pedagogy to andragogy. Chicago:
Follett Publishing.
37 Brown, G, and Atkins, M (1991). Effective teaching in higher education. London: Routledge.
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Briefings
Briefings introduction
The sample preflight briefings given here are adequate for the
purpose of the Category C Flight Instructor issue flight test.
The novice instructor must realise that there Throughout this text the words control column, control
is no standard briefing because there is no wheel and stick are used interchangeably, as they all
standard student. have the same function and sense of movement.
These preflight briefings then, are a guide to the

novice instructor, and their content and breadth
should not be considered comprehensive. For The preflight briefing
example, no briefing on the use of the aircraft radio
is given here, but this does not mean that none
Before beginning a preflight brief you need to
is required. In addition, these briefings are very
know the student’s past experience in order to give
generalised, and some modification will be required
relevance to the lesson. This may be simple enough
to meet the operating requirements of specific
to achieve if the student is known to you, has
aircraft types.
completed a post-flight questionnaire relating to
their last lesson or has no previous flight experience.
Detailed information and some formulae have been
Where the student has previous flight experience
included in the academic considerations of each
and is not known to you, research of the student’s
briefing. These are only included to give the novice
anecdotal records will be required. Where these are
instructor a broad appreciation of the reasons behind
not available, nor is the student’s past instructor,
the contents of the airborne sequence. They are
the student’s logbook forms a valuable, if limited,
not meant to be written out in full, nor necessarily
reference.
discussed during the preflight briefing. In addition,
suggested briefing introductions, comments or even
Where the student with past flight experience is
the suggested briefing layouts are not required to be
unknown to the organisation, the CFI generally
delivered verbatim.
conducts an evaluation flight to assess the student’s
goals, values, self-concept and position within the
How much detail, background information or theory
syllabus. The CFI then provides you with the new
is added, and which parts are deferred or arranged
student’s relevant details.
differently, is the responsibility of the qualified
instructor.
The use of abbreviations during the briefing, for
example, A/C for aircraft, is common and acceptable
The specific ability to modify the preflight briefings
as long as the meaning of the abbreviation is
with regard to the student’s previous experience, the
explained.
conditions on the day, and the objectives, is what is
usually examined during the upgrade flight test from
Each preflight briefing has a title and is discussed
Category C to Category B Flight Instructor.
under five or six headings.
Under Category C issue flight test conditions, it is

common practice, and acceptable, for the preflight The title
briefing to take up to one hour to deliver.
Typically the title is a very brief statement. Although
The sequence and contents of the briefings the title may clearly convey to you what the lesson
presented here follow a generally accepted pattern. is about, it may not for the student. As soon as the
However, the Chief Flying Instructor (CFI) of each subject is introduced a verbal explanation of what
training organisation has final discretion over the the lesson is about is given, showing relevance and
sequence and briefing content used within their relating it to past experience.
own organisation.
The introduction sets the scene for what could be
either an interesting briefing during which the student
is receptive – or a boring, unpleasant experience.

Objective Aircraft management
The lesson objective should state what the student Aircraft management implies a broader operational
should be able to do at the end of the lesson. In context than engine handling. It prepares the student
the preflight briefings given here, no performance for the operation of more complex aircraft and
parameters have been stated. When adding these considers aspects of total flight management.
to the objective, you must consider the student, the
aircraft and the conditions on the day, so that the Information presented here is meant to relate to
objective is achievable. both the immediate air exercise and the general
requirements of the aircraft operation.
As many flight exercises are simulations, it’s important
to keep in mind the requirements of the lesson There is no requirement to find something to put in
objective so that the student is able to achieve the here. For example, medium turns does not require
lesson outcome without endangering the aircraft. For smooth throttle movements or mixture rich, so these
example, the objective of the forced landing exercise can be ignored or revised at instructor discretion.
is not to make a successful landing, because the
student must land to achieve that objective.
Human factors
Likewise, the use of the word safe in the objective Currently some form of human failure causes
should be avoided. Safety and being safe is a 70 percent of all aircraft accidents. Information
concept which is difficult to observe or measure. presented here is meant to introduce the student
Promoting safety in general is desirable, and it should to human limitations that may be observed or
be emphasised that all flight operations should experienced during the air exercise, especially
be conducted in a manner that enhances safety. those areas that affect decision-making and
However, as safety is not observable or measurable, pilot judgement.
it is not used in the lesson objective.
Good aviation practice is broadly defined as
common sense in the air. Good aviation practice is
Principles of flight or considerations incorporated under the ‘Human factors’ heading
Under the heading of ‘Principles of flight’, the basic because human limitations are known and can be
principles of flight relating to the air exercise are taught, whereas good aviation practice is generally
discussed. This means that only simple explanations accepted as something you either have or have
are used. These should directly support the air not. For example, good aviation practice requires
exercise. This is not an opportunity for you to discuss a good lookout, whereas human factors describes
everything they know on the subject, nor is it a the limitations of the human visual system and
requirement of the flight test during the briefing how to overcome those limitations to achieve a
(a separate examination of your knowledge is good lookout.
conducted later).
The ADVISE model (Altitude, Disorientation, Vision,
The heading of ‘Considerations’ is sometimes used Information processing, Stress and Esprite or E’alth
where no direct principles of flight relate to the air – health), developed by Ewing (1994), is an aid for
exercise. It can also be used in the air exercise itself considering which aspects of the human factors
to introduce similar exercises, for example, steep turns syllabus should be incorporated into the preflight
and steep gliding turns. briefing. For example, altitude, is an aspect of known
human limitations directly involved in climbing but not
medium turns.
Airmanship
Airmanship has many explanations, depending upon
Air exercise
the reference and the context.
This is the reason for the preflight briefing and
Keep the explanation simple for the student to everything presented before this point should directly
understand and apply. Fundamentally this means support the air exercise.
lookout considerations and principles, maintaining
situational awareness, appropriate decision-making, Generally the air exercise will follow a sequence of
and threat and error management. entry, maintain, and exit.
Briefings 53
Poor altitude control, or rolling the aircraft with
Airborne sequence aileron and keeping straight with rudder, in an
Generally, the airborne sequence is: attempt to keep the field in sight, resulting in
crossed controls, should not be demonstrated.
1. Demonstration
2. Follow me through Aircraft control

3. Instructor talks student through You are the pilot-in-command. The safety of the
4. Student practice. aircraft, crew and passengers is of paramount
importance to the pilot-in-command. However,
The demonstration is a physical statement of the achieving the maximum benefit from the learning
lesson objective: “Here is what you will be able to experience is of paramount importance to the
do at the end of this lesson”. professional instructor.
The follow through is a pattered breakdown, by you, The decision to give the student control or to take
of the actions required to complete the manoeuvre, control yourself can only be based on experience.
or part of the manoeuvre. The professional flight instructor retains situational
awareness at all times and never allows the safety
The instructor talk through is a re-assembly, by the of the flight to be compromised.
student, of the actions required to complete the
manoeuvre with instructor assistance. Generally, when handing over control to the student,
make sure the student realises they have full control
Student practice involves evaluation by both by removing your hands from the control wheel,
instructor and student as to whether or not the column or stick, and throttle as well as removing
student’s performance achieves the lesson objective. your feet from the rudder pedals. Follow-me-through
Remember that perfection or a performance within exercises are used to give the student insights to
flight test parameters, is not necessarily a part of the control movements and build confidence. However,
lesson objective. when handing over control, often removing your feet
from the rudder pedals is difficult or overlooked, and
Student practice should not be continued beyond this can lead to subconscious control inputs that only
the point at which the objective is achieved. undermine the confidence of the student.
Patter In some exercises, maintaining a very light feel on

the rudders may be beneficial to your assessment
The airborne patter should follow the same sequence of student performance. Great care must be taken,
as the briefing, using the same words and avoiding however, not to lead or override the student’s inputs.
the inclusion of material or exercises that were not
covered in the briefing. In most air exercises, the
Parallax error
movement of the aircraft controls can be slowed
down, permitting synchronisation of the patter with Parallax error results from viewing the pilot’s
aircraft movement. Where this is not possible, for instrument panel at an oblique angle. Its effects are
example, with spinning, you must be careful not to most noticeable with regard to balance, aligning the
include too much verbal detail in one demonstration. Directional Indicator (DI) and angles of bank on the
Artificial Horizon (AH).
Control inputs
As a result of side-by-side seating a similar effect
Your flying should be accurate and control occurs when viewing aircraft attitude and reference
movements should be smooth and coordinated at points in relation to the aircraft nose. Remember it’s
all times. The use of jerky, abrupt or uncoordinated what the student sees that is of prime importance.
control movements should be avoided wherever
possible. For example, when discussing the suitability
Airmanship
of a particular field for forced landing practice, the
aircraft should be positioned such that both the “The teaching of airmanship is above all a matter
student and instructor can clearly see the field in of clear example displayed by the instructor.”
a gentle turn and a constant altitude maintained.

Continuity Comprehensiveness
Where convenient (refer CFI) the manoeuvre to be A comprehensive debriefing is not necessarily a long
taught in the next lesson is demonstrated at the end one, nor must it treat every aspect of the performance
of each air exercise. in detail. You must decide whether the greater benefit
will come from a discussion of a few major points or
a number of minor points. An effective debrief covers
strengths as well as weaknesses. How to balance
The debriefing the two is a decision that only you can make. The
content should focus on the achievement or not of
No skill is more important to an instructor than the the objective.
ability to analyse and judge student performance.
The student quite naturally looks to you for guidance, Constructiveness
analysis, appraisal, suggestions for improvement and
A debriefing is pointless unless the student profits
encouragement.
from it. The student needs to be informed of how to
capitalise on things that are done well. Also, it is not
A debrief may be either oral, written or both, and
enough to identify a fault or weakness, you should
it may be used in the classroom as well as the
give positive guidance for correction.
aircraft. It should come immediately after a student’s
performance, while the details are easy to recall.
Organisation
As with all evaluation, a debrief is not a step in the
Unless a debrief follows some pattern, a series of
grading process, it is a step in the learning process.
otherwise valid comments may lose their impact. The
A debrief should not be negative in content; it should
debrief should follow a logical pattern and make
consider the good along with constructive feedback
sense to the student as well as you. The pattern
on what and how to improve.
might be the sequence of the performance itself, or
it might begin with the point where a demonstration
A debrief should improve the student’s performance
failed and work backward through the steps that led
and provide them with something constructive to
to the failure. A success can be analysed the same
work and build on. It should provide direction and
way. Whatever the organisation of the debriefing you
guidance to raise their level of performance.
should be flexible enough to change it if the student
cannot understand it.
Characteristics of an effective debriefing
Considerate
Objectivity
An effective debrief reflects your consideration of the
The effective debrief is focused on student student’s need for self-esteem as well as recognition
performance and should not reflect your personal and approval from others. You should never minimise
likes and dislikes. Instructors sometimes permit the dignity and importance of the individual. Ridicule,
their judgements to be influenced by their anger or fun at the expense of the student has no
general impressions of the student, favourable or place in a debriefing.
unfavourable, to such a degree that it influences
objectivity. If a debriefing is to be objective, it must
Specific
be honest. It must be based on the performance as it
was, not as it could have been or as you and student Your comments and recommendations should be
wish it had been. specific, not generalised. A statement such as, “Your
second steep turn was better than your first”, has
Flexibility little constructive value unless you explain specifically
why, how, or in what area the student improved.
You must fit the tone, technique and content of the At the conclusion of the debrief the student should
debriefing to the occasion and the student. Again have no doubt what they did well and what they did
and again, you are faced with the problem of what poorly and, most importantly, specifically how they
to say, what to omit, what to stress, and what to can improve. If you have a recommendation in mind,
minimise. The debriefing challenges you to determine it should be expressed with firmness and authority in
what to say at the proper moment. The effective terms that cannot be misunderstood.
debrief is one that is flexible enough to satisfy the
requirements of the moment.
Briefings 55
From the above it should be apparent that the ability
to conduct an effective debrief is not something that Whiteboard layouts
comes naturally. It requires considerable training
and practice. Experience has shown that newly
The proposed layouts are again, only a guide.
qualified flight instructors tend to over-concentrate
They represent the finished layout and should be
on performance errors, which are often minor.
supplemented with the use of various aids.
The debrief should begin with an opportunity for the

student to state how well they thought they did in
achieving the objective.
If the objectives were met, you’re presented with the

opportunity to give immediate positive feedback.
If the objectives were not met, and the student

knows why or can explain how they might achieve
the objectives in subsequent flights, again the
opportunity for positive feedback exists.
The opportunity for the student to speak freely about

their performance may provide you with insights
about the student that may not otherwise be voiced
(their fears or misconceptions).
If the objectives were not met, highlight the main

features of the exercise or performance, accentuate
the positive, give praise where appropriate, and
gradually build on your experience to analyse
the student’s performance more specifically and
constructively.
The Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM) aspects of

the lesson should also be considered in the debrief.
It is highly recommended that you take advantage

of the direct supervision period and ensure that your
supervisor attends the debriefing. Your supervisor
can debrief you, in private, on your performance.
Remember, the debrief is not a step in the grading
process but a step in the learning process.

Basic concepts
These first seven lessons

are provided in this
recommended order.
Please refer to your CFI
for the order your
organisation uses.
BASIC CONCEPTS
Taxiing
The purpose of this Taxiing is usually introduced during the

first lesson, Effects of controls, but the
briefing is to consider the considerations are usually spread over the
effects of the environment lessons leading up to first solo. It is your
on the ground handling responsibility to ensure that the student
is aware of these considerations before
of the aeroplane. recommending them for first solo. If a student
has limited experience or exposure to
These environmental factors include:
operating ‘machines’, a separate taxi lesson
• the surface type may be appropriate.
• slope
Taxiing means: manoeuvring the aeroplane
• wind on the ground under its own power. This
• wingtip and propeller clearance requires concentration and common sense.
Your student needs to understand that an
• other traffic aeroplane is less manoeuvrable than a car,
• slipstream, jet blast wider because of the wingspan, and you
cannot reverse an aeroplane.
• seat adjustment
• windscreen cleanliness
• inertia and speed judgement
• blind spots
• aerodrome layout
• instrument checks
• Air Traffic Control (ATC) clearances
• right of way rules, and
• aerodrome signs and markings.

Increase power by moving the lever or plunger
Objective forward and decrease power by moving it rearwards.
Correctly use the aeroplane’s controls to manoeuvre Directional control

the aircraft on the ground at a speed appropriate for
the prevailing conditions and situation, following a Direction is controlled by nosewheel steering, and
selected path and stopping at a nominated point. is done by pushing the appropriate rudder pedal
(see Figure 2). This works in the natural sense – push
the left rudder pedal and the nose turns to the left,
and vice versa. In some aeroplane types, the rudder
pedals may be augmented by differential braking to
Considerations
tighten the radius of turn if required.
Figure 2
Speed control
Directional control
Aeroplane speed is controlled with the hand-operated
throttle. Because of inertia, more power will initially
be required to get the aeroplane moving. As soon
as the desired speed is reached, reduce power as
appropriate.
Maintaining taxi speed will be affected by the

surface, slope, wind, and power used. Some
organisations recommend a minimum power setting
while taxiing to minimise spark plug fouling (refer CFI).
To stop, ensure nose wheel is straight, close the

throttle fully then apply both main wheel brakes, Wind affects directional control, and crosswinds will
usually achieved by depressing the tops of both rudder cause the aeroplane to weathercock into wind as a
pedals (see Figure 1). Slope, surface (wet or dry), and result of pressure on the vertical tail fin.
wind, all affect the ability to stop. How to apply and
release the park brake should also be taught. Most problems experienced by the student in
maintaining directional control are a result of looking
just ahead of the aeroplane, rather than at a point in
Figure 1
the distance.
Braking
Control positioning
The aeroplane’s controls should be held in the
appropriate position in relation to wind direction,
as stated in the Flight Manual.
The use of full aft elevator in modern nosewheel

training aeroplanes is not required while taxiing,
but the elevator should be held either in the neutral
position or slightly aft to keep the weight off the
nosewheel and protect the nosegear. However, this
may not be appropriate with high-tail aeroplanes
(refer CFI).
Basic concepts: Taxiing 59

The use of carburettor heat on the ground should
Airmanship only be used during the run-up procedure and pre-
take-off checks and be on a clear surface, as air from
this source is unfiltered.
Introduce the student to the right-of-way rules, as
they apply while taxiing.
In winds of more than 5 knots, the aeroplane should
always be stopped facing into wind to assist
Show the student the aerodrome chart from AIP New
engine cooling.
Zealand Vol 4, pointing out the major features of the
aerodrome and where to look for them once they are
Taxi on the centreline, but be aware of your own and
in the aeroplane.
other aeroplane’s wingtips and tailplanes, as well
as propeller slipstreams. Be cautious of aeroplanes
Show the student the location of the windsocks and
that may be producing jet blast, and avoid taxiing
how to interpret them.
behind them.
Explain to the student that it is important to
Light aeroplanes may need to taxi right of the
communicate with other users of the aerodrome. In
centreline to allow opposing direction aeroplanes to
order to do this, you will be using radio calls to either
pass – aircraft should pass port to port (left to left).
the traffic, or the control tower (as appropriate).
You will be giving your position, your intentions, and
While taxiing, the aeroplane’s flight instruments (turn
requesting any clearances you may need.
coordination, direction indication, compass, and
artificial horizon) should be checked for serviceability.
The student should listen to the calls you make and
the responses you get. Remember to speak slowly
To prevent propeller damage, avoid taxiing over
and clearly.
rough surfaces and limit the use of power when over
loose gravel. Keep the aeroplane moving – twice as
much power may be required to get going again if
the aeroplane stops. If the surface looks doubtful, or
Aeroplane management excessive power (>2000 RPM) is required; stop, shut
down, and get assistance. Do not try to ‘power out’
Discuss your training aircraft’s particular nose wheel of soft ground.
characteristics, eg, castoring, etc.
Avoid using power against brake.
The pilot’s seating position should be adjusted to

Human factors
make sure they can achieve full rudder deflection,
and the seat locking should be checked for security. Adhering to the right-of-way rules, being familiar
Make sure the student can reach all of the controls with and carrying aerodrome charts, and windsock
and seat height is adjusted so the student can see indications, will help orientate the student.
over the instrument panel. Introduce the appropriate
Vision will be affected by the cleanliness of the
positions for hands and feet while using the controls.
windscreen and side windows, and the cabin pillars.
An appropriate period of engine warming should be Demonstrate the effect of the blind spots that are
observed before taxiing (see the Flight Manual). created by the cabin structure, and wingtip clearance
judgement. Show the student how to move the upper
Brakes should be checked for normal operation body to see around pillars and to mitigate blind spots.
soon after the aeroplane begins to move. Close the
throttle, depress the brake pedals with the balls of Make sure all flights carry AIP New Zealand Vol 4 and
the feet, then slip the feet back down to the bottom appropriate charts to aid the student’s information
of the rudder pedals. processing.
The correct taxi speed is a fast walking pace, about

5 to 10 km/hr.

Ground exercise
The exercise consists of teaching the hand and feet

positions and the methods of operating the controls.
Start the aeroplane, apply power to overcome inertia

and get the aeroplane moving, test the brakes,
maintain an appropriate taxi speed, turn and stop
the aeroplane at a designated spot. The student
should now practise all these manoeuvres.
Operation of the park brake should be demonstrated

and, as appropriate, the effects of slope, surface,
wind, and relative positioning to larger aeroplane’s
slipstreams should also be pointed out.
Introduce aerodrome signs and markings.
Basic concepts: Taxiing 61

Taxiing BASIC CONCEPTS
Objective Ground exercise

Use the aircraft controls correctly to manoeuvre the aircraft on the ground at a speed appropriate for the prevailing conditions and situation, • Seat is adjusted and • Wingtip clearance can be
following a selected path and stopping at a nominated point. comfortable. judged using shadows.
• Once engine is warm, use • Caution slipstream and jet blast
enough power to overcome from other aircraft.
inertia. • Slipstream (the air blown back
Considerations • Test brakes after moving off. by the propeller) can blow
Speed control Directional control • Maintain safe taxi speed – objects and people around
• Throttle controls speed. Forward is more • Nosewheel steering is achieved fast walking pace. behind you.
power, and rearwards is less power. by using the rudder pedals. Push • Maintain the centreline • During the taxi and while
• More power is required to get started and on the left rudder and the aeroplane (if applicable). turning, check instruments.
overcome inertia. turns left and vice versa. Use • Turn using the rudder pedals • Stop by applying the toe brakes.
• Taxi speed is affected by surface, slope, differential braking as required to turn the nosewheel. • Apply park brake.
Directional control
wind, and power used. to tighten the radius of turn. • Take account of the wind, and the
Braking • Wind affects the speed across
• Should be a fast walking pace – 5 to 10 km/h. change in the wind as you turn.
• May need occasional gentle braking to
the ground. Tailwind makes you
go faster, headwind slower, and
maintain the taxi speed while maintaining the
crosswind will push the tail and
recommended power setting.
make the aeroplane turn into wind. Airmanship
• Stop by closing the throttle and using the toe
• Make sure you look at a point in • Check the right of way rules. • Always carry AIP Vol 4 and
brakes to come to a halt.
the distance, not one just ahead • Check the aerodrome chart. VNCs.
• Park brake is set by holding down the toe
of the aeroplane. • Check windsock for wind. • Radio communication.
brakes and engaging the lever.
Control positioning Aeroplane management

• Complete details are in the Flight Manual. • Wind from directly ahead – elevator deflected upwards or neutral, refer CFI. • Don’t use power versus brakes.
• Aim to deflect the control surface that will be affected by the wind, • Wind from the left – control column left (left aileron raised). • Seat positioned for full rudder deflection and height.
so the wind.cannot ‘pick it up’. • Wind from the right – control column right (right aileron raised). • Engine warm before moving.
• Wind from directly behind – control column forward (elevator deflected • Combination of the above when wind is quartering. For example, • Brake check soon after first moving.
downwards), ailerons neutral. wind from the left and behind – control column forward and right. • Carb heat ON only for checks.
• Face into wind when stopped.
Wind quartering from left and behind Wind quartering from left and in front
• Taxi on centreline.
Wind • Watch for wingtip clearance.
Aileron deflected Aileron deflected • No reverse available.

downwards upwards • Caution, surface conditions.
Aileron deflected Aileron deflected

upwards downwards
Human factors
Elevator deflected Elevator deflected • Clean windscreen.
Wind downwards or neutral, refer CFI upwards or neutral, refer CFI
• Move head and body to avoid blind spots.
Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand Flight Instructor Guide

BASIC CONCEPTS
Effects of
controls
This lesson is arguably Primary flight controls are the elevator, ailerons
and rudder. When these are deflected in flight
the most important lesson the aeroplane moves about one or more of its
a student will take. A three axes. The student needs to know what
effect these controls have on the aeroplane’s
thorough understanding of flight path in order to accurately manoeuvre
the primary and secondary the aeroplane. They also need to see the effect
effects of control inputs of moving each of these primary flight controls
individually, so that any unwanted secondary
is the basis of all future effect can be countered through coordinated
flying. It’s important that use of the primary flight controls.
the student understands Ancillary controls are the throttle, flap and
and has the opportunity trim. The student needs to know how to
to practise these effects. operate each of these correctly and what
effect their operation will have on the flight
of the aeroplane. A clear understanding of
As this is commonly the first formal preflight the effect of using these controls is important,
briefing, a short explanation of the sub- and then with practice, any adverse effect can
headings should be included, as well as the be countered.
normal introduction. The Airmanship section
covers good aviation practice.
This lesson does not aim to teach the student

to fly, that will come over the next few lessons.
This lesson focuses primarily on each control,
how it works, and how it is related to other
controls. As a consequence, some of the
manoeuvres in this lesson may seem less
coordinated than normal.
Basic concepts: Effects of controls 63

Figure 2
Objectives Aeroplane axes
Normal Axis – Yaw

To operate the primary control surfaces and to
Lateral Axis – Pitch
experience the feel and observe the first aerodynamic
effect on the aeroplane in flight. Longitudinal
Axis – Roll
To operate the primary control surfaces and observe
the further (or secondary) aerodynamic effects on the
aeroplane in flight.
To operate the ancillary controls and to experience the

feel and observe the effect on the aeroplane in flight. Drawings, PowerPoints or overheads should be
gradually built up and colour coordinated. For
example, the lateral axis, the elevator and the word
pitch could all be coloured purple (see Figure 2).
Principles of flight Describe how deflection of the controls changes

the shape and/or angle of attack, affecting lift and
producing the first aerodynamic effect. Start with
Primary controls
the elevator, as this is the easiest to describe. Then
Describe how the aeroplane is controlled on the cover the ailerons and the rudder. If the student has
ground (see Taxiing lesson and Figure 1). Speed is difficulty understanding Bernoulli, angle of attack or
controlled by the hand operated throttle and the pressure, state that movement of the controls deflects
main wheel-brakes, while direction is controlled the airflow and the tail is pushed up or down as
by the use of the pedals linked to the steerable applicable (Newton’s third law).
nosewheel.
The effect of moving the elevator is to pitch the
aeroplane. This changes the position of the aeroplane’s
Figure 1 nose in relation to the horizon – the aeroplane’s attitude
Steering and braking while taxiing – and will consequently affect the aeroplane’s speed.
The effect of moving the ailerons is to roll the

aeroplane. This banks the aeroplane left or right.
The effect of moving the rudder is to yaw the aeroplane.

This moves the aeroplane’s nose left or right.
Slipstream should be described as the spiral column

of air being forced back by the propeller and the
Describe how to hold the aeroplane’s controls and
primary controls it affects should be pointed out (see
explain the concept of dual controls. Identify on your
Figure 3). It should be noted that slipstream is present
aeroplane which controls are dual, and which are not.
whenever the propeller is rotating, regardless of
the aeroplane’s speed. The comparison of standing
Introduce the terms lift and aerofoil. Describe how
behind the aeroplane, compared with standing
lift is produced, with reference to Bernoulli, in the
at the wingtip, may help the student visualise the
simplest possible terms. For example, if the speed of
effect of this airflow. This highlights that ailerons
the airflow is increased the pressure will be reduced
are unaffected by slipstream.
and the effectiveness increased, and vice-versa.
Figure 3
Describe the three axes of the aeroplane – lateral,
longitudinal and normal (sometimes termed Slipstream
vertical) – and the movement about those axes
(use teaching aids).

Describe the rotational nature of the slipstream and will sink when flap is raised. Describe the actual pitch
its resultant impact on the tail fin. As the aeroplane changes the student will observe as a result of using
spends most of its time in cruise, the manufacturer the flap, and the consequent trim changes that will
offsets the tail fin, or the thrust line, to negate the be required.
resultant yawing tendency. Therefore, at any power
setting other than normal cruise, and at any time the The structural airspeed limit for flap extension,
power changes, the aeroplane will want to yaw, and and the normal operating range, white arc, should
compensating rudder inputs are required. be explained.
Ancillary controls Inertia
Briefly describe the throttle and its direct connection Because an aeroplane has mass (weight) it is subject
to the propeller and its effect on the aeroplane’s to inertia. Explain in very basic terms that inertia is
speed. Explain that power is increased by moving the the tendency of a body to remain in its current state.
lever (or plunger) forward and decreased by moving If it has stopped on the ground it will take more
the lever rearwards. power to get it moving than to keep it moving. If you
want to decrease the speed in flight, the aeroplane
Discuss the purpose of trim and how it works. State will not slow down instantly, but gradually decelerate.
that most training aeroplanes are fitted with trim tabs This must be taken into account when changing the
to provide sufficient force to hold the primary control speed or the direction of the aeroplane.
surface in the desired position. Emphasise that they are
not used to alter the primary control surface’s position,
they are a pilot aid only. You could also note that trim
tabs may be provided on all three primary controls. Airmanship
Describe where the flaps are located on the
Knowing who is physically flying the aeroplane is
aeroplane, how they are operated, how they work
critical. Get the student into the habit of stating “I have
(electrically or manually), and the various positions
control/you have control.” The meaning of “follow me
to which they can be selected. It should be noted
through” should be explained, for example, “I want you
that flap ‘up’ means flush with the wings, ie, they
to place your hands and feet lightly on the controls
do not extend above the wing.
and feel what I’m doing, but I retain control.”
Figure 4 Explain how to use the clock code to report the

relative position, height and distance of other
Effect of flap
aircraft. Aircraft that appear above the horizon are
higher, aircraft on the horizon are at the same level,
L
and aircraft below the horizon are lower. Distance is
judged from the known size of the object and is prone
to perception errors. For example, a Boeing 787 at
10 miles can look like a Cherokee 140 at 2 miles.
The aeroplane is manoeuvred in the air by visual

reference to the horizon and ground features. Visual
flight rules mean that cloud must be avoided and
the ground or water kept in sight at all times. When
you get into the air, point out some major features in
your local area, as well as the approximate directions
of north, south, east and west, and where your
aerodrome is located. Over subsequent briefings
Describe how the flap changes the shape of the
the various aspects of VFR flight will be discussed.
wing and the effect that has on lift, drag, the lift to
It is vital that you demonstrate compliance with the
drag (L/D) ratio, and pitch (see Figure 4). Commonly,
various VFR requirements.
in high-wing aeroplanes, the nose pitches up with
application of flap, and on low-wing aeroplanes the
nose pitches down. The reverse occurs in each case
when flap is raised, but importantly all aeroplanes

Give a brief explanation of the purpose of the
I’M SAFE engine controls. Discuss the sense of movement
The I’M SAFE checklist should be introduced for the of these controls.
student to complete before leaving home for their
Throttle
next lesson.
The use of smooth throttle operations should be
I Illness emphasised. As a guide it should take three seconds
Do not fly when feeling unwell as this will not only to move the throttle from fully CLOSED to fully OPEN,
degrade the learning experience but affect all phases and vice versa. Demonstrate an appropriate grip on
of flight. the throttle.
M Medication Mixture
How will the effects of medication be altered by the Explain the type of control (IN / OUT or UP / DOWN)
flight environment, for example, altitude? In addition, and that when the mixture control is pulled fully OUT
why is medication being taken, am I unwell? Do I or DOWN the fuel supply is cut off from the engine.
need to consult a medical examiner? This is called Idle Cut Off (ICO) and is normally used
to stop the engine (not the ignition key – except where
S Stress there is a solid state ignition system). This will be
demonstrated when you shut down at the end of the
This takes up valuable space in the short-term
lesson. Discuss how the mixture control is used to alter
memory. Getting into an aeroplane straight after an
the fuel/air ratio and then state that for initial training
argument or with other personal worries affects your
flights the mixture control is set at the full rich position.
information processing capabilities.
Leaning the mixture will be covered in later lessons.
A Alcohol
Carburettor heat
Even in small amounts, alcohol adversely affects brain
Explain the type of control (IN / OUT or UP / DOWN)
functioning. Mixed with altitude and the dynamic
and the purpose of carburettor heat.
three-dimensional environment of aviation, it is
deadly. Safe periods of abstinence before flight vary Briefly outline the reasons and conditions for
with the individual and the amount consumed. carburettor ice forming, the symptoms of its
formation, and the cure. In addition, the reason for
F Fatigue
applying carburettor heat before closing the throttle,
This affects not only motor skills but also mental skills. and the conditions under which carburettor ice is
Adequate rest is essential for quality information most likely to form, should be described. Introducing
processing and decision making. warm air into the carburettor alters the mixture, so is
not normally used at high power settings.
E Eating
Discuss when you would use carburettor heat on the
A balanced diet and drinking water at regular
ground, and the precautions you need to take while
intervals to prevent dehydration is important. Poor
doing so.
eating habits and/or dehydration can have a
detrimental effect on the decision-making process.
Temperature and pressure gauges
In addition, the I’M SAFE checklist should be Gauges such as oil pressure and temperature;
prominently displayed in the briefing room for quick cylinder temperature; and fuel pressure, have a
reference before flight. normal operating range depicted by a green arc.
Red lines indicate operating limits, yellow arcs the
cautionary ranges, and often white lines or arcs for
other purposes (refer Flight Manual). The importance
Aeroplane management of monitoring temperatures and pressures for normal
readings should be explained. It may sometimes be
A large-scale photograph of the aeroplane instrument normal to taxi with oil temperature below the green
panel and/or cabin layout is a valuable aid. range (see Flight Manual). On the other hand, it
would not be normal to see the oil temperature near
the top of the green range after a prolonged descent,
even though it’s in the green.

the nose up. Emphasise the association between
Human factors control movement and the natural sense, for example,
rotating the control column to the right will cause the
aeroplane to roll to the right.
Describe the VFR see-and-be-seen principle and the
importance of a good lookout.
In flight these movements are related to the horizon
and confirmed with reference to the instruments.
Discuss the limitations of vision, especially on lookout
These movements rotate the aeroplane about its
effectiveness. Stress the need to move the head to
axes in a natural sense and always have the same
see around the cabin structures, so that a thorough
effect relative to the pilot, for example, even when
lookout can be achieved.
banked, application of rudder will still yaw the nose
Discuss the limitation of the visual system when to the pilot’s left or right, but up or down in relation
attempting to detect small stationary objects and to the horizon.
alternatively the ability of peripheral vision to detect
movement.
Further effects
Discuss the effects of information overload in relation The emphasis here is on aerodynamic effects,
to human information processing capabilities and the sometimes known as aerodynamic cross coupling.
effect on performance. The short-term memory can When a control movement is made on its own,
hold only 7 items ± 2. movement initially occurs around one axis, followed
by an undesired movement about another axis.
Discuss the effects of stress in relation to human The main point is that these effects only occur when
information processing capabilities and the effect on the control is used on its own.
performance. As this is the student’s first flight it is
a busy and new experience. Future lessons build on There is no further or secondary effect of elevator.
those before them and the stress reduces.
When aileron is used on its own, the aeroplane will
The benefits of regular practice and the use of a roll, slip, and then yaw towards the lower wing.
checklist should be encouraged to help with both
of these. When rudder is used on its own, the aeroplane will
yaw, skid, and then roll in the direction of yaw.
In both cases, if the controls are left alone, the

aeroplane will enter a spiralling descent. The initial
Air exercise
slip or skid can be demonstrated with a model as it
may be difficult to detect in the air, but the secondary
Describe the method of taxiing the aeroplane under
effect will be clearly seen. The balance ball will
its own power, stopping and turning, or revise if
indicate these effects, but you may not wish to draw
previously covered.
the student’s attention to this instrument yet.
Basic flight training is based on the concept of

It should be emphasised that these further or
attitude – flying by visual reference. It is important
undesirable effects of ailerons and rudder can be
to introduce the student to the concept of attitude,
eliminated through coordination of these controls,
being the relationship between the nose (or
and will be dealt with in later lessons. In this lesson,
instrument panel) and wings, and the horizon. Discuss
your purpose is to demonstrate these secondary
in simple terms how the primary controls are used.
effects, and as a consequence some manoeuvres
in this lesson are uncoordinated.
Primary effects
Discuss the effect of movement of each of the Airspeed
primary controls in flight, with emphasis on the
Discuss the effect of airspeed on the feel of the
sense of movement of the control column and rudder
controls, the aeroplane response rate, and the amount
pedals – not the sense of movement of the control
of movement needed to change the flight path.
surfaces themselves. It is what the student sees as
Commonly, the analogy of holding your hand out the
a result of control movement that is important, for
car window and moving it from horizontal to vertical
example, easing back on the control column pitches
at various speeds is used to describe this effect.

At low airspeeds, typically with a high nose attitude,
the controls are easy to move, are less effective, and Figure 5
require large movements to bring about a change of Trim control

flight path. They feel sloppy.
At high airspeeds, typically with a low nose attitude,

the controls are harder to move, very effective and NOSE
DOWN
require only small movements to bring about a
change of flight path. They feel firm.
Slipstream
Describe the effect of slipstream over the elevators
and rudder, in relation to high power and idle power
settings, at a constant airspeed. At high power the
slipstream is increased, and the elevator and rudder
are more effective; conversely, at idle power they
are less effective. Because the ailerons are situated
NOSE
outside the slipstream, their effectiveness does not UP
change with increasing or decreasing slipstream.

On some aeroplanes the elevator may be out of the
slipstream because of its height, for example the Flap
Piper Tomahawk. When flap is lowered, lift and drag are increased,
which causes the nose to pitch. The opposite effect
will occur when flap is raised. The change in lift can
Power be felt and the changes in drag can be seen as an
With an increase in power, the aeroplane will pitch up airspeed change. Discuss the L/D ratio in context of
(for reasons that will be explained in a later lesson) the initial application of flap on lift compared with
and the nose will yaw to the left. Reducing power will the further application and its affect on drag. Any
result in a pitch down and yaw to the right. Therefore, change in pitch will require a change in the trim.
whenever the power is changed, the pitch and yaw
must be compensated for in order to maintain the
attitude and balance.
Airborne sequence
Trim
Describe the method of trimming, if you are holding Before flight
the elevator back – trim back (nose up), if you are
The importance of inspecting the aeroplane before
holding the elevator forward – trim forward (nose
flight should be emphasised and a demonstration
down) (see Figure 5). Similarly, if the aeroplane is
of the full aeroplane preflight inspection given.
fitted with rudder trim, holding right rudder pressure –
move or rotate rudder trim to the right. During the preflight inspection, point out the major
features of the aeroplane, the primary controls and
movements, both fixed and adjustable trim tabs, and
the effect flap has on the shape of the wing. Point out
that while full control movement is acceptable on the
ground, only small movements are required in normal
flight because the primary controls are situated at the
extremities (providing a large moment arm).
Make sure the student is seated correctly, seat

secure, seat belts done up, and point out the
limitations imposed on the lookout as a result of
the cabin structure.

During the taxi, encourage the student to operate Further effects
the rudder pedals while you hold the control column
Aileron
and operate the throttle. Gradually hand over control
of throttle, brakes and control column to the student. The aeroplane should be trimmed to fly so that only
Most students will attempt to steer the aeroplane on the lightest of finger and thumb grips is needed on
the ground by rotating the control column – as in a the control column and the feet are only resting on the
car. They will soon discover that this has no effect on rudder pedals. Resist the natural tendency to increase
the aeroplane. With a gentle reminder, they will learn backpressure as aileron is applied, otherwise the yaw
to keep the control column neutral and use their feet will not occur. Secondary effects only occur when the
on the rudder pedals. primary controls are used on their own.
Remind the student that a much greater lateral Drawing the student’s attention to the outside
clearance is required than that required for a car. reference point, roll the aeroplane with pure aileron
using only the finger and thumb. The slip may be
Point out major ground features and approximate difficult to see, however, the yaw and resultant spiral
directions of north, south, east and west. descent should be apparent.
You should ensure three things – firstly that only

The exercise moderate angles of bank are used, secondly that the
student sees how easy it is to stop the spiral descent
Primary effects by using coordinated control inputs, and thirdly that
you demonstrate the further effects in both directions.
Before any demonstration, ensure the student is
looking in the right place, ie, outside over the nose The student should get the opportunity to move the
(see Figure 6). If the student is looking at the rudder controls and experience these further effects, but
pedals they are unlikely to see the first effect, much does not need to master it.
less any further effects.
Rudder
Figure 6
Once the aeroplane has been returned to straight
Looking out over the nose
and level flight, the further effect of rudder should be
demonstrated. Gentle application of rudder is all that
is required. Once again the skid is difficult to see but
the roll and resultant spiral descent is obvious.
Airspeed
0
0
Demonstrate the use of elevator by selecting an

10
140 20 9 1
8 ALTMETER
2
120 301
KNOTS 40
302
303
100 7 3
80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4
attitude and watching its resultant effect on airspeed,

then give the student the opportunity to experience it.
First explain ‘nose attitude’ and what you mean To effectively demonstrate the effect on airspeed,
by it. The line the horizon makes in relation to the maintain a constant power setting and vary the
aeroplane’s nose will be the primary means the airspeed with attitude.
student uses to fly the aeroplane. They must have a
sound understanding of aeroplane attitude, and how Nose-high attitude equals low or lower airspeed,
to use it, if they are going to become a pilot. nose-low attitude equals high or higher airspeed.
At this stage there is no requirement to refer to
The primary flight controls and their effects are any specific attitude, for example, level or climbing
demonstrated one at a time, with emphasis on the attitude. During this demonstration, the throttle
natural sense, to experience the affect themselves. should not be moved but left at a medium power
After each demonstration, the student should operate setting so as to make it quite clear that it is the
each control one at a time. Ensure that during attitude that directly affects the airspeed. During the
the rudder movement demonstration and student high airspeed demonstration, however, the throttle
practice that the wings are held laterally level with will need to be slightly closed unless the aeroplane
aileron. Otherwise the student will see the more has a variable pitch propeller and a constant speed
obvious roll rather than a pure yaw. unit fitted.

In each case (low and high airspeed), the student Power
should note the feel and response of each primary
To demonstrate the effects of a power increase or
control. Although any slipstream will affect the feel
decrease, the aeroplane should be trimmed straight
and response of elevator and rudder in most single
and level at an intermediate power setting. Point out
engine aeroplanes, the average student on their
that for this demonstration the feet are off the rudder
first lesson will not detect it. It is highly unlikely that
and the hand is resting lightly on the control column
the student under these conditions will notice any
before any power change.
difference at all regardless of the power setting.
Therefore, the student will need to be convinced
It may be better to demonstrate the effects of
verbally of what they feel. This is achieved by
reducing power first and then trimming for a descent
modulating your voice as each control is moved.
at a low power setting, for example 1500 RPM,
For example, low airspeed, elevators light, less
which will provide for a greater pitch change when
effective, BIG movements required – high airspeed,
demonstrating the effects of increasing power. Using
elevators firm, VERY effective, small movements
full power for this gives a very good demonstration,
required. The benefit of a constant power setting
especially as the aeroplane is trimmed for a descent.
to give a clear demonstration of attitude to control
airspeed far outweighs the considerations of control The student should experience compensating for the
feel and response. power changes with appropriate pitch and balance
inputs – effectively remaining straight and level
You can demonstrate at the end of this sequence that
(although not yet taught).
all three controls work in relation to the pilot and not
the horizon by rolling in some bank, pitching the nose The instructor should trim the aeroplane as required.
up or down and yawing left or right at the same time.
The student should then be encouraged to operate
all three controls for themselves. Trim
The use of elevator trim to relieve control loads and
Use the phrase “pitch the nose up”, instead of
maintain a constant attitude is demonstrated next.
“pull back on the control column”.
Then the student should be given the controls in an
out-of-trim state, asked to hold a constant attitude
Slipstream – any attitude will do – asking them to apply trim to
unload the control (caution: do not use excessive
Although the effect of slipstream is present at all
amounts of trim in case the student suddenly lets go
airspeeds with the propeller rotating, it is easiest
of the control column), while keeping ‘the picture’ in
to demonstrate at a high power setting and low
front the same. When the student can feel that they
airspeed. Set up the aeroplane for a constant low
are pushing or pulling in an effort to maintain the
airspeed with full power on (eg, a climb). Trim.
attitude they should move the trim in the appropriate
The student should operate all of the controls,
direction to remove the load.
noting the feel of effectiveness for each.
To trim the aeroplane the student should be
The next step is to reduce power to idle to remove the
encouraged to gradually relax their grip on the
effects of slipstream and set up the same airspeed
control column as they neutralise the control forces
as before (ie, a glide). Trim. Now the student again
and, looking outside at the attitude, observe any
operates all controls, noting the changed feel of
change. If a change is observed, the desired attitude
those within the slipstream – the elevator and rudder,
should be re-selected with the primary flight controls,
or just the rudder in the case of the Piper Tomahawk.
then pause while equilibrium is re-established, and
then re-trim and start the checking process again. As
To effectively demonstrate the effect of slipstream,
already pointed out, the student at this stage cannot
maintain a constant airspeed and vary the power
feel subtle control pressures. However, the changing
setting.
attitude should be relatively easy to detect. The aim is
to be able to fly the aeroplane at a constant attitude,
using only a finger and thumb grip, and this will not
be achieved in one lesson.

Flap It is important at this early level to allay any fears or
false expectations by reinforcing the fact that there
Point out the white arc on the airspeed indicator.
is much to learn. Competence at this stage is not as
important as understanding – every lesson will build
To demonstrate the effect of flap, an attitude should
on the last and give the student every opportunity
be selected for a suitable speed within the white arc.
to improve.
Trimmed for straight and level, flap is selected, the
pitch change for the aeroplane type noted, and the
aeroplane re-trimmed. This will not necessarily require
the application of full flap to occur. The student can
operate the flap, but be aware that observing the
pitch change is the more important aspect. From
trimmed level flight demonstrate the effect of raising
the flap, and the re-trimming required. Also note the
changes in lift and drag, and the sink encountered
with changes in airspeed.
After flight
After landing, allow the student to revise taxiing and
to move the mixture control to ICO on shut down.
The operation of the aeroplane’s heater/demister and

fresh-air vents can be demonstrated.
After the debrief (see below) tell the student the next
lesson will be Straight and level, and that you will
be using the controls you learned about today to fly
straight and level. They may want to do some further
reading on this.
Debrief
Comments are given here as a guide to the novice
instructor on how to complete the debrief while
gaining the experience needed to expand their
teaching.
The debrief is an opportunity to revise the exercise,

and for both you and the student to reflect on
whether the objectives have been met.
Did the student operate the aeroplane’s primary

controls and experience the first aerodynamic
effects? Did they observe the further effects on the
aeroplane in flight? Did they operate and experience
the ancillary controls and their effects?
If you require verbal confirmation from the student

that the objective has been achieved, questions
should be phrased to test understanding. Do not
ask if the student observed the secondary effects
of the primary controls. Preferably, ask the student
to describe the further effect of one, or each, of the
primary controls.

Effects of controls BASIC CONCEPTS
Objectives Air exercise

• To operate the primary control surfaces and to experience the feel and observe the first aerodynamic effect Taxi practice
on the aircraft in flight.
010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
8 2
301
120 302
KNOTS 40 303
100 7 3
• To operate the primary control surfaces and observe the further (or secondary) aerodynamic effects on the Attitude 80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4 Flying with reference
aircraft in flight. • Attitude flying by referencing nose and wings to the horizon to the horizon
• To operate the ancillary controls and to experience the feel and observe the effect on the aircraft in flight.
Controls
Axis Control Input 1st Effect 2nd Effect Use

Principles of flight
Lateral Elevator Control column forward Pitch down – Attitude and
On the ground Lift
rearward up Airspeed
• Control speed with throttle and brakes • As air flows over the wing, increased speed above
• One hand on control column and other on throttle the wing results in reduced pressure = Lift Longitudinal Aileron Control column right Roll right Slip – Yaw Direction
L left left
• Dual controls fitted
Normal Rudder Rudder pedals left Yaw left Skid – Roll Balance
Aeroplane axes right right
RAF
Normal Axis – Yaw L = lift
RAF = relative air flow
Lateral Axis – Pitch
L
Airspeed Slipstream
Longitudinal
Axis – Roll • Lift can be altered by • Increased airspeed – increased control feel, • Increased power  increased slipstream
changing the shape of the response rate, smaller control movements needed • Increased flow over elevator  more effective control
wing, the angle of attack, • Decreased airspeed – decreased control feel, (not applicable to T-tail aeroplanes)
and the airspeed response rate, larger control movements needed • Strikes rudder  yaw
• Must balance with rudder
Primary controls Ancillary controls Power Trim

• Elevator pitches aeroplane – changing attitude • Throttle affects speed, direct connection to propeller • Decrease in power  nose pitch down and yaw right • To relieve the pressure
• Aileron rolls aeroplane – changing direction • Trim tabs provide a force to hold primary controls • Increase in power  nose pitch up and yaw left • If holding back pressure – trim backwards
• Rudder yaws aeroplane – balanced flight • Flap changes shape of wing, increases lift, drag, and • Must balance with rudder • If holding forward pressure – trim forwards
• Slipstream strikes rudder and elevator (low-wing) affects the L/D ratio – changes pitch, trim change required
Flap
• Extending flap  increase in lift and drag  pitch change – trim change required
Inertia • Retracting flap  decrease in lift and drag  pitch change – aeroplane will sink
• Tendency for body to remain in current state –
in speed or direction
Aeroplane management Human factors

• Engine controls • Flap speed – white arc • Limitations on lookout
Airmanship – throttle • Preflight inspection • Limitations of memory
• “I have control / • See and be seen • Horizon is main reference – mixture • More comfortable with workload
you have control” • Clock code, relative height/ • Land features – carb heat
• Uncoordinated lesson by nature
• “follow me through” distance • I’M SAFE – temperatures and pressures

BASIC CONCEPTS
Straight
and level
This lesson should start The lesson should initially cover configuring
straight and level flight at a constant
with you asking the airspeed, and then maintaining it. It’s followed
student what they did by regaining straight and level after a
in the last lesson, what disturbance, and finally straight and level at
different airspeeds and power settings.
do they remember, and
determining if they have It’s critical that the student understands that
remembered correctly. straight and level is achieved by referencing
the aeroplane’s nose attitude directly in
We must be able to fly the aeroplane in a front of the pilot with the horizon (where
straight line, on a constant heading and at the sky meets the sea, or an imagined line
a constant altitude. Maintaining a constant superimposed over terrain or weather), and
altitude requires a constant attitude and then checked by reference to the aeroplane’s
a constant heading requires the aeroplane instruments (see Figure 1). Use a moveable
to be wings level and in balance. ‘windscreen view’ to show the correct attitude
for straight and level flight.
This is the first exercise in coordination for
the student, and it’s very important that they
understand, and can then demonstrate,
how the controls they learnt about in the
previous Effect of controls lesson are used
to achieve and maintain a constant heading,
constant altitude, constant airspeed, and
aeroplane in balance.
It’s also an important lesson because it shows

the interrelation of a number of variables, such
as power, airspeed, pitch and yaw.
Basic concepts: Straight and level 73

Figure 1 Drag
The horizon is where the sky meets the sea – this needs to Drag is the force that resists movement of an aircraft
be imagined and superimposed over terrain or weather through the air.
where the sea isn’t visible.
Equilibrium requires a constant airspeed and constant
direction (the combination of these is velocity).
A constant direction is maintained by the wings being
level and the aeroplane in balance. Equilibrium is
achieved when lift = weight and thrust = drag.
Describe how the arrangement of these forces forms

120
100
0
10
140 20
KNOTS 40
8
7
9
0
ALTMETER
1
2
301
302
303
3
couples. Lift acts through its centre of pressure and
80 60
is slightly behind the centre of gravity, where weight

6
VACUUM
5 4
acts (small moment arm), creating a nose-down

pitching couple. The comparative size of the lift and
weight forces to thrust and drag forces should be
discussed. For general aviation aeroplanes, the lift/
Objectives drag ratio is said to be about 10:1. Your diagram
should reflect this ratio approximately – a picture is
To establish and maintain straight and level flight, at worth a thousand words (see Figure 2).
a constant airspeed, constant altitude, in a constant
direction, and in balance. Figure 2
To regain straight and level flight. The four forces acting on an aeroplane
L
To maintain straight and level flight at selected
airspeeds or power settings.
D
T
In VFR flight, flying straight and level should only be
accomplished with reference to the horizon. Define
the horizon for the student and explain how the P
horizon can be identified if it’s not visible, for example
with hills or weather in the way.
The four forces W
The four forces acting on the aeroplane should be

The ideal arrangement in training aircraft is for the
explained.
thrust line to be well below the drag line. This provides a
Weight large moment arm to compensate for the smaller forces
of thrust and drag, and creates a nose-up couple that
Weight acts straight down through the centre of balances the nose-down couple of lift and weight.
gravity.
In the previous lesson Effect of controls, the student
Lift saw the pitch change when power was increased and
Lift is produced by the wings and acts upwards decreased. The arrangement of these couples is the
through the centre of pressure. reason for the pitch changes. A decrease in power
will pitch the nose down into a descent, without pilot
Thrust input, and an increase in power will pitch the nose up.
Thrust is provided by the engine through the

In practice, getting the thrust and drag lines
propeller.
separated far enough to balance the lift/weight
couple is not possible. Therefore, the tailplane is set

at an angle of attack that will provide a down force In order to keep lift constant, any change in the
on the tailplane in level flight, which combined with angle of attack must be matched by a change in
the large moment arm, balances the forces. the airspeed. For example if airspeed increases, less
angle of attack is required to maintain a constant
Any further imbalance between the couples, as a lift. A decrease in airspeed will require an increase
result of weight or airspeed changes for example, in the angle of attack to maintain constant lift and
are compensated for by the elevator. consequently altitude.
Lift Performance
Lift is generated by air flowing faster over the top Introduce the concept of:
surface of the wing, compared with air flowing under
the wing. Air is made to flow faster by shaping the Power + Attitude = Performance
top surface – called camber (see Figure 3).
Power is set by reference to RPM – use the
The formula for lift is: organisation’s recommended RPM setting for training
flights. In the example below we have used 2200 RPM.
L = CL ½ ρ V2 S
The attitude will depend on the aeroplane type.
Where: In this example, we will position the top of the
instrument panel four fingers below the horizon.
CL is the co-efficient of lift (angle of attack)
In this case the performance we want is a constant
½ is a constant altitude, direction and airspeed – straight and level.
ρ (rho) is the density of the air

Power + Attitude = Performance
V is the airspeed, and (2200) (eg, four fingers) (straight and level)
S is the surface area of the wing.
The two elements the pilot can easily control are

airspeed and angle of attack, so in essence: Airmanship
L = angle of attack x airspeed
Discuss the lateral boundaries of the training area
and the importance of managing the flight to remain
Angle of attack (α) is the angle between the
within them.
relative airflow (RAF) and the chord line of the
aeroplane’s wing.
Revise ‘I have control – you have control’.
Figure 3
Lift
Aeroplane management
L
Stress the importance of smooth but positive control

movements.
RAF
Operation of the mixture control has been explained
in the previous lesson. During initial training, as a
result of regular altitude and power changes, the
mixture is normally left in the full rich position.
The most efficient angle of attack is approximately Revise why carburettor heat is set to HOT at power
4 degrees, but as no angle-of-attack indicator is settings below _____ RPM (commonly the green arc
fitted to light aeroplanes, the airspeed is used as or 1900–2000 RPM).
a guide to the aeroplane’s angle of attack.

If a constant direction is not being maintained on the
Human factors reference point (and the DI should confirm this) either
the wings are not level, or the aeroplane is out of
balance, or both.
Review the visual limitations discussed in the last
lesson and how blind spots affect a good lookout.
Balance is confirmed with the balance ball indicator.
The method used to achieve balance is ‘stand on the
There is a lot of information for the student to absorb
ball’. If the ball is out to the left, increased pressure
in the early lessons, so reassure the student that there
on the left rudder pedal is required. This is a pressure
will be plenty of time to master these skills.
increase, more than a movement and ‘stand’ implies
continued pressure. Once the ball has been centred,
reducing pressure will allow it to move out again.
Air exercise The aeroplane is kept in balance to not only keep the
aeroplane flying straight, but also for best efficiency
Identify the horizon, and what attitude is required by keeping drag to a minimum and achieving the best
relative to the horizon, with the appropriate power airspeed.
setting, to establish and maintain straight and level
flight. If the correct level attitude has been selected the
airspeed will be about ___ knots. If the correct power
Power + Attitude = Performance setting is maintained the aeroplane will maintain
altitude, and if the wings are level and balance
(2200) (eg, four fingers) (straight and level)
maintained the aeroplane cannot turn. Therefore,
the objective to fly at a constant airspeed, constant
altitude, constant direction, and in balance is
With the use of the ‘windscreen view’ show the achieved.
attitude in the correct position as well as in the too
low and too high positions. T Trim
Take the time to teach this thoroughly, make sure

Establish straight and level the student relieves all of the control pressures so
Establishing straight and level flight is achieved by that their hands can come off the controls and the
using the mnemonic PAT. aeroplane remains level.
P Power
Maintaining straight and level
Set the power for selected (normal) straight and level Maintaining straight and level is achieved by using
performance. the mnemonic LAI.
A Attitude L Lookout
The attitude for straight and level is made up of three In a scan loop ahead, look out to the left and scan 20
elements. degrees for 2 seconds from left to right, passing over
the nose of the aeroplane.
Elevator Set the nose attitude – for level A Attitude

(eg, four fingers)
Aileron Wings are level relative to the horizon – Ensure the attitude is correct relative to the horizon
for straight and, more importantly, constant.
Rudder In balance – for straight

I Instruments
Used to confirm accurate flight – not set it. From right

to left the instruments are scanned, and this brings
the scan back to the left side of the aeroplane and
the process starts again.

During the instrument scan, only those instruments
important to the phase of flight are read. In this Airborne sequence
case the altimeter will probably be scanned on every
sweep, with oil pressure and temperature scanned
every 10th sweep. On the ground
Show the student the preflight inspection again, and
Regaining straight and level have them follow you through, pointing out what they
would be looking for.
1. Check the airspeed, and the power setting –
set the correct power setting. If the airspeed • Make sure the student’s seat is properly adjusted.
is decreasing, increase power, if the airspeed
• Talk the student through the engine start up.
is increasing, decrease power.
• Revise taxiing.
2. Check the nose attitude – set the attitude
for straight and level. • Talk the student through the checks.
3. Check the wings are level and the ball is in

the middle – level the wings, centre the ball. The exercise
4. Reset the power after making any changes Have the student follow you through with the takeoff,
to the attitude. and once safely airborne hand over control to the
5. Check PAT (power, attitude, trim). student, showing them the climb attitude (which will
be taught next lesson) and reference point you want
For small altitude adjustments of less than 150 feet, them to hold.
the attitude is altered with elevator, and when
the desired altitude is regained the correct level On the way out to the training area teach the horizon
attitude is set, held and trimmed. For bigger altitude concepts and point out the local landmarks.
adjustments power is usually altered.
Establish the aeroplane in straight and level.
Straight and level at different airspeeds Point out the horizon to the student – let them note
and power settings the attitude when level. Demonstrate an attitude that
Power + Attitude = Performance is too high and an attitude that is too low.
It should be emphasised that every time power or Configure the aeroplane, using PAT, in straight
airspeed is altered, a change in rudder pressure will and level flight at normal cruising power. Once the
be required to maintain balance. Therefore, during student has recognised the attitude, and noted that
those phases of flight where power or airspeed are the wings are level and the aeroplane is in balance,
changing, rudder will need to be applied to maintain hand over control.
balance. In addition, when rudder is being used to
centre the ball, the wings must be held laterally level Talk the student through establishing straight and
with aileron. level using PAT and maintaining straight and level
using LAI.
List the various power, airspeed and attitude
settings required to maintain straight and level flight. Make minor deviations away from straight and level
An example is shown below. and talk them through regaining it.
Show the student the effect of a marked imbalance.

Power 2200 1800 2500 They should be able to ‘feel’ that the aeroplane
Airspeed 80–90 knots 60 knots 110 knots is out of balance. Then show a slight imbalance.
This is much harder for them to ‘feel’ or detect,
Attitude normal high low
and that is why the balance ball is used to correct
slight imbalances. Show them how to correct for
an imbalance.
As can be seen, a high power setting means a higher
airspeed, requiring a lower nose attitude. Conversely You should then give the student some practice
a low power setting means a low airspeed, requiring at regaining straight and level by disturbing the
a higher nose attitude. aeroplane in roll, pitch, trim and power.

Demonstrate the lookout technique, outside and inside.
Once the student is comfortable with regaining

straight and level, demonstrate the different power
settings, and corresponding airspeed and attitudes,
required for straight and level flight. Finish by letting
them practise returning to straight and level flight
by changing the power, adjusting the attitude and
remaining in balance.
On the return to the aerodrome, point out the local

landmarks again, and show them the descending
attitude, ready for the next lesson.
After flight
Debrief the student.
Next lesson will be Climbing and descending, they

may want to do further reading on this, and ask
them to think about the attitudes for climbing and
descending they saw in this lesson.

Straight and level BASIC CONCEPTS

• To establish and maintain straight and level flight, at a constant airspeed, constant altitude, • Horizon
in a constant direction, and in balance. • Power setting
• To regain straight and level flight. • Attitude for level
• To maintain straight and level flight at selected airspeeds or power settings.
Establishing straight and level

Power set for straight and level
Principles of flight Attitude elevator set nose attitude
• The horizon is the line where the sea meets the sky. aileron wings level relative to horizon
010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
8 2
301
120 302
KNOTS 40 303
rudder in balance no yaw – stand on the ball 100
80 60 VACUUM
7
6
3
5 4
• All flying references the aeroplane’s nose with the horizon.
Trim to relieve pressure – hands off
The four forces L

0
Maintaining straight and level 0
140 20 9 1
ALTIMETER
AIRSPEED 2
• Lift, Weight, Thrust, Drag 8 1012
120 40 1013
KNOTS 1014
Lookout ahead 100 7 3
60 VACUUM 6
80
• Equilibrium when Lift = Weight and
5 4
Thrust = Drag Attitude eg, four fingers
D
33
N 3
to confirm – not set 10
5
• Forces don’t act through the same point  T
Instruments 15
6
30
VERTICAL SPEED
UP
E
20
W
0
DOWN
moment arms  couple Altimeter, DI, TC, RPM checked every time TURN COORDINATOR DIRECTION INDICATOR
24
2 MIN R
12
L 5 15
P 21
15 10
Other instruments and gauges, less frequently SET
S
• Lift and Weight couple balanced by
tailplane force
• Changes in Thrust  pitch changes
W Regaining straight and level
1. Airspeed and power setting correct
Lift L
2. Attitude correct for straight and level
• Air over the top accelerates compared 3. Wings level and balance ball centred
with air passing under the wing 4. Reset power
RAF 5. P A T
• L = CL ½ V2 S
• L = Angle of attack x airspeed
– Angle of attack altered with elevator Straight and level at different airspeeds Power + Attitude = Performance
• Any changes in power must be balanced with rudder
• While moving rudder wings must be kept level Power 2200 1800 2500
Performance Airspeed 80–90 knots 60 knots 110 knots
• Power + Attitude = Performance
Attitude normal high low
Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors

• Lookout • Smooth throttle movements • Blind spots
• Situational awareness, training area boundaries, clear of cloud • Mixture rich • New learning consistently reinforced in later lessons
• “I have control / you have control” • Carb heat

BASIC CONCEPTS
Climbing and
descending
This lesson builds on the It is recommended you teach the best rate
climb and the glide, with a demonstration
coordination skills learnt of the others as time permits.
in the previous lesson,
straight and level. Check The last lesson was Straight and level. Now
we must learn how to climb and descend to
with the student what the and from straight and level flight, so that we
important elements of the can move towards the circuit lessons.
last lesson were. Have they
remembered the attitudes
you looked at last time,
and that all the controls
need to be moved in a
coordinated way?
There are a large number of power changes
made during this air exercise and it is
important the student reviews and practises
the coordination of elevator and rudder
adjustments with changes in power.
There are generally four types of climb: best

angle, best rate, cruise, and recommended
(for visibility and engine cooling). There are
also generally three types of descent: glide,
powered, and cruise.

Explain that for simplicity your diagram will show the
Objectives forces acting through just one point, and that the
climb angle has been exaggerated for clarity.
To enter the climb and the descent from straight and

Start by showing weight and drag and their resultant,
level flight.
R1 (see Figure 1).
To maintain a climb and a descent at a constant

Figure 1
speed, constant rate, in a constant direction, and
in balance. Weight and drag in the climb
To level off at specific altitudes. F

RA
Principles of flight D
Climbing
To maintain a constant speed and direction, the
aeroplane must be in equilibrium, as discussed in
the straight and level lesson. We demonstrate the
W
relationships between the four forces in the climb R1
to show that the aeroplane is still in a state of
equilibrium when climbing.
Make the statement, “Since the aeroplane is in
There is no requirement to prove anything in a equilibrium, there must be a force equal and opposite
preflight briefing. Statements illustrated with to the resultant R1”.
diagrams are sufficient to support the air exercise.
Then, draw a line from the central point, equal and
There is a common misconception that in the climb opposite to R1 and label this R2.
the lift is increased, since if lift must equal weight in
level flight, it might appear logical that lift should be Resolve R2 into its two components, lift and thrust
increased to climb, but it is not so. Drawing the forces (see Figure 2).
to show that lift is not increased in the climb – but is
slightly reduced – should illustrate that the aeroplane Figure 2
is in equilibrium during the climb.
Lift and thrust in the climb
The most important concept the student should grasp,
in simple terms, is that in order for an aeroplane to R2
climb, thrust must be equal to drag plus the rearward
component of weight (T = D + RCW). The rate at which
the aeroplane will climb depends on how much more L F
RA
power is available. Lots of additional power available
will mean a high rate of climb. T
D T>D
The forces acting on the aeroplane in a climb
RCW
T = D + RCW
From the previous lesson the student will know that
there are four forces acting on the aeroplane: lift, drag,
W1 L<W
thrust, and weight, and that in straight and level flight,
the aeroplane was in equilibrium. The same is true of
RCW
the climb – the forces are in equilibrium. They will also
know about relative airflow (RAF). W
R1
Basic concepts: Climbing and descending 81

The relationship of the four forces is next explained, Power
as was done in straight and level. Starting with thrust
You have just established that the more power
(T) and drag (D).
available, the better the climb performance.
In straight and level flight thrust equals drag (T = D).

Altitude
In a climb, thrust must increase to equal drag plus the Engine performance (power) decreases with altitude,
rearward component of weight (T = D + RCW). so there will be a limit to how high the aeroplane
can climb.
It should be clear to the student from your diagram,
that in a steady climb, “thrust is ______ than drag.” In addition, anything that opposes thrust is
detrimental to climb performance.
Why then, does the aeroplane not accelerate?
Weight
To resolve this question, break weight (W) down into
The greater the weight, the greater will be the RCW
its two components, with the rearward component of
(rearward component of weight). Therefore, weight
weight (RCW) added to the drag vector.
reduces the rate of climb and the angle.
Thrust is equal to the drag plus the ______.
Flap
You may wish to finish off the parallelograms to tidy Increases lift and drag and alters the lift/drag ratio.
up your resolution of vectors. The end result looks like Since drag opposes thrust, any increase in drag will
Figure 3. reduce the rate and angle of climb.
Figure 3 Wind
Forces acting on an aeroplane in the climb Affects only the climb angle and the distance
R2
travelled over the ground (the range) to reach
a specific altitude.
Table 1
L F
RA
The various configurations for the four types of climb in
your training aeroplane are:
T
Performance = Power + Attitude

D T>D
RCW
Best rate climb full power no flap _____ knots
T = D + RCW
Best angle climb full power no flap _____ knots
W1 L<W Cruise climb _____ RPM no flap _____ knots
Recommended _____ RPM no flap _____ knots

RCW
climb
W
R1
Let the student know that you will be using the best
Finish off by asking the student what force controls
rate climb for this lesson and you will demonstrate
the climb. And is there a limit to that force? How
the others. They may experience these climbs at this
might that limit the climb?
stage but their application will become clearer in
later lessons.
Climb performance
Having discussed the forces in the climb, the
various factors affecting the climb performance
are discussed.

If you then change this ratio by increasing the drag
Descending (by extending flap or flying at an incorrect airspeed)
Equilibrium is required for a steady descent. If, while a greater forward component of weight is required
in level flight, the power is removed there will be no to balance the drag – steepening the flight path.
force balancing the drag. In order to maintain flying
Weight
speed the nose must be lowered.
A change in weight does not affect the descent
With the nose lowered and weight still acting down angle. With an aeroplane flying at its best L/D
towards the centre of the earth, there is now a ratio, an increase in weight will increase the FCW,
forward component of weight (FCW) that balances increasing the speed down the slope, and therefore
drag. State that for equilibrium there must be a force the rate of descent, but not the descent angle.
equal and opposite to weight. This force R is made
up of lift and drag. Therefore, the aeroplane is in Show this by increasing the length of the weight
equilibrium (see Figure 4). vector in your diagram. The FCW increases the
airspeed down the slope, and the increased airspeed
Figure 4 leads to an increase in lift and drag (with the L/D
Forces acting on an aeroplane in the descent ratio remaining unchanged), and all the forces remain
in equilibrium (see Figure 5).
R
Figure 5
L
Effect of change in weight on descent
+L
L
D
FCW
RA
F
W FCW
ath +FCW
d ep
Gli
Point out that the relative airflow is now coming up
the slope to meet the aeroplane and therefore the
angle of attack is still approximately 4 degrees.
W
Power +W
Power controls the rate of descent (ROD), the more

Flap
power used, the less the ROD. Power also reduces the
descent angle and increases the distance travelled The increased drag produced by the flap requires an
over the ground, increasing the range from a given increased FCW to maintain equilibrium and thereby
altitude. steepens the descent, increases the ROD, and
reduces the range.
Lift/drag ratio
Wind
The ratio of lift to drag is a measure of the efficiency
of the wing. For example, the higher the lift to drag Affects only the descent angle and the range from
ratio, the further the aeroplane will glide (its range). a given altitude.
Another way to think of it is the L/D ratio determines
the steepness of the glide, or descent angle.

Table 2 Revise situational awareness in relation to aeroplane
positioning, lateral and vertical limits of the training
The various configurations for the three types of descent
area, and VFR met minima requirements within the
in your training aeroplane should be stated, for example:
training area.
Performance = Power + Attitude

Revise the I’M SAFE checklist, reminding the student
Glide propeller no flap _____ knots or to complete this before leaving home.
windmilling _____ ft/min ROD
Powered 1500 RPM flap as _____ knots or

(guide only) required _____ ft/min ROD
Cruise _____ RPM no flap _____ knots or Aeroplane management

(within green _____ ft/min ROD
range)
Teach the glide first, then the others can be taught Throttle
as a variation of the glide.
The student has informed you of the power setting
that will give the best climb performance. You need
to point out that not all aeroplanes can climb on full
power continuously.
Airmanship If the organisation or aeroplane has an rpm limit for the

prolonged climb, it should have been explained in the
Situational awareness should be briefly described desired configuration above, if not then explain it here.
as a three-dimensional assessment of what has
been, what is, and what will be. Explain that this skill The detrimental effects of a prolonged glide
takes time to develop, but should be practised at should be discussed, for example, plug fouling and
every opportunity. excessive cylinder-head cooling. This should lead to a
discussion on the advantages of a powered descent.
Introduce the concept of threat and error
management in simple and practical terms, as
Mixture
applicable to climbing and descending.
The use of full rich mixture to aid engine cooling
The met minima requirements for VFR flight outside and prevent detonation at power settings above
controlled airspace, below 3000 feet AMSL or within 75 percent (below 5000 feet) should be explained.
1000 feet of the ground should be revised – refer to
the NZ Airspace poster and VFR Met Minima card. During training, it is common practice to use full rich
mixture in the descent (discuss mixture control in
Discuss minimum height requirements. For example, prolonged descent from altitude).
500 feet AGL minimum over unpopulated areas, 1000
feet AGL minimum over built-up areas but not less
than that required to glide clear of the populated Carburettor heat
area. Stipulate any club or organisation minimum Carburettor heat is not normally used at climb
safe heights. power settings because of the detrimental effect
of carburettor heat on engine performance, and
Discuss the restrictions on lookout in relation to high
therefore climb performance.
and low nose attitudes. Explain that there are at least
two methods for ensuring the area ahead is clear: In the descent, hot air is selected before reducing
lowering the nose every 500 feet; or making gentle power because of the increased likelihood of
S-turns. While climbing out to the training area you carburettor icing.
will use gentle S-turns.
As the exercise does not involve prolonged climbs or Temperature and pressure gauges
descents – usually no more than 500 feet – there is no
In the climb it is normal to see an increase in oil and
need to use either method, but a good lookout must
cylinder head temperatures with a decrease in oil
be maintained, particularly before starting the climb
(and fuel) pressure. In the descent it is normal to see
or descent.
a decrease in oil and cylinder-head temperatures
and an increase in oil (and fuel) pressure.

The normal readings for this aeroplane in the climb
and descent should be discussed. In addition, how Climbing
to prevent these readings reaching their limits in Discuss the nose attitude position in relation to the
an air-cooled engine should be discussed. For horizon for the selected climb configuration.
example: lowering the nose attitude to climb at a
higher airspeed or, if necessary, levelling off for a Entry to the climb is taught as PAT, reinforcing
short period, or during descent increasing power the concept that climb performance depends on
every 1000 feet to warm the engine oil and clear power. Since increasing power smoothly (stop the
the spark plugs of carbon deposits, or the use of a resulting yaw with rudder) will cause the nose to
powered descent. pitch up, power and attitude should be considered
a coordinated movement, and no engine over-speed
should occur.
Human factors Power + Attitude = Performance
P Power
Discuss the effects of trapped gases in the middle
ear and sinus in relation to their expansion with Check mixture rich, smoothly increase power
increasing and decreasing altitude. In general, (while stopping the yaw with rudder) to full power
a comfortable rate of descent for a fit person is or maximum continuous; keep straight using the
500 feet per minute. Discuss and demonstrate the reference point.
‘Valsalva manoeuvre’.
A Attitude
Discuss the dangers of diving and flying.
With elevator, select and hold the attitude for the
nominated climb, maintaining wings level with aileron
Discuss the effects of altitude on vision with regard to
and balance with rudder.
empty sky myopia (short-sightedness) or focal resting
lengths, reinforcing the need for a clean windscreen
T Trim
and systematic scan technique. Also discuss the
effect of the background on object detection. Remove excessive loads by trimming back. Once
performance has been confirmed, trim accurately to
As a result of high power settings, noise levels will maintain a constant attitude.
be increased and it is appropriate to discuss the
effects of exposure to noise as well as how to prevent If the correct climb attitude is selected the airspeed
hearing damage. will be _____ knots (exactly). If both the attitude
and the power setting are correct, the resulting
performance is a steady rate of climb of _____ ft/
min (500–700 approx). If the wings are held level
and balance maintained, the aeroplane cannot turn.
Air exercise
Therefore, the objective of entering and maintaining
the climb has been achieved.
Planning the lesson sequence will vary depending on
such factors as an appropriate cloud base, airspace
Maintaining the climb incorporates the LAI scan,
ceiling, and the ability to achieve both climbing and
with those instruments pertinent to the climb being
descending objectives.
scanned most frequently for accurate flight.
The air exercise concentrates on improving the

If the airspeed is not correct, then the attitude
coordination skills learnt in the previous lessons, by
is incorrect, and performance will be affected.
entering and maintaining the climb and descent,
Emphasise that the airspeed is altered by reference
while maintaining the aeroplane in balance,
to attitude, and that due to inertia once a change
and regaining straight and level. It is particularly
has been made, a smaller change in the opposite
important to reinforce the need to balance power
direction will be required to hold the new attitude.
changes with rudder.
These corrections are commonly stated as “change –
check – hold – trim”.
Introduce some basic radio calls.
To regain straight and level from a climb, the

mnemonic APT is used.

A Attitude T Trim
Anticipate the required altitude by approximately Remove excessive load by trimming (usually
10 percent of the rate of climb, ie, a climb of 500 feet backwards) and once the performance is achieved,
per minute will require an anticipation of 50 feet. trim accurately to maintain a constant attitude.
With the elevator, select and hold the level attitude. With the correct descent attitude selected the
The airspeed will increase only gradually, because airspeed will be _____ knots exactly. If the attitude is
the aeroplane must overcome inertia. To assist this correct, and the power is set correctly, the resulting
process, climb power is maintained until a suitable performance is a steady rate of descent of _____ ft/
airspeed has been achieved. As the airspeed min (approx 500). If the wings are held level and
increases the aeroplane’s nose will want to pitch balance maintained, the aeroplane cannot turn.
up, requiring subtly increasing forward pressure on Therefore the objective of entering and maintaining
the control column to maintain the correct attitude. the descent has been achieved.
The wings should be kept level in relation to the
horizon, and rudder adjusted to keep straight on the Maintaining the descent incorporates the LAI scan,
reference point. with those instruments pertinent to the descent being
scanned most frequently for accurate flight.
P Power
If the airspeed is not correct then the attitude is
Through _____ knots, decrease power to _____ rpm.
incorrect. Emphasise that the airspeed is altered by
The resultant pitch change and yaw must be
reference to attitude and that, due to inertia, once
compensated for, remember to use smooth
a change has been made a smaller change in the
throttle movements.
opposite direction will be required to hold the new
attitude. “Change – check – hold – trim.”
T Trim
Accurate trim cannot be achieved until equilibrium To regain straight and level from the descent, the
has been established. However, obvious control mnemonic PAT is used. Because of inertia, power
loads may be reduced immediately, then followed by leads the sequence to arrest the descent.
accurate trimming.
P Power
Once the instruments confirm level flight is being
Anticipate the required altitude by approximately
maintained, the aeroplane can be accurately trimmed
10 percent of the rate of descent, ie, a descent of
to maintain the selected attitude and reference point.
500 feet per minute will require an anticipation of
50 feet.
Descending
Carburettor heat COLD, smoothly increase power
Discuss the nose attitude position in relation to the to cruise power (balancing with rudder).
horizon for the descent.
As airspeed increases, rpm may increase slightly,
Entry to the descent is taught as PAT. requiring another throttle adjustment.
Power + Attitude = Performance The power change will cause the nose to yaw, if not
corrected with rudder, and to pitch up. The pitch-
P Power up tendency encourages a coordinated movement
Check the mixture is rich, carburettor heat HOT, because the next step is...
smoothly close the throttle and keep straight using
the reference point. A Attitude
With the elevator, select and hold the level attitude.

A Attitude Maintain wings level with aileron, and balance with
With the power reduction, the nose will want to pitch rudder.
down. With elevator, hold the level attitude until
the nominated descent airspeed is almost reached T Trim
(allowing for inertia), and then select and hold the Remove obvious loads, and when straight and level
attitude for the nominated descent. Maintain wings has been confirmed through LAI, trim accurately to
level with aileron, and balance with rudder. hold the correct attitude.

The student should now practise the entry to the
Airborne sequence descent, maintaining the descent and the level out.
Once the student has completed the sequence,
have the student establish the aeroplane in another
On the ground descent and demonstrate the effect of power and
flap. Once it has been demonstrated, encourage
Ask the student to carry out the preflight inspection the student to make the flap selections and note the
while you observe. effect it has on the attitude, airspeed, rate of descent
and trim.
Ask the student to taxi, and point out the obstructions
and possible threats as they go. Depending on the Practise the climb and descent as required, so
level of comfort of the student at this stage of their that the student is comfortable with the entry,
training, you may like to introduce the checklists to maintenance, and exit, and coordinates rudder with
them and get them to follow you through, or do the power changes.
checks as you call them out.
On the way back to the aerodrome, demonstrate
the cruise descent, including the selection of power
The exercise
and rate of descent appropriate for the conditions.
Depending on their level of comfort, you may either Remind the student that there will be time to practise
want to let the student complete the take-off, while this on every flight.
you follow them through, or talk them through the
experience.
After flight
On the way out to the training area demonstrate The next lesson will be turning. Ask the student to
the climbing attitude relevant to the horizon and the read any notes they have on turns and to remember
corresponding speed. Ask the student to point out the the attitudes they saw in this lesson.
landmarks they were shown in the last lesson.
Ask the student what they learnt about power
Review straight and level with emphasis on a specific changes and rudder use.
altitude.
From straight and level nominate a reference point and

altitude to climb to – considering cloud and overlying
airspace restrictions. Demonstrate the climb and the
level off to resume straight and level at a specific
altitude. Anticipation of the altitude is required.
The student should now practise the entry to the

climb, maintaining the climb and the level out
until proficient. Then have the student establish
the aeroplane in another climb and demonstrate
different climb attitudes and corresponding speeds,
noting rate of climb effect, and the effect of flap,
especially flap retraction in a climb, in preparation
for the go around in the circuit lessons. Once it has
been demonstrated, encourage the student to make
the flap selections and note the effect it has on the
attitude, airspeed, rate of climb and trim.
Have the student establish in straight and level on

a reference point. Nominate a reference point and
altitude to descend to – considering minimum height
restrictions. Remind the student that you will be using
the glide, with the throttle closed. Demonstrate the
glide and the level off to resume straight and level
at a specific altitude. Anticipation of the altitude
is required.

Climbing and descending BASIC CONCEPTS

• To enter the climb and the descent from straight and level flight.
Climbing Descending
• To maintain a climb and a descent at a constant speed, constant rate, in a constant direction and PAT
in balance. Entry Entry

• To level off at specific altitudes.
PAT
Climbing Climb performance
• Aeroplane is in equilibrium when climbing More power better climb performance 010 010 010
Power 140 20
8
9
0
ALTMETER
1
2
140
1402020
8 8
0 0
9 9 1 1
ALTMETER
ALTMETER
2 2
120 301 120
120 301 301
302 302 302
KNOTS 40 303 KNOTS
KNOTS
4040 303 303
100 7 3 100
100 7 7 3 3
80 60 VACUUM 6 80806060 VACUUMVACUUM 6 6
5 4 5 54 4
• Lift is not increased Altitude Limits the performance

• T must be greater than D Weight  weight –  rate of climb
• Rate of climb (climb Flap  drag –  rate of climb
Power mixt RICH, full power, balance Power mixt RICH, carb heat HOT, close throttle,
R2 Wind Affects climb angle and distance in climb
performance) depends Attitude climb attitude, wings level, balance balance
on excess power Trim to maintain attitude Attitude hold S+L attitude until glide speed, then set
available L F Climb configurations glide attitude
RA Airspeed = RoC =
Trim to maintain attitude
T
Airspeed controlled with attitude
Performance Power Attitude
Airspeed = RoD =
D T>D Best RoC full kt
Maintaining Airspeed controlled with attitude
RCW
T = D + RCW Best AoC kt Lookout
W1 L<W Cruise kt Attitude Change – check – hold – trim Maintaining
Instruments Lookout
RCW Recommended kt
W
Attitude Change – check – hold – trim
R1 APT
Exit Instruments
anticipate...
Descending Descent performance Exit

• Aeroplane is in equilibrium when descending Power Controls rate of descent
• Flying speed maintained by lowering nose L/D ratio Efficiency of wing, steepness of glide anticipate...
attitude Weight  weight  FCW –  speed down slope Attitude select and hold S+L attitude, adjust as speed
PAT
• FCW balances D Flap Needs  FCW to balance D – increases, balance
R
 rate of descent Power wait for aeroplane to accelerate, then set cruise Power carb heat COLD, increase power to cruise, balance
L Wind Affects descent angle and range power, balance Attitude simultaneously set to S+L, balance
Trim to hold S+L attitude Trim to hold S+L attitude
Descent configurations
D
FCW
Performance Power Attitude Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors
• Situational awareness – what was, is, and will be • Smooth throttle movements • Trapped gases in ears
Glide idle kt
RA
F • VFR Met minima • Mixture RICH • Diving
Powered kt
• Minimum and maximum heights • Carb heat HOT for descent • Empty sky myopia
W
Cruise kt • Lookout – restrictions • Temperatures and pressures • Noise
• I’M SAFE

BASIC CONCEPTS
Medium, climbing and

descending turns
A medium turn is defined Define the medium turn and explain angle of
bank. Explain that if you wanted to change
as a turn using up to direction, you wouldn’t normally complete
30 degrees angle of bank. an entire circle. However, in order to reduce
Climbing and descending the chance of disorientation we complete a
360 degree turn and regain straight and level
turns are combined with on the original reference point.
medium turns within
this briefing, but your
organisation may prefer to
present a separate briefing;
consult with your CFI.
The turning lesson builds on the previous
lessons. The student will improve their attitude
control and learn to smoothly and accurately
coordinate aileron and rudder. During the
roll-out the student will need to allow for
aeroplane inertia and use smooth control
inputs to regain the original reference point
and height.
During this lesson the student will have

the opportunity to practise straight and
level, climbing, and descending. This is the
stage at which the lookout technique is
taught specifically, with the emphasis on the
20 degree per 2 second visual scan technique.
Basic concepts: Medium, climbing and descending turns 89

Figure 1b
Objectives Banking to the right
• To change direction through 360 degrees at a

L
constant rate, using 30 degrees angle of bank, VCL
while maintaining a constant altitude and
keeping the aeroplane in balance. VCL = W
HCL
• To complete a medium turn while climbing and
while descending.
Principles of flight Of the options available for increasing lift, changing

the angle of attack is the most practical. Any increase
Start with a diagram of the aeroplane flying into the
in lift will produce a corresponding increase in drag,
board (so that the student is correctly orientated)
and therefore, a reduction in airspeed. In the medium
and revise how lift equals weight in straight and level
level turn, the lift and drag increases are very slight
flight (see Figure 1a).
and the decrease in airspeed is minor – only subtle
elevator application may be necessary.
Figure 1a
Straight and level flight

Adverse yaw
L
From the Effects of controls lesson, the student
L=W
knows that ailerons are used to bank an aeroplane,
and this is achieved by changing the shape (camber)
of the wing, which in turn changes the lift on that
wing. In order to bank right, for example, the left (or
up-going) wing has more lift and the right (or down
going) wing has less lift.
W
One of the side-effects of increasing lift is a
corresponding increase in drag. So even though there
is more lift on the up-going wing, and the aeroplane
Lift vector rolls, there is also more drag on that wing, and that
produces a yaw, away from the direction of the turn –
It is very important that the student understands
termed adverse yaw (see Figure 2).
that in order to turn the aeroplane an acceleration
towards the centre of the turn must be provided. Figure 2
This is done by banking the aeroplane with aileron.
Yaw away from the direction of the turn
Breaking lift down into its two components shows
that it is the horizontal component of lift (centripetal L
force) that provides this acceleration towards the
Roll
centre of the turn. L
With the lift vector inclined, the vertical component
of lift no longer supports the aeroplane’s weight. Yaw
To maintain a constant altitude or height, the total
lift vector must be increased so that the vertical D
component now equals the weight. The appropriate
amount of backpressure on the control column
achieves this (see Figure 1b). D

To overcome this effect and to achieve balanced For the purpose of this briefing, the increased
flight, rudder pressure is applied in the direction of tendency to overbank in both medium level turns
turn, while the ailerons are being moved. Once the and in climbing turns is caused by the outer wing
required bank angle is achieved, and the ailerons travelling faster than the inner wing, thereby
centralised, the rudder pressure can be reduced to producing more lift and causing the aeroplane to
maintain balance. increase the bank angle. Emphasis must be placed
on negating these tendencies by maintaining the
The amount of rudder required to overcome adverse required angle of bank with aileron, commonly
yaw is dependent on the rate of roll. For example, referred to as holding off bank.
during a rapid roll more rudder will be needed than
at lower rates. The benefits of differential and Frise In descending turns, the inner wing travels down a
ailerons may be discussed. steeper descent path and hence meets the relative
airflow at a greater angle of attack than the outer
During descending turns, while at low airspeeds, wing. The effect is to reduce, neutralise or even
the ailerons will need to be deflected further to reverse the tendency for the bank to increase.
achieve the same roll rate as at higher airspeeds.
The increased deflection increases the drag, and This can be expanded on in a separate briefing
requires more rudder to overcome the adverse yaw. if needed.
Overbanking Performance
Overbanking is the tendency of an aeroplane to want As covered in the Climbing and descending lesson,
to continue the roll into the turn, or increase the bank excess power determines the rate of climb. When a
angle of its own accord. turn is combined with the climb, the tilting of the lift
force and the increase in drag decreases the excess
Figure 3 power, and reduces the rate of climb. Therefore,
where a requirement to turn and climb exists, and
Aeroplane wants to continue the roll
performance is consequently reduced, the angle
of bank is commonly limited to 20 degrees, with
15 degrees used for this exercise.
There are no significantly detrimental effects on

performance when descending at angles of bank
of up to 30 degrees.
Airmanship
Introduce the 20 degree per 2 second visual scan

technique. The lookout starts at the tail – by looking
over the shoulder opposite to the direction of turn –
and continues forward through the nose of the
aeroplane in the direction of the turn, to finish looking
at the tail again. Discuss the restrictions imposed on
a good lookout by the airframe, and therefore the
appropriate head movements required to minimise
blind spots.
In a level turn, the outside wingtip travels further, and Developing the student’s situational awareness is
therefore faster, than the inside wingtip (see Figure 3). very important. At this stage the lookout, and listen
This increase in airspeed results in an increase in out, are particularly important.
lift, which produces a tendency to roll into the turn.
Even though this effect is minimal in small training
aeroplanes, there will be a tendency for the aeroplane
to increase its angle of bank if uncorrected.

Discuss situational awareness in relation to: The markings on the artificial horizon should be
explained – at least up to the 30-degree bank angle
• completing 360 degree turns
mark (see Figure 4).
• monitoring the aeroplane’s position in the
training area
Figure 4
• the minimum and maximum altitudes to be used
Artificial horizon instrument
• the current weather.
Introduce the VFR requirements within controlled

airspace. You may like to provide them with
a VFR Met minima card. You can order these
by emailing publications@caa.govt.nz.
There are no new engine handling considerations for

this exercise, so revise the use of smooth but positive
throttle movements.
VACUUM
Revise why carburettor heat may need to be used.
Human factors
Entry
Turns are practised through 360 degrees to minimise With a reference altitude, prominent reference point
disorientation. Choose an easily identifiable chosen, and the heading noted, emphasise and
reference point. complete a thorough lookout.
For some students, the sensations of the turn may be Once the lookout is complete, roll the aeroplane
uncomfortable at first. They may also tend to lean smoothly into the turn with aileron and apply
out of the turn. Let them know that this is a natural sufficient rudder in the same direction to maintain
human tendency, as the body tries to realign itself balance. Increase backpressure on the control column
with the perceived vertical, and that it will stop with as required to maintain the altitude. Emphasise
exposure and practice. Students may also feel a slight that the increase in backpressure is very slight. For
increase in their weight (G). This is the gyroscopic example, if the aeroplane was being flown with the
reaction to the increased lift. finger and thumb in level flight, only one more finger
would be required to maintain the turn.
To maintain a constant airspeed when entering both

the climbing and descending turn, relax backpressure
Air exercise
as required.
The first exercise will be a demonstration of adverse

yaw, emphasising the appropriate use of rudder. In the turn
Discuss entering, maintaining, and exiting the medium At 30 degrees angle of bank – which should
level turn, at a bank angle of 30 degrees. be recognised by reference to the attitude and
confirmed by instruments – a slight check of aileron
The climbing turn is commonly demonstrated at will be required and rudder pressure reduced to
15 degrees angle of bank and the descending turn maintain balance.
at 30 degrees angle of bank.
Maintaining the turn involves using the LAI scan.

L Lookout
The exercise
In a scan, look out to the left (port) and scan (for a
turn to the right) 20 degrees for 2 seconds from left The student should be able to perform the take-off
to right, passing over the nose of the aeroplane. following the previous lesson.
Emphasise looking into the turn.
On the way out to the training area, revise the
A Attitude different climbing attitudes and their performance.
Ensure the attitude for 30 degrees angle of bank The student should be capable of climbing to a
and level flight is correct relative to the horizon and, suitable altitude and levelling off. A short amount of
more importantly, constant. When the outside scan straight and level practice can be done while you talk
is complete, scan inside. about adverse yaw. Since it is best to demonstrate
adverse yaw at low speed, ask the student to slow
I Instruments
the aeroplane down while maintaining straight and
Are scanned to confirm accurate flight (height – level. Take control and demonstrate adverse yaw.
bank – ball). There is no need for the student to practise this.
Angle of bank is controlled with aileron – altitude Start with level 30 degree angle of bank turns.
with elevator.
Emphasise the lookout, before and during the turn,
During the turn, scan only those instruments relevant by moving your upper body to demonstrate that more
to the manoeuvre and do not trim the aeroplane. than just head movement is required to overcome
blind spots.
Exit Rather than patter the entry as “roll in with aileron,

balance with rudder”, it may be better to patter the
Lookout into the turn for traffic and the upcoming
actual control movements; for example, “roll in with
reference point. Allow for inertia by anticipating
right aileron, balance with right rudder.” You will be
the roll out so that the wings will be level when the
able to move to “balanced entry” and “balanced exit”
reference point is reached. Common practice is to
as the student progresses.
use half the bank angle as a guide, for example, in a
30 degree bank, start the roll out 15 degrees before
Once the student has completed satisfactory medium
the reference point. This helps establish a smooth roll
level turns, both left and right from straight and
out, making it easier to coordinate.
level, ask the student to enter a climb or descent and
demonstrate the attitudes for climbing turns and
Approximately 15 degrees before the reference point
descending turns. Then the student should enter the
is reached, start to smoothly roll wings level with
climb/descent while turning.
aileron, balance with rudder in the same direction,
and relax the backpressure to re-establish the level
Finish the lesson with the student consolidating
attitude and maintain a constant altitude. On exit
what they have learned. Ask the student to climb/
from a climbing or descending turn, check PAT.
descend to an altitude and turn to roll out on a
feature, so they can practise coordinating entering
the climb/descent while turning and completing the
climb/descent while levelling off. The student should
Airborne sequence complete the manoeuvres at a different altitude and
heading from where they started.
Before flight On the way back from the training area, more
The student should be able to taxi by this point. practice at the different descents, and descending
Introduce the instrument check during the taxi, turns can be completed. The student may like to use
and continue (or begin) to involve the student in the flap again to become a little more familiar with it.
the checklists.
The student may well be comfortable enough to fly
You may want to introduce some basic radio work. the aeroplane in the circuit, under your direction.
For example, have the student call ready for take-off, Discuss how you will be joining the circuit, and any
and respond to the clearance (if one is required). radio call you need to make.

After flight
Depending on the CFI’s lesson sequence, the next
lesson may be Slow flight, where the student will
need to fly straight and level and turn at a slower
speed than they have yet seen. Ask them what sort
of attitude they would expect to see if they were
flying slower than normal.
Encourage them to do some pre-reading before the

next lesson.

Medium, climbing and descending turns BASIC CONCEPTS

• To change direction through 360 degrees at a constant rate – using 30 degrees angle of bank –
Adverse yaw
while maintaining a constant altitude and keeping the aeroplane in balance.
• Demonstration only
• To complete a medium turn while climbing and while descending.
Entry
Medium level turn Climbing turn Descending turn
• From S+L • Establish in climb • Establish in glide
Principles of flight • Lookout • Lookout
• Lookout
• In order to turn need to create a force towards the centre of the turn – bank the aeroplane
• Roll with aileron to 30° AoB • Roll with aileron to 15° AoB • Roll with aileron to 30° AoB
• HCL provides the force
• Balance with rudder • Balance with rudder • Balance with rudder
• VCL reduced \ more L required  increase angle of attack slightly
• Backpressure to set attitude • Relax backpressure to maintain • Relax backpressure to maintain
–  slightly attitude –  attitude – 
L L
L=W
VCL
0 1 2
301
302
303
9 ALTMETER
VCL = W 8
7 6 5
3
4
VACUUM
010
20
140 40
120 KNOTS 60
100 80
HCL
0 1 2
301
302
303
9 ALTMETER
3
8 4
7 6 5
VACUUM
010
20
140 40
120 KNOTS 60
100 80
0 1 2
301
302
303
9 ALTMETER
3
8 4
7 6 5
VACUUM
010
20
140 40
120 KNOTS 60
100 80
W W
In turn
Adverse yaw Overbanking • ‘Check’ the ailerons • Instruments
• Increased lift on up-going wing also • Outer wing travels further, therefore more L, and maintain balance • Angle of bank controlled with aileron
means increased drag, therefore yaw tries to keep rolling • Lookout • Altitude controlled with backpressure
occurs away from turn • Hold off bank with aileron • Attitude
• Rudder used to balance yaw as
ailerons deflected
L Exit
Roll • Look for reference point • Roll wings level • Reset S+L attitude
L
• Anticipate rollout by half the angle • Balance with rudder • On exit from a climbing or
Yaw of bank • Relax backpressure descending turn, check PAT
D
• 20° per 2 second scan technique • Smooth and positive throttle movements • 360° turns to minimise
• Lookout and listenout • Carb heat disorientation
Performance • SA – 360° turns, position, altitude, weather • Turning sensation
• When climbing and turning, angle of bank must be reduced maximum of 20°, use 15° • VFR minima, 5–2–1

BASIC CONCEPTS
Slow flight
There are a number The go-around is the most critical of the four
phases of flight where we transition through
of situations when the slow flight, for several reasons:
aeroplane must be flown • transition through slow flight is a longer
at or near its minimum time while close to the ground;
airspeed. For example, • often the go-around is unplanned or
during takeoff, landing, a go unexpected with potential startle factor;
around, or missed approach, • configuration could be high-weight and
and in the stalling lessons. high-drag; and
• management of attaining climb speed

This lesson is not for operational slow
and reduction of drag flap is necessary.
flight, but aims to improve the student’s
awareness of the characteristics of flight
at slow airspeeds and provides practice
in maintaining balanced flight at those
airspeeds. It’s another important coordination
exercise, reinforcing the lessons learned
during Straight and level at varying
airspeeds, and is good preparation for the
stalling lessons and for the take-off, landing,
and go-around phases of circuit training.

Revise control effectiveness at slow speeds and the
Objectives effects of slipstream. The controls will be sluggish and
not as responsive as they would be at a higher speed,
and the reduced slipstream will require balancing
To slow the aeroplane and maintain straight and
with rudder.
level at low airspeed (1.2Vs).
Revise the effect of low airspeeds on control input

To maintain straight and level at low airspeed in
and response. As seen in the turning lesson, a slower
various configurations.
speed produces more adverse yaw.
To maintain a constant altitude while turning at
low airspeed.
To return to normal operating airspeeds. Airmanship
Revise the 20 degree visual scan technique as

introduced in the Medium, climbing and descending
Principles of flight turns lesson. Take into account the high nose attitude.
In normal cruise, the angle of attack was approximately HASELL checks are carried out before stalling and
4 degrees and the airspeed _____ knots. aerobatics, and are introduced in this lesson.
From the Straight and level lesson, lift is primarily H Height (not altitude)

controlled by varying either angle of attack or Height not less than 2500 feet above ground level.
airspeed. Lift must equal weight to maintain level
flight, so as the airspeed decreases the angle of Some organisations stipulate a height greater than
attack must increase. 2500 feet AGL, consult your CFI.
Power + Attitude = Performance A Airframe
State the configuration to be used.

In order to fly level at lower than normal airspeed,
a higher than normal nose attitude is required, and
S Security
once at that attitude, a small increase in power is
needed to maintain the desired altitude (see Figure 1). No loose articles, harnesses secure.
Figure 1 There should be no loose articles in the cockpit at any

time because of the potential for jammed controls.
Slow level flight Explain that harness security is a good aviation
L practice consideration.
E Engine
Temperatures and pressures normal, mixture rich,

check carburettor heat for icing, fuel sufficient and
on fullest tank. Fuel pump(s) operated in accordance
D with operator procedures.
T
This is a routine systems scan to ensure everything
is normal, before and during the exercise.
L Location
Not over a populated area and clear of known traffic

areas, including aerodromes.
W
L Lookout
Carry out a minimum of one 180-degree, or two

90-degree, clearing turns, to ensure other traffic
will not result in conflict.
Basic concepts: Slow flight 97

The airspeed will decrease gradually. As the airspeed
Aeroplane management decreases the aeroplane’s nose will want to pitch
down, requiring subtly increasing back pressure
on the control column to maintain the altitude.
The use of smooth but positive throttle and control
The wings should be kept level in relation to the
movements should be stressed. Even though more
horizon, and rudder adjusted to keep straight on
positive movement of the controls will be required,
the reference point.
there is no need to be aggressive with the controls.
Remind the student that during those phases of

Revise why carburettor heat may need to be used.
flight where power and/or airspeed are changing,
Be aware that operating at low airspeeds may raise a change in rudder pressure will be required to
engine operating temperatures. maintain balance.
Consider the position of the aeroplane three T Trim

dimensionally within the training area. Trim promptly and accurately.
Consider the warning symptoms of the approaching Maintain straight and level flight at the nominated
stall and be constantly aware of the aeroplane’s airspeed, adjust power as necessary to maintain
configuration and flight phase. height and apply the mnemonic LAI.
L Lookout
In a scan loop, look out to the left (port) and scan

Human factors 20 degrees for 2 seconds from left to right, passing
over the nose of the aircraft.
There is a high level of concentration needed in this
exercise, so it is quite a demanding lesson. A Attitude
Ensure the attitude is correct and, more importantly,

The high nose attitude will be unfamiliar to the student.
constant. When the outside scan is complete, scan
inside.
I Instruments
Air exercise
The instruments are scanned to confirm accurate flight.
If a constant altitude is not being maintained, use

Straight and level at low airspeed
power as required and adjust attitude to maintain the
Using the flight manual, determine 1.2Vs. nominated airspeed.
A reference altitude is nominated and a reference Power + Attitude = Performance

point selected.
If the correct level attitude has been selected, the
Power + Attitude = Performance airspeed will be _____ knots (as nominated).
P Power If the correct power setting is maintained, the

Power is reduced (carburettor heat may be required) aeroplane will maintain level flight, and if the wings
to approximately _____ RPM. are level and balance maintained, the aeroplane will
remain straight.
The resultant pitch change and yaw must be
compensated for. Ensure smooth throttle movements
Turning at low airspeed
are used.
Lift will need to be increased in the turn and this
A Attitude will produce an increase in drag. Power will need to
With the elevator, adjust the attitude to maintain be increased to combat the drag and maintain the
level flight. nominated airspeed.

Revise adverse yaw from the Medium, climbing and
descending turns lesson. Adverse yaw is countered The exercise
with rudder applied in the direction of the roll. The student should be able to complete the take-off
Maintain balance. by themselves.
At low airspeeds, the ailerons will need to be On the way out to the training area, there is
deflected further to achieve the same roll rate as at opportunity to practise climbing and turning.
higher airspeeds. This will significantly increase the
induced drag and require more rudder to negate the The student then enters straight and level from the
adverse yaw. climb and is talked through the HASELL checks.
Demonstrate the entry to slow flight at the nominated

Returning to normal cruise airspeed and in the nominated configuration – with
To regain normal cruise, the mnemonic PAT is used. and without flap. The student should practise after
Because of inertia, power leads the sequence to arrest each demonstration.
any descent resulting from lowering the attitude.
Demonstrate turning (at up to 20 degrees angle of
P Power bank) including reversing the turn direction, followed
by student practice.
Carburettor heat COLD (if applicable), and smoothly
increase power to full power. Allow the student to regain normal cruise, while
talking them though the process.
Correct the resultant yaw with rudder and the pitch
up with elevator while... Establish the aeroplane in the approach configuration
in a descent at 1.2Vs. State a simulated altitude
A Attitude
representing the ground, anticipate by 50 feet, then
Gradually lowering the nose and holding level establish the aeroplane in a climb. This simulates
attitude. Maintain wings level with aileron, and the go-around, emphasising (Effects of controls) the
balance with rudder (as airspeed increases). effect of power changes and situational awareness
when close to the ground in low speed/high drag
T Trim configuration.
Remove obvious loads. When flaps have been raised

On the way back to the aerodrome, discuss some
(if applicable) and normal cruise airspeed achieved,
more radio calls, and talk them through rejoining
set cruise power, and confirm straight and level is
the circuit.
maintained.
LAI – trim accurately to hold the correct attitude.

After flight
The next lesson will be Basic stalling. Ask the student
to read up on this.
Airborne sequence Provide the student with a copy of the checklists, and
ask them to start learning the correct responses for
the checklist items. Inform them that you will expect
On the ground
them to know the checklists from memory before
Ask the student to do the preflight inspection, and they do their first solo flight, and the first step to
then to come to you afterwards if they have any memorising them is to learn the correct responses.
questions.
Introduce more radio work, and ask the student to

call and complete the checklists.
Basic concepts: Slow flight 99

Slow flight BASIC CONCEPTS

• To slow the aeroplane and maintain straight and level at low airspeed (1.2VS). Power + Attitude = Performance
• To maintain straight and level at low airspeed in various configurations.
• To maintain a constant altitude while turning at low airspeed.
Slowing to S + L at low airspeed
• To return to normal operating airspeeds.
• Power reduce to decelerate
• Attitude increases as aeroplane slows – maintain level
• Trim to relieve backpressure
010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
8 2
301
120 302
KNOTS 40 303
7
Principles of flight • Adjust power to maintain height 100
80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4
3
Power + Attitude = Performance L • Airspeed =

• L = angle of attack x airspeed
• As airspeed decreases angle of attack
must increase to maintain level Maintaining S + L at low airspeed
• High nose attitude + little extra • Lookout
power required • Attitude

D
• Fly the aeroplane at a slow speed, • Instruments
T
but above the stall – next lesson
• Less control effectiveness
Turning at low airspeed
– larger inputs required
• To maintain level, Lift must , Drag will , more power required
• Slipstream effects less – maintain balance
• Adverse yaw countered with rudder
• Medium level turns –
• Ailerons will need to be deflected more for same roll rate 0 1 2
301
ER 302
303
9 ALTMET
3
8
need additional power W 7 6 5
4
VACUUM
010
20
140 40
• Balance with rudder 120 KNOTS 60
100 80
Airmanship
• 20°/2 second scan Returning to cruise
• HASELL checks • Power increase to full power, balance with rudder
• Aeroplane position in training area • Attitude lower nose to level attitude
• Warning symptoms of approaching stall • Trim to relieve pressure
• Reduce to cruise power, balance with rudder
H Height Not less than 2500 feet above ground level

• Lookout
A Airframe Configuration – clean or flap • Attitude
S Security No loose articles, harnesses secure • Instruments
E Engine Ts & Ps Temperatures and pressures normal, mixture RICH, fuel sufficient
and on fullest
L Locality Not over a populated area and clear of known traffic areas, Aeroplane management Human factors
including aerodromes • Smooth but positive throttle and control movements • High level of concentration
L Lookout One 180-degree, or two 90-degree, clearing turns to ensure other • Carb heat • Unfamiliar high nose attitudes
traffic will not result in conflict • Engine operating temperatures
• Use of flap – power requirements

BASIC CONCEPTS
Basic stalling
The Slow flight lesson has The student needs to know about stalling

for three reasons. The first is to avoid an
introduced the student to inadvertent stall. The stall does not just happen
the practice of flying close – there are many warning signs of its approach,
to the stall. Here you are and the student should be familiar with these.
furthering their knowledge To prevent the inadvertent stall, a pilot needs

by showing how the to be able to recognise the symptoms of an
aeroplane behaves when approaching stall, experience it, and then
learn the correct recovery technique.
there is not enough lift
produced by the wings to The second reason for being familiar with the
balance its weight. stall was highlighted in the last lesson,

Slow flight. There are a number of times an
Many new terms and concepts will be aeroplane will be operated at a speed close
introduced to the student during this briefing, to its stall speed.
and these should be kept as simple as possible.
The most common of these, and the third
When an aeroplane stalls, it is not like a reason, is the approach and landing phase
car – the engine does not stop. The stall is of the flight. Every landing is a controlled
a breakdown of the smooth airflow over approach to the stall.
the wing into a turbulent one, resulting in a
decrease in lift. The lift will no longer fully
support the aeroplane’s weight, and the
aeroplane sinks.
For the basic stall we keep the aeroplane’s

configuration as simple as possible, power will
be at idle, flap will be up, and if applicable,
undercarriage raised.
Basic concepts: Basic stalling 101

the point at which the airflow breaks away from the
Objectives wing, the separation point, moves forward from the
trailing edge. At the same time, the point through
which lift acts, the centre of pressure (C of P), also
To control the aeroplane to the point of stall,
moves forward along the chord line; this movement
recognise the symptoms of the approaching stall,
is unstable because it reduces the moment of the lift/
experience the stall itself, and recover with minimum
weight couple (see Figure 1b).
height loss.
Having experienced the stall itself, repeat, only this Figure 1a

time recover at stall onset with minimum height loss.
Straight and level flight
Principles of flight L=W

The basic stall is conducted in a power-idle clean
configuration, ie, flap up.
The cause of the breakdown of smooth airflow is AoA 4°

the result of the wing being at too high an angle
of attack to the airflow.
A model aeroplane may be used to show that Figure 1b
aeroplanes do not fly at an angle of attack of 90 Increased angle of attack

degrees to the relative airflow. Therefore, somewhere
between straight and level and 90 degrees, a limit is
reached at which the air can no longer flow smoothly
over the aerofoil. L=W
For the average aerofoil used on general aviation
aeroplanes, this limit is reached at an angle of attack
of about 15 degrees. It should be emphasised that
no matter what speed the aeroplane is flying at, 8°
when this angle is exceeded the aeroplane will stall
because of the breakdown of the smooth airflow.
One way to do this would be, from straight and level, Figure 1c
to close the throttle to idle and attempt to continue Stalling or critical angle of attack
flying level.
In straight and level flight the angle of attack was

about 4 degrees and the airspeed about ____ knots L<W
(see Figure 1a).
As experienced in Effects of controls, lift is primarily

controlled through angle of attack and airspeed, and
lift must equal the aeroplane’s weight to maintain 15°
level flight. As the airspeed decreases, the angle
of attack must be increased to maintain lift equal
to weight.
Eventually, the stalling (or critical) angle of attack is
L = angle of attack x airspeed reached, and the inability of the air to flow smoothly
over the top surface of the wing results in a decrease
As the angle of attack increases, the airflow finds in lift and a large increase in drag. This may be
it more and more difficult to follow the contoured illustrated by the lift coefficient versus angle of attack
upper surface of the wing (aerofoil) smoothly, and graph (see Figures 1c and 2).

Figure 2 H Height (not altitude)
Lift coefficient versus angle of attack Height sufficient to recover by not less than 2500 feet
above ground level.
0˚ 15˚
1.4 The altitude loss should be no more than 300 feet
Ordinary angles of flight
and the recovery height should provide an appropriate
1.2 environment for practice.
Some organisations stipulate recovery by a height

1.0
higher than 2500 feet AGL, consult your CFI.
Lift coefficient
0.8 A Airframe
Stalling angle The entry configuration is revised: idle power, flap up.
0.5
S Security
0.4
No loose articles, harnesses secure.
0.2 The basic stall in the modern light aeroplane is very

gentle, but it is good aviation practice to secure loose
articles to stop them moving around the cabin, and
0˚
- 4˚ 0˚ 4˚ 8˚ 12˚ 16˚ 20˚ check harness security.
Angle of attack
E Engine
The result is that the aeroplane sinks. At the same Temperatures and pressures normal, mixture rich, fuel
time, the centre of pressure moves rapidly rearward. sufficient and on fullest tank.
The rearward movement of the centre of pressure
increases the moment provided by the lift/weight Commonly the electric fuel pump is switched on to
couple, causing the nose to pitch down – a stable guard against an airlock (refer CFI). In addition, the
movement. carburettor heat may be cycled to ensure ice has not
formed.
The factors affecting the stalling speed are discussed
in Advanced stalling, the emphasis of this briefing is L Location
on the cause of the stall – exceeding the critical angle.
Stalling is not carried out over populated areas

Airmanship because large power changes are made throughout
the exercise and may disturb people on the ground.
Passengers should not be carried during this exercise.
This exercise is not carried out near other aircraft.
Situational awareness considers not only the position
of the aeroplane three dimensionally within the L Lookout
training area, but also the warning symptoms of Carry out a minimum of one 180-degree, or two
the approaching stall, and awareness of the flight 90-degree, clearing turns, to ensure other traffic will
phase – power set at idle, but attempting to maintain not result in conflict.
level flight.
During the last part of the turn, start looking for a
Revise the HASELL checklist, incorporating those suitable reference point on which to roll out and use
elements particular to stalling. This check is for the stall entry.
completed before the first stall.

Introduce the HELL checks (a subset of HASELL) The effects of stress are reduced by overlearning the
which are carried out between each subsequent stall. procedure, to produce an initial automatic response,
and by experiencing the sensations of the stall, to
H Height (not altitude) desensitise the pilot. Tell the student that if they feel
Height regained or sufficient to recover by not less uncomfortable at any point, they should say so, the
than 2500 feet above ground level. aeroplane can then be flown level, until they feel
comfortable to continue.
E Engine
Temperatures and pressures normal.
L Location Air exercise

areas, including airfields. Entry
L Lookout HASELL checks are completed and a reference point

on which to keep the aeroplane straight is nominated,
One 90-degree clearing turn.
confirm with the DI. Nominating a reference altitude is
a function of the HASELL/HELL checks.
Common practice is to make these turns in the one
direction (usually left) so that the exercise is carried
Because of the high nose attitude at the stall, choose
out in a box over the same ground features. This
either a high reference point or have the student sight
general practice can be altered to allow for wind
one along the side of the engine cowling.
direction and strength (drift), the training area
boundaries, and other traffic. From level flight, carburettor heat is selected HOT
and the throttle smoothly closed. As the nose
will want to yaw and pitch down, keep straight
with rudder and hold the altitude with increasing
Aeroplane management backpressure on the control column.
As large power changes will be made, it is Through ____ knots, or when the aural stall warning is
appropriate to revise the requirement for smooth heard, select carburettor heat COLD, as full power will
but positive throttle movements and the correct shortly be reapplied.
use of carburettor heat.
All preflight inspections should include a search for Stall warning symptoms
loose articles. Discreetly ensure a sick bag is available.
Decreasing airspeed
The first true symptom is a decreasing airspeed. Low
airspeed and a high nose attitude are not always
Human factors present in the approach to the stall. For example, the
high-speed stall as a result of pulling out of a dive
The regular turns and steeper than normal nose too sharply. Therefore, although it is desirable to
attitudes could lead to a level of disorientation – inform the student that a high nose attitude and low
make sure the student has time between stalls to airspeed are indicators of an approaching stall for
orientate themselves. most phases of flight, they will not always be present.
When you teach the stall you will need to gauge

the student’s level of apprehension and provide Less effective controls
appropriate reassurance in a calm professional
The next symptom is less effective controls as a
manner. As the student gains more practice and
result of the lowering airspeed – as they will have
exposure to stalling, their comfort level will increase,
experienced in the Slow flight lesson. The student
and they should become relaxed about stalling the
should also recognise the progressively increasing
aeroplane – but never complacent!
stick forces as the stall is approached.

Stall warning device You should be attempting to introduce stalling in
its simplest and most basic form. Therefore, every
Reduced control effectiveness is usually followed by
effort should be made to avoid the wing-drop. If the
the stall-warning device. However, this is not a true
aeroplane has a known tendency to wing-drop in the
symptom, as the device is mechanical and may not
basic configuration it may be necessary to explain
work. The type and operation of the stall-warning
this tendency and the result, as well as the reason for
device fitted to the aeroplane should be described.
not using aileron in the recovery (refer CFI).
If an explanation is required, keep it as simple as

Buffet
possible at this level. For example, “For various
The last generally noted symptom is the buffet. reasons one wing may stall before the other and this
This is caused by the turbulent airflow from the will produce a roll; ignore the roll (no aileron, aileron
wings striking the empennage. The effects of buffet central, aileron neutral) and simply check forward.”
are least noticeable in high-wing/low-tailplane
aeroplane types, such as Cessnas. This is because Your choice of terms – check forward, relax
the airflow breaking off the high wing combined with backpressure, ailerons neutral, no aileron, or ailerons
the high nose attitude, results in most of the turbulent central – should match your airborne patter.
airflow missing the empennage. Whereas in the low-
wing/high-tailplane arrangement, for example the It should be made clear that reducing the angle of
Piper Tomahawk, the turbulent airflow directly strikes attack is all that is needed to unstall the aeroplane.
the empennage and is very apparent. The aeroplane will enter a descent, and the student
can now regain straight and level from the descent
At this point, as a result of the low airspeed, elevator (PAT). The altitude loss will be about 300 feet using
effectiveness has been reduced to the point where no this method, and will be the first recovery method the
further increase in angle of attack can be achieved, student practises.
even though the control column is held well (or fully)
back. This results in the aeroplane sinking and the However, to minimise the altitude loss – Power +
change in relative airflow causes the critical angle to Attitude = Performance.
be exceeded.
For the least loss of altitude, the maximum amount
The aeroplane stalls, altitude decreases and of power is required (hence carburettor heat COLD
(generally) the nose pitches down. It is important during the entry) so smoothly but positively apply
the student be able to correctly identify when the full power (prevent yaw – keep straight) and raise
aeroplane has stalled. the nose smoothly to the horizon. There is no need
to hold the nose down, as excessive altitude will be
lost. Similarly increasing backpressure too rapidly, or
Recovery jerking, may cause a secondary stall.
The recovery is broken down into two distinct
Nose-on-the-horizon may be used as the reference
parts: unstalling the aeroplane, and minimising
attitude. Of the attitudes the student is familiar with
the altitude loss.
the level attitude is too low and the aeroplane will
To unstall the aeroplane, the angle of attack must continue to sink, resulting in unnecessary altitude
be reduced. Even though the aeroplane’s nose loss. Alternatively, the climb attitude is too high, as
may have pitched down at the stall, the angle of the pitch-up created by full power combined with
attack is still high because the aeroplane is sinking. inertia may result in a secondary stall. In addition,
Since increasing the backpressure (or pulling the student should be discouraged from thinking that
back) increased the angle of attack, decrease the pulling back will make the aeroplane stop sinking –
backpressure (or check forward). The ‘check forward’ that’s how the stall was entered.
with the elevator is a smooth but positive control
A compromise attitude is required to arrest the
movement – not a push.
sink and allow the aeroplane to accelerate to the
In addition, no aileron should be used; ailerons must nominated climb speed. The simplest attitude to
be held centralised, for reasons that will be discussed use is to put the top of the nose cowling just on the
in the briefing Advanced stalling. However, the horizon. For some light aeroplanes this attitude is the
correct use of aileron must be stated right from the same or similar to the climb attitude, but at least the
beginning in order to get the sequence right first time student has not been encouraged to try to climb by
and every subsequent time. simply pointing the aeroplane upwards.

The expected altitude loss should be stated, for
example, not more than 100 feet. Airborne sequence
The aeroplane should be held in the nose-on-the-
horizon attitude until the nominated climb speed is
On the ground
reached and then the climb attitude selected.
Make sure the preflight inspection identifies any
Common practice is to use the recommended or loose objects and they are secured.
normal climb speed, for example 70 knots. However,
you may nominate speed for best angle of climb or Encourage the student to take on more of the radio
for best rate of climb (refer CFI). work, and to start their study for the radiotelephony
exam.
Straight and level flight should be resumed at the
starting altitude and the reference point or heading Run through the checklists with the student, checking
regained if necessary. that they are learning the responses.
Recovery at onset The exercise
All stalling exercises should finish with a recovery at On the way out to the training area there is
the incipient stage, more commonly referred to as opportunity to practise climbing, straight and level
the onset. This is to emphasise that, under normal and turning.
conditions of flight, the stall is avoided.
The second objective of this exercise is to recover at Demonstration

onset, which means at the stall warning or buffet. When setting the aeroplane up and choosing a
reference point choose one into or with the wind to
The stall itself is simply the stall and is sometimes reduce any problems the student might have with
referred to as fully developed, meaning that the stall drift perception.
has occurred. A fully developed stall does not imply
a wing-drop. Start with a demonstration of the basic stall and
recovery, rather than the recovery at onset. Although
The expected altitude loss from a recovery at onset the student is being taught to avoid the stall, they still
(depending on which symptom is first detected) need to experience what it is they are trying to avoid.
should be stated, for example, less than 50 feet. During the demonstration the student should be
With practice and improved situational awareness, advised to observe the high nose attitude, and asked
this altitude loss can be reduced to zero – as the to identify the actual stall so both instructor and
aeroplane is not permitted to stall (see Figure 3). student know they recognise the same thing.
Figure 3 In line with the objective of recognising the symptoms

that warn of an approaching stall, the next step is to
Recovery at onset of the stall carefully demonstrate the symptoms.
The entry is pattered as “reference point, reference

altitude, carburettor heat HOT, reduce power, keep
straight and wings level.” Remind the student to look
Onset
outside at the reference point to keep the wings level
Full power with aileron and straight with rudder – just a glance
at the balance ball is all that is required.
No power From this point on, you can adjust the amount of
backpressure to synchronise your patter to match
the symptoms. For example, with practice you will be
able to synchronise the words “and the stall warning
sounds like [pause] that.”
The aeroplane can be held in the stall to demonstrate

the buffet and the sink if required.

At the stall, the nose-down pitch is observed and If the student has practised slow flight and can
identified by the student, and the normal recovery recognise the symptoms leading up to the stall, they
carried out by you without patter. should be able to fly the aeroplane slowly and avoid
an inadvertent stall.
If the sink was discussed in the air exercise, this can
be demonstrated only from a level entry. It is difficult This is an appropriate time to demonstrate a
to detect and may register as a ROD on the VSI, even stall with power and flap (see the Advanced
though the elevator is held well or fully back, before stalling lesson). Here, this manoeuvre is placed after
the nose pitches down. The decision to include this the circuit lessons, but refer to your CFI for the point
demonstration depends on whether or not it was at which your organisation teaches it. If the Advanced
discussed in the air exercise, the aeroplane type, and stalling lesson is to be delayed until after the circuits,
ultimately the CFI. the student will benefit from seeing a stall with power
and flap demonstrated before they undertake circuit
Once the symptoms have been carefully training. It is important the student understands the
demonstrated there is no need to rattle them off recovery technique still requires a reduction in the
during every stall entry. Your patter can now be angle of attack by checking forward.
directed at the recovery.
On the way back to the aerodrome they can
practise more straight and level flight, particularly
Patter and follow through concentrating on prompt and accurate trimming. As
The entry and recovery without power is pattered with well as turning and descending, the student should
the student following through. In addition, the student be talked through the circuit and as much of the
is given the opportunity to carry out the entry and approach as you think they are capable of.
recovery without power because this is the simplest
recovery, and because checking forward centrally, when
After flight
the nose is pitching down is not a natural reaction –
but must be made through a conscious decision. Debrief the student and remind them that there will
be lots of opportunity to practise stalling, but the
With the aeroplane in a glide descent the student primary objective is to be able to recognise the stall
can be asked to put the aeroplane into either straight and avoid the inadvertent stall.
and level flight (PAT) or directly into a climb (refer CFI)
and the altitude loss noted. Encourage the student to continue learning the
checklists.
Minimising the altitude loss is covered next. This
requires the application of full power earlier than the
previous student practice, and smoothly raising the
nose to the horizon until the nominated climb speed
is reached while stopping yaw with rudder.
If the benefits of power in reducing the altitude loss

are to be seen clearly, you must ensure that during
the demonstrations accurate altitude holding is
maintained throughout the entry.
Talk through
From this point the student is talked through and
can practise. Remember, for this lesson, the correct
recovery sequence of events is more important than
speed or coordination of execution.
At the end of the airborne sequence, a recovery at

onset should be carried out by the student. Common
practice is to nominate a symptom at which the
recovery will be initiated. For example, 60 knots, stall
warning, or buffet (if the latter is easily detected).

Basic stalling BASIC CONCEPTS

• To control the aeroplane to the point of stall, recognise the symptoms of the approaching stall,
Entry
experience the stall itself, and recover with minimum height loss.
• HASELL checks and reference point • Keep straight with rudder
• To control the aeroplane to the point of stall, recognise the symptoms of the approaching stall, and
(high) • Maintain altitude with 
recover at stall onset with minimum altitude loss. 010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
8 2
301
120 302
KNOTS 40 303
100 7 3
• Carb heat HOT backpressure 80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4
• Close throttle • Through kts (or stall

warning sounds), carb heat COLD
• L = angle of attack x airspeed
• Smooth airflow over the wing breaks down and becomes turbulent
Symptoms At the stall
• Low and  airspeed • Stall warning – if fitted • Aeroplane sinks and nose
• Breaks away from upper surface, aeroplane sinks, nose pitches down
• High nose attitude • Buffet (turbulent air from wing pitches down
L<W • Less effective controls – higher stick striking tailplane)

L=W
forces • Control column will be fully back –
no further control movement
AoA 4° 8° 15°
Recovery
To unstall
0˚ 15˚
At the stall 1.4 • Check forward with control column • Aeroplane will descend
Ordinary angles of flight
• When the wing stalls there is a  in L and large  in D to reduce angle of attack • Recover to S+L with PAT
1.2
• Aeroplane sinks, C of P moves rearwards  pitch down • Do not use ailerons
010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
1.0 120 8 2
301
302
KNOTS 40 303
100 7 3
80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4
To minimise height loss – max of 100’

0.8
• Power + Attitude = Performance • Raise nose to the horizon (stops sink
0.5 and allows acceleration)
Lift coefficient
• Unstall, as above, check forward
Stalling angle
• Apply full power – balance with • Accelerate to kt, then
0.4
rudder adjust attitude to maintain speed
0.2 • Regain starting altitude and S+L
0˚
- 4˚ 0˚ 4˚ 8˚ 12˚ 16˚ 20˚
Angle of attack
Recovery at onset
• Normal situation – when not training
• Recover at stall warning / buffet
Airmanship H Height • Height loss – 50 ft maximum
• No pax
A Airframe
• Awareness of aircraft configuration, position and other traffic
• HASELL checks S Security
• HELL checks E Engine Ts & Ps Aeroplane management Human factors
• Recognise symptoms L Locality • Smooth but positive throttle and control movements • More practice and exposure the better
• Preflight – no loose objects • Plenty of time between stalls to orientate
L Lookout
• Carb heat use • Sick bags

Circuit training
The order for the following

eight lessons will be dictated
by the conditions on the
day, the student’s ability to
learn the new material, and
their progress in mastering
the skills.
Please refer to your
CFI for the order your
organisation uses.
CIRCUIT TRAINING
Circuit
introduction
The circuit is an orderly This briefing is based on the normal left-hand

circuit, assuming nil wind or at least wind
pattern used to position the straight down the runway, with variations to
aeroplane for landing and this gradually introduced. Aim to introduce
minimise the risk of collision this lesson under ideal conditions. Obviously,
this will not always be possible, and the
with other aircraft. briefing will need to be modified for the actual
conditions on the day. In addition, discuss with
Aerodromes attract aircraft, therefore rules
your supervisor or CFI the acceptable weather
and procedures are required to maintain an
conditions for this lesson.
orderly sequence or flow of traffic. Knowing
that all aircraft should be following these
published procedures makes it easier to
identify which runway should be used, where
other aircraft are (or can be expected to be),
and who has the right of way (or priority) in
the sequence to take-off or land.
Having the right of way does not absolve the

pilot-in-command from avoiding a collision.
The standard circuit pattern or procedure,

and the rules to be employed around specific
aerodromes, are published in AIP New Zealand.
The rules governing circuit procedures are
contained in Part 91, Subpart C.
The skills the student has acquired leading

up to this lesson combine so that there is only
one new skill to be learned now – landing
the aeroplane.

Gyroscopic effect
Objectives The gyroscopic effect occurs when the tail is raised to
the level attitude. This causes a force to be applied
To take-off and follow published procedures that to the propeller disc, the effect of which will be to
conform to the aerodrome traffic circuit, avoiding produce a turning moment, which acts at 90 degrees
conflict with other aircraft. in the direction of propeller rotation. Gyroscopic
effect has no practical application to tricycle types.
To carry out an approach and landing using the most
suitable runway.
Keeping straight
Emphasise that rudder should be used as required to
keep the aeroplane straight during the take-off roll
Considerations by reference to a feature at the far end of the runway,
and if available, the runway centreline. Whenever
power is changed, the aeroplane will yaw, and this
Take-off must be corrected with rudder.
Even though the student will probably have completed
a number of take-offs already, this is an important
Crosswind
review of what they know. The lesson also introduces
some new considerations and establishes the standard. The tendency for the aeroplane to weathercock
(point nose into wind) during the ground roll or
while taxiing, as a result of a crosswind pushing on
Slipstream the empennage is explained, and the need to keep
In aeroplanes where the propeller rotates clockwise, straight on the reference point is restated. In the air,
when viewed from the cabin, the effect of slipstream allowance for drift is necessary to track towards any
is to apply a force on the port side of the vertical tail reference point.
fin, and this will tend to yaw the aeroplane to the left
at high power settings. This effect is greatest during
Headwind
the take-off roll as a result of the high power and
low airspeed. The presence of a headwind reduces the length of
the ground roll and in an extreme example, if the
aeroplane was parked facing into wind, and the wind
Torque was blowing at ____ knots, the aeroplane would be
The effect of torque, the force that tries to rotate about to get airborne, and they sometimes do in
the aeroplane rather than the propeller, is to cause strong winds if not tied down well.
increased downward pressure to be applied to the
There will be no drift experienced if the wind is
left main wheel. This results in increased resistance
directly ahead of the aeroplane, and there is no
on this wheel, yawing the aeroplane to the left.
crosswind component.
There are two more effects, but these apply more
significantly to tailwheel aeroplanes.
Tailwind
A take-off with the wind would require the aeroplane
Asymmetric blade effect to be accelerated to the wind speed just to bring
Asymmetric blade effect is the result of the down- the airflow over the wing to a standstill, a further
going blade of the propeller meeting the relative ____ knots would be required to get airborne,
airflow at a higher angle of attack than the up- greatly increasing the take-off distance required.
going blade. This effect is noticeable with tailwheel For example, just 5 knots of tailwind increases
aeroplanes; it will only affect tricycle types in the take-off distance by 30 percent.
rotate or climb. It results in the thrust force being
Taking off with a tailwind results in a shallow angle
slightly offset to the right (in clockwise rotating
of climb, reducing obstacle clearance.
engines, as viewed by the pilot) and thus a tendency
to yaw to the left.
Circuit training: Circuit introduction 111

Climb angle Once again, if the headwind is 70 knots the
aeroplane would not need to move forward at all to
If the wind was blowing at 70 knots and the
descend at 70 knots. Therefore, a headwind steepens
aeroplane was in a 70-knot climb, to a ground
the approach and improves obstacle clearance.
observer the aeroplane would appear to rise like
an elevator, as the distance travelled forward over
the ground would be zero. Therefore, the angle of Flap
climb is increased (ie, is steeper) into wind, improving
obstacle clearance. Flap increases lift and drag. The increased lift lowers
the stall speed and permits a lower and safer landing
speed, which will also reduce the ground roll. The
Take-off into wind increased drag allows a lower nose attitude for the
same airspeed, and it increases the rate of descent,
For the above reasons, all take-offs are into wind,
steepening the approach which provides improved
to minimise the ground roll and take-off distance,
forward visibility and obstacle clearance.
and to improve the climb angle.
Ground roll = Power

brake release to lift off
both are Power controls the height or rate of descent. As
Take-off distance = affected discussed in the Climbing and descending lesson,
distance taken to achieve increasing or decreasing the power alters the rate
height of 50 feet
of descent.
Power The increased rate of descent as a result of using flap

is countered by the use of power to control the rate
Use full power to minimise the take-off roll and ensure
of descent. In addition, the use of power provides a
climb performance.
slipstream effect that makes the rudder and, more
significantly, the elevator more effective. Therefore,
Flap in a modern light aeroplane the normal approach
is a powered approach using full flap. The various
Flap increases lift and drag. Because of the drag reasons for limiting flap during the approach will be
increase, most light aeroplane Flight Manuals do discussed under the non-normal circuits.
not recommend the use of flap for a normal take-off,
although this will depend upon the runway surface.
Brakes
Surface and slope Brakes will need to be used to either slow the
aeroplane or bring it to a stop. If carrying out a touch
Discuss factors that are applicable to the runway and go, brakes will not be used.
being used.
It is very important that you discuss the need for the
student to keep their feet off the toe brakes to avoid
Landing
inadvertent use of the brakes during take-off or landing.
Wind
Runway length
Landing into wind reduces the groundspeed,
requiring less stopping distance and therefore The student should be left in no doubt that sufficient
a shorter landing distance and ground roll. runway length for take-off and landing must be
available before starting the take-off or approach.
Ground roll =
At this point, you can tell the student that you have
wheels-on-the-ground distance
both are carried out the necessary calculations. However,
Landing distance = affected before the third or fourth (refer CFI) revision exercise
from 50 feet above
of circuits, a formal briefing or discussion of the Group
threshold to full stop
Rating System and its application must be given.
Before the fifth or sixth (refer CFI) revision of circuits,
the calculation of take-off distance by reference to
the Flight Manual must be carried out.

The effects of density altitude, weight, surface and The suggested rules for discussion in this briefing are:
slope are discussed during circuit revision when
• aircraft taking off and landing have right of way
discussing calculation of required take-off and
over all other traffic,
landing distances. Therefore, they need not be
formally introduced in this briefing, unless any are • aircraft landing have right of way over aircraft
pertinent to your normal circuit (refer CFI). The effect taking off,
of these factors will be revised (not taught) during the • aircraft established in the circuit have right of
briefing Short field take-offs and landing. way over joining traffic,
• the good aviation practice considerations of

Windshear avoiding overtaking or cutting in, and
The effects of windshear may be discussed in this • the application of the right of way rules
briefing (refer CFI) or incorporated in the second while taxiing.
lesson on circuits.
The rules or good aviation practice considerations
most pertinent to your operation should be considered
first. For example, circuit direction and altitude.
Airmanship
Throughout circuit training, you should place more

and more emphasis on the student’s command Aeroplane management
decision making.
The importance of normal instrument readings
is revised.
Checklists
SADIE checks are introduced.
Checklists, as well as the use of a kneepad to
record ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
S Suction
information, fuel endurance, and clearances, will
assist in the retention and processing of information. Suction gauge is operating in the green range.
It is well known that humans are limited in their ability A Amps or Alternator
to recall information accurately from memory. The Ammeter or alternator is functioning correctly.
use of written checklists for normal and emergency
operations is reasonably common in general D Direction indicator (DI)
aviation. However, basic flight training still tends to
DI has been synchronised to the compass and is
use mnemonics exclusively for all operations. What
functioning correctly.
is learned first is generally accepted as being the
correct method, therefore, the use of checklists should
I Ice
be encouraged during basic training.
The existence of carburettor ice has been checked for,
There are two ways to use a checklist. It can be a list and carburettor heat applied if required.
of things to do, as used with complex aeroplanes or
systems, or a list to check off things that have been E Engine
done, as used with simple aeroplanes or systems.
Engine temperatures and pressures are in the
General aviation basic training tends to use mnemonics
green range.
to complete the checks, while confirming that checks
have been completed by using a written checklist.
Human factors
Correct use of the aeroplane radio and checklists will
influence situational awareness. Good communication (radio, ATIS), preflight/in-
flight planning and regular practise will minimise
disorientation. In addition the student should be
Right-of-way rules asked to describe the wind direction and strength
to help orientate them.
As there will be several preflight briefings during
circuit revision, the right-of-way rules can be spread
over these briefings.

Visual landing cues should be introduced in this 1 Take-off
lesson, and the various aspects of visual limitations
previously discussed should be revised. Only the main points are revised, for example,
reference points, keeping straight and rotate speed
During circuit training there is a possibility the student if applicable, as the student will probably be doing
may reach a learning plateau, where progress may the take-off by now.
appear to be minimal, discuss this with your student
if it happens to them. Two reference points should be chosen on lining up
(backed up by the DI), one at the far end of the runway
On the downwind leg, although the physical eye on which to keep straight during the take-off roll, and
height of students will vary, the effect on the one higher up to keep straight on during the climb.
judgement of spacing will be negligible. However,
your perspective from the right-hand seat may be This second reference point may need to be modified
noticeably different and must be compensated for, if a crosswind is present, to prevent drift and
as it is what the student sees that is important. provide a straight track over the ground along the
extended centreline.
On lining up, the aeroplane should be allowed to roll

forward a short distance on the centreline to ensure the
Air exercise nosewheel is straight and aligned with the centreline.
One method you may like to use, is to draw the circuit Once on the runway, the aeroplane is held on the foot
pattern (see Figure 1) and number and identify the brakes (if required), never on the park brake. When
various points around the circuit at which the listed taxiing, forgetting to release the park brake is easily
actions are carried out. and rapidly identified, however, with the application
of full power for take-off, the poor acceleration may
Since each lesson leading up to the circuit involved not be recognised early enough.
one or more legs of the circuit, this lesson is primarily
revision and application, with emphasis on the new In aeroplanes fitted with only a hand-operated brake,
material – the landing. if the brake is applied once on the runway, the hand
applying it should not be removed until the brake
Figure 1 is released.
Circuit pattern
Early in the take-off roll, with full power applied,
Wind temperatures, pressures, RPM and airspeed should
500 ft AGL
(minimum) be checked for normal readings.
3
Crosswind
During the normal take-off, the aeroplane is seldom
2
actually rotated. Common practice is to use elevator
Climb out
backpressure to take the weight off the nosewheel as

1000 ft AGL
the aeroplane accelerates. The aim is to reduce the
Downwind
loads on the nosewheel (the undercarriage weak link)
4 and reduce friction. As the aeroplane continues to
accelerate it will fly off in a slightly nose-high attitude
and rapidly accelerate to the nominated climb speed.
1 ‘Rotate’ generally refers to rotating the aeroplane

8
about its main wheel axles into a nose-high attitude
to increase the angle of attack and lift the aeroplane
off the ground. Commonly, this is done at a speed just
above the stall speed (about 5 to 10 knots above).
The aim of this procedure is to minimise the retarding
effects of the ground roll, and is often used on soft
45° surfaces or on runways of minimum length. There may,
Final however, be an appreciable delay in accelerating to
5 7 climb speed.
6
Base

Maintain the appropriate pitch attitude until reaching Lookout is again stressed, especially for aircraft
the nominated climb speed, and then hold the climb joining the circuit on the downwind leg.
attitude and trim.
The downwind radio call is given abeam the upwind
2
Climb out end of the runway to positively establish your position
in the circuit for other traffic, and Air Traffic Control
Each leg of the circuit is named and explained. The
(ATC) if applicable. If the radio call is delayed for any
first leg – climb out – is the leg on which separation
reason until abeam the threshold, or later, the call
from other aircraft in the circuit is achieved. This is
should be “late downwind”. As a common courtesy, and
because the aeroplane groundspeed is at a minimum
to promote situational awareness for all traffic in the
while climbing into wind, and therefore the circuit
circuit, the downwind call should include your intentions,
pattern is minimally distorted. The practice of trying
for example, full stop or touch and go. If your position
to provide adequate separation from aircraft ahead
in the circuit is advised by ATC, for example, “number
during the downwind leg, where the groundspeed is
three”, a visual search must be made to positively
at a maximum, should be discouraged as this tends
identify the positions of the appropriate number of
to unnecessarily stretch out a busy circuit. Therefore,
aircraft ahead. This is generally achieved by scanning
although a climbing turn onto crosswind may be
from the threshold back along the approach path and
started at 500 feet AGL, the actual height at which
base leg, counting off aircraft sighted ahead of you.
the turn is started will be dictated by traffic ahead.
Where no conflict with traffic ahead is anticipated,

Checklists
the turn should be started at 500 feet AGL – this will
assist any following aircraft. Ensure an appropriate The attempt to standardise checklists across aeroplane
lookout is conducted, and reference point identified. types may result in irrelevant checks becoming so
automatic that they are not actually carried out when
During the climb out and at a safe height, not less required. Latent errors do exist within checklists, and it is
than 300 feet AGL, the after take-off checks are recommended that the normal checklist be type specific
completed. A check is made (glance back) to confirm and backed up by a written checklist (refer CFI).
whether the chosen high reference point is maintaining
the aeroplane along the extended centreline. If not, Thus the use of BUMFH is considered irrelevant for
an adjustment to the chosen reference point is made. fixed-undercarriage types and generally wrong for
retractable types. Most aeroplanes with retractable
If flap is used, retraction heights and speeds need to gear require the undercarriage to be extended
be discussed. before the brakes can be checked for pressure. So the
mnemonic should be UBMFH when flying aeroplanes
At night, runway heading (DI) is maintained to avoid with retractable undercarriage.
spatial disorientation.
The prelanding checks are completed.
3
Crosswind
U Undercarriage
The crosswind leg is at 90 degrees to the climb out
path and in the circuit direction. Before starting the Undercarriage is down and locked (If your
turn, lookout is stressed and you chose a reference organisation includes it at this stage for consistency
point to turn onto. with later training.)
Commonly, this is a point on the horizon off the B Brakes

wingtip. However, since the aim is to track over the
Brake pressure checked, and park brake off
ground at right angles to the runway, the reference
point will need to be modified to allow for drift. M Mixture
4
Downwind Mixture set to RICH
For many situations the turn onto downwind is made F Fuel

when the aeroplane is at 45 degrees to the upwind
threshold, onto a suitable reference point so as to track Set to the fullest tank, fuel pump ON and
parallel to the runway, and the aeroplane is levelled at pressure checked
circuit altitude. This may require the aeroplane to be
H Harnesses and Hatches
levelled before, during or after the turn onto downwind.
Secure harnesses and doors or canopy closed

Spacing Avoid using ground features as turning reference
points as this may cause difficulty for the student
To judge spacing, a feature of the airframe is
at an unfamiliar aerodrome.
assessed against the runway; for example, in most
low-wing aeroplanes the correct spacing is achieved 6
Base leg
when the wingtip runs down the centreline, as
observed by the student. In the PA 38, which has very Once established on base leg, additional flap
long wings, the outboard flow strip is used, and in (type depending) can be extended, and the
high wing aeroplanes the spacing is normally one attitude adjusted to maintain the nominated
third of the way down the wing strut from the tie- approach airspeed.
down end. This can be difficult for the student to
see, and there may be some value in marking the At the base turn, the student should be encouraged
strut with tape or a felt-tip pen at the approximate to estimate what power setting they would require,
position on the strut through which the runway to take them to the threshold in a steady descent
should cut. without any changes. This does not mean that the
power setting should not be altered if required.
The spacing should be assessed and then corrected
at the base turn, allowing for any drift. Do not weave Before the descending turn onto final, emphasise
downwind in an effort to correct the spacing. The the lookout, especially along the approach path to
reference point may be altered in order to maintain ensure no other aircraft are on long final. The roll
a parallel track to the runway. In nil wind the DI out onto final, or approach leg, must be anticipated
should show the reciprocal of the runway in use. so that the wings are level at the same time as the
aeroplane is aligned with the centreline. Throughout
5
Base turn the turn the angle of bank should be adjusted to
achieve this by about 500 feet AGL. The nominated
The turn onto base starts at approximately
approach airspeed should be maintained by
45 degrees to the threshold. Emphasise the lookout
adjusting attitude.
and choose a reference point off the wingtip.
Carburettor heat is selected ON, power reduced During the approach, as with all phases of flight
and a level turn started to bring the airspeed into where the intent is to maintain a specific airspeed,
the white arc. Once in the white arc, 10–20 degrees it is important to emphasise that the correct attitude,
of flap is selected and, as the airspeed approaches for the desired airspeed, should be selected, held
the nominated descent speed, the correct descent and trimmed.
attitude is selected, held and trimmed.
Attitude controls the airspeed
The power setting chosen at the base turn depends
on the assessment of the downwind spacing (close, 7
Final
correct or wide) and the proximity to 45 degrees from
the threshold when starting the turn (early, correct, When established on final, full flap is selected at the
late). Commonly, 1500 RPM is used as a guide, and appropriate time and the airspeed maintained, or
this is based on the correct spacing downwind and allowed to decrease to threshold crossing airspeed
45 degrees to the threshold. Any other condition will through attitude adjustment (refer Flight Manual
require a higher or lower power setting. For example, and CFI).
close downwind but correct at 45 degrees, try a lower
power setting, say 1300 RPM. Because of the possibility of large flap deflections
and the aeroplane’s low altitude, extending flap
The turn is continued onto the reference point with during the turn onto final is avoided.
an allowance for drift or until the leading edge of
the wing or wing strut is parallel with the runway The approach path is monitored by reference to the
(allowing for drift). correct runway perspective (see Figure 2). Throughout
the descent the aiming point, commonly the runway
numbers or threshold, is monitored and the power
adjusted as required to maintain a steady rate of
descent to touchdown.

Power controls the rate of descent errors made by students during the round-out is not
looking far enough ahead and lowering the nose in
With the aeroplane trimmed to maintain the required an attempt to fly down to the ground.
attitude (airspeed), if the aiming point moves up
the windscreen, the aeroplane is undershooting – The hold-off involves a gradual increase in
increase power. If the aim point moves down the backpressure to control the rate of sink and to
windscreen, the aeroplane is overshooting – decrease achieve the correct attitude so that the touchdown is
power. If the aeroplane is correctly trimmed the power light and on the main wheels only. During this phase,
adjustments will be quite small; these are often the student’s focus is gradually shortened to facilitate
described by the term “a trickle of power”. depth perception and provide cues about the sink
rate until, at touchdown, the point of focus is just
On short final in anticipation of any requirement for ahead and slightly left of the aeroplane’s nose.
full power, carburettor heat is selected COLD when a
landing is assured. Following touchdown on the main wheels, the
nosewheel should be gently lowered with elevator by
relaxing the backpressure and lowering the nose onto
Figure 2
the runway.
Runway perspective on approach
Keep straight on the runway centreline with rudder by
reference to a point at the far end of the runway, and
apply brakes as required.
Under ideal conditions, during the student’s

introduction to the circuit, each circuit is flown to a full
stop and the aeroplane taxied to the holding point
for another take-off. Therefore, the considerations of
a touch and go and the go-around are deferred to
the next circuit lesson, Circuit considerations.
Although including the go-around in this briefing can

generally be deferred, it is not always convenient in a
Too low Correct approach Too high
busy circuit to carry out full stop landings. Therefore,
a brief discussion on the touch and go procedure may
8
Landing need to be included in this briefing (refer CFI).
The landing is one smooth manoeuvre designed to Should a go-around be required during this
slow the rate of descent to zero and the speed to introductory exercise, it is recommended that you take
just above the stall speed, as the wheels touch the control and patter the procedure.
ground. This manoeuvre consists of two phases,
the round-out and the hold-off, also known as the The after-landing checks are normally completed
flare. This is essentially a progressive transition from clear of the runway.
a descent into a flared landing attitude, similar to
a power-off stall, with touchdown just before the
moment of stall.
Air exercise
The round-out begins at a suitable altitude for the
aeroplane’s speed. For a normal approach, this is
described as about 50 feet. On the ground
The student should be capable of taxiing to the
When the landing is assured, often pattered as
appropriate holding point and carrying out at
“crossing the fence”, the throttle is closed, and
least some of the checks and using the checklist.
at about 50 feet the nose attitude progressively
Complete the take-off safety (or emergency) brief for
raised – the round-out. As the airspeed decreases
the student, inform them that you will cover this in a
the aeroplane will start to sink. The sink is observed
future lesson, and then you will be asking them to do
by looking outside at the far end of the runway (or
their own.
horizon) and this is the point where the second phase
of the landing process begins. The most common

The exercise
Start by giving a demonstration of an ideal circuit,
followed by pattering the student through a circuit.
The student should be able to fly almost all of this

exercise, but will probably still need help with the
landing. Let them fly as much as possible – they will
only learn by doing, and they need to be doing it
consistently for themselves before they can go solo.
You will need to talk them through most of this

exercise, but as the circuit lessons progress, you will
find yourself saying less and less.
After flight
Reassure the student that even though there seems
to be a lot to fit into the circuit there will be plenty
of opportunities to get it right, as all of the following
lessons to first solo will be in the circuit.
Encourage them to continue learning the ground

checks, and to start learning the prelanding checks.
During circuit revision, your supervisor will regularly fly

with your student to monitor the student’s progress
and provide feedback on your instruction. This
does not prevent you from carrying out a briefing
or discussion before the revision flight on any of the
subjects to be covered before first solo.
Throughout circuit revision, formal briefings or

guided discussions will be required to ensure that
all environmental factors affecting taxiing and the
circuit have been learned by the student before
presenting the student to your supervisor for a
pre-solo check flight.
Remember to check English language requirements

are met well before first solo is considered.

Circuit introduction CIRCUIT TRAINING
Objectives Air exercise Wind

• To take-off and follow published procedures that conform to the aerodrome traffic circuit,
500 ft AGL
1 Take-off 2 Climb out 3 Crosswind
avoiding conflict with other aircraft. (minimum)
• Reference • Separation • Tracking and 3
• To carry out an approach and landing using the most suitable runway.
point and line • After take-off lookout Crosswind
up checks checks 2
• Hold on brakes • Turn at 500
Considerations • Keep straight feet AGL
1000 ft AGL
Climb out
Take-off
Slipstream Strikes tail and yaws aeroplane Downwind
4 Downwind 5 Base turn
Torque Tries to rotate aeroplane and yaws aeroplane • Downwind • Lookout • Turn
Keeping straight With rudder as required – look ahead radio call • Reference point • Airspeed 4
Crosswind Tries to weathercock aeroplane, keep straight • Checks • Carb heat HOT • Flap – first stage
Headwind Reduces take-off roll – always take-off into wind • Spacing • Power reduced to
Tailwind Increases take-off roll
Climb angle Headwind increases climb angle
1
Take-off into wind To minimise ground roll and distance to 50 feet 6 Base leg 7 Final
• Track • Anticipate turn – • Power controls 8
Power Full power for maximum performance
• Flap – further 500 feet RoD
Flap Usually not used
stage(s) • Aim point • Short final carb
Runway length Calculated length required for take-off • Attitude controls heat COLD
• Attitude controls
airspeed airspeed
Landing
Wind Into wind to reduce ground roll and distance from 50 8 Landing
feet • Landing assured, close throttle • Touch down on main wheels 45°
Flap  L and D, lower stall speed and lower nose attitude • At 50 feet nose progressively • Let nosewheel settle Final
raised for roundout/flare • Keep straight
Power Controls RoD, more airflow over elevator and rudder 7
• Look down end of runway 5 6
• After-landing checks – clear of
Brakes On ground only
• Progressively increase back runway Base
Runway length Calculated length required for landing
pressure to control sink

• ATC/Traffic • Checklists • Right of Way rules • Landing cues
S Suction Suction gauge operating in the green range • Workload/priorities
U Undercarriage Down and locked A Amps/Alternator Alternator functioning correctly
B Brakes Brake pressure checked, park brake off D DI DI synchronised to compass and functioning correctly
M Mixture Mixture rich I Ice Carb ice checked for and carb heat applied if required
F Fuel Fuel on fullest tank, fuel pump on, pressure checked E Engine Temperatures and pressures are in green range
H Harnesses and hatches Seatbelt secure and doors\canopy closed

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Circuit
considerations
This briefing deals with

those aspects of a normal
circuit that were deferred
during Circuit introduction
to avoid student overload.

The instruction to go around means to discontinue
Objectives the approach by applying full power (including
carburettor heat OFF), climb straight ahead, retract
any flap in stages, and follow the circuit pattern to
To continue circuit training.
position for another approach and landing.
To use the touch-and-go and go-around procedures.
Orbit
To use the terms and procedures employed when a
deviation from the normal circuit is required. The orbit is a procedure used by ATC to improve
separation from aircraft ahead. The use of
an orbit in an unattended aerodrome circuit
is not recommended. Extending downwind or
Considerations a go-around is preferred for separation.
An orbit is most commonly carried out on the

Touch and go downwind leg and consists of a 360-degree medium
level turn, outside the circuit pattern, which positions
The touch and go refers to a normal landing followed the aeroplane back into the downwind leg, at about
by a normal take-off without stopping or braking. This the same place, approximately one minute later.
procedure allows more circuits and landings to be
practised, rather than stopping and taxiing back to As the first half of the turn is completed, a conflict
the holding point – it’s most common in a busy circuit. with traffic approaching head-on is a real possibility,
and therefore a good lookout is essential.
This procedure is carried out only on runways of more
than adequate length, assuming the aeroplane has An orbit on final or base (with flap extended) should
touched down in approximately the correct place, ie, be avoided. The go-around procedure is preferred
the threshold or numbers area. because it is specifically taught before first solo,
whereas low-level turns with flap extended are not.
Unless in an emergency, when power must be applied
first, a standard touch and go should ensure the
landing phase is complete before power is increased Extend downwind
for the ‘go’ phase of the exercise.
Extending downwind is another procedure used
by ATC and pilots to improve separation from
Go-around or overshoot aircraft in the circuit ahead or joining long final. The
aeroplane is flown on the reference point, parallel
At any time after the approach starts the pilot may to the runway, for a suitable distance past the
elect, or be instructed by ATC, to “go around” (see 45-degree base turn point, to achieve separation.
Figure 1). The power setting selected at the extended base turn
point will need to be higher, and a delay to both flap
Figure 1 extension and descent may be required to regain the
normal approach profile.
The go-around
Repositioning
Repositioning may occur on any leg of the circuit,
but it is more commonly at ATC request. This is the
preferred method of repositioning where a change
in wind direction makes a runway change advisable.
Commonly, the aeroplane is flown to the middle of the
old downwind leg and then a 180-degree turn made
to position the aeroplane on the new downwind
Go-around path leg and the approach begun as normal. For runway
direction changes that are not 180 degrees, the
heading need only be adjusted to achieve a parallel
track to the new runway in use.
Circuit training: Circuit considerations 121

Where cross, or multiple, runways exist follow the
existing pattern to intercept the new pattern, and if Windshear
that is not practical pass overhead the aerodrome to Windshear is a sudden change in wind speed or
join the pattern at the beginning of the downwind leg. direction, most common in winds above 10 knots, and
it is a hazard at low altitude. Discuss the Terminal
Where this occurs on final, when parallel runways
Area Forecast (TAF) and ATIS contents, especially the
are in use, simply move over to intercept the final
relationship between the 2000 foot wind and the
approach for the other runway.
surface wind.
A sudden change in wind speed or direction can

Low-level circuit
result in a sudden loss of airspeed and, due to
The low-level circuit is carried out at less than 1000 aeroplane inertia, rapid loss of altitude (see Figure 3).
feet AGL (or the promulgated circuit height), normally
at 500 feet AGL, particularly in conditions of reduced
Figure 3
cloud base. It is most commonly used by instructors,
but it may be requested by the pilot or ATC. Only the Windshear
briefest explanation of this term is included in this
briefing for the reasons given in the notes below.
How much to include should be referred to the CFI. Wind
20 kt
Shear level
The low-level circuit is generally used by instructors
to quickly position the aeroplane for the last part 5 kt
of the approach and landing so that the student
1/3
can practise more landings. However, its general
use is not recommended as all other legs of the
circuit are either so rushed that the student has little The correct response is to apply power to arrest the
opportunity to prepare for the landing, or are flown sink and adjust the attitude to maintain the airspeed.
by you, providing the student with little opportunity
Where windshear is encountered unexpectedly
to practise the other flight phases.
a go-around will probably be appropriate.
The low-level circuit does not provide an automatic
Where conditions of possible windshear (or gusts)
right of way.
are reported or suspected, it is recommended that
The practical application of the low-level circuit the approach and threshold speeds are increased.
will be discussed and practised in precautionary For example, if the approach speed is increased by
landings. The need to teach low-level circuits before 5 knots and a sudden change of wind strength results
first solo should not arise (refer CFI). in a decrease of 5 knots in indicated airspeed, the
actual approach speed would still be correct.
Wind gradient The decision to continue the approach at an

increased approach and threshold speed must take
Wind gradient is the gradual decrease of the wind
into account available runway length.
speed near the ground, due to surface friction and
the air’s viscosity. Discuss the affect it can have on
the flare, in particular the inability to touch down Wake turbulence
at the planned point (see Figure 2).
Wake turbulence is a reasonably complex subject and
can be dealt with only superficially in this briefing.
Figure 2 You may prefer to make this the subject of a separate
Wind gradient preflight briefing before the next circuit revision
(refer CFI and the Wake turbulence GAP booklet).
25
17
10

Figure 4 Land past the point of touchdown of the preceding
heavier aeroplane – as its nosewheel touches down
Wake turbulence
there is no more lift being produced.
Consider runway length available – an early go-

around may be more appropriate.
Vortices spread Dumb-bell turn

laterally away
from the rear
Fortunately, the dumb-bell turn is a fairly rare
of the aircraft occurrence. It is used when a change in wind
direction makes it advisable to change the landing
direction by 180 degrees. On completion of the
turn, the aeroplane is repositioned onto final for
landing. If a dumb-bell turn is required, the take-off
is continued to a safe height (500 feet AGL minimum)
and a level turn is started in the opposite direction to
the original circuit direction. Then the turn is reversed
Up to 5 miles
until an intercept on the final approach path can
be made. Clearly, the amount of time available to
500–900ft prepare for the landing will depend on what height
and how far out the initial climb is continued to.
No professional instructor would authorise early solo

circuit practise when there is any likelihood of these
Wake turbulence is the disturbed air left behind conditions occurring. Likewise, no professional air
an aeroplane when its wing is producing lift, and traffic controller would request a student on first solo
includes propeller slipstream and jet blast (see Figure to carry out this procedure.
4). It’s encountered when following too closely behind
another aircraft, especially a heavier one, and is
worst when that aircraft is at high angles of attack Glide approach
and flying slowly – during take-off or landing. Refer to the separate Glide approach lesson.
During the production of lift, air spirals off the

wingtips (or blade tips of helicopters) in vortices that
increase in size behind the wing, sink, drift downwind,
and gradually dissipate. Note that helicopter wake
Airmanship
can extend above the approach path.
Throughout circuit training you should continue to
This turbulence can induce a roll in the following place more and more emphasis on the student’s
aircraft that control forces cannot counter, and command decision making. The pilot’s priority
therefore it is extremely dangerous. sequence for enhancing decision making whenever
a deviation from the expected occurs should be
Wake turbulence is avoided while taxiing by allowing assertively stated.
adequate separation for propeller or jet blast – jet
aircraft always have their rotating beacon on when Aviate — Navigate — Communicate
an engine is running.
The responsibilities of the pilot-in-command should
Before take-off, allow adequate separation between be discussed with reference to ATC clearances
yourself and heavier aeroplanes ahead (up to 3 or requests. Every clearance or instruction issued
minutes in nil wind). by ATC must be accepted by the pilot-in-command
before it is acted on. The student should be
During the approach, avoid getting close behind, encouraged to consider the probable outcome
downwind or below heavier aeroplanes. For example, of complying with each clearance or instruction,
if there is a crosswind, fly the final approach slightly giving due regard to their own capabilities and that
upwind of the previous aeroplane or preferably fly of the aeroplane, before accepting the clearance
above its approach path and descend more steeply. or instruction.

Where the student considers the clearance Aeroplane management
or instruction to be unacceptable, the
student must be encouraged to assert their There are no new aeroplane management
pilot-in-command responsibility. considerations for this briefing so revise the
SADIE checks.
As in all other aspects of aviation, good aviation
practice or common sense is a major factor in
the acceptance or rejection of ATC clearances or
requests. The pilot-in-command has responsibility for
Human factors
the safety of the aeroplane, passengers and crew
– but not a right to be obstructive. The clearance,
Improve the student’s situational awareness by
instruction or request should be complied with if,
encouraging them to orient themselves well, telling
after due consideration, no adverse outcome as a
you which cues they are using for this will help you
result of complying with the clearance, instruction
check that they are using as many as possible.
or request can be foreseen. If the pilot-in-command
believes that the safety of the aeroplane may be
compromised, then clarification of the clearance,
instruction or request should be sought from ATC,
an alternative suggested by the pilot-in-command, Air exercise
or the clearance, instruction or request refused.
The air exercise discusses the procedures to be used
The student should be fully aware that once a for a touch and go (if applicable) and a go-around.
clearance has been accepted, it must be complied
with (unless a change to the clearance is negotiated,
or the pilot-in-command is reacting to an emergency)
Touch and go
and that no matter what the clearance, instruction The touch and go should be a simple and logical
or request and who issued it, the pilot-in-command extension of the landing roll.
is solely responsible for the safety of the aeroplane,
passengers and crew. Once the nosewheel has been lowered to the runway
and the aeroplane remains under control, flap is
This may be a good time to remind the student raised to the normal take-off position and full power
that although you encourage them to make as applied for another take-off. The weight is taken
many command decisions as possible, you are the off the nosewheel with elevator, and the aeroplane
pilot-in-command. One of the measurements of is allowed to fly off. Keep the aeroplane straight
readiness for solo flight is the student demonstrating on the centreline at all times. Don’t look down into
pilot-in-command actions. the cockpit.
The requirements for VFR inside a control zone Reassure the student that you will raise the flap for
should be revised, and the conditions that require the student while on the runway – all they need to
a Special VFR (SVFR) clearance introduced. do is keep straight – and that once the flap is set for
take-off you will say “flap up” and they are then free
It is the responsibility of the pilot-in-command to apply full power and take-off. They must not apply
to request a SVFR clearance before any of the power until you have advised them the flap is up.
parameters for maintaining VFR in controlled
airspace cannot be complied with. Although it is
not anticipated the student would operate in SVFR Go-around
conditions, some exposure during dual training may
The go-around is initially started at a safe height
provide a controlled experience.
once established on final. Ideally, subsequent
practice reduces the height at which the go-around
starts. Circumstances may not permit this gradual
introduction to the go-around.
Throughout the procedure you should emphasise the

correct priority for dealing with the unexpected.

Aviate — Navigate — Communicate taking off on the runway ahead, to maintain runway
heading. If the go-around is begun on short final or
The student should be made aware that this is a later, the aeroplane is not flown to one side of the
normal procedure, not an emergency. The student runway during the climb out because it is known there
should be encouraged to carry out a go-around (and is no traffic ahead or below that might conflict.
be praised for doing so) at any time throughout the
approach to touchdown, if they are not confident With the aeroplane established in the normal climb
about any aspect or parameter of the approach and trimmed, it may be necessary to advise ATC that
or landing. you are “going around.”
Carburettor heat is selected COLD and full power The other procedures described under considerations
applied. Raise the nose to the level attitude, or (other than low level, which is discussed in the
slightly above, and reduce the flap setting in stages Precautionary landing lesson) are demonstrated
(as appropriate to the aeroplane type) immediately. and pattered when they occur.
If flap has been extended and the aeroplane trimmed

for the descent attitude, there may be a very strong
pitch up when power is applied. The student must be Airborne sequence
made aware of this and be prepared to prevent the
nose pitching above the level attitude.
On the ground
Don’t hesitate to raise flap as soon as full power
has been applied, control is assured, and the The student should be familiar with the checks. They
attitude adjusted. It’s much better to accelerate should also be doing most of the radio work on the
over the runway rather than among obstacles in the ground by now.
climb-out area.
As the aeroplane accelerates, the attitude is The exercise

adjusted so that the nose is on the horizon. At a Provided the student is fully competent in normal
safe height (refer CFI), and safe airspeed (through take-offs, this exercise is a repeat of the circuit
____ knots), with a positive rate of climb, the introduction, except that you will be carrying out
remaining flap is raised gradually and the aeroplane touch-and-go landings. You will need to raise the flap
allowed to accelerate to the climb speed. Climb to on the runway for the student, until they can manage
circuit altitude. to coordinate everything themselves.
Regardless of when circuit altitude is reached, the At an appropriate time, and probably not the first
aeroplane should be flown upwind along the climb- approach and landing, you will introduce the
out path to the normal crosswind turn point. Turning go-around, from a sensible height. As the student
crosswind early will shorten the downwind leg and becomes more practised at the go-around, you
may rush the student’s preparation for the approach. can gradually lower the altitude at which you give
Any decision to turn early must consider other traffic the command.
in the circuit and must have ATC approval (if in
controlled airspace).
After flight
During the go-around, flying over the runway would
Keep the student working on their checks. Inform
mean flying over any aircraft taking off. The normal
them that you will be expecting them to be doing
procedure, therefore, is to fly just to the right of the
most of the radio work in the next lesson.
runway, so that the pilot has the runway on the left
and can observe traffic on the runway or climbing
out. This procedure, as with many other general
rules in aviation, needs to be tempered with good
aviation practice. Where parallel runways are in use,
flying to the side of the runway may conflict with
traffic landing or taking off on the parallel runway
(refer CFI). In this case, it may be better to fly along
the opposite side, or if it is known that no aircraft are

Circuit considerations CIRCUIT TRAINING

• To continue circuit training. Touch and go
• To use the touch and go, and go around procedures. • Once nosewheel on runway, raise flap and apply full power
• To use the terms and procedures employed when a deviation from the normal circuit is required. • Keep straight
• Take-off
Considerations Go around
• Carry out any time a safe landing cannot be made • Reduce from full flap
Touch and go Wind gradient • Aviate – Navigate – Communicate • As speed increases nose on the horizon
• On runways with enough length can land, • Wind strength decreases closer to the
• Normal procedure, not emergency • Safe height, safe airspeed, +ve RoC – raise flap
retract flap and take-off without stopping ground because of friction
• Carb heat COLD • Track to the right of the runway
• Saves time, can do more circuits • Affects flare – possible floating
• Full power – beware of pitch change • Continue climb out to normal crosswind turning point
• Nose to level attitude • Advise ATC “going around”
Go around / overshoot Windshear
• If for any reason the landing needs to • Sudden change in wind speed and/or
be abandoned direction
• Full power, raise flap, climb ahead • Wind needs to be 10 kts or more
• If encounter sudden drop in airspeed and/or
Orbit altitude – go around
• 360° medium level turn
• Used to adjust spacing or to hold Wake turbulence
• Commonly done downwind • Disturbed air caused by wing producing lift
• Not recommended at uncontrolled • Aircraft produces spirals from wingtips
aerodromes • Avoid by keeping safe distance from aircraft
ahead, especially those bigger
Extend downwind • If encounter – go around
• For separation
• Extend the downwind leg, and turn base Dumb-bell turn
when instructed (ATC) • Change circuit direction change by 180° turn Go-around path
on climb out
Repositioning
• Usually done downwind, but can be done Glide approach
on any leg • See separate briefing
• Change of direction used when there is a • Aviate – Navigate – Communicate • SADIE checks • Orientation cues
change of runway • ATC clearances

• VFR minima in CTR S Suction
Low level circuit A Amps/Alternator
• Should only be done with instructor
D DI
on board
I Ice
• Does not give you automatic right-of-way
E Engine

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Engine failure
after take-off
Although engine failure in As with all emergency procedure training,

the emergency is simulated in such a way as
modern aeroplanes is quite to ensure there is no danger to the aeroplane
rare, the take-off phase or crew.
incorporates all the worst
Considerable time is spent on overlearning
aspects of this type of a procedure to adopt in case it does happen.
emergency. The purpose of overlearning is to produce an
automatic response that best uses the time
The aeroplane is usually heavy, slow, low and available by overcoming the initial surprise
in a nose-high attitude. These factors combine or shock (startle effect) and enhancing the
to provide the least amount of height – and decision-making process.
therefore time – available to respond to the
emergency. Successfully managing an engine This briefing discusses engine failure both
failure after take-off (EFATO) is dependent during and after take-off.
entirely on efficient use of the time available.
The procedure taught in this lesson has been

shown to give the best chance of survival in
the case of an engine failure after take-off.
Where possible and appropriate during
later lessons, the student should complete
the manoeuvre to the ground, for example,
where there is enough runway ahead to land
on. Before doing this, however, consideration
must be given to the human factors discussed
in this briefing and the limited time available
for appropriate actions, while all the time
remaining in control of the aeroplane.
Circuit training: Engine failure after take-off 127

Air blockage
Objective Another possible cause of the air supply being
obstructed is a blockage in the carburettor air filter.
To adopt the recommended procedure in the event of In this situation, the carburettor heat, which bypasses
an engine failure at low level (below 1000 feet AGL). the air filter, will provide an alternate source of air to
the carburettor. The risk of filter blockage is minimised
by carefully examining the air intake during the
preflight inspection.
Considerations
Fuel contamination
Common causes and their prevention The most probable cause of engine failure is fuel
contamination, ie, something in the fuel – most
The modern aeroplane engine is a fairly simple, slow
commonly water.
revving (2500 RPM versus the average car at 4500
RPM) four-stroke engine, and therefore it is very
Most students are surprised to learn that mechanical
reliable. Its operation requires the mixing of air and
failure is not the most common cause.
fuel and the introduction of a spark. The result is
quite predictable. Generally, the reasons aeroplane
The risk of fuel contamination is minimised by
engines stop can be traced to the lack of one of the
inspecting a fuel sample during the preflight and
following components.
after-refuelling checks – looking for foreign objects,
colour and smell, as well as carrying out the pre-
take-off engine run-up. Be aware that immediately
Carburettor ice
after refuelling some water, if present, will still be in
In conditions of high humidity, carburettor ice can suspension, and a fuel check done too soon after
form during taxiing and may be hard to detect at refuelling may not discover this.
low power settings. Being aware of the temperature
and moisture content of the air will alert you to the Be aware that if the aeroplane is not on level ground,
possibility of ice forming. There may be clues in the a fuel sample check may not be capturing any water
way the engine is running on the ground. or contamination present.
Selecting carburettor heat HOT is the first action,

other than flying the aeroplane, to be taken in the Fuel starvation
event of any engine failure, and if carburettor icing is
Fuel starvation occurs when there is fuel on board but
the cause of an engine failure it should re-establish
it’s not getting to the engine.
smooth engine running. Selecting carburettor heat
to HOT also provides an immediate alternate source The most common cause of fuel starvation is the
of air to the carburettor, should the air filter have pilot selecting the wrong fuel tank or placing the fuel
become blocked during take-off. selector in the OFF position by mistake. Other less
common but possible causes are either engine-driven
The risk of carburettor ice causing an engine failure is
fuel pump failure or blocked fuel lines, injectors or
minimised by carrying out the preflight engine run-up.
fuel vents.
In conditions of suspected carburettor icing, after
prolonged idling, it is advisable to cycle the carburettor To help avoid fuel starvation, the student must be
heat just before take-off. Be aware of the ground familiar with the aeroplane’s systems, carry out the
surface when applying carburettor heat. Bypassing engine run-up before take-off, and apply sound fuel
the filter can introduce dust and grass seeds into the planning and management procedures.
carburettor, another possible cause of engine failure.
Always ensure that carburettor heat is selected to Fuel exhaustion

COLD before opening the throttle for take-off.
Fuel exhaustion occurs when there is no useable fuel
on board, and is less likely to be a factor of EFATO
than fuel starvation.

The most common cause of fuel exhaustion is poor Aviate
in-flight decision making – simply running out of fuel.
Because the aeroplane is slow, low and in a nose-
Another cause is leaving the fuel caps off, this allows
high attitude, an engine failure at low altitude
fuel to be sucked out by the low-pressure area over
provides little time for decision making. Therefore,
the wing surface.
the first response must be a positive and automatic
movement to lower the nose to maintain best
Fuel exhaustion is avoided by careful preflight
available flying speed and to close the throttle to
planning, a thorough preflight inspection and being
stop any engine surges affecting the glide. The
aware of how much fuel there is on board at all times.
student must accept that if the engine fails at low
Use a fuel management procedure as outlined in
level they are committed to a landing.
the Fuel management GAP booklet.
A pre-take-off safety brief will help avoid any

Spark mindset and improve decision making in the event of
an emergency.
During take-off the engine is working at its hardest
and, although mechanical failure is still the least likely
cause, the risk of mechanical failure is increased. Navigate
The second response turning into wind (if applicable
Statistically, the first reduction in power after take-off
or necessary) and choosing a suitable landing site
is the most common time for a mechanical failure to
within gliding distance. Without compromising the
occur. Therefore, if a reduced power setting is to be
safe outcome of a simulation, demonstrate good
used for the climb, full power should be maintained
decision-making by talking the student through
to a safe height, and the aeroplane cleaned up and
your decision-making process. This is particularly
established in the climb before power is reduced.
important when deciding to select flap.
A thorough preflight inspection and engine run-
up should be completed to check for any signs of
Landing site considerations
impending mechanical failure.
For a familiar runway, anticipated options should
already be available, subject to wind, airspeed, load,
The aborted take-off and height considerations. The choice of landing
Early in the take-off roll, temperatures, pressures, sites will be limited by the height and therefore time
RPM and airspeed are quickly scanned for normal available, but there is one sure way to improve your
readings. If anything about the take-off roll appears options – always use full runway length. Runway
abnormal – including the sound – something blocks behind you is useless. From full length an engine
the runway, or at ATC request, the take-off should failure at low altitude may present you with the
be abandoned, also called ‘aborted’, by closing perfect forced landing area – the runway ahead.
the throttle, braking as required, and keeping the
The most important consideration when selecting
aeroplane straight.
a suitable landing site is to avoid major obstacles –
to keep the cabin intact.
Engine failure after take-off
Common practice is to limit the choice of landing site
Remind the student of the concept of Aviate – to no more than 45 degrees either side of the nose;
Navigate – Communicate. a simpler and more realistic choice may be to choose
anything in the windscreen.
In any emergency situation the first and overriding
priority of the pilot is to fly the aeroplane. Then if Do not turn back to the runway. A successful turn back
time permits the next two priorities can be attended to the runway is beyond the capabilities of most pilots.
to, navigate and communicate – in that order. Do not
allow your students to feel that the first priority is to
communicate, especially if they are trying to respond Communicate
to requests from air traffic control.
This is always last on your list. If time, make a
MAYDAY call to alert others of your situation.

The go-around or overshoot
Airmanship
Once the student has completed the EFATO procedure,
you’ll be asking them to carry out a go-around. So that there is no confusion between the simulated
engine failure and an actual occurrence, advise the
In this instance, the instruction to go-around means student that you will close the throttle and use the
to discontinue the glide by applying full power while word “simulating”. Any partial power reduction by you
keeping straight with rudder, raising the nose attitude during the take-off is to be considered by the student
to the horizon, climbing straight ahead, retracting any as a total failure. You could use the following phrases.
flap, and continuing the climb out.
“I will simulate the engine failure after take-off by
The early go-arounds should be initiated as soon as closing the throttle. You are to assume that any power
the student has carried out the immediate actions of reduction (partial or otherwise) by me during the
lowering the nose and deciding where they will land. climb out is a total power failure simulation. During
Once the student’s experience increases they can the simulations power will always be available should
be initiated at lower levels when flap decisions are we need it.”
committed to.
Any checks that would be carried out in the event
of an actual engine failure, which are not actually
Take-off safety brief
carried out during the simulated exercise, are known
Because the time available for decision making is as ‘touch checks’. These will be clearly identified in the
short, the anticipated response to an engine failure is briefing, and a chance available for the student to
briefed before line up. familiarise themselves before the flight. A touch check
requires the student to state the check verbally and
This type of pre-take-off preparation is common in touch the appropriate control, preferably with only
multi-engine aeroplanes and, although the choices one finger, but not perform the required action.
in a single-engine aeroplane are limited, it is highly
recommended. Verbally or mentally preparing a At controlled aerodromes, ATC must be advised of
response, through visualisation before an unexpected the intention to carry out a simulated engine failure
emergency, has been shown to greatly increase the after take-off, and advised when the simulation is
chances of success. complete. Advise the student that you will make
these calls.
The take-off safety brief should include the intentions
of the pilot-in-command in the event of an engine At uncontrolled aerodromes, a traffic call is made
failure during the take-off roll and after take-off. to keep other traffic informed of your movements.
The briefing needs to consider the conditions on the By varying the height at which the simulated engine
day, particularly the direction of the wind in relation failure occurs, you are increasing and decreasing the
to the runway in use. If the wind is not directly down available options for the landing site and the amount
the runway but slightly across, then if an engine failure of checklist items the student can complete. The
occurs after take-off, a gentle turn into wind would student will be making decisions based on the time
result in increased headwind and a shorter landing roll. they have available, developing their aeronautical
decision making skills (ADM).
The type of terrain off the end of the runway should
be visualised and suitable landing areas recalled The student should be advised that this exercise is
from memory of earlier flights off this runway. never to be practised solo.
An example: EFATO simulations are not to be carried out with

passengers on board, nor when following traffic
“Engine failure or aborted take-off before one third
may conflict.
of the way along the runway – I will lower the nose,
close the throttle and land on the remaining runway.
Engine failure after one third of the way along the Trouble checks
runway – I will lower the nose, close the throttle,
select the best option and execute trouble checks Trouble checks are a way to diagnose (or
and MAYDAY call if time permits.” troubleshoot) the causes of an engine failure and
hopefully reinstate engine operation. They cover the

most common causes, and give you an increased M Mixture
chance of getting the engine running again.
Mixture IDLE CUT-OFF
Critically though, trouble checks are only completed

To stop all fuel from flowing to the engine.
when there is enough time. If there is not enough
time – concentrate on flying the aeroplane, ie, I Ignition
first lower the nose. It’s vital that the aeroplane is
consciously flown at all times, and that the pilot is Ignition OFF
not distracted by carrying out the checks, failing to
To ensure there is no spark available to ignite
fly the aeroplane.
any fuel.
Whenever power is reduced, the immediate action
M Master switch
is to aviate as above, then if time permits select
carburettor heat HOT, close the throttle, and carry Master switch OFF
out the trouble checks. Make sure the student gets
into this habit quickly, and it becomes automatic. After you have made the MAYDAY call and the final
flap selection is made, the master switch is turned off
F Fuel to remove power from the aeroplane.
Fuel selector ON, fuel pump ON (if applicable),
This sequence may be presented in the form of a flow
change tanks (touch).
chart (see Figure 1).
Fuel pressure and the contents gauges are checked
Figure 1
and compared with the fuel tank selected.
Shutdown checks
M Mixture
Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED. Aviate
These are rechecked and the mixture, in the case Navigate

of partial power, altered (touch) to see if there is
any improvement in power or smoothness.
Communicate
I Ignition
Ignition LEFT, RIGHT or BOTH (touch), check

temperatures and pressures. Enough time no
to complete the
Trouble Checks?
Trying LEFT (touch) and RIGHT (touch) magneto
positions for smoother running may keep the engine
running. Try to restart the engine with the ignition key yes
(touch) if the propeller is not windmilling. Trouble Checks
Fuel, Mixture,
Check the temperatures and pressures for any Ignition
reading outside the green range.
Further elements of the trouble checks will be Enough time no

introduced in following lessons. to complete the
Shutdown Checks?
Shutdown checks
yes
These are completed if the aeroplane will be landing
Shutdown Checks
in order to minimise the risk of fire, but only if there is Fuel, Mixture,
time available to do them. Ignition, Master
F Fuel
Fuel OFF
Pump OFF and tank selector to OFF.

Aborted take-off
Since aeroplane systems management errors are

Aviate Close the throttle
often the root cause of in-flight emergencies,
consideration must be given to systems management, Navigate Keep straight and use brakes as
required – backpressure is used as
regardless of how simple those systems appear.
required to keep the aeroplane weight
You may like to use a schematic or model to off the nosewheel
describe the fuel system, as well as providing a
Communicate Advise ATC (if applicable)
handout. The student should operate the fuel cocks,
actually turning the fuel off and on, during the
Keep the cabin intact. Don’t run the aeroplane nose
During the preflight inspection make sure loose into fence posts, steer between them.
articles are secured or removed, there is little point in
making the perfect forced landing only to be hit in the The reason for abandoning the take-off is simulated
head by a heavy article. by you and the student is talked through the actions.
This may be simulated soon after full power is
As large throttle movements will be made while achieved, by advising the student, for example, that
operating close to the ground, those movements oil pressure is (simulated) zero.
need to be smooth.
Engine failure during take-off (early in the take-off
Encourage the student to listen to the normal sounds roll) is simulated by partially closing the throttle.
of the aeroplane so that they can be aware of
abnormal sounds.
Avoid ‘ramming’ the throttle to the maximum stops Engine failure after take-off is simulated by closing
when carrying out a go-around. the throttle.
Aviate Fly the aeroplane. Lower the nose –

close the throttle and achieve best
Human factors available glide speed.
Any nose-low attitude will avoid the
Checklists, mnemonics and careful preflight planning stall. Select carburettor heat HOT (as
allow the student to improve their information this is a likely cause of rough running)
processing capabilities. and close the throttle, because a
temporary surge in power may divert
An engine failure close to the ground can be a stressful the student and cause indecision.
experience for the student – even if it is simulated. For Navigate Follow the take-off safety brief and
the first few engine failures give the student plenty choose a landing site from anything in
of notice, and as their experience and competence the windscreen, within easy reach and
clear of major obstacles to keep the
increases, slowly remove the advanced notice.
cabin intact. Use flap as required to
reach the landing site.
Continued practice and overlearning the procedure
will reduce their stress levels, and their responses will Communicate Transmit MAYDAY (touch) if time permits
and when full flap has been selected,
become automatic.
master OFF (touch).
The MAYDAY transmission from low
level may have limited value at an
uncontrolled aerodrome, as would the
Air exercise selection of 7700 on the transponder.
At a controlled aerodrome, the take-off
is usually monitored by ATC and only
Talk through the elements of an appropriate an abbreviated call should be required,
take-off safety brief. Give the student a written for example, “MAYDAY – aeroplane
version of your brief. registration – engine failure”.

The priorities of the pilot-in-command should focus
on landing into wind and keeping the cabin intact. The exercise
However, if time permits the attitude can be adjusted Even though this briefing has concentrated on the
for best glide, carburettor heat applied, and the EFATO and aborted take-off, the student is still working
trouble checks (FMI) carried out. on the circuit and landing. Not every take-off or landing
will be an opportunity to practise these actions. Pick
F Fuel
appropriate times to carry out these exercises, taking
Fuel pump ON, pressure checked, change tanks into account student workload and traffic.
(touch), contents checked.
Generally you will not carry out a simulated engine
M Mixture failure on take-off from a touch and go, unless there
is sufficient runway available, so ensure you plan
Mixture RICH, primer LOCKED.
when to cover each exercise carefully.
I Ignition
When traffic permits, start with a simulated aborted
Ignition on LEFT or RIGHT or BOTH (touch). take-off. As discussed in the briefing, you will close
the throttle and talk the student through the actions
If time permits, the shutdown checks can be you want them to carry out. You may want to use a
completed to minimise fire risk. vector that is not in current use.
F Fuel At the next good opportunity (having let them carry

Fuel OFF (touch) out at least one normal circuit and landing), simulate
the engine failure during take-off. Early in the take-
M Mixture off roll, from a full length take-off, partially close the
throttle and talk them though the actions you want
Mixture IDLE CUT-OFF (touch)
them to carry out.
I Ignition
At a suitable time, when traffic permits, simulate
Ignition OFF (touch) the engine failure after take-off, don’t forget to say
“simulating.” The first simulation should be carried out
M Master from a generous height so the student has time to
Master switch OFF (touch) take the actions required.
Some things are beyond our control, but by paying It cannot be stressed enough that you must keep in
proper attention to all preflight preparations, we can mind the objective and the safety of the aeroplane
help to avoid an EFATO. Sticking to the priorities of while providing the student with the opportunity
Aviate – Navigate – Communicate greatly increases to practise command decision making. Once the
the chances of survival. aeroplane nose has been lowered; a decision made as
to the landing site; an attempt made to position for a
landing; and flap selected or considered; the objective
has been achieved, and the instruction to “go around”
should be given. Only after these basic actions have
Airborne sequence
become automatic, and where height and time permits,
should any attempt to complete checks be encouraged.
On the ground
As competence is achieved and circumstances permit,
Sitting in the aeroplane, before start up, demonstrate EFATO to a landing provides the complete experience
the touch checks, and have the student complete and gives the student a true appreciation of the limited
them for themselves. They should also move the fuel time available and the need to prioritise the actions.
selector, if they haven’t had a chance to already.
At the holding point, run through your take-off safety After flight
brief, and ask them to do one next time. Carry out the debrief.
Ask the student to learn their trouble checks and

shutdown checks, and to have thought about a
take-off safety briefing before the next lesson.

Engine failure after take-off CIRCUIT TRAINING
Objective Air exercise

To adopt the recommended procedure in the event of an engine failure
at low level (below 1000 ft AGL). Aborted take-off
Aviate
• Close throttle
Navigate
Considerations • Keep straight, brake as required
Communicate
Cause Prevention
• Tell ATC and traffic
Carb ice • Be aware of temp and humidity
• Carb heat HOT Engine failure after take-off
• Preflight run-up Aviate
• Fly the aeroplane – lower nose, close throttle
Air blockage • Carb heat HOT – alternate air
• Preflight inspection • Carb heat HOT
Navigate
Fuel contamination • Water or solid particles in the fuel
• Choose landing site from anything in the windscreen. Do not turn back.
• Preflight fuel check and sample
• Flap as required to make it
Fuel starvation • Wrong tank selection (or OFF) or fuel pump problems
Communicate
• Preflight run-up • MAYDAY
Fuel exhaustion • Run out of fuel • Land into wind and keep cabin intact
• Preflight planning and inspection
Spark • Preflight inspection and run-up Trouble checks
F Fuel Selector ON, fuel pump ON, change tanks (touch)
Go-around M Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED

Aborted take-off
• Early in the take-off roll, with runway • Full power, keep straight with rudder, I Ignition BOTH
available, close throttle, braking as raise the nose attitude to the horizon,
required, keep straight climb straight ahead, retracting any flap,
continuing climb out Shutdown checks
Aviate Take-off safety brief F Fuel OFF
• Lower nose, close throttle • Intentions in the event of an EFATO
M Mixture OFF
Navigate
I Ignition OFF
• Choose landing site, flap decisions
Communicate M Master OFF
• Tell ATC and traffic

• Pre-take-off safety brief • “Simulating” • Trouble checks • Systems management • Smooth throttle movements • Learn checklists and use mnemonics
• Aviate – Navigate – • Touch checks • Shutdown checks • Loose objects in cabin • Listen for ‘normal’ sounds • Plenty of practice available
Communicate • Advise ATC and traffic • Avoid mindsets – practise, currency and pre-planning

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Flapless
landings
This briefing and exercise

is practised before first
solo (refer CFI) to prepare
the student for the unlikely
event of flap failure
during early solo circuit
consolidation. It must
be assumed that flap
failure will not have been
detected before starting
the base turn, where flap
is first selected.
Circuit training: Flapless landings 135

possible, with a consequent degradation in flight
Objective performance. Worse than this, is the possibility that
the flap will retract unevenly, causing uncontrollable
roll. A third possibility is that loads on the electric flap
To carry out a flapless approach and landing.
motor will cause it to burn out with the consequent
risk of fire. This damage can go undetected, and may
not result in an immediate flap failure, but may occur
on later flights.
Principles of flight and considerations
This malfunction is avoided by never exceeding the
In all cases where a systems failure or unexpected VFE speed (Velocity for flap extension – white arc) with
deviation in procedures occurs – Aviate – Navigate – flap extended (see Figure 1).
Communicate.
Figure 1
Aeroplane system Airspeed indicator
Although the possibility of failure is rare, the student
needs to know how the aeroplane’s flap system works
and what can be done, not only to deal with any
problems arising from its operation, but also how to
prevent problems occurring. 0
Describe the aeroplane’s flap and electrical systems

(even if the aeroplane has manual flap operation)
140 20
AIRSPEED
with emphasis on their inter-relationships. Use
schematics, actual components, models and 120 40
handouts (refer Flight Manual). KNOTS
100 60
Detection
The risk of this failure going undetected can be
80
minimised by a thorough preflight inspection,
mitigated by sound aeroplane systems knowledge,
and possibly highlighted before flap selection by
carrying out the SADIE checks (A = Amps or Alternator
for electrically actuated flaps).
Diagnosis
It is probable though that a flap failure will not be Once the aeroplane is established in level flight at
detected until flap is selected, usually in the base a safe altitude, the possible causes of the systems
turn. This is no place to deal with a systems failure, failure can be considered.
so a go-around is carried out. The climb to circuit
altitude uses the full length of the climbout leg, giving If electrically operated flaps fail, check the master
a long downwind leg to consider options and plan for switch is ON, the flap circuit breaker is set (or if
a flapless approach. popped reset only once), and the alternator or
generator output and battery state tested (if
applicable). In addition, a visual check of flap
Causes position is made to ensure that it is not the flap
position indicator that has failed. The visual check
The most probable causes of flap failure are
should also look for any asymmetric condition.
mechanical linkage failure (manual or electric flap),
electric flap motor failure, or electrical current failure.
Procedure
Another possible cause, that should never occur, is
flap overspeed. If the flap has been extended or left With flap up, the stalling speed is greater than with
extended at speeds in excess of the manufacturer’s flap extended. To retain the same margin of airspeed
recommendation, the flap or linkages may be over the stall speed, the approach and threshold
damaged. If this occurs, flap retraction may not be speeds are increased by about the difference in the

aeroplane’s stall speed clean, and the stall speed
with full flap – commonly 5 knots for light aeroplanes. Air exercise
This increase in threshold speed will result in a
A flap failure will be simulated at the base turn or
longer landing distance, and therefore the suitability
when flap is first selected, and a go-around carried
of the runway should be considered. Neither the
out for the first occurrence.
group rating system, nor the P-Charts, allow for a
flapless landing.
For further simulated flapless landings, the student
should assume that the failure is identified downwind,
Without the increased drag provided by flap, the
and there is no need to complete the go-around.
power setting required to control the descent will
be lower, the descent angle will be shallower, and
forward visibility will be poorer. Downwind
The systems checks are carried out (if applicable)
as well as the normal radio call and downwind
prelanding checks.
Airmanship
The suitability of the runway in use is considered, and
Situational awareness is improved through systems a decision made on the appropriate approach speed
knowledge and routine systems checks. to be used.
Revise the SADIE checks, as introduced in the Circuit If the runway in use is not suitable, and a diversion
introduction lesson. to another aerodrome is preferred, practice in this
procedure should be given before first solo (refer CFI).
The higher approach speed can affect your judgment
of the spacing between you and the aircraft in front. Downwind spacing is assessed, and an appropriate
power setting at the base turn point is selected.
Because of the decreased drag without flap and the
desirability of a powered approach, it is common
Aeroplane management practice to extend the downwind leg and set the
same power setting as a normal circuit, so that some
As a result of the decreased drag, only small power power will be used throughout the approach.
changes will be required to alter the rate of descent.
An alternative method to stretching the circuit out,
is to extend downwind only slightly and initially use
a much lower power setting. As the aeroplane sinks
Human factors onto the correct glide slope or approach path, power
is slowly increased until the desired rate of descent is
achieved. The aim point should not move up or down
There is a tendency to accelerate as the student
but remain steady in the windscreen.
unconsciously seeks the lower nose attitude they are
familiar with from a normal approach and landing.
Base
The simplicity of the manual flap extension system
requires minimal systems knowledge. Electrically The base turn will have a lower power and higher
operated flap requires more systems knowledge and nose attitude. Ensure the student trims the aeroplane
provides the student with the opportunity to practise for the descent. Because of the aeroplane’s higher
problem solving. momentum, the turn onto final will need to be
anticipated earlier than normal.
Circuit training: Flapless landings 137

The approach
Airborne sequence
The approach is flown as normal with the attitude
selected to maintain the higher approach or threshold
speed and trimmed. Only small adjustments in power Before flight
should be required to control the rate of descent.
By this point the student should be able to do all
of the radio work for the flight, with minimal input
The noticeable differences in this approach are:
from you.
• the higher nose attitude required to maintain
the desired airspeed, which results in reduced As discussed at the end of the last lesson the student
forward visibility (runway may be largely will do their own take-off safety brief.
obscured), and
• the effect of power changes on the rate

The exercise
of descent.
Start with a normal take-off and simulate flap failure
As always, if attitude or power is altered some on the base turn of the first circuit, by saying “assume
adjustment to the other component will be required you now have a flap failure”.
to maintain the desired performance.
After the simulation of flap failure, and the
Power + Attitude = Performance repositioning of the aeroplane downwind by the
student, the circuit continues normally until the
base turn.
Landing
Since the flapless landing will usually be a full stop,
Because the aeroplane is already in a higher nose
the next take-off may be a good opportunity to
attitude than normal with a lower rate of descent
practise an EFATO. Be careful not to fill all of the
than normal, the round-out is less pronounced and
circuit lessons with emergencies, the student still
only a slight hold-off is used. The aeroplane is then
needs plenty of practice at normal landings.
allowed to sink in a slightly nose-high attitude to
prevent the nosewheel taking the landing loads. The
nosewheel is then lowered and brakes applied as
After flight
required, aft elevator is used to keep the weight off
the nosewheel. Mention in your debrief any go-arounds that were
carried out, and praise the student for taking the
As the student is familiar with holding off for the initiative – if that is what they did.
normal fully flared landing, resisting an over-flaring
action and allowing the aeroplane to sink onto the The next lesson will be crosswind circuits, so long
runway may take some practice. as the conditions permit. If not, continue practicing
circuits, reminding the student to expect the
As with all powered approaches, runway length emergency procedures you have covered in all
available and aim point notwithstanding, it is following lessons.
desirable to touch down just inside the threshold.
If a prolonged float is permitted to develop, a
go-around may be appropriate.

Flapless landings CIRCUIT TRAINING

To carry out a flapless approach and landing. • Will simulate late downwind
• Carry out a go-around and position downwind
Downwind
Considerations
• Downwind checks and radio call
• In all cases, when faced with the unexpected
• Assess runway length
• Aviate – Navigate – Communicate
• Confirm appropriate approach speed
Flap system • Choose power setting for approach

• Flap system operated by • Flap operating system diagrammatics • Extend downwind leg
• Electrical system diagrammatics
Base
Detection • Lower power
• To help detection of this failure before • Regular SADIE checks • Higher nose attitude
getting airborne • Probably won’t detect it until base leg • Trim
• Thorough preflight inspection • Once detected – go-around • Anticipate turn onto final
• Sound systems knowledge
The approach
Causes • Attitude to maintain higher approach speed
0
• Mechanical linkage failure (manual or electric flap) • Small power changes to adjust RoD
140 20
• Electric flap motor failure AIRSPEED • Higher nose attitude – less forward visibility
120 40
KNOTS
• Electrical current failure • Attitude + Power = Performance
100 60
• Overspeed – should never happen 80
• Always limit speed to below VFE before deploying flap Landing
• Less round-out
Diagnosis • Slight hold-off
• Once in level flight, can then diagnose problem • Do not over-flare – wait for touchdown
• Check electrics for indications – master ON, CB set, battery output • Caution floating – may require go-around
• Visual check for indication failure
Procedure
• Stall speed  therefore approach speed higher (5 kts)
• Longer landing distance – P-charts
70k
have no detail ts– wit
h fla
• Less power required 75kts – p
no flap
• Descent angle shallower
• Less visibility over the nose

• Good systems knowledge • SADIE checks • Higher approach speed • Small power changes to adjust approach path • Higher nose attitude causes illusion and acceleration

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Crosswind
circuit
This briefing primarily

deals with the differences
between a normal circuit,
where the wind is straight
down the runway in use,
or little wind exists, and a
circuit where the wind is
at an angle to the runway
in use.
The student should already be familiar with
compensating for drift on the crosswind
and base legs of the circuit. However, when
landing in a crosswind, the aeroplane must be
aligned with the runway before touchdown.
If this is not done, there is a risk of damage to
the undercarriage and the aeroplane may run
off the runway.

This information may be provided by METAR –
Objectives routine meteorological reports, TAF – aerodrome
forecasts, ATIS – the Automatic Terminal Information
Service, the ATC control tower, or windsocks.
To correctly position the aeroplane controls
while taxiing.
METAR and TAF winds are given in degrees true and
must first be converted to magnetic in order to
To compensate for drift throughout the circuit.
calculate the angular difference between runway
To take off and land in crosswind conditions. heading (magnetic) and wind direction.
In some instances, the crosswind component may be

stated – requiring no further calculations.
Considerations Once the angular difference between wind direction

and the runway heading is known, the various
During taxiing and throughout the take-off and methods of calculating the crosswind component
landing, when the wind is at an angle to the runway, can be discussed.
the aeroplane will have a tendency to weathercock
or swing nose into wind.
Vector diagram
Since taxiing in any wind will invariably result in some
The vector method requires pencil, paper, protractor
crosswind being experienced, revise the correct
and ruler. As an example, assume a W/ V of
positioning of the aeroplane’s controls during taxiing
240 degrees magnetic at 20 knots and a runway
(refer to the Taxiing briefing).
heading of 210 degrees (RWY 21). Calculate the angular
difference between the runway and the wind direction;
When climbing out or approaching to land, with
this is the wind angle, in this case 30 degrees. Draw
the wind at an angle to the runway, an allowance
a vertical line to represent the runway. From near the
for drift will need to be made so that the aeroplane
bottom of this line, draw a line at the wind angle from
tracks straight over the ground along the
the vertical, 20 units (wind speed) long. Break this
extended centreline.
vector down into its vertical and horizontal components
and measure these to give headwind (17.3 knots) and
Maximum demonstrated crosswind crosswind (10 knots), see Figure 1.
The maximum demonstrated crosswind component

(in knots) in the Flight Manual is the figure at which Figure 1
factory testing has shown that directional control Vector diagram to calculate crosswind component
can still be maintained. It is affected by the size
of the rudder, its distance from the C of G, and the 210° M
availability of asymmetric braking. It is not a legal

limitation, but a guide to what limit should be applied Crosswind
to crosswind landings. It is modified by several component
factors; for example, technique, individual currency,
10 kts Wind 240/20
and competency.
State the maximum demonstrated crosswind

component for this aeroplane, as well as any club Wind vector
or organisation limit. 20 knots
Calculation of crosswind component 17.3 kts

To calculate the crosswind component, the pilot
Headwind
must first know or estimate the wind velocity (W/ V) – 30° component
its speed and direction.
Runway 21
Circuit training: Crosswind circuit 141

Flight manual difference is 60 degrees, or more, then consider the
crosswind component to be the full strength of the
Commonly, a vector diagram is supplied in the Flight
wind (see Figure 2).
Manual in graph form and is a more practical method
of calculating crosswind.
Figure 2
It’s a good idea to include a photocopy of this graph
Using a clock face to estimate crosswind component
in the handout to this lesson and to have a large
laminated version for reference during the briefing.
Navigation computer
Although the presentation is a little different,
the same calculation can be made using the
11 12 1
navigation computer. 10 2
Windsocks 9 3
Most aviation windsocks are 25-knot windsocks. This
means that when the wind strength is 25 knots the
windsock stands straight out. The angular difference 8 4
7 5
between runway and wind direction is estimated
visually and may require a mental calculation to
derive the crosswind component (see Formula below). 6
Tower
Where ATC is provided on the aerodrome, you can
Further considerations
request the crosswind component from the tower,
but your student should be able to calculate it for The ability to maintain directional control about
themselves using one of the methods above. the normal axis is the limiting factor for crosswind
landings. Although it may be easy enough to keep the
aeroplane aligned with the runway during the round-
Formula out and landing, as the airspeed decreases, rudder
The crosswind component is equal to the speed effectiveness will reduce and it may be difficult to
(V) of the wind multiplied by the sine of the angular prevent weathercocking. Therefore, as the crosswind
difference (XWC = V × Sineθ). Therefore, in the component increases, the amount of flap used for the
example given above (Rwy 21 – W/ V 240/20) the landing is normally reduced. This reduces the surface
angular difference is 30 degrees, and the sine of area on which the crosswind can act after landing
30 degrees is 0.5. This means that half the wind and therefore improves directional control.
strength is crosswind (20 × 0.5 = 10).
Although the landing distance may be adequate
To be completely accurate this method requires a when calculated using the group rating system or
calculator or memorisation of the various sines of P-charts, any landing with reduced flap will increase
angles between 0 and 90 degrees. However, there the landing roll. In addition, as with any gusty
is a simple way to estimate it. conditions, if the crosswind is not steady an increase
in approach speed may be required to compensate
Imagine that the minutes on the face of your watch for windshear and gusts.
are equivalent to the angular difference between
the runway and the wind direction. If the difference Therefore, the pilot-in-command must consider the
is 30 degrees, then thirty minutes is half way around runway’s overall suitability in relation to crosswind
your watch face; therefore the crosswind component component, approach/threshold speed and
is half the wind strength. If the angular difference is available length.
45 degrees; then that is three-quarters of the way
round your watch face and the crosswind component Remind the student to anticipate the effect of a
is three-quarters of the wind strength. If the angular strong crosswind on the groundspeed, in particular
on base leg.

At a safe flying speed the aeroplane is rotated
Airmanship with ailerons neutral. The aim is to lift off cleanly,
preventing the aeroplane from skidding sideways
across the runway. In addition, the higher rotate
Calculating the crosswind component; assessing
speed will allow the aeroplane to accelerate quickly
the gustiness of the day; reviewing the aeroplane’s
to the nominated climb speed. Using the nominated
limitations; and discussing the configuration to
high reference point as a guide, after liftoff a gentle
be used, all contribute to improving the student’s
balanced turn into wind is made to track along the
situational awareness.
climb-out path.
The aeroplane can land in crosswinds of greater than
the demonstrated crosswind component provided the
Circuit
correct technique is used, and it is entirely necessary
to do so. During the climb out, ensure the wings are level
and the aeroplane is in balance. Check for straight
Where this exercise is simulated using a non-active tracking and adjust the reference point as necessary
runway, remember aircraft taking off and landing into to maintain the extended centreline.
wind have right of way.
On the crosswind leg, select a reference point with an
allowance for drift in the normal way. A component of
head or tailwind may become apparent in the distance
Aeroplane management travelled over the ground to reach circuit altitude.
The turn onto downwind should be made at the

The controls must be positioned correctly, taking
same distance out as a normal circuit. A wider
account of the wind, when taxiing, on take-off
downwind leg may be advisable if a particularly
and landing.
strong crosswind toward the runway exists, as this
will decrease the time spent on the base leg. More
Discuss the use of brakes as required to assist
commonly, the effects of a headwind or tailwind
directional control.
on the crosswind leg will require less or more
anticipation of when to start the turn onto downwind.
A suitable reference point is chosen, so as to track
parallel to the runway. The approach is assessed and
Human factors a decision made on runway suitability, approach/
threshold speed and maximum flap setting to be
In accordance with aeronautical decision making used. The correctness of the downwind spacing is
(ADM) principles, the student should be asked on assessed and if necessary, the reference point altered
subsequent flights to assess other runways for to maintain a parallel track.
landing suitability.
The turn onto base is normal and continued onto a
suitable reference point with an allowance for drift.
Air exercise Once established on base leg, additional flap

up to the maximum to be used for the landing is
normally extended.
Take-off
The head or tailwind component experienced
On lining up, the high reference point used to keep on base will affect the turn onto final and must
straight during the climb will need to be adjusted be anticipated. The turn is continued onto a
from normal to prevent drift, and provide a straight suitable reference point into wind that allows for
track over the ground along the extended centreline. drift, and tracks the aeroplane straight along the
The ailerons are fully deflected into wind and the extended centreline.
elevator maintained neutral or very slightly down.
Throughout the descent the aiming point is monitored
During the take-off roll the amount of aileron is in the normal way and the power adjusted to
reduced as the increasing speed makes the ailerons maintain a steady rate of descent to touchdown –
more effective and some weight retained on the power controls the rate of descent.
nosewheel to improve directional control.

The recommended crosswind landing technique During the round-out, the wing down method is
is a combination of the following two methods, the applied. The aeroplane’s nose is aligned with the
‘kick-straight’ method and the ‘wing-down’ method. runway through smooth rudder application and
sufficient aileron into wind used to prevent drifting
off the centreline.
The kick-straight method
The advantage of this method is that the aeroplane Unless a strong crosswind exists this should not
is flown in balance throughout the approach, round- require full or even large control deflections. If large
out and hold-off. The disadvantage is that it is not amounts of aileron are required to maintain the
easy to master. centreline, then it is unlikely that rudder effectiveness
will be sufficient to keep straight throughout
On the approach, the aeroplane is crabbed into wind, the landing roll. In this situation, unless rudder
and just before touchdown, brisk or positive rudder effectiveness can be improved with an increase in
is used to yaw the aeroplane’s nose into line with speed, a go-around should be carried out and an
the runway. Into-wind aileron is used to keep the approach with a different speed/flap configuration
wings level. conducted. Alternatively, the runway’s suitability may
need to be reconsidered.
Although this method sounds simple at first, it takes
considerable skill in timing the application of rudder. The landing is made on the windward wheel, which
Too early, and the aeroplane will drift downwind, will create a couple that lowers the other main wheel.
touching down with sideways loads, perhaps off the The rudder is centralised and the nosewheel lowered
runway. Too late, and the aeroplane will touch down at rather than held off, and some weight maintained
an angle to the runway, applying large sideways loads on the nosewheel for directional control. At the
and the aeroplane may rapidly depart the runway. same time, aileron into wind is increased as the
speed reduces.
The wing-down method Throughout the landing a small amount of power

(1200 RPM) may be used to improve control and the
The advantage of this method is its ease of execution,
throttle closed at touchdown.
but there may be limitations in the Flight Manual that
affect this method.
Keep straight on the runway centreline by reference
to a point at the far end of the runway and apply
On short final the aeroplane’s nose is aligned with
differential braking as required.
the runway by applying rudder and sufficient into
wind aileron, to prevent drift, while controlling
No more than neutral elevator should be used
speed until the flare with elevator. This results in
to put some weight on the nosewheel so as to
the aeroplane sideslipping into wind at a rate that
avoid wheel-barrowing.
negates the drift.
The round-out and hold-off are flown in this

wing-down attitude and the landing made on the
windward wheel first. Airborne sequence
Although this method sounds more difficult, it is

easier to execute and requires less judgement. On the ground
Ensure that the student places the controls in the
Many modern light aeroplanes have a restriction
right position, allowing for wind.
on sideslipping, especially with flap extended,
and therefore the recommended procedure is a
combination of these two methods. The exercise
By now, the student should be well practised in
The combination method the circuit procedures. However, for the crosswind
landings you will need to demonstrate, follow
Throughout the approach, the aeroplane is crabbed
through, talk through, and then allow the student
into wind, in balanced flight, preventing drift.
to practise with decreasing input from you.

Where practical, the student should be gradually
introduced to crosswinds of increasing intensity,
commensurate with skill, including experiencing the
various speed/flap configurations appropriate for
varying wind conditions.
Do not combine a flapless and crosswind landing

at these early stages, but it is still possible for the
student to practise the emergency procedures
previously covered.
After flight
You can tell the student that this is the end of the
briefings before their first solo, and that all flights from
now until then will be making sure that they know the
checks and procedures, and working towards being
able to complete the circuit on their own.

Crosswind circuit CIRCUIT TRAINING

• To correctly position the aeroplane controls while taxiing. Take-off
• To compensate for drift throughout the circuit. • Line-up, adjust reference point for drift • Lift off at slightly higher speed than normal
• To take-off and land in crosswind conditions. • Ailerons fully into wind, elevator neutral • After lift-off make a gentle balanced turn into wind
• During take-off roll reduce aileron to neutral by rotate point
Considerations Circuit Landing

Climb-out • Combination of kick straight and wing down methods
On the ground On landing
• Wings level, in balance Kick-straight
• Aeroplane has tendency to • As crosswind increases amount of
• Adjust heading to track extended centreline • Crab into wind
weathercock into wind flap used decreases – to improve
Crosswind • Just before touchdown, kick straight, aileron to keep wings level
• Position controls to compensate directional control
• Reference heading allows for drift Wing-down
for wind • More airspeed needed if gusty
• Expect some headwind or tailwind • From short final
conditions
On take -off • Need to consider overall suitability of Downwind • Wing held down, rudder to keep aligned
• Allow for drift to track along the • Allow for wind on downwind turn with centreline – sideslip
runway in crosswind conditions
runway centreline • Track parallel to runway • Land on into wind wheel first
Maximum demonstrated • Assess runway and decide on Combination
In the circuit crosswind speeds and flap setting to use • Crab into wind on final
Wind
• Allow for drift and headwind/tailwind • In Flight Manual • Check downwind spacing • During round-out switch to wing
on each leg • Limited by ability of rudder and Base down method Wind
• Base leg will be affected the most • Allow for drift and • Aileron to stay aligned with centreline,
aileron to control aeroplane
• For this aeroplane is kts headwind or tailwind rudder to stay straight
• Extend all the landing flap • Into wind wheel touches down first
Calculating crosswind component • Anticipate turn onto final

• Need W/V from TAF or METAR Flight Manual graph Final
• Convert the direction to magnetic – Nav computer • Track extended
apply variation Windsock centreline

• Vector diagram Tower • Power controls rate
• Need pencil, paper, ruler and

Formula of descent
• Angular difference between wind
protractor
and RWY
210° M
Plot on watch face
Crosswind
• Percentage of distance around
component
watch face x wind strength = X/W
10 kts Wind 240/20
component
• 30° = half wind strength,
Wind vector
20 knots 60° = full wind strength
17.3 kts 11 12 1 Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors

10 2
Headwind
30° component
• Making the calculations improves SA • Control position on ground wrt wind • Assessing runway suitability
9 3
8 4 • Max crosswind is a recommendation, • May need to use brakes improved ADM
7 6 5
but may be other limits
Runway 21

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Glide
approach
This lesson teaches

the student to land
the aeroplane without
engine power. Initially,
this is taught as part of
the circuit lessons, but is
equally important in the
forced landing without
power lessons.
From a position of about 1000 feet AGL
downwind, the students must be able to
reach the 1/3 aim point, preferably without
flap. Once a landing is assured various
methods are used to reduce the L/D ratio
and increase the rate of descent so as
to touch down as near to the threshold
as practical.
Circuit training: Glide approach 147

Figure 2
Objective Windshear on final
To complete a landing without engine power from the

1000 foot downwind position. Wind
20 kt
Shear level
5 kt
Considerations 1/3
There are a number of factors that will affect the

ability of the aeroplane to reach the 1/3 aim point. Moving the aim point
Once it is assured that the aeroplane will reach the
Assuming that the 1/3 aim point can be easily
1/3 aim point, the aim point is moved towards the
reached from about 500 feet AGL, the L/D ratio
landing threshold, generally by applying flap, so as to
is reduced by:
use all the available landing distance.
As this exercise will be practised on the home Flap

aerodrome, the student should be encouraged to
initially aim 1/3 of the way into the runway. Once Flaps are the first option for increasing the rate and
they are more proficient, the distance available can angle of descent, because they increase the drag
be progressively reduced by requiring them to stop very effectively.
before an arbitrary point on the runway.
Airspeed
Headwind on final Increasing the airspeed is recommended, by relaxing
If it becomes apparent that a stronger than expected backpressure, not by pushing the control column
headwind on final is causing the aeroplane to forward. This method, however, is not particularly
undershoot (aim point moves up the windscreen), effective when used on its own.
it may be necessary to lower the aeroplane’s nose
When combined with flap, only a small increase in
and increase the airspeed. This will increase the
airspeed will be required to dramatically increase the
groundspeed, allowing the aeroplane to better
rate of descent. However, the increase in airspeed
penetrate into the wind. This is one of the reasons for
means the aeroplane will float in the round-out, so
aiming 1/3 into the field and delaying flap (see Figure 1).
if it is used, it should be used early rather than late.
After round-out the airspeed will rapidly dissipate
Figure 1 due to the high drag produced by the flap.
Headwind on final
S-turns
Best L/D
Low G/S An S-turn not only increases the total distance to
touch down, but also decreases the L/D ratio, as a
Wind Higher result of the increased drag generated in the turn. In
A/S-G/S
the modern low-drag training aeroplane this method
1/3 is not particularly effective.
Windshear on final It should be noted that excessive use of S-turns

The only method of countering windshear when no indicates poor judgement and a poor forced landing
power is available is to increase airspeed. Aiming 1/3 plan. It should not be used as a standard manoeuvre,
of the way into the field provides a buffer against this but as a compensation for a judgement error. Most
eventuality and is also another reason for delaying commonly an S-turn is used when the final track has
the use of flap (see Figure 2). been overshot and some height needs to be lost.

Sideslip
A sideslip is an unbalanced manoeuvre, where the Airmanship
controls are ‘crossed’. For example, right aileron is
applied in conjunction with left rudder to prevent the This is only a simulation and the safety of
turn or to keep straight. the aeroplane and crew are paramount.
Therefore, power should be used at any time
Due to the comparative ineffectiveness of the rudder the safety of the aeroplane is in doubt, or on the
in most modern training aeroplane types, full rudder “go-around” instruction.
will be required to keep straight, even in a relatively
shallow banked sideslip. Glide approach practice must, however, be treated
with some seriousness and the importance of a
Once again, in the modern low-drag light aeroplanes, successful outcome stressed.
this manoeuvre is not particularly effective unless it is
combined with the use of flap. Plan the glide approach practice with consideration
for other traffic, as the exercise does not entitle you
Some aeroplanes have a restriction against to right of way. At controlled aerodromes, it may
sideslipping with flap down (refer Flight Manual). be appropriate to request a “glide approach” so
This is generally because the flap blankets the that ATC can sequence following traffic.
tailplane in a sideslip, destroying the airflow over the
tailplane. In most cases, where the tailplane normally The effects of up-slope and down-slope on approach
provides a down load this results in an abrupt judgement are discussed.
nose-down pitch and total elevator ineffectiveness.
Although the pitch down ceases when the rudder is Consistent with good aviation practice, no passengers
centralised (sideslip is stopped); this is an undesirable should be carried during glide approach practice.
characteristic, especially near the ground.
If this manoeuvre is not restricted, it is vital that

airspeed is increased or at least maintained. If the Aeroplane management
aeroplane were permitted to stall in this configuration
(controls crossed) a spin is almost inevitable. Whenever the engine is at idle the carburettor heat
should be HOT.
If sideslipping with flap is permitted, the resulting
rate of descent is usually very impressive. When the
student first sees the ground rushing up, there is a
tendency to increase backpressure to arrest the high
sink rate rather than decrease the amount of rudder
Human factors
being used. Therefore, if this manoeuvre is to be used
it should be taught at altitude before this lesson Visual limitations in relation to optic flow rates and
(refer CFI). It is also more appropriate to use sideslip depth perception, as a result of the high descent
in the base leg rather than when close to the ground. rates are discussed.
The factors affecting rate of descent should also be

applied in the above order, flap first, then increase
airspeed, so that a safe margin over the stall speed Air exercise
is maintained during the following manoeuvres, then
S-turn or sideslip. Confirm spacing and configure the aeroplane late
downwind. Reduce power, maintain height, apply
carburettor heat early, and trim in preparation for
the glide attitude.
In the 1000-foot area abeam the threshold, confirm

the throttle is fully closed and the base turn started,
considering factors discussed above to achieve
1/3 aim point.
Circuit training: Glide approach 149

The approach is judged by reference to the 1/3 aim The countering of strong headwinds and
point, down to about 500 feet AGL. At this point windshear, by maintaining the 1/3 aim point to
the question is asked, “Can the 1/3 aim point be about 500 feet AGL and then increasing airspeed,
easily reached?”. are demonstrated and experienced when
conditions permit.
Yes No
If the aeroplane is low, or more commonly high or
Manoeuvres to reduce Delay the application of fast at the threshold, and the ability to make a safe
the L/D ratio are applied flap until the answer is a landing is in any doubt whatsoever – carry out a go-
where necessary positive yes.
around. During the subsequent go-around, remind
in sequence and
combined to modify the
the student that maximum braking was still an option
touchdown point. (if it would have stopped the aircraft in the space
available). Do not put the aeroplane in a position
where maximum braking has to be used during
a simulation.
Airborne sequence Although during an actual forced landing the

aeroplane may be forced onto the ground so as to
apply maximum braking, during the simulation a
On the ground normal landing is carried out with brakes as required.
Nothing new in here, just perfecting ground operations.

After flight
The exercise Let the student know that there will be lots more
practice of this manoeuvre and will serve to complete
Use the full length of the runway available as it the forced landing lessons.
makes the demonstration of how easily height can
be lost (but not regained) much clearer.
For most aerodromes, choosing an aim point 1/3 into

the field will result in the aeroplane being excessively
high in relation to the threshold.
This is the whole point of the 1/3 aim point. There is

no possibility of the aeroplane being flown through
the first fence. When the chosen landing site is
shorter, the 1/3 aim point is still 1/3 of whatever
length is available, and the possibility of flying
through the first fence remains constant. Only the
possibility of overrunning the far end of the landing
site increases.
From this excessively high position, most or all of the

various methods of increasing the rate of descent can
be demonstrated.
Once the forced landing lessons have been

completed, more realistic field lengths can be
simulated by restricting the amount of runway
available, for example, from the threshold to the
300-metre (1000-foot) markers. In this case the
1/3 aim point will be about 100 metres in, and only
those manoeuvres that are required (in sequence)
will be used to modify the actual touchdown point.

Glide approach CIRCUIT TRAINING

To complete a landing without engine power from the late downwind and 500-foot area. • Confirm spacing, configure late downwind
• Carburettor heat, reduce power, maintain height, and trim
Spacing
• 1000-foot area close throttle start base turn
Considerations • Reference 1/3 aim point to about 500 ft AGL
Headwind on final
If aim point moves up windscreen “Can the 1/3 aim point be easily reached?”
Best L/D
(undershooting): Low G/S
• Increase airspeed – better Yes Make manoeuvres to reduce the 1/3 aim
penetration of headwind Wind Higher L/D ratio, where necessary, in point
A/S-G/S sequence and combined to bring
1/3 the touchdown point closer
to the threshold.
Windshear on final No Delay the application of flap until 1000 ft AGL area
• Only method available to deal with the answer is a positive yes.
windshear is to increase airspeed Wind
20 kt
Shear level Adjust if
necessary
5 kt
Adjust if
1/3 necessary
Moving the aim point

Assuming the 1/3 aim point can be reached, move touchdown point towards
you by changing L/D ratio using:
Flap
• Increases drag
Airspeed
• Reducing airspeed could lead to stall
• Increasing airspeed can lead to float at round out
S-turns
• Increases distance
• Decreases L/D ratio Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors
Sideslip • Aeroplane safety in doubt • Carb heat HOT • High rate of descent
• Aileron and rudder in opposite directions (roll in/yaw out of turn) – go around • No engine warms – optical illusions
• Not very effective in modern aeroplanes, better if combined with flap • Not automatic right-of-way
• Some aeroplanes have prohibition on sideslipping with flap • No pax
• Caution – maintain airspeed • Adjustments for slope

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Vacating and joining

at aerodromes
This lesson covers

vacating and joining at
controlled and uncontrolled
aerodromes.
The standard overhead join procedure is the
preferred/default method for joining the traffic
circuit at an unattended aerodrome, where
no other method is published. It is used when
the pilot-in-command needs to assess the
runway in use, familiarise themselves with the
aerodrome traffic and conditions, or when
required by ATC.
The Standard overhead join posters are a

good resource for this briefing. You can request
copies by emailing publications@caa.govt.nz.

Standard overhead join
Objectives Rule 91.223 Operating on and in the vicinity of an
aerodrome requires the pilot to “…observe other
To vacate and join the circuit in accordance with aerodrome traffic for the purpose of avoiding
applicable procedures. collision, and, unless otherwise authorised or
instructed by ATC, conform with or avoid the
To join an uncontrolled circuit in accordance with the aerodrome traffic circuit formed by other aircraft.”
standard overhead join procedure. The standard overhead join procedure is the
recommended means of complying with this rule,
by being 500 feet above aerodrome traffic and then
sequencing appropriately.
Considerations
At an unattended aerodrome there will
Discuss vacating the uncontrolled aerodrome first. As be no ATC instructions, and there may be
with many aspects of safe flying, ground preparation no ATIS or AWIB to forewarn the pilot of the runway
is key to less pressure for the pilot in the air. With in use and wind conditions.
a clearance, these methods are also available at
If the aerodrome is listed in AIP Vol 4, circuit direction
controlled aerodromes.
will be shown on the aerodrome chart. All circuit
Be aware that helicopters may either conform to the directions are left hand unless a curved right-hand
circuit “or avoid the aerodrome traffic circuit being arrow is displayed at the threshold depicting a right-
used by an aeroplane operating on or in the vicinity hand circuit. This information and an estimate of the
of the aerodrome”. Therefore, they will either be surface wind can provide a clue to the circuit direction.
sequencing in the pattern, or joining in a manner to
Even if the runway in use is known, the pilot should
prevent conflict with existing traffic. (CAR 91.223)
carry out the standard procedure if they are
This rule also exempts agricultural aircraft performing unfamiliar with the aerodrome layout and unsure
an agricultural operation from conforming with the of the location of other traffic.
circuit pattern, but only when a ground symbol is
The term ‘overhead’ is used because the aircraft is
used to indicate this.
flown over the aerodrome at a safe altitude above
The standard overhead join provides a predictable the circuit to look down and determine which runway
procedure for aircraft (both NORDO and radio is in use, or most suitable, to sight any traffic, and
equipped) to join the circuit with situational manage the safe sequencing with existing traffic.
awareness of each other’s movements.
It’s important to realise that there may be traffic
without a radio, NORDO (non-radio), and your only
Uncontrolled aerodromes method of avoiding collision with them is to sight
them and work out what they are doing from their
position and movements. That is why both NORDO
Vacating
and radio equipped aircraft must conform to
Leaving the circuit at an uncontrolled aerodrome is predictable, standard procedures, including right-
usually done from one of the circuit legs, climbing of-way rules, ensuring a high level of situational
straight ahead on the runway heading, or from awareness and the ability to sequence without
crosswind or downwind, or climbing to overhead causing conflict.
– remembering that turns are always in the circuit
direction. If intending to turn other than the circuit Discuss the information found on the aerodrome
direction, you need to fly clear of the circuit (2 NM chart that is applicable to the standard overhead
or greater than 1500 ft AGL) before making the turn. join procedure. This includes: aerodrome elevation;
runways available and their suitability; circuit
If operating a high-performance (speed or climb) directions; specific aerodrome instructions; the
aircraft with traffic joining that may be about to cross location of windsocks; and how to hold the chart to
the upwind threshold, it is best to delay the take- aid orientation. If the aerodrome is unfamiliar to the
off. Alternatively, manage the climb to pass through student, a study of the aerodrome chart should be
the upwind threshold below 1000 ft AGL clear of carried out before flight.
joining traffic.
Circuit training: Vacating and joining at aerodromes 153

Unless otherwise stated on the aerodrome chart, However, the most common method of joining at a
the standard overhead join is generally the joining controlled aerodrome is to be cleared by ATC to join
procedure used by NORDO traffic. on the downwind, base, or final approach legs. Such
a clearance may be for an aerodrome traffic circuit
If the aerodrome chart includes a parachute landing opposite to the published circuit for that runway;
area symbol, caution should be exercised, because for example, “join right base” for a runway with a
most landing charts where parachuting takes place left-hand circuit.
advise against the use of a standard overhead join.
This is also a factor where glider winching occurs. Another possible clearance is to “cross overhead and
join downwind”. This is not a standard overhead join.
In both cases, when approaching the aerodrome,
anticipation of using a standard overhead join It’s good aviation practice to establish the aircraft
procedure is appropriate. If on making a joining call on an extension of the circuit leg to be joined, well
it becomes apparent that parachuting or winching before reaching the circuit area.
activity is in progress, then the runway in use may be
advised or is clear. In such cases it is then prudent to Where ATC is in attendance, but ATIS is not
join downwind, base or final. If you arrive overhead available, common practice is to request joining
without indication of either activity, then situational instructions. ATC will inform the pilot of the conditions
awareness by all parties should permit completion of and clear the pilot to join the circuit in the most
the overhead join to at least the downwind position appropriate way.
before parachutes or gliders are launched.
When ATIS information has been received before
Discuss the requirement to terminate the flight plan reaching the reporting point for circuit joining, the
with ATC after landing at uncontrolled aerodromes. pilot should state or request from ATC the preferred
method of joining.
Simulating a standard overhead join by ‘walking
and talking the pattern’ beforehand can be useful A clearance to join downwind, base, or final does not
to prepare the student for this exercise. absolve the pilot from giving way to other aircraft
already established in the circuit.
If the cloud base prevents an overhead join, then still
approach the aerodrome with the field on your left, but
remain clear of the circuit by positioning greater than Aerodrome Flight Information Service
2 NM out and flying around the circuit pattern looking Where an aerodrome flight information service (AFIS)
to your left to confirm the wind and ascertain any traffic is provided, joining and departing procedures specific
before joining on either the downwind, base or final leg. to that aerodrome will apply. This may include the
standard overhead join.
Controlled aerodromes When joining at an aerodrome with AFIS a radio

call at 5–10 miles (or a position determined by
Vacating the airspace) is required to state your position,
altitude, intentions and POB. The AFIS will advise
When vacating a controlled aerodrome, all of the
the ATIS, QNH and traffic information. The arriving
previously mentioned options are available. In addition,
aircraft then advises more specific intentions based
a clearance to turn in the opposite direction to the
on the information received.
published circuit may be given by ATC, or requested
by the pilot. If a non-standard clearance is required,
keep a good lookout and request it before take-off.
Airmanship
Joining
When joining at a controlled aerodrome, the Preparing the aeroplane for arrival involves the use
pilot-in-command has the option of requesting a of AIP Vol 4, the VNC (Visual Navigation Chart 1:250
standard overhead join. This is a good idea if the 000 or 1:125 000 if applicable) and joining checklists.
pilot is unfamiliar with the aerodrome layout, the
Revise CAR 91.229 right-of-way rules and emphasise
active runway, or the position of the various circuit
the requirement to make turns in the circuit direction.
legs. ATC also has the option of instructing the pilot
to carry out a standard overhead join.

Good airmanship dictates that wind awareness
is always important. Continually observing any Human factors
available wind cues, least of all drift, should
mean that before joining, the wind can be
As the student is positioning overhead, encourage
reasonably anticipated.
them to get oriented by using the aerodrome chart
and wind socks for indications of runway in use.
If a downwind leg will not be flown, the aeroplane
is prepared for landing before circuit entry by using
The limitations of vision are revised in relation to
joining and prelanding checks.
closure rates and objects that do not produce
relative movement.
There is a tendency for the student to rely on radio
calls during the overhead join, and to make too many.
There is a lot of information to take in while
It is critical that a good lookout is carried out to
approaching and circling overhead. Encourage
identify all aircraft operating in the circuit, including
the student to approach it systematically.
those without radios.
Build and maintain situational awareness of
The overhead joining procedure is used to determine
other traffic, including surface activity and
the runway in use, and the position of traffic, in
runway conditions.
order to sequence safely. It does not presume a
right of way over existing circuit activity. It may be
necessary to remain in the overhead pattern, 500 feet
or more above circuit height, until safe sequencing
is available.
Air exercise
If potential conflict with other overhead traffic is

likely, vacate the overhead and continue (wings level) Vacating
to a point beyond the circuit area (approximately Discuss the way you would normally vacate your
2 NM) and turn left to return to overhead the home aerodrome circuit, and the way you would
aerodrome at or above the joining height to reassess. vacate other types of aerodrome.
When joining at an unattended aerodrome where

an IFR approach may be conducted, it is important Uncontrolled aerodrome joining
to understand and apply the right-of-way rules. If
When joining at an unattended aerodrome, a radio
the IFR aircraft is not visual, it will be descending in
call addressed to the circuit traffic is made between
cloud and be unable to see you or amend its position.
5 and 10 NM from the aerodrome, stating your
It will typically call at least 4-8 NM out as “on long
position (using VRP, prominent feature, or distance
final” which means if you are downwind it would be
and compass direction), altitude, and intentions. If the
prudent to extend until you sight the aircraft when it
first call is made some way out, it may be prudent to
becomes visual.
make a second call closer in as aircraft on the ground
may have just started up and not heard the first call.
The standard overhead join procedure is carried out

Aircraft management in three main phases.
Before entering the circuit, the aircraft’s speed will

need to be reduced to below 120 knots, where Standard overhead join
applicable, as circuit speeds are normally restricted
to this. Approach
The landing light should be on. Approach the aerodrome to cross overhead at not
less than 1500 feet above aerodrome level (refer
Joining checks should be completed. landing chart) unless otherwise stated on the
landing chart; for example, at Palmerston North
1500 feet AMSL is used because of airspace above.

When calculating the altitude to join overhead at, Be aware that some aerodromes have alternate
round up – assuming there is no overlying airspace circuit patterns for helicopter and glider traffic. If they
restriction. For example, if aerodrome elevation is 150 are in use, joining aircraft must sequence into the
feet, join altitude would be 1650 or 1700 feet, not circuit without causing conflict.
1600 feet. The reason for rounding up is to maintain
a 500-foot buffer over aircraft in the circuit, which Both the traffic and non-traffic side must be
may have rounded up the circuit altitude. At altitudes identified to avoid descending onto aircraft already
above 1500 feet, it is harder to distinguish the in the circuit. One method of identifying the traffic
windsocks, and more altitude will need to be lost on side is to have the student imagine they are lined up
the descent. In addition, if all aircraft join at the same on the chosen runway ready for take-off. If they were
altitude it should be easier to see each other. to take-off which way would they turn at 500 feet –
this establishes the traffic side.
Effort should be made to identify the wind before
arriving at the aerodrome by observing cues such Once the runway in use has been established and
as drift, wind shadow on stationary water, trees, the circuit direction is confirmed (refer landing chart),
smoke, dust, forecast wind, etc, to anticipate the into a turn is made in the circuit direction to position the
wind vector. aircraft on the non-traffic side. As aerodromes are
potentially areas of high traffic density, use no more
On approach, position the aircraft with the than a medium angle of bank. At this point it is good
aerodrome to the left, so that the student can look aviation practice to make a radio call advising traffic
out of their window, down and across the whole of the runway you are joining for.
aerodrome, observing traffic, windsocks and ground
signals or markings. Aircraft already in the circuit have right of way.
This means that if aircraft in the circuit are using
a runway considered unsuitable for your operation,
Determine runway in use the responsibility of avoiding conflict is on the joining
Firstly, the student must determine (if aware of the aircraft, even if the runway in use is out of wind.
wind direction, then confirm) which runway is in use,
Regardless of which way the aircraft is turning,
as this sets which direction to make all turns, and the
the turn is continued until the centreline of the
traffic and non-traffic sides.
runway in use is crossed, and the aircraft enters the
The runway in use can be worked out by observing non-traffic side. To enhance a good lookout, have
the windsocks, or other traffic already established in wings level sections in the overhead rather than a
the circuit. If the runway in use cannot be determined, continuous turn.
make a turn to the left and remain in the overhead
Avoid giving too much attention to ground features
pattern until it is determined. If it is then found that
during these phases, maintaining a lookout for other
a right-hand circuit is in use, continue to the non-
aircraft is more important as NORDO aircraft will not
traffic side positioning to make all further turns to the
be heard and must be seen.
right. If a right hand pattern is required, depending
on existing traffic, either veer left on crossing the
Additionally, look for gyrocopters, helicopters or
threshold to allow sufficient room during the turn to
gliders that may have a closer-in circuit than you
the right to descend to circuit height before again
expect. Likewise, high performance aircraft such as
crossing to the traffic side, or fly wings level clear of
twin-engine or warbirds may operate a wider circuit.
the non-traffic side to reposition in a right pattern.
Note that windsocks are generally sited on the Descend to circuit height
left near the threshold of each vector. On smaller
airfields, if there is only one windsock it will generally When established on the non-traffic side, descend
be centrally placed. If there are crosswind vectors to circuit altitude. A low rate of descent is preferred
without windsocks at each end, again there will because of the potentially high traffic density around
generally be a centrally sited windsock. an aerodrome. Common practice is to use a cruise or
powered descent.
If potential conflict with other overhead traffic is
likely, vacate the overhead and continue (wings level) The aircraft crosses onto the traffic side over the
to a point beyond the circuit area (approximately upwind threshold at circuit altitude. That provides
2 NM) and turn left to return to overhead the the longest possible downwind leg, while at
aerodrome at or above the joining height to reassess. the same time still providing maximum vertical

separation from high-performance aircraft taking Begin the exercise between 10 and 5 NM from the
off, or an aircraft that may be conducting a go- aerodrome, over a local feature or VFR reporting point.
around. This is predictable positioning for everyone’s
situational awareness. Talk through the standard overhead join procedure,
and then have the student practise before any
As the downwind leg will be shorter than normal, solo practice.
the pre-landing checks can be completed during the
descent on the non-traffic side or on the crosswind From the downwind leg, an approach and landing
leg (refer CFI). or go-around can be carried out before vacating
the circuit for student practice. If this is your home
On this crosswind leg, correct for drift, in order to aerodrome, you may elect not to do the landing,
track at right angles to the runway. A good lookout instead taking the opportunity to practise a go-around.
will need to be maintained for aircraft flying on If it is an unfamiliar aerodrome, however, landing
the downwind leg. Do not turn in front of any such practice would be beneficial.
aircraft – always position behind.
It is advisable for the student to experience
The downwind radio call is made as soon as the approaches from different directions and to different
aircraft is established on the downwind leg, and the vectors before conducting solo practice.
circuit is completed in the normal manner.
After flight
Controlled aerodrome joining
There probably won’t have been time to cover every
The standard overhead join can be carried out at method of vacating and joining the circuit, so advise
controlled aerodromes with a clearance from ATC. the student that you will take the opportunity in
More normally you will join via one of the circuit legs, future lessons to practise these different methods.
usually downwind or via base leg.
Consult AIP Vol 4 for differences, particularly where

there are neighbouring aerodromes.
Airborne sequence
On the ground
Make sure the student has all the necessary
information to hand, and they have briefed
themselves on the landing chart.
The exercise
Vacate the circuit as cleared by ATC, or the way you
discussed in the briefing.
The student will have already seen in previous

lessons how to vacate the circuit, but you may need
to prompt some of the radio calls.
If you will be using your home aerodrome for the

standard overhead joining procedure, head away
in an unfamiliar direction, to add a little realism.

Vacating and joining at aerodromes CIRCUIT TRAINING

• To vacate and join the circuit in accordance with applicable procedures. Vacating
• To join an uncontrolled circuit in accordance with the standard overhead • From home base
join procedure. • From (un)controlled aerodrome
Uncontrolled aerodrome joining – standard overhead join Controlled aerodrome joining

Considerations • Radio call to circuit traffic 5–10 NM from aerodrome • In accordance with ATC clearance or instructions
– position
Uncontrolled aerodromes – altitude
Vacating – intentions
• Climb straight ahead to 1500 ft
Approach
• Via crosswind or downwind • Cross overhead at 1500 ft AGL (if no other restrictions)
• Climb overhead • Position aeroplane so aerodrome can be seen out
• All can be done from controlled aerodrome – with clearance of student’s window
Standard overhead join • Look for other traffic, windsocks, and ground
(consider possible parachute and winching activity) signals/markings
• Used Runway in use
– To keep clear of the circuit until safe to join • Look at windsocks, and other traffic established to
– To observe other traffic, including NORDO establish circuit direction
– To identify circuit direction
• If can’t tell circuit direction continue left until can tell
– To determine conditions on the aerodrome – wind, surface, etc
• Watch out for helicopter or glider circuits Non-traffic side
– When unfamiliar with the aerodrome
• When circuit direction established,
• Check aerodrome chart in AIP Vol 4 in preparation
– all turns in that direction traffic side
• Terminate flight plan once on the ground
– Identify traffic and non-traffic sides
• Position on non-traffic side, make radio call
Controlled Aerodromes
• Others already in circuit have right of way
Vacating
• Same as uncontrolled, but clearance is needed Descend to circuit height
• Low rate of descent
• With clearance, could turn opposite to circuit direction – good lookout
• Cross upwind end of runway at circuit height
Joining
• Can request overhead join • Track crosswind – give way to aircraft already Wind
• Normally join downwind, base, or final on downwind leg
• Prelanding checks before downwind
• Could also “Cross overhead and join downwind”
• Downwind call on downwind leg
• Can request joining or may be given joining instructions
• Rest of circuit as normal
• Must still give way to those already in circuit

• Vol 4, VNC, joining checklists • Speed below 120 kts • Orientate using windsocks and aerodrome chart
• Right-of-way rules • Landing light on • Relative movement of small objects
• LOOKOUT, don’t rely on listenout • Systematic approach best
• Wind awareness

CIRCUIT TRAINING
Radio failure
Although modern aeroplane When the student’s home aerodrome is

controlled, the CFI will provide guidance on
radios are reliable, the what the student should do in the event of a
student needs to know the radio failure outside the circuit. The exercise
procedure to follow in the can be simulated if arranged with ATC in
advance, and outside peak times.
event of a communications
failure. It’s recommended However, if a diversion is required, training in
that once the standard this procedure will need to be given before
solo exercises outside the circuit.
overhead join procedure
has been mastered by
a student, simulated
radio failure procedures
should be taught before
any solo exercises in the
training area.
Circuit training: Radio failure 159

Many modern radios can be tested for signal
Objective reception by selecting the test function and signal
transmission confirmed by the small ‘T’ illuminating
when the press-to-talk switch is depressed.
To join at a controlled or uncontrolled aerodrome
in the event of a radio failure.
Airmanship
Considerations
Anticipate what the wind is likely to be, and therefore
circuit direction.
Legally, an aircraft cannot enter a control zone without
a clearance, so should the student break this rule or
Preparing the aeroplane for arrival involves the use
divert? Generally, ATC can be expected to accept an
of AIP Vol 4, Visual Navigation Charts (VNC), and
aircraft returning to the controlled aerodrome under
joining checklists.
these conditions, especially if the transponder code
7600 is used. Revise the importance of using eyes and ears to
lookout. Using the 20 degree per 2 second visual scan
If a clearance to enter the control zone has been
technique and listening to radio calls (if available)
received before the failure, then continuing in
builds situational awareness, and the student should
accordance with the clearance is what will be
be able to identify aircraft by both means.
expected. If the clearance did not specify a method
of joining, a standard overhead join may be the The right-of-way rules are revised, and the
best option, as ATC will be able to predict the requirement to make turns in the circuit direction
aeroplane’s movements. emphasised.
If a radio failure has occurred, it is unlikely to be Terminate your flight plan with ATC after landing.
detected until an attempt to make contact is initiated.
For example, when tuning into the ATIS, or when
requesting joining instructions. In the case of an
uncontrolled aerodrome, where position and intentions
only are transmitted, it may not be detected at all.
The general causes of communications failure are: Before joining the circuit, the airspeed should be
reduced to below 120 knots and landing lights
• wrong frequency selected, turned on.
• on/off and volume switch turned down,
• the aeroplane altitude too low and/or range

too great,
Human factors
• alternator failure (although battery power should
still be available and the alternator failure Information processing limitations and the use of
detected by other means), mental models to retain situational awareness will
• comm box switches not selected to headphones, help the student to draw a mental picture of the
position of reported traffic.
• avionics or master switch accidentally selected off,
• radio loose in its cradle,
• faulty headset connections, or

Air exercise
• a popped circuit breaker.
With a communications failure established, refer

Check for simple solutions first, by recycling – or
to AIP New Zealand Emergency Section for the
turning on – master switches or avionics selectors.
procedure to follow. Obviously it will be of some
benefit to the student to have read this section
before an in-flight communications failure.

The main points of this procedure are: Enter the control zone and carry out the standard
overhead join procedure, watching out for the light
• transmit blind (as all normal calls will be made,
signals and responding appropriately.
this action can be simulated)
• squawk 7600 (touch) Report the communications fault to the control tower
after landing.
• turn on all lights
• use a cellular phone to communicate if available.
Once a radio failure has been identified, the student

Airborne sequence
should be instructed to aviate and navigate – remaining
clear of controlled airspace, while a possible cause of
the problem is investigated.
On the ground
From the CFI’s determination of the procedure to follow Make sure the student has had time to study the
in the event of a radio failure, choose from the two particular communications failure procedures for your
options below. home aerodrome, as well as the general procedures
from AIP New Zealand.
Uncontrolled aerodromes
The exercise
The join procedure is exactly the same as the standard
overhead join, except that transmissions should be Organise with the Tower to show you and the student
made ‘blind’. A keen lookout for other traffic should be the light signals.
emphasised. If in any doubt, return to circle overhead
at 1500 feet. Simulate radio failure at different times to assess
the student’s decision-making while operating in the
Radio failure is simulated and the trouble-shooting circuit, in the training area, and entering and exiting
sequence or checklist carried out. Completing this controlled airspace.
sequence gives the student practice in prioritising
Aviate – Navigate – Communicate, and often
demonstrates the limitations of information processing
and the effects of stress. It is recommended that
the student be given adequate practice in systems
knowledge and fault detection on the ground,
before flight.
With the radio failure established, the AIP Vol 4,

VNC, and checklist can be referred to and the
communications failure procedure adopted.
Controlled aerodromes
The student will need to know the meaning of the
various light signals that will be used by ATC, and how
to respond to them.
The meaning of light signals and how to respond is

best covered in one of the pre-solo circuit revision
briefings recommended earlier. The meanings and
response need only be revised here by reference to
AIP Vol 4.
With the radio failure established, the AIP Vol 4,

VNC, and checklist can be referred to and the
communications failure procedure adopted.
Circuit training: Radio failure 161

Radio failure CIRCUIT TRAINING

To join at a controlled or uncontrolled aerodrome in the event of a radio failure. • Be familiar with comms failure procedures in AIP Uncontrolled aerodromes
• Transmit blind • Standard overhead join
• Squawk 7600 • Trasmit ‘blind’
Considerations • Turn on all lights • Keen lookout for other traffic
• If controlled, return or divert? • Use a cellular phone to communicate if available • Refer to Vol 4 and VNC
• Clearance required to enter Control Zone • Aviate – Navigate • Complete checklist
• Follow any clearance already accepted • Remain clear of controlled airspace while diagnosing and planning
Controlled aerodromes
• If cleared to enter, but no joining instructions – join overhead
• Light signals used by tower
• How is it detected?
• Vol 4, VNC
• Checklists
Causes
• Wrong frequency selected • Carry out standard overhead join
• On/Off and volume switch turned down • Report fault to tower after landing
• Altitude too low and/or range too great

• Alternator failure
Colour and type of signal To aircraft in flight To aircraft on the aerodrome
• Comm box switches, including intercom
Steady green Cleared to land Cleared for take-off
• Avionics or master switch accidentally off
• Radio loose in its cradle Steady red Give way to other aircraft and continue circling Stop
• Avionics master off Series of green flashes Return for landing Cleared to taxi
• Faulty headset connections/control settings
Series of red flashes Aerodrome unsafe – do not land Taxi clear of landing area in use
• Popped circuit breaker
Return to starting point
• Check simple solutions first Series of white flashes Land at this aerodrome and proceed to apron
on aerodrome
Series of alternate
Danger – be on the alert Danger – be on the alert
red and green flashes
Notwithstanding any previous instructions
Red pyrotechnic
do not land for the time being
1 Circling means continue tracking in the aerodrome traffic circuit. Do not orbit in position.
2 Clearance to land and taxi will be given in due course.

• Anticipate circuit direction • Below 120 kts before joining • Use mental picture to
• Vol 4 and joining checklists • Landing lights on help orientation
• Right-of-way rules
• Lookout
• Terminate flight plan after landing

Advanced
manoeuvres
The order of the next twelve

lessons will be dictated by
conditions on the day. It’s
expected that the student
be sent solo to practise
these manoeuvres in the
training area on a regular
basis between dual lessons.
Please refer to your CFI.
ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Forced landing without

power – pattern
This briefing covers the In addition, the student is familiar with the
need to produce an automatic response
determination of wind in emergency situations, and with the
direction; the selection of glide approach.
the most suitable landing
This lesson discusses the ideal procedure to
site; initial configuration follow in the unlikely event of a total or partial
of the aeroplane for best engine failure in the cruise at altitude (above
gliding performance; 1000 feet AGL as a guide) where more time
is available to plan and consider options
and the pattern flown than the EFATO. Later exercises will provide
to achieve a successful practice in adopting this procedure from a
forced landing. The lower altitude.
next lesson, Forced A partial engine failure or rough running is

landing without power more common than a total failure, but this
– considerations, covers is still rare. The recommended procedure for
dealing with the partial power failure begins
checks and further decision with the same steps as a total failure, and
making factors. therefore the pattern is relevant to both.
We’ve already discussed the main reasons for A total power failure will be simulated by
engine failure (fuel, air, spark) in the Engine closing the throttle.
failure after take-off lesson and how sensible
precautions can minimise risk – preflight
inspection and planning, run-up, checks,
safety brief, and SADIE.

Tree and leaf movement
Objective The tops of Poplar-type trees lean with the wind.
To be able to select an appropriate landing site Willows, after initial spring leaf growth, indicate wind
and carry out the pattern for a forced landing by showing the silver underside of their leaves in
without power. winds of 8–12 knots or more. The silver side of the tree
is the windward side.
Wind lanes
Considerations
Wind produces effects on the surface of water. Light
winds, 5–15 knots, can ruffle the surface and, when
Configuration viewed up or downwind, these disturbances form
streaks of parallel lines, indicating the wind direction
State the configuration required to achieve the
– but it can be difficult to resolve the 180-degree
best L/D ratio for the aeroplane (_____ knots, no flap
ambiguity unless wind shadows exist near the shore.
and propeller windmilling), and its effect on range.
The effect on range of using other airspeeds will
Above 15 knots, the wind may drive spray or foam in
be discussed in the next briefing, Forced landing
parallel lines. These too can be misinterpreted by 180
without power – considerations.
degrees, although the streaking may be more marked
when looking downwind compared with upwind.
Although drag is reduced by stopping the propeller,
this procedure is not recommended, or required, to
Fresh water typically forms whitecaps at 12–15 knots,
achieve the objective of this lesson (refer CFI).
and seawater at 15–18 knots.
Wind indicators Waves and ripples

The various methods of determining the wind speed
Small waves and ripples form at right angles to the
and direction are discussed, with initial emphasis
wind and move downwind. From altitude, however,
on direction, because the plan is based on wind
it may be difficult to determine the direction of
direction. Adaption of the plan is needed when wind
wave movement.
strength is recognised, and in the latter stages of
the plan.
Wind shadow
The most relevant indicators are those at ground
level: smoke; dust; crop movement; tree and leaf Wind shadow can be seen at the upwind end of a
movement; wind lanes; wind shadow on water; lake or pond. It’s an area of calm water where the
and drift. shoreline protects the water from the wind, creating
an area of calm water. This effect is most noticeable
in winds of 5 knots or more, when the sunlight reflects
Smoke off the water’s surface. A small version of this can
be seen as you walk out to the aeroplane after rain.
Smoke is a clear indication of wind direction and
Puddles of water will display this same effect when
strength, and rarely available when you need it.
the wind is blowing. Wind shadow is best seen on
small ponds or lakes of stationary water, rather than
Dust large expanses of water.
Dust from dirt roads, river beds, ploughing, or Any indication of wind seen in flight should be noted
ground spread fertiliser, may indicate wind direction in case it’s needed in the future.
and strength.
Cloud shadow
Crop movement
The movement of cloud shadow over the ground
Ripples move downwind across the top of crops, gives the wind direction and some indication of
especially wheat and hay fields. speed, at the cloud level. This is used only as a guide,
however, as the wind on the ground will probably
Advanced manoeuvres: Forced landing without power – pattern 165

be different. Likewise, the 2000-foot wind and area Size
forecasts are only a guide to the wind’s general
The ideal size is for the longest possible landing area
direction and strength. Apply local knowledge
into wind within gliding distance (to be discussed
and orographic effects to estimate the wind on
further in the ‘considerations’ lesson).
the ground.
Shape
Drift
Shape is mentioned because the student may limit
Drift can be useful, as it’s what you are experiencing
their search for a landing site to only those sites that
at altitude, but it takes experience to recognise it
resemble a runway. In fact, the perfect shape is a circle,
correctly. Be aware that it can be induced by flying
as multiple approach paths into wind are available.
out of balance.
Even a square is preferable in contrast to a narrow
paddock with only one approach path (see Figure 2).
The pilot needs to develop an awareness of where
the aeroplane is heading compared to where it’s
tracking. When flying across the extended centreline Figure 2
of any landing area, if drift is present it can be seen
(see Figure 1). Consider all shapes of landing sites
Figure 1 Wind
Drift
Wind
Local knowledge
Slope
The other means of determining wind direction and
An uphill slope for landing is preferred over level
strength are related to local knowledge and the
ground. A down slope should be avoided – it
aerodrome of departure. Local knowledge includes
would take a very strong wind to override the
terrain and local effects, such as anabatic or katabatic
disadvantages of a downhill landing. Slope can
winds, sea or land breezes, and how the Aviation
be difficult to detect at altitude, and when slope is
Area Winds (AAW) may be affected locally. Relevant
apparent from altitude, generally the terrain is very
conditions at the aerodrome of departure include the
steep. Water runs downhill, and a dam wall on farm
2000-foot wind forecast, the windsock, and the known
water storage ponds can also indicate downhill
take-off direction. The usefulness of these indicators
slope. Significant ‘white water’ in any flow indicates
is relative to the distance of the aeroplane from the
significant gradient.
aerodrome – and the intervening terrain.
Choice of landing site Surface

A firm surface is recommended, not so much for
The choice of the most appropriate landing site is
stopping distance, but to avoid the nosewheel
usually a compromise and is discussed using the
digging into the soft surface and somersaulting the
mnemonic, the ‘seven Ss, C and E’.
aeroplane. Determining the type of surface from
The seven Ss are: size, shape, slope, surface, altitude can be done by comparing the texture of
surrounds, stock and sun. The C is communication the local aerodrome’s grassed areas with those of
and E is for elevation. various paddocks.

Surface also includes anything on the surface, such This does not require the pilot to choose a specific
as: stock; crops; fences; stumps; rabbit holes; soft or forced-landing site and update it continuously in
wet patches; undulations; etc. cruise. By taking notice of their environment the pilot
should know where the wind is coming from and
where in relation to the aeroplane the more suitable
Surrounds terrain is for a forced landing. Should an emergency
Where possible, a landing site that has a clear field develop, an immediate turn toward this area is made
on the approach and the upwind end should be and then a specific field chosen.
chosen to provide for undershoot and overrun during
the forced landing. For the training exercise, a clear Choosing a flight path that takes into account
go-around and climb-out path is also considered. the terrain over which the student is flying shows
good airmanship.
An approach over a road will quite likely bring you
into close proximity with power wires running along
the road.
Airmanship
Sun Revise the checks that will only be carried out by
Sun is normally only a problem at sunrise and sunset, touching the control.
particularly in winter. Under these conditions an
approach in the direction of the sun may blind the
pilot on final. Accepting some crosswind may be Simulating engine failure
better than an approach directly into a low sun. There are at least two methods of simulating
the engine failure. Your CFI will determine the
organisation’s practice. Simulating engine failure
Communication in a variety of ways is more likely to expose the
All of the previous factors are the priority, but if student to the real life possibilities, and they are more
there is a choice available to land near habitation, likely to react appropriately, rather than to just one
especially where there is little of it, it will put you particular stimulus.
closer to help. For example, if you are over a ridge
and to one side is a remote area and the other has The recommended method is to partially close the
habitation – choose the habitation. throttle, and leave the student to respond by selecting
carburettor heat to HOT and closing the throttle.
Elevation Another method is to set the mixture to idle cut-

off, thereby encouraging the student to close the
Based on local knowledge, charts, or comparing
throttle and apply carburettor heat, as they would
the altimeter reading with terrain perspective, the
in the real situation. If using this technique, make
height above sea level of the landing site needs to be
sure the throttle is fully closed before returning the
estimated. This is because the procedure is planned
mixture to RICH. This method is not recommended for
on heights above ground level but flown on heights
single-engine aircraft.
above sea level with reference to the altimeter.
Once the student has gained some competence in
The pilot should be able to recognise heights without
this exercise you can introduce engine failures with
the use of the altimeter. For example, the circuit
little or no warning – as it would be in the real world.
height is generally 1000 feet – have the student
fix that as a metal picture they can use during this
The simulation is ended with the instruction to “go
exercise. Do the same for 500 feet and 1500 feet.
around”, at which point the student is to immediately
carry out a go-around. In later lessons more emphasis
will be placed on the student’s decision making to
Situational awareness
initiate the go-around without prompting.
The ability to quickly implement the forced landing
procedure is markedly enhanced by good situational It’s also important, in later lessons, for the student
awareness. Throughout the flight, the pilot should to complete the exercise through to the landing. This
observe wind indicators and the approximate can be completed by conducting the forced landing
elevation and suitability of the surrounding terrain. over an appropriate aerodrome.

Dual forced landing practice qualifies as a bona When conducting the FLWOP exercise, encourage
fide reason to fly below the height prescribed the student to approach all assessments from the
in rule 91.311(a)(2). See rule 91.311(c) for the perspective of exposure to threats they perceive, as
conditions required. they conduct each element of the exercise.
When practising solo, unless operating in a low

flying zone (LFZ), the go-around will be at 500
feet AGL (see CFI for the organisation’s limits). Air exercise
The exercise starts from an appropriate cruising

altitude (refer CFI), not a height above ground level,
Aeroplane management as the aeroplane is normally flown by reference to
the altimeter.
As a prolonged climb will be required before starting
the exercise, a period of level flight is recommended The initial actions, planning and flying the procedure
to allow the engine temperature to stabilise before are discussed.
closing the throttle.
To maintain adequate engine operating temperatures Immediate actions

and pressures during the prolonged glide, the engine Apply carburettor heat and close the throttle.
is warmed or cleared every 1000 feet (minimum) Carburettor heat will remedy a real icing problem or
by smoothly opening the throttle to full power and prevent one during the simulation. Select alternate air
closing it again. This ensures that normal power for fuel injected engines.
will be available for the go-around, clears the spark
plugs of lead and carbon deposits, and puts warm air Convert excess speed to height, since there may be
through the carburettor preventing ice buildup. If the an appreciable difference between the cruise speed
engine runs rough during the engine warm, consider and the recommended glide speed. The average
warming or clearing more often (every 500 feet), training aeroplane may not actually increase height,
delay closing the throttle again until smooth running but at least preserve it.
is achieved, or begin the go-around immediately or at
a considerably higher altitude than the minimum. This Set glide attitude and trim. As the best glide speed
will depend on the engine’s running characteristics is approached, allowing for inertia, the attitude is
and the terrain. selected for the glide and the aeroplane accurately
trimmed to maintain this attitude.
There is no need to select carburettor heat COLD
during the engine warm as no attempt is being Confirm wind direction and select a suitable
made to continue using full power. In addition, the landing area. If situational awareness has been
effectiveness of the carburettor heat is dependent on maintained, the wind and the approximate elevation
engine temperature, therefore, the application of full of surrounding terrain are confirmed. The aeroplane
power will ensure carburettor ice is cleared. is turned toward the most suitable area for a forced
landing. It should be stressed that – if the student
has not been maintaining their situational awareness
– valuable time will be wasted while these factors
Human factors are assessed.
Make the plan. See the notes below on making and

Avoid turning your back on the chosen landing site.
executing the plan.
Information processing loads are high in this first
Make a MAYDAY call (simulate only during training).
lesson, but with practice the overload will reduce,
and more information can be introduced.
Trouble checks
Avoid mindsets by revisiting and evaluating any
decisions made, especially those relating to wind. When there is time available for diagnosis, as there is
during a forced landing, carry out the trouble checks
to see if you can get the engine restarted.

F Fuel Start selecting the points from the ground up as there
is little point choosing a 1500-foot area if you are at
• Fuel selector ON, fuel pump ON (if applicable),
1300 feet.
• Fuel pressure and the contents gauges are Stress that the 1000-foot and 1500-foot references
checked and compared with the fuel tank selected. are above ground level, and that these provide
valuable orientation information if the landing site
• Some use CCPPP: cocks, contents, pump,
is lost from view.
pressure, primer.
Some organisations recommend an additional

M Mixture
2000-foot AGL area (refer CFI).
• Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED.
When the considerations of a right-hand circuit are
• These are checked and the mixture, in the case
introduced (refer CFI), the plan is simply flipped over,
to produce a mirror image on the right-hand side of
any improvement in power or smoothness.
the landing site.
I Ignition
• Ignition LEFT, RIGHT or BOTH (touch), check Landing aim point

temperatures and pressures.
The first step is to divide the available landing
• Trying LEFT (touch) and RIGHT (touch) magneto distance into three, and choose a definite reference
positions for smoother running may keep the or aiming point at about 1/3 of the way into the field.
engine running. Try to restart the engine with The logic behind this is that it’s better to taxi, even at
the ignition key (touch) if the propeller is not high speed, through the far fence than to fly into the
windmilling. threshold fence.
• Check the temperatures and pressures for any

Although a positive reference point on the field is best,
reading outside the green range.
it does not have to be in the field itself, but can be
abeam the 1/3 aiming point, one or two paddocks over.
P Partial Power
• Check.
1000-foot area
• Set the throttle to about one third open (refer
CFI) to see if any power is available. If no power The 1000-foot area is at 90 degrees, or right angles
is available, the throttle must be closed again so to the threshold, usually 3/4 of the normal circuit
as to prevent the engine unexpectedly bursting distance out (refer CFI). This area should be about
into life at an awkward moment. In the simulated the size of a football field or four to six suburban
exercise, the partial power check serves to warm residential sections.
the engine.
There is a natural tendency for the student to hug
the field, resulting in a very tight turn to final, and
The plan little or no opportunity to adjust the approach.
The downwind leg should never be closer than
A specific landing site or the best compromise needs
three-quarters of normal circuit spacing.
to be chosen and the approach planned.
Planning the approach begins with selecting a

1500-foot area
minimum of three reference points:
The 1500-foot area is a larger area further back from
• an aiming point 1/3 of the way into the field
the 1000-foot area.
in the landing direction,
• a 1000-foot AGL area (some prefer a point, From anywhere within this area, at 1500 feet AGL,
refer CFI), it will be possible to glide to the 1000-foot area
and arrive at about 1000 feet AGL.
• a 1500-foot AGL area.
This area may be over the field if low, or swung out
The aim is to fly the approach as similar to a left-hand
wider than downwind if high, as if the aeroplane is
circuit as possible, unless terrain, cloud, obstacles or
on a string held at the 1000-foot area.
gliding distance favour a right-hand circuit.

Altitudes Figure 3
The next step in the planning process is to transform

Spacing in the circuit – an example of how spacing is
the 1000-foot and 1500-foot areas into altitudes
assessed using the parallel markings on a low wing
that will be seen on the altimeter, by adding on the aeroplane
estimated elevation of the chosen landing site.
Correct Close – high move out Wide – low move in
It will be shown a little later how the downwind

spacing compensates for any error in the estimate
of elevation. A point worth making here is that it’s
always better to overestimate than underestimate
and that if there is any doubt, add two or three
hundred feet onto the estimate of the landing
site elevation.
Positioning In a high-wing aircraft, position the ‘runway’ within

the outer third of the strut.
The most important part of the plan is assessing
progress into the 1500-foot area from wherever the In the classroom, put a piece of paper, representing
aeroplane happens to be. the landing site, on a desk or the floor and give the
student a model aeroplane. Ask them to stand in
The ideal procedure starts from the non-traffic side, the downwind position and place the model at the
flying parallel to the chosen landing site to provide chosen downwind spacing.
a standard reference to which variables can then be
applied during later training. By lifting the model aeroplane higher, you can show
that the aeroplane is now too close or too high. At
The positioning process is assisted by asking at the new height the student must move out from the
regular intervals, “Am I confident of reaching the landing site to once again position the airframe
1500-foot area at _____ feet?”. If any doubt exists, a feature onto the diagram.
turn toward the area should be started immediately.
If no doubt exists, the turn can be delayed. Lowering the model will have the reverse effect (too
wide or low) and force the student to move in toward
Reconfirming wind, especially wind speed estimates, the diagram to re-establish the correct spacing.
by acknowledging drift may result in a plan
adjustment, especially in stronger winds. At the 1000-foot area, abeam the threshold, the
approach phase starts.
Once the 1500-foot area has been passed, the
aeroplane is positioned on the downwind leg.
The approach
Spacing How soon the base turn is started depends on the

wind strength. Strong wind, turn sooner. Light wind,
On the downwind leg, it’s vital that the spacing is turn later.
assessed in relation to the nominated point on the
aeroplane’s airframe to establish the correct circuit The base turn can be adjusted but never extend the
spacing. It’s this process that compensates for any 1000-foot area downwind.
misjudgement at the 1500-foot area, and any error in
estimating the landing-site elevation (see Figure 3). The aeroplane should be turned to track on base leg
at 90 degrees to the landing direction.
From the base leg, further adjustments can be made

if necessary. If the approach appears too low, the
turn onto final can be made early. Conversely, if
too high, the base leg can be extended or the turn
widened to pass through the centreline.
Throughout the approach, from the 1000-foot area

down to approximately 500 feet AGL, continual

reference is made to the 1/3 aim point and to The various reasons for choosing the landing site are
maintaining glide speed. No checks are carried out discussed in relation to the ‘seven Ss, C and E’.
during this segment. The student should be familiar with
the glide approach as covered in the circuit lessons. The introduction to forced landing without power is
never carried out onto an aerodrome or agricultural
It’s very important to offset drift during the base leg airstrip. This is because a major part of this exercise
to ensure the aeroplane tracks correctly in relation to deals with assessing the wind without a windsock or
the field. known active runway and the suitability of the landing
site, which is not a designated landing area. In addition,
The student should be repeatedly asking, “Can I reach all aerodromes attract aircraft and have an aerodrome
the 1/3 aim point?”. traffic pattern around them, requiring radio calls to be
made for the information of other traffic. Even if you
In extremely strong winds, or if a headwind is carry these out, they form a distraction to the lesson.
encountered on base, this may require the aeroplane
to be turned to point directly to the 1/3 aim point. The planning process is discussed next, specifically
choosing the 1/3 aim point, the 1000-foot area,
The aim of this process is to position the aeroplane the 1500-foot area, and how to initially achieve the
at about 500 feet, so as to touch down at the 1/3 aim 1500-foot area.
point, preferably without flap.
Throughout this process, the chosen landing site is
If there’s a need to use flap earlier, because you are kept on the left of the aeroplane (student’s side) and
grossly high, then flap is used. Application of flap in the aeroplane is held in a gentle level turn so that the
stages is used to bring the actual landing point back landing site can be continually observed.
toward the threshold from the 1/3 aim point, so as to
make maximum use of the length available. There are two common errors an instructor can make.
The approach and landing phase of this lesson 1. Getting too close to the landing site, requiring
will be covered in more detail in the following steep angles of bank or flight out of balance to
‘considerations’ lesson. observe the field. At the heights commonly used
to start this exercise, the aeroplane needs to be
at least 2 NM away from the field (at least twice
circuit spacing).
Airborne sequence 2. Not allowing for drift during the gentle turn to
observe the landing site – a constant radius turn
is required to maintain a constant distance.
On the ground
No new material included here. The student should The pattern
know all of the checks on the ground and be able to
take you to the training area with little input from you. Before the throttle is closed to simulate the engine
failure, all the considerations of wind, elevation,
landing site and reference points are discussed.
The exercise The aim is to demonstrate the ideal forced-landing
pattern, and later exercises will require the student to
During the climb and transit to the training area,
adapt this pattern for the conditions under which the
point out the various wind indicators and surface
power failure is simulated.
types (ploughed, swampy). Encourage the student to
evaluate the field type while they are carrying out the
The value of the demonstration and patter will be
go-around. Also, give the student some opportunity
negated if the student is not aware of which landing
to practise estimating the elevation of various landing
site is being used and what features define the 1/3,
sites, preferring a rounding-up estimate if in doubt.
1000-foot, and 1500-foot references.
The engine failure will be simulated from _____

Before starting
feet by closing the throttle. The first demonstration,
Before starting the exercise, all available indicators patter and student practice should be conducted
of wind should be observed or discussed, the initial at a suitable altitude so as to introduce the exercise
forced-landing site pointed out, and the student gently and allow them time to put the briefing items
asked to estimate its elevation. into practice.

It’s recommended that the exercise begin with the The aeroplane should be repositioned to the ideal
initial actions and a demonstration and patter. forced-landing start position using the same landing
This should consist of how the aeroplane is being site for student practice.
positioned for the 1500-foot area, the use of spacing
downwind to make the 1000-foot area, and how to
fly the base leg to make the 1/3 aim point. The checks Student practice
will be covered in the next lesson. The student should be encouraged to say how
confident they are about reaching the 1500-foot area
The aeroplane is positioned on the non-traffic side of and the 1/3 aim point and their allowance for the
the chosen landing site, facing into wind, preferably wind. If not, you may need to prompt the student with
at least 2500 feet AGL to give information-processing questions, especially if you doubt the aeroplane’s
time. Closing the throttle is at your discretion so, once ability to reach the nominated references.
all relevant points about the approach have been
observed by the student, position the aeroplane Do not use terms such as:
appropriately and start the simulation.
• “This approach looks high/low/correct.”
Carburettor heat is selected to HOT, the throttle Emphasise what the student should be looking at
closed, the initial actions carried out, and the plan to judge the approach: “This approach looks high
activated. Except for the regular engine warm, no in relation to the water trough (1/3 aim point)”.
other checklists are completed. • “Delay flap until you’re sure of getting in.” You
could be “sure of getting in” from 3000 feet AGL
Throughout the approach, you should draw the over the landing site. Emphasise, “Delay flap to
student’s attention to the relevant features and about 500 feet AGL and ensure the water trough
wind. The 1500-foot area is relatively easy to achieve (1/3 aim point) can be reached”. Provide for
because it’s such a large area, and the 1000-foot exceptions, by stating that “If flap is needed then
area cannot be missed if the spacing is correct. use it”.
Problems invariably arise in the judgement of the
approach to the 1/3 aim point. This is because the • “Can you reach the field?” This draws the
student has spent several hours in the normal circuit, student’s attention away from the 1/3 aim point
and all their experience in judging an approach has to look at the overall landing site. Students
been in relation to a threshold or runway end. It’s who go high/overshoot are usually doing this.
vital, throughout the base leg, that you repeatedly Students who go low/undershoot are always
draw the student’s attention to the 1/3 aim point looking at the threshold. Emphasise the 1/3 aim
and ask if the student is confident of placing the point, eg, “Can you reach the water trough?”.
aeroplane’s wheels on the ground at that point.
Where possible, this exercise concludes either with
Judgement of whether the 1/3 aim point can be a demonstration forced landing onto the home
reached or not is facilitated by maintaining a aerodrome, or the student is encouraged to fly the
constant airspeed and noting whether the aim point pattern down to about 500 feet AGL. During the
moves up the windscreen, down the windscreen, or latter exercise, you make all radio calls so that the
remains constant. student can concentrate on the pattern. Maintain
situational awareness and beware of other traffic
At this point, the objective of this exercise has been because a simulated forced landing does not give
achieved. The measure of success is whether or not you automatic right of way.
the 1/3 aim point could be easily reached from this
position. Regardless of the answer to that question,
you tell the student to go around. You, or the student,
After flight
must assess whether an earlier go-around is advisable The handout on this lesson should include a complete
due to turbulence, terrain, stock, or nearby habitation. set of checks to be learned before the next lesson.
In following lessons, the aeroplane will be taken Your student will be ready for solo exercises to the
below 500 feet and the student will have the training area soon, and they should be showing
opportunity to more accurately assess if the aim point progress in that direction. Encourage them to work
will be reached. on any weaker areas before they are sent solo.

Forced landing without power – pattern ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Wind
Clear engine
To be able to select an appropriate landing site and carry out the pattern From a cruising altitude... 1500 ft AGL area every 1000 ft
(minimum)
for a forced landing without power.
Immediate actions 4
• Carb heat HOT, close throttle

• Convert speed to height 3
Considerations • Set glide attitude and trim Spacing
Configuration • Confirm wind and choose landing site 2
• Best L/D ratio, idle power, prop windmilling, kt • Make the plan 1
• Effect on range • MAYDAY call (if reception is a consideration) 1/3 aim
point
Wind indicators Landing site Trouble checks

1000 ft AGL area
Work out direction from: 7 Ss, C & E
F Fuel Selector ON, fuel pump ON, change tanks (touch)
• Smoke • Size
M Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED (Alternate air) 7
• Dust • Shape 5
• Crop movements • Slope I Ignition LEFT, RIGHT or BOTH. Ts and Ps

• Tree / leaf movement • Surface
P Partial power check 6 Track base leg at 90°
• Wind lanes • Surround to landing direction
• Waves and ripples • Stock

• Wind shadow • Sun Make the plan 5 After 1500 ft area reached
• Cloud shadow • Communication 1 • Spacing downwind
Choose reference points
• Drift • Elevation • Landing aim point – 1/3 way into field
• Local knowledge 6 Approach starts at 1000 ft area
• 1000 ft AGL area – 90° from threshold area, but closer
• Constant assessment of approach by reference to 1/3 aim point
• 1500 ft AGL area – 500 ft back from 1000 ft AGL area
• Can adjust base turn – but not 1000 ft area
Consider all shapes of landing sites
2 Convert heights to altitudes • Offset drift
Wind
• Ask “Can I reach the 1/3 aim point?”
3 Positioning • Position at 500 ft so can touchdown at 1/3 aim point without flap
• Assess the aeroplane’s position and its ability to
• Use flap to bring 1/3 aim point back towards threshold
make it into the 1500 ft area
7 Landing phase covered in next lesson
4 Ask regularly
• “Am I confident of making it to the 1500 ft area”

• Checks, including touch checks • Ts and Ps stable • Don’t turn your back on paddock
• No pax and solo limitations • Engine warming 1000 ft • Practice will make it easier
• “Simulating” to begin with • Fly the aeroplane • Concentrate on pattern
Situational awareness
• Go around – landings later • Re-evaluate decisions to avoid mindsets
• Always keep an eye out for forced landing options
• Legal limitations
• Know what the surface wind is, and the better landing areas

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Forced landing without

power – considerations
This is the second part In the previous lesson, the student practised
the FLWOP pattern and the considerations of
of the forced landing how the pattern is planned. They have had
without power lesson. It the chance in the meantime to start to learn
builds on all of the pattern the checks and revise the last lesson. The
whole procedure is completed and practised
information learned in in this lesson.
the previous lesson, and
introduces the checklists Aviate and then navigate remain the prime
considerations of any emergency. When stress
and further considerations. levels are high, always revert to aviate first,
navigate second, and use only spare capacity
for anything else.

The gliding ability of every aeroplane varies but for
Objectives the average light training aeroplane, ‘within easy
reach’ is commonly described as: look down at an
angle of about 45 degrees and scribe a circle around
To carry out the recommended procedure in the event
the aeroplane; anything within the circle is within
of a total or partial engine failure, incorporating the
easy reach.
appropriate checklists.
To practise aeronautical decision making (ADM) to

Height
troubleshoot and rectify a partial power situation.
The size of the circle will obviously be affected by
height (see Figure 1).
Therefore, another of the most useless things to which

Considerations
a pilot is introduced – sky above you!
The probable causes of engine failure are revised and Never fly lower than you must!
the methods of avoiding this are emphasised.
Figure 1
The various factors affecting gliding range are
discussed. The effects of L/D ratio, altitude and wind Altitude affects the choice of possible landing area
are relevant to the first requirement of landing site
selection, ie, the site is within easy reach.
Best L/D
As was seen in the Climbing and descending lesson,
glide range depends on the best lift to drag ratio.
Effect of height (altitude)
When the aeroplane glides in the configuration for
the best L/D ratio (_____ knots, no flap, propeller Altitude (height) will also affect the amount of
windmilling), the angle of attack is about 4 degrees, time available for planning and completing the
the shallowest glide angle is achieved, and the range recommended checklists.
is greatest.
If the nose attitude is lowered to glide at a higher Wind

airspeed, the range will be reduced. If the nose
The glide range is increased by a tailwind and
attitude is raised to glide at a lower airspeed, the
reduced by a head wind. Therefore, the affect of wind
range will be reduced. This can be verified with
on range will be to elongate the circle downwind,
the VSI.
producing more of an egg shape than a circle (see
Figure 2).
The visual illusion created by raising the nose – trying
to stretch the glide – will require careful explanation.
Figure 2
Although raising the nose can make it look like

The affect of wind on range
the aeroplane will reach a more distant field, the
aeroplane sinks more steeply than it would if flown
at the best L/D ratio. This can also be confirmed with
the VSI. Wind
With the aeroplane trimmed to maintain an attitude

for the best L/D ratio, if the reference area or point
does not move down the windscreen, or at least
remain constant – it cannot be reached.
Advanced manoeuvres: Forced landing without power – considerations 175

Revise the trouble checks, and identify which items
Partial power are to be touch-checks only.
At the completion of the trouble checks, a check for
Introduce the pre-flight passenger briefing. The pre-
partial power is made by opening the throttle to full
flight passenger brief is used to describe:
power. If there is no response, the throttle is closed
and the forced landing without power continued. • the type and location of emergency equipment
on board,
However, if some power is available, for example,
• the method of getting out of the aeroplane, and
1800 RPM at full throttle, a range of choices become
available. These will require the application of • passenger’s actions following a forced landing.
aeronautical decision making and pilot judgement.
Time spent on the ground reduces the time required
The first decision to be made is whether to continue to explain these points in the event of an emergency,
with the forced landing by closing the throttle, leaving and it improves the passenger’s chances of exiting
the engine at idle and not relying on the available the aeroplane successfully.
power. The alternative is to use the available power
to transit to a more suitable landing site. This decision Inform the student that from now on it is their
must be made with the knowledge that a partial power responsibility to initiate the go-around, without
failure may become a total power failure at any time. prompting from you, at an appropriate height
(refer CFI). However, if at any time you instruct
Even if the decision is made to close the throttle, them to go around, the student must consider the
partial power may be available if required on final simulation ended.
approach – but of course, cannot be relied on.
The student should be reminded that, when
Other factors that will affect the decision are: authorised, this exercise may be carried out solo,
but some limitations will apply.
• The effect of wind.
• The suitability of the nearest landing site. In later lessons, this procedure will be carried out
onto aerodromes (or landing sites) so that the glide
• The amount of power available. For example,
approach can be incorporated and the complete
is there sufficient to fly level at not less than
forced landing procedure practised. However, the
the endurance speed or is a gradual descent
student should be aware that simulated forced
required to maintain airspeed?
landing practise does not provide them right of way.
• The type and height of terrain to be crossed
in transiting to a more suitable landing site.
For example, will flight over a built-up area be
required, or can leapfrogging from landing site
to landing site be accomplished?
• The cause of the power reduction (if known). For Stabilise the engine temperature before beginning
example, no oil pressure and reduced power can the exercise.
quickly become a total power failure.
Warm the engine every 1000 feet, minimum.
• The aeroplane’s altitude. Never fly lower than
you must.
Human factors
Airmanship
Do not concentrate on the checklists at the expense
of the pattern.
The engine failure will be simulated from _____ feet
by closing the throttle.
Stress is minimised by knowing the appropriate
procedural response to the unexpected, regular
Ensure there is sufficient height to complete
practice and thorough pre-flight planning.
the checklists without undue haste during early
student practice.

Figure 3
Air exercise
Pattern for a forced landing without power, showing the
1/3 aim point, 1000-foot area, and 1500-foot area
Action item checklist Wind
Engine failure will be simulated by partially closing

Clear engine
the throttle at 3500 feet AGL for the first lessons, but 1500 ft AGL area every 1000 ft
will vary lower and higher with more practice. (minimum)
4
1. Immediate actions:
a. Select carb heat HOT and close the throttle.

3
b. Convert excess speed to height. Spacing
c. Select glide attitude and trim (best gliding 2

speed for type).
1
d. Confirm wind direction and select suitable
1/3 aim
landing area. point
e. Plan the approach and execute.

1000 ft AGL area
2. Trouble Checks (FMI):
F Fuel 7
5
Fuel selector ON, fuel pump ON (if applicable),
change tanks (if applicable) (touch).
6 Track base leg at 90°
M Mixture to landing direction
Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED.
I Ignition
Ignition on BOTH (touch), check temperatures Aviate – Navigate – Communicate

and pressures. The principles of Aviate – Navigate – Communicate
must be followed during FLWOP training.
P Partial Power
Power check. Aviate Fly the aeroplane accurately and carry

out the checks thoroughly.
3. Assess the approach, MAYDAY call. Select 7700
Navigate Maintain situational awareness. Keep
and activate ELT. Passenger brief. Engine warm. the selected landing site in view at all
Assess the approach. times. Fly the aeroplane pattern so that
you achieve this, adjust as necessary.
4. Achieve 1500-foot area. Pre-landing checks.
Communicate Carry out a simulated MAYDAY call.
5. Achieve 1000-foot area. Communicate with others on board
to reassure and assist them.
6. Fly the approach.
7. Go-around or landing.

I Ignition
Immediate actions
• Ignition on LEFT, RIGHT or BOTH (touch), check
Select the carburettor heat HOT and close the temperatures and pressures.
throttle fully.
• Trying LEFT (touch) and RIGHT (touch) magneto
Convert excess speed to height by holding a level positions for smoother running may keep the
attitude until the speed approaches best glide speed, engine running. Try to restart the engine with
and then select glide attitude and trim. Glide speed the ignition key (touch) if the propeller is not
of this aeroplane is _____ knots. windmilling.
• Check the temperatures and pressures for any

Check the aeroplane is maintaining the glide speed, reading outside the green range.
re-trim as necessary. This will need to be checked
regularly throughout the pattern. P Partial Power
The importance of good situational awareness • Power check.

comes into prominence here. Knowing the elevation • Open the throttle to see if any power is
of surrounding terrain and the wind direction available. If no power is available, the throttle
(approximately) at all times will help if the engine must be closed again so as to prevent the engine
fails unexpectedly. unexpectedly bursting into life at an awkward
moment. In the simulated exercise, the partial
With the wind direction confirmed, choose a landing power check serves to warm the engine.
site (with reference to the ‘seven Ss, C and E’),
and plan the approach. Identify the 1/3 aim point,
the 500-foot area, the 1000-foot area, and the Transmit MAYDAY
1500-foot area.
Assuming the partial power check proved no
power is available, make a simulated MAYDAY
The most important part of the plan is assessing
call. The call can be spoken, but do not press the
progress into the 1500-foot area from wherever the
push-to-talk button!
aeroplane happens to be. “Am I confident of reaching
the 1500-foot area at _____ feet?” If any doubt
The mayday transmission must be done reasonably
exists, a turn toward the area should be immediately
early in the pattern because height is being
started. If no doubt exists, the turn can be delayed.
lost, reducing the effective radio range (line of
sight). Normally, this transmission is made on the
Through all the above actions, the student should
frequency in use. However, if there is no response,
be encouraged to perceive all relevant threats at
or the frequency in use is considered inappropriate
each stage, and ensure such threats are mitigated in
(for example, 119.1 aerodrome traffic), a change
actioning their plan.
to 121.5 (touch) should be made and 7700 (touch)
selected on the transponder.
Trouble Checks
If the Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) can be
F Fuel activated remotely from the pilot’s seating position,
• Fuel selector ON, fuel pump ON (if applicable), select it ON (touch).
• Fuel pressure and the contents gauges are Brief the passengers
checked and compared with the fuel tank
Valuable time can be saved here if a thorough
selected.
briefing of the emergency equipment and
M Mixture exits has been given before flight. You are still
responsible, however, for advising passengers of
• Mixture RICH, carb heat HOT, primer LOCKED. the circumstances and what you need them to do,
• These are checked and the mixture, in the case succinctly and clearly.
any improvement in power or smoothness. If time permits, the chosen landing site and the
direction of the nearest habitation should also be
pointed out to the passengers.

Exits are unlocked (touch if applicable), but normally M Master
left latched. Depending on aeroplane type, exits may
• Master switch OFF (when appropriate).
be jammed partially open. This prevents the doors
from jamming closed should the airframe become • In addition, the master switch should be turned
deformed. However, it may also weaken the airframe off (touch) to isolate electrical current. However,
– or it may not be permitted in flight (refer Flight for aeroplanes with electrically operated flap,
Manual and CFI). this action is delayed until the final flap selection
has been made.
Check for loose objects, harnesses are tight, and all
sharp objects such as pens and glasses are removed
from pockets. Achieve the 1000-foot area
At the 1000-foot area, abeam the threshold, start the
The passengers are also reminded to adopt the turn onto base leg while allowing for wind.
brace position on short final and are given a meeting
point. The meeting point is nominated in relation to Throughout the approach, from the 1000-foot area
the aeroplane or some prominent ground feature. It down to the go-around point, continuous reference is
is usually ahead of the aeroplane (upwind), assuming made to the 1/3 aim point. No checks are carried out
a landing into wind – to minimise the risk of burns during this segment.
should fire break out.
Approach
Warm the engine
Judgement of the approach is helped by repeatedly
Warm the engine every 1000 feet of the descent. asking, “Can I reach the 1/3 aim point?”.
The last engine warm will be just before the
1000-foot area. The aim of this process is to position the aeroplane
at about 500 feet AGL, so as to touch down at the
1/3 aim point, preferably without flap.
Achieve the 1500-foot area
“Am I confident of reaching the 1500-foot area From a position of about 500 feet AGL, when clearly
at feet?” If any doubt exists, a turn toward the area able to touch down at the 1/3 aim point, the actual
should be immediately started. If no doubt exists, the touchdown point is brought back toward the
turn can be delayed. threshold by extending flap.
The downwind leg starts from the 1500-foot area.

It is vital that on the downwind leg the spacing is
Go-around
assessed in relation to the nominated point on the At the appropriate height (refer CFI) initiate the go-
airframe to establish the correct circuit spacing. around. Have the student make an estimate of their
ability to land within the available space, and where
they think they would have touched down, had the
Prelanding checks (FMI) approach continued.
These checks take the place of the normal prelanding
(downwind) checks. Future lessons can be carried out over aerodromes,
where the student will be able to complete the
F Fuel exercise to the ground.
• Fuel OFF (touch).

If landing
M Mixture
Discuss pilot actions and responsibilities following
• Mixture IDLE CUT-OFF (touch). an actual forced landing (refer CFI).
I Ignition For more information on survival after a forced

• Ignition OFF (touch). landing refer to the Survival GAP booklet.
• These checks are carried out to minimise the risk

of fire.

Airborne sequence
The exercise
Give the student plenty of time to observe the
indications of wind direction and strength and to
choose a suitable landing site. Revise planning the
forced landing pattern before closing the throttle.
Begin the exercise at a suitable height (preferably

500 feet higher than the initial introduction to
forced landings) to allow discussion of the checklists
during the descent. Although a demonstration and
patter may be given the first time the checklists are
introduced, it may be of more value to allow the
student to fly the pattern and have you do, call or
discuss the checks as the plan unfolds (refer CFI).
Once the lesson is complete and during the return

to the aerodrome, a partial power failure may be
simulated and the considerations discussed.
Once the basic approach pattern has been mastered,

the commencement altitude, circuit direction, and
choice of suitable landing site should be continually
varied so as to expose the student to a wide range
of conditions.
After flight
Regular revision of these two exercises (total and
partial power failure) will need to be simulated
throughout the student’s training, as occasional
practice will have little real value.
Let the student know that the checks they were given
after the last lesson must be committed to memory,
as they could be needed at any time.

Forced landing without power – considerations ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To carry out the recommended procedure in the event of a total or partial engine failure, 2 3
1 Immediate actions Trouble checks Mayday call
incorporating the appropriate checklists. • Carb heat HOT, close throttle • 7700
• To practice aeronautical decision making (ADM) to troubleshoot and rectify a partial power situation. F M I P
• Convert speed to height • Plus ELT activation
• Set glide attitude and trim
• Confirm wind and choose
Assess approach
Assess approach
Considerations landing site Passenger brief
Best L/D ratio – airspeed • Make the plan and activate • Nearest habitation
• At exactly knots – approx 4° A of A • Remove sharp objects
• Raising or lowering the nose reduces Best L/D
• Brace position
the distance covered Hi A/S Low A/S
Assess approach
• Never raise the nose to ‘stretch’ the glide
Range Engine warm
Height Wind
4 Achieve 1500 ft area 5 Achieve 1000 ft area
• More height means more distance,
• Assess the approach and • Start base turn
and more time to plan
spacing Wind
Prelanding checks Clear engine

Wind
• Instead of downwind checks 1500 ft AGL area every 1000 ft
(minimum)
• F–M–I–M (Master after full
4
flap)
Effect of height (altitude)
6 Approach 7 Go-around 3
Partial Power • Can I make the 1/3 aim point? • Would I have made it? Spacing
If some power is available: 2
Landing
• Close throttle or go somewhere better? • What caused the failure? Will it cause
• PIC responsibility 1
• What if it fails enroute? more problems?
• Call ATC
• What is the terrain like enroute? • How much altitude do you have? 1/3 aim
• Do not attempt to point
take off again
1000 ft AGL area

Airmanship Aeroplane management
• Simulated by closing throttle • Ts and Ps stable
• Trouble checks • Engine warming every 1000 ft
7
5
• Passenger briefing
• Student to initiate go around
• Landing phase will be practiced later Human factors
6 Track base leg at 90°
• Pattern more important than perfect checks
to landing direction
• Practice will make it easier

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Steep turns
For the purposes of the pre-

flight briefing, a steep turn Objectives
is defined as a turn of more To change direction through 360 degrees at
than 30 degrees angle of a constant rate, using 45 degrees angle of
bank. Common practice is bank, maintaining a constant altitude and
to teach the exercise using in balance.
a 45-degree angle of bank. To become familiar with the sensations of high

Good training practice bank angles and high rates of turn.
means higher angles of To turn at steep angles of bank while gliding.

bank, up to 60 degrees,
should also be experienced.
The steep gliding turn has been incorporated Principles of flight
within this briefing as one method of
presenting the material. Some organisations Define the steep turn as a level turn at 45
prefer to present a separate briefing on steep degrees angle of bank.
gliding turns (refer CFI).
Explain that the steep turn is taught to
increase the student’s coordination and
skill, but the manoeuvre can also be used
to avoid an encounter with cloud, terrain or
other aircraft.
In this exercise, the turn is continued for

360 degrees, rolling out on the original
reference point, but if you were trying to avoid
something you would not turn through a
complete circle.
Steep gliding turns will also be covered as

applicable to the Forced landing without
power lessons, to cover the situation where

the base turn needs to be steepened, and to guard
against the tendency to pull the nose up as a result of L 1
the high descent rate. = LF = 1 or 1 G
W 1
Start with a revision the forces in the level medium
turn. There should be no need to start with an
explanation of the forces in straight and level.
At 45 degrees, the load factor is +1.41G, and at
Because we wish to turn at a greater rate we need an 60 degrees angle of bank the load factor is doubled
increased turning (centripetal) force (CPF). To achieve to +2G, and the student will feel twice as heavy.
this, we bank the aeroplane to a steeper angle
than in a medium turn, thereby providing a greater
acceleration towards the centre of the turn.
However, this inclination of the lift vector decreases

the vertical component of lift, therefore increased
lift is required in order to provide sufficient vertical
component to equal weight. This also further
increases the horizontal component, tightening the
turn even further.
An example of increasing the bank even further

should also be given. An angle of bank of 60 degrees
is recommended (refer CFI) because at this point lift
must be doubled to maintain altitude (see Figure 1).
To this point the discussion has mostly been revision;

now the acceleration forces acting on the aeroplane
are described.
The acceleration force opposing CPF is centrifugal

force (CFF). This is the acceleration that tries to pull
the aeroplane out of the turn. These two forces, CPF
and CFF, explain why water in a bucket doesn’t fall
out when it’s swung overhead.
The acceleration pushing the pilot into the seat is

known as ‘load factor’ (commonly referred to as G).
This is equal and opposite to lift, and the wings must
support it. Therefore, in level flight, where:
Figure 1
Increased lift required to keep the aeroplane level with increased angle of bank
VCL = W
L L
L
Lift doubled
CFF HCL = CPF
LF
W W
30° 45° 60°
Advanced manoeuvres: Steep turns 183

Some organisations mention the effects of banking • Presentation of the formulas in a preflight
at 75 degrees (this may be deferred to the Maximum briefing is probably not required (refer CFI).
rate turns lesson, refer CFI) where the load factor is However, the numerical effects are normally
increased to +3.86 (nearly +4 G). This is usually done presented in a table format.
only for the purpose of showing that the relationship
between angle of bank and G, as well as stall speed,
is not linear. Angle Load % increase in New stall
of bank factor stall speed speed
Although your drawing will show all the forces equal 0 1 50
and opposite to each other, the aeroplane is not
45 1.4 20 60
in equilibrium!
60 2 40 70
Equilibrium is a state of nil acceleration or constant
75 4 100 100
velocity, and velocity is a combination of speed
and direction.
Therefore, although the student may have trouble At the same time, because lift is increased by
understanding that the aeroplane is accelerating increasing the angle of attack, adversely affecting
toward the centre of the turn, the aeroplane is clearly the L/D ratio, the drag also increases – by 100
not maintaining a constant direction and therefore, percent at 45 degrees, and by 300 percent at 60
by definition, cannot be in equilibrium. degrees angle of bank. This increase in drag, or
reduction in L/D ratio, results in decreased airspeed.
The load factor is often referred to as ‘apparent
weight’ – because it is an acceleration (force) that the This is an undesirable situation, with the stall speed
wings must support, similar to weight. increasing and airspeed decreasing. Therefore, the
power is increased to combat the increased drag to
The effect of this increase in apparent weight, or load maintain a margin over the stall speed. This can be
factor, on the stall speed is described. referred to as a ‘power sandwich’ (see Figure 3).
The stall speed in a manoeuvre (VSM) increases as the

Figure 3
square root of the load factor (LF). Assuming a stall
speed of 50 knots in level flight, at 60 degrees angle
Power is increased to combat increased drag to maintain
of bank the stall speed will increase by the square
a margin over the stall speed
root of the load factor +2, which is approximately 1.4.
This means that, at 60 degrees angle of bank, the
stall speed is increased by 40 percent to 70 knots
(see Figure 2).
Airspeed
Figure 2
Increasing load factor, and stalling speed, with Power sandwich

increasing angle of bank
6 Stall speed
5
Load factor
4.4
4
In the medium level turn, the lift and drag increase
3 and the adverse affect on the L/D ratio was so slight
that the decrease in airspeed was ignored. However,
2 as the increase in drag, load factor, and stall speed
is not linear, the effect of increasing drag can no
1
longer be ignored. Therefore, any turn at angles of
bank greater than 30 degrees requires an increase in
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 power. At 45 degrees angle of bank this increase will
Increase in stalling speed 8% 18% 40% 100% be about 100–200 RPM.
Bank angle

This explanation coincides with the patter of “through The recovery method is to close the throttle,
30 degrees increase power” and is the reason why roll wings level, ease out of the dive and regain
the steep turn is defined as angles of bank greater reference altitude.
than 30 degrees.
All of these principles also apply to the steep gliding Steep gliding turn
turn. However, power is obviously not available to Spiralling down in the modern, low-drag light
oppose the increasing drag and therefore, at angles aeroplane can result in a very rapid increase in
of bank greater than 30 degrees the airspeed must airspeed and exceeding the aeroplane’s structural
be increased with any angle of bank increases. At G limits.
45 degrees angle of bank, the airspeed is increased by
20 percent of the stall speed (about 5 to 10 knots) to
maintain a similar margin over the increased stall speed.
Revise adverse yaw and how it is countered. The

Airmanship
amount of rudder required to overcome the adverse
yaw is dependent on the rate of roll. The amount of State any organisation-imposed minimum altitude
rudder required is kept to a minimum by encouraging for the conduct of level steep turns, and the minimum
smooth control inputs. At low airspeeds, the ailerons descent altitude for steep gliding turn practice
will need to be deflected further to achieve the same (refer CFI).
roll rate of higher airspeeds. This will significantly
Revise SADIE checks and the need to counter the
increase the induced drag and require more rudder to
effect of wind to remain within the lateral boundaries
negate the adverse yaw. This will become apparent
of the training area.
during gliding turns.
Revise any VFR requirements considered relevant.
Ensure sick bags are on board.

Considerations
Out of balance
If the aeroplane is out of balance in the turn and
rudder is applied to centre the ball, the further effects Above 30 degrees, power is increased with angle
of rudder must be countered. of bank. A 100-RPM increase at 45 degrees angle
of bank is only a guide. Beware of the RPM limit.
As rudder is applied, the correct angle of bank must
be maintained with aileron. The resulting yaw will
pitch the nose above or below the horizon, and
therefore an adjustment to attitude will also be
Human factors
required to maintain constant altitude.
To minimise disorientation, turns are made through

The spiral dive 360 degrees, rolling out on the same reference point
as that chosen before starting the turn. Because of
A spiral dive is generally caused by over-banking. the high rate of turn, a prominent reference point
should be chosen.
If the angle of bank is permitted to increase,
insufficient vertical component of lift will be Revise the restrictions imposed by the airframe, and
produced, and the aeroplane will descend. The the technique of looking in the opposite direction
natural tendency is to attempt to pitch the nose up to the turn, starting at the tail and moving forward
by increasing backpressure. Because of the high through the nose of the aeroplane and into the
angle of bank, this tightens the turn, increases the direction of the turn, so as to minimise possible
rate of descent, and may lead to a stall. conflict with aircraft directly behind.
The symptoms of a spiral dive are a high angle of In addition the effects of G on vision can
bank, rapidly increasing airspeed and increasing G. be discussed.

For some students, the sensation of the turn may If altitude is being gained or lost, first check angle
be uncomfortable at first. The student should be of bank. If the angle of bank is correct, adjust
informed that any discomfort will generally be backpressure to maintain constant altitude.
overcome with exposure and practice, but to speak
up early if they are uncomfortable. Emphasis is placed here on establishing the correct
angle of bank to prevent the onset of a spiral dive.
Exit
Air exercise
Look into the turn for traffic and the reference point.
The air exercise discusses entering, maintaining As a guide, allow for inertia by anticipating the roll
and exiting the steep level turn at a bank angle out by about half the bank angle before the reference
of 45 degrees. point. For the average training aeroplane, this will be
20 degrees.
Entry Smoothly roll wings level with aileron, balance with

rudder in the same direction to overcome adverse
A reference altitude and prominent reference point
yaw, and relax the backpressure to re-select the
are chosen and the lookout completed.
level attitude. Through _____ knots reduce power
to cruise RPM.
The aeroplane is rolled smoothly into the turn with
aileron, and balance is maintained by applying
rudder in the same direction as aileron to overcome Steep gliding turn
adverse yaw.
The steep gliding turn may be given either as a
Through 30 degrees angle of bank, power is separate briefing before steep level turn revision
increased with the increasing angle of bank, so that (refer CFI) or demonstrated and practised in
at 45 degrees angle of bank, power has increased this lesson.
by about 100 RPM. At the same time, backpressure is
increased on the control column to maintain altitude. Enter a steep gliding turn from straight and level
cruise by:
At 45 degrees, which is recognised through attitude • applying carburettor heat,
and confirmed through instruments, a slight check will
be required to overcome inertia in the roll and rudder • closing the throttle,
pressure will need to be reduced to maintain balance. • maintaining height until the nominated
airspeed is reached, and
The indication of 45 degrees bank angle on the
artificial horizon should be explained. • rolling to 45 degrees angle of bank,
• lowering the nose to maintain speed,
Maintaining • Trim.
Maintaining the turn incorporates the LAI scan. In the steep gliding turn, the attitude must be
Lookout into the turn is emphasised, and the adjusted to maintain the nominated airspeed.
attitude for 45 degrees angle of bank and level flight The risk of not maintaining the moninated airspeed
is maintained. or bank angle could be a spiral dive.
The effect of side-by-side seating on attitude

recognition should be discussed, preferably with the
aid of an attitude window.
During the turn, maintain the altitude with

backpressure – provided that the angle of bank
is correct. Maintain lookout around airframe
obstructions by moving the head.

Airborne sequence
The exercise
The student should be capable of taking you to the
training area, while operating as pilot-in-command.
This will include making all the radio calls, making the
decisions about which route to take, what altitude to
climb to, and keeping a good lookout.
Once established in the training area, have the

student practise medium level turns.
Emphasise lookout before and during the turn.
Take control and patter the student through the first

turn. Then have them practise in that direction, while
you correct any mistakes. Then have them try on their
own, with no input from you until the end. Then take
over and demonstrate in the other direction and
follow the same sequence.
During one of the demonstrations, either left or right,

ask the student to lift a foot off the floor so as to
experience the effect of G.
Discourage any tendency by the student to lean out

of the turn.
Once the student has completed satisfactory steep

level turns both left and right, the effects of an
out-of-balance situation and/or the spiral dive should
be demonstrated or practised. Recovery from a spiral
dive should be covered (refer CFI).
The majority of the lesson will be the student

practising the turn. By the end of the lesson they
should be able to tell you what they need to work
on in future.
On your return to the aerodrome, it may be a good

time to practise a forced landing, or an overhead join.
After flight
The next lesson will either be Maximum rate
turns or Wing-drop stalling. Remind the student that
you will be expecting them to practise these exercises
solo, and to have shown improvement when you next
fly with them.

Steep turns ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To change direction through 360 degrees at a constant rate, using 45 degrees angle of bank, Entry Exit
maintaining a constant altitude and in balance. • From S+L • Look for reference point
• To become familiar with the sensations of high bank angles and high rates of turn. • Choose prominent reference point • Anticipate rollout by half the angle of bank (20°)
• To turn at steep angles of bank while gliding. • Lookout • Roll wings level
• Roll with aileron, balance with rudder • Balance with rudder
• Through 30° AoB increase power and backpressure • Relax backpressure
Principles of flight • At 45° AoB, check with ailerons, reduce rudder • Reset S+L attitude
VCL = W
L L
• 45° AoB L to maintain balance • Through kt, reduce power
Lift doubled
• Avoidance / coordination – • Check PAT
CFF HCL = CPF In turn
practice 360° turn
• Lookout
• Also cover steep gliding turns LF Steep gliding turn
W W
• Attitude • Carb heat HOT
30° 45° 60°
L 1 • Instruments
= LF = 1 or 1 G • Close throttle
W 1 • Angle of bank controlled with aileron • Maintain height until glide speed reached
Angle Load %  in New stall • Altitude controlled with backpressure • Roll to 45° AoB
of bank factor stall speed speed • Lookout
• Increased apparent weight increases • Lower the nose to maintain glide speed
0 1 50 • If altitude changing check AoB first, then backpressure • Trim
stall speed
• Increased drag: 45 1.4 20 60
100% at 45° AoB
300% at 60° AoB 60 2 40 70
• Reduces airspeed  power sandwich 75 4 100 100
• Need to increase power
1
2 301
302
303
TER
ALTME
9
4 3
8
5
7
6
14
0 10
0
20
12 0
S
10 80
40
0 KNOT 60
Steep gliding turn

VACUUM
0
10
20
40
VACUUM
S
60
0
KNOT
12 140
0
80
10
9
8
0
7
ALTME
TER
6
1 2
301
• Cannot increase power, therefore increase airspeed by lowering nose
5
302
303
3
4
VACUUM
Adverse yaw
Airspeed
• Amount of rudder required to overcome depends on rate of roll
• Low airspeeds require more aileron deflection Power sandwich
therefore more adverse yaw Stall speed
Considerations Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors

Out of balance Spiral dive Steep gliding turn • Minimum altitude • 100 RPM increase • 360° turns
• When correcting with rudder • Caused by overbanking • At PPL level, not • SADIE checks • Lookout restrictions
keep correct AoB and adjust • Aeroplane descends, recommended, but if have to: • VFR minima • Effect of G
attitude tendency to  backpressure, idle power, max 45° AoB, • Sick bags • May be uncomfortable
 turn tightening and  RoD attitude to maintain speed
• Recover by closing throttle,
rolling wings level, ease out
of dive

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Advanced
stalling
This lesson covers the In level flight, the airspeed and nose attitude
will vary depending on the aeroplane’s
factors that affect the configuration (speed, power, flap, and gear
observed airspeed and settings) and therefore airspeed and nose
nose attitude at the stall. attitude are not reliable indicators unless
the configuration for the phase of flight is
Although the aeroplane always stalls when the considered. As was seen in the climbing lesson,
aerofoil is presented to the airflow at too high the aeroplane has a high nose attitude and a
an angle (>15 degrees) most aeroplanes are low airspeed but is nowhere near the stall.
not fitted with an angle-of-attack indicator.
Therefore, it is common practice to use the The purpose of this exercise is to revise
aeroplane’s stalling speed (VS) as a reference. the causes of the stall and to compare the
aeroplane’s nose attitude and airspeed
approaching the stall in various configurations,
and then to recover from the stall.
Advanced manoeuvres: Advanced stalling 189

Ice or damage
Objectives
If ice forms on the wing, or it’s damaged, the smooth
To experience the effect of power and flap on the airflow over that part of the wing will be disturbed,
aeroplane’s speed and nose attitude at the stall. allowing the airflow to break away earlier. The
effect of ice is twofold, in that it also increases the
To recognise the symptoms of the stall. aeroplane’s weight.
To stall the aeroplane and be able to recover from In flight, generally ice will form on the airframe only
the stall by taking appropriate action. if the aeroplane is flown in cloud.
The most common danger from ice in New Zealand

is its formation on the wings and tailplane of
aeroplanes parked overnight, and sometimes it is so
thin and clear that it is hard to detect. No attempt
should ever be made to take off with ice or frost on
The aeroplane’s manufacturer provides stalling
the wings or tailplane, because of its effects on the
speeds for one or more configurations as a guide to
smooth airflow and the resulting increase in stall
the pilot. For example, from level flight with a slow
speed – which cannot be quantified and may be well
deceleration, power at idle, and flap up, when this
above the normal rotate speed.
aeroplane reaches the critical angle, the airspeed will
read ____ knots.
Loading
Although the critical angle remains constant, the
stall speed will vary for other configurations and with Explaining this effect is one reason why advanced
several factors. stalling is often left until after solo circuits and steep
turns; before first solo the explanation is kept as
L = CL½ ρ V2 S simple as possible.
L = angle of attack x airspeed Loading, or load factor, is the name given to the
force/acceleration that the aeroplane must support,
Lift primarily varies with angle of attack and airspeed. for example, in pulling out of a dive. When you ride
Since the critical angle cannot be altered, anything a roller coaster, at the bottom of the dip you feel
that increases the requirement for lift will require an heavier, as you’re pushed into your seat by the force/
increase in airspeed to produce that lift. Therefore, acceleration of changing direction. For an aeroplane,
when the critical angle is reached, the airspeed will this is often referred to as apparent weight, or G,
be higher. and this increase in apparent weight increases the
requirement for lift, and increases the stall speed.
↑ L = angle of attack x ↑ airspeed
↑ apparent W → ↑ L → ↑ VS
Anything that decreases the requirement for lift will
decrease the airspeed observed at the stall.
Power
The mnemonic ‘WILPS’ can be used to remind us of
If the aeroplane could climb vertically there would be
the factors affecting the stall; the first three increase
no requirement for lift at all. So when thrust is inclined
the stall speed the last two reduce it.
upwards, it decreases the requirement for lift and
reduces the stalling speed. In addition, the slipstream
Weight generated by having power on increases the speed of
the airflow and modifies the angle of attack (generally
An increase in weight will require an increase in lift, decreasing it) over the inboard sections of the wing.
resulting in an increase in the stalling speed. The increased airspeed increases the lift and reduces
the aeroplane’s stall speed, and the modified angle of
↑ W → ↑ L → ↑ VS
attack increases the nose-high attitude (see Figure 1).

Figure 1
Airmanship
When thrust is inclined upwards, it decreases the
requirement for lift and reduces the stalling speed
Reiterate that passengers should not be carried
L during this exercise.
increased slipstream over
empennage increases elevator component of
and rudder effectiveness thrust assisting lift Situational awareness considers not only the position
T
of the aeroplane three dimensionally within the
training area but also the warning symptoms of the
flightpath approaching stall, and awareness of the flight phase –
power reduced but attempting to maintain level flight.
It also includes an awareness of other traffic.
Revise the HASELL checklist.
W
H Height (not altitude)
Height sufficient to recover by not less than 2500 feet

Slats, slots, or flap above ground level.
Flap increases lift and therefore the stalling speed
A Airframe
is reduced. However, flap also changes the shape of
the wing, and this results in a lower nose attitude at The entry configuration is revised: power, flap.
the stall.
S Security
The effect of flap on the lift/drag ratio should be
No loose articles, harnesses secure.
revised, with particular emphasis on the reason the
flap is raised gradually during stall recovery. E Engine
Although flap increases lift, it also increases drag – Temperatures and pressures normal, mixture rich,
generally, about the first 15 degrees of flap increases fuel sufficient and on fullest tank, fuel pump on.
lift with little adverse affect on the L/D ratio. It should
be appreciated however, that any use of flap will L Location
decrease the L/D ratio. Not over a populated area and clear of known traffic
The application of any further flap rapidly increases
drag, adversely affecting the L/D ratio. L Lookout
The point at which drag rapidly increases varies with Carry out a minimum of one 180-degree, or two
aeroplane and flap type, but this is usually at the flap 90-degree, clearing turns, to ensure other traffic
setting recommended for a soft-field take-off. will not result in conflict.
Slats and slots allow the aircraft to operate at a Revise the HELL checks.

higher CL (lift coefficient) max, re-energising the
boundary layer and therefore stall speed is reduced.
Height regained or sufficient to recover by not less
than 2500 feet above ground level.
Use of aileron
If, at the stall, the aeroplane starts a slight roll, using E Engine
aileron to stop the roll (a natural tendency) will Temperatures and pressures normal.
increase the angle of attack on the down-going wing.
This decreases the lift even further and increases the L Location
drag, continuing the roll – not stopping it.
This is the reason for maintaining ailerons neutral in
the initial stall recovery and using rudder to keep the
L Lookout
aeroplane straight on the reference point.
One 90-degree clearing turn.

If selecting flap below ____ knots (within the
Aeroplane management white arc) select full flap gradually and prevent
the tendency for the aeroplane to gain altitude or
‘balloon’ with the rapid increase in lift, by checking
Review the use of carburettor heat.
forward or relaxing the backpressure.
Revise the need for smooth throttle movements.
Full flap is recommended so that raising the flap can
Monitor and manage the engine temperatures and be practised in the recovery sequence.
pressures between stalls.
Through ____ knots, or when the aural stall warning is
heard, select carburettor heat to COLD, as full power
will shortly be applied.
Human factors
Stall warning symptoms
The regular turns and steeper than normal nose
attitudes could lead to some disorientation. Decreasing airspeed and high nose attitude
Make sure the student has time between stalls to
orientate themselves. The first symptom is decreasing airspeed. The rate
at which the airspeed decreases will be affected by
This exercise may produce some discomfort in the the amount of power and flap being used, probably
student, especially if your aeroplane type has a faster in this case with full flap.
tendency to wing drop. Reassure the student that this
is not a dangerous exercise when conducted above Note the effect of power on attitude and airspeed
3000 feet – as you will be doing. Tell the student that at the stall.
if they feel uncomfortable at any point, they should
Note the effect of flap on attitude and airspeed
say so. The aeroplane can then be flown level until
at the stall.
they feel comfortable to continue.
Low airspeed and a high nose attitude are not

always present in the approach to the stall as
was demonstrated in the no power, full flap, case.
Air exercise However, for most phases of flight, low airspeed
and high nose attitude are valid indicators; so too
HASELL checks are completed and a prominent is quietness.
outside reference point on which to keep straight
is nominated.
Less effective controls
Start by carrying out a basic stall entry and recovery
The next symptom is less effective control as a result
as a reference to compare the effect power and flap
of the lowering airspeed. However, the effectiveness
has on the stall. In particular, the student should
of the rudder and elevator will be determined by
identify the attitude, speed and recovery references.
the amount of power being used. In this case, the
elevator will generally retain sufficient effectiveness
Then teach the effects of power on the stall.
to bring the aeroplane to the critical angle without
Then the effect of flap on the stall. a sink developing. Control pressure in pitch will
be heavier.
Finally teach the effect of power and flap combined
on the stall.
Stall warning device
The stall warning device (which is not a true
Entry symptom) follows this. Because the stall speed with
From level flight, carburettor heat is selected HOT power and/or flap is reduced, the stall warning will
and the power smoothly reduced to ____ RPM. As sound later, at a lower airspeed.
the nose will want to yaw and pitch down, keep
straight with rudder and hold the altitude with
increasing backpressure.

Buffet A pitch change will occur as flap is raised if
uncorrected, therefore, the nose attitude must be
The last symptom is the buffet. The amount of buffet
held constant. In addition, flap should not be raised
detected depends on the mainplane and tailplane
with the nose below the horizon, as this will result in
configuration, as discussed in basic stalling. In
considerable altitude loss.
both the high-wing/low-tailplane and low-wing/
low-tailplane types, the flap deflects the airflow
Before raising the remaining flap, there are three
down onto the tailplane, and the buffet will be more
criteria that must be met:
noticeable. This will depend on the power setting
used, as the slipstream may mask any increased 1. safe altitude,
effect. In the low-wing/high-tailplane arrangement 2. safe airspeed (above a minimum and
there may be little change, but again depending on accelerating), and
slipstream effects.
3. a positive rate of climb (to counter the sink as
Remind the student to observe the attitude and a result of reducing lift through flap retraction).
when the aeroplane stalls note sink and the nose
pitching down. When these conditions have been met, raise the
remaining flap and counter the pitch change. The
aeroplane will continue to accelerate, and at the
Recovery nominated climb speed, select the climb attitude.
The recovery is still in two parts, but coordination and

Straight and level flight should be regained at the
speed of execution are increased.
starting altitude, and the reference point or heading
regained if necessary.
To unstall
Recovery from the stall is paramount. Minimising
Decrease the backpressure, or check forward, with height loss is only critical if close to the ground, and
ailerons neutral and remaining straight on the in that case, a maximum of 100 feet for standard
reference point with rudder. The student should be recovery, or 50 feet for onset recovery, is appropriate.
reminded that check forward with the elevator is a
smooth but positive control movement but not a push.
The correct use of aileron must be reinforced to

Airborne sequence
produce the required automatic response.
To minimise altitude loss On the ground

The student should be able to get the aeroplane
Full power is smoothly but positively applied – use
ready for flight, and carry out the checklists.
rudder to keep straight – and the nose is smoothly
raised to the horizon. There is no need to hold the
nose down as excessive altitude will be lost, while
The exercise
increasing backpressure too rapidly, or jerking, may
cause a secondary stall. The student should now be able to take you to the
training area and position the aeroplane within the
The result is sufficient to arrest the sink and minimise training area at a suitable altitude, completing the
the altitude loss. necessary checks, and carrying out the basic stall and
recovery. Your assistance is given only as required.
Hold the aeroplane in the nose-on-the-horizon
attitude and reduce the flap setting (as appropriate To refamiliarise the student with the stall nose
to aeroplane type) immediately. Do not raise all the attitude or airspeed, the student should start by
flap at this stage, for example in a PA-38 reduce to carrying out at least two basic stalls, with recovery
one notch of flap, or in a C152 reduce the setting at stall and then at onset with minimum height loss.
by at least 10 degrees. Any benefit of attitude plus
power will be reduced the longer the aeroplane is This exercise is leading the student to the realisation
held in the nose-on-the-horizon attitude with full that in the approach configuration, the attitude
flap extended. at the stall is noticeably lower than might be
expected, and that throughout a normal approach,

the aeroplane’s nose is well below the horizon. The During the entry and recovery, you should emphasis
emphasis is on the observed attitude at the stall eyes outside on attitude and keeping straight
more than the indicated airspeed although the lower using the reference point, for it will be shown in the
airspeed should be noted. wing-drop stall that, if the aeroplane is permitted
to yaw, one wing will stall before the other. In
Demonstrate a stall with some power and no flap, addition, smoothly raising the nose to the horizon
and recover. Point out the nose-high attitude and and countering the effects of raising flap should
lower airspeed. The more power used, the more be emphasised.
noticeable the increased nose-high attitude and the
lower the stall speed. At high power settings with no The student should be able to return you to
flap, the entry can be considerably prolonged (unless the aerodrome, and make most of the radio
altitude is gained). Therefore, normally somewhere calls required.
between 1500 and 2000 RPM should be sufficient
(refer CFI).
After flight
Then demonstrate a stall with no power and full flap, If this lesson is given after solo and circuit
and recover. Point out the nose-low attitude, often consolidation, it is recommended the next lesson
similar to the straight and level attitude, the lower be Wing-drop stalling.
airspeed, and with flap how quickly airspeed reduces.
Otherwise, the next lessons will be in the circuit,
During the demonstrations or follow-through of the where the student will be learning how to fly a circuit
stall, with power only, and then flap only, you must and land the aeroplane. They will be drawing on all
ensure that a constant altitude is maintained during of the skills they have learned so far. Ask the student
the entry, as any tendency to gain altitude will affect to read any notes on the circuit lessons.
the nose attitude observed at the stall.
Once the difference in attitude and airspeed at the

stall, as a result of the aeroplane’s configuration
has been observed, introduce the effects of a
combination of power and flap on the attitude and
airspeed. Use the approach configuration for this.
After the student has experienced the stall symptoms

and recovery technique, move on to recovery at
onset. Outside the training environment, the student
needs to be able to recognise the symptoms of
the approaching stall and recover before the
aeroplane stalls.
Rather than nominate the stall warning as the

‘symptom’ at which to recover, ask the student to tell
you the symptoms they expect to see and in which
order, and then say them as they occur. The stall
warning will typically activate at 1.2 VS which is too far
above the stall to effectively demonstrate and note
the symptoms clearly. The student needs to recognise
the feel of the aeroplane when near the stall.
If the stall warning is not operative, the buffet, if

recognisable in the aeroplane used, may be used as
the symptom at which recovery is initiated. The only
disadvantage of this is that, with power on, the buffet
may be very difficult to detect.

Advanced stalling ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To experience the effect of power and flap on the aeroplane’s speed and nose attitude Entry
at the stall. • HASELL checks and reference point (high)
• To recognise the symptoms of the stall. • Carb heat HOT
• To stall the aeroplane and be able to recover from the stall by taking appropriate action. • Close throttle/reduce power as applicable
• Keep straight with rudder
010
0
140 20 9 1
ALTMETER
8 2
301
120 302
KNOTS 40 303
100 7 3
80 60 VACUUM 6
5 4
• Maintain altitude with  backpressure
Principles of flight • Through kt (white arc) select flap, adjust attitude
• Aeroplane stalls at critical angle, and speed • Therefore airspeed will be higher at the • Through kt (stall warning sounds), carb heat COLD
will vary with configuration critical angle
• Manufacturers list stall speeds for simplicity • Anything that  L required means a  Symptoms
• L = Angle of attack x airspeed airspeed at the stall • Observe effects of power, flap, and power and flap • Less effective controls
• Anything that  L required means an  • Low and  airspeed • Stall warning – if fitted
airspeed at the stall • High nose attitude • Buffet
Factors affecting stall speed At the stall

• Aeroplane sinks and nose pitches down
Weight  W requires  L therefore  stalling speed Same nose attitude

Recovery
Ice/damage Changes flow and increases weight, requires Same nose attitude To unstall
 L therefore  stalling speed • Check forward with control column to reduce • Do not use ailerons
Loading  Apparent weight requires  L therefore  stalling Same nose attitude angle of attack
speed To minimise height loss – max of 100 ft
Power  Power requires  L due  airspeed over wing Higher nose attitude • Power + Attitude = Performance
therefore  stalling speed • Unstall, as above, check forward • Reduce from full flap, 1 setting
Slats/slots /flap Flap  L and  stalling speed Lower nose attitude • Apply full power – balance with rudder • At safe altitude, safe airspeed, and +ve RoC, raise all flap,
• Raise nose to the horizon (stops sink and allows adjust attitude
Aileron Down-going wing will have  AoA, beyond stall
 L and  D further  continued roll, not stopping it acceleration) • Regain starting altitude and S+L
Recovery at onset
• Normal situation – when not training
L
increased slipstream over • Recover at stall warning / buffet
empennage increases elevator component of
and rudder effectiveness
• Height loss – 50 ft maximum
thrust assisting lift
flightpath Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors

• No pax • Smooth but positive throttle and • More practice and exposure the better
• Awareness of aircraft configuration, control movements • Plenty of time between stalls to
symptoms, traffic • Carb heat orientate
• HASELL checks • Ts & Ps • Unusual attitude possible, but plenty
W • HELL checks of height for recovery

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Maximum
rate turns
To achieve the maximum This briefing discusses the factors that limit
the rate of turn, not only for the aeroplane
rate of turn, the greatest being flown, but also for fixed-wing
possible force toward aeroplanes in general, so that the principles
the centre of the turn is may be applied to subsequent types.
required. This is achieved For the purposes of collision avoidance in

by inclining the lift vector as response to an emergency situation, the turn
far as possible. Therefore, entry requires a rapid roll in. The roll out is
smoothly executed because the emergency
maximum CL (coefficient is over. It should be noted, however, that the
of lift), achieved at the need to do a maximum rate turn suggests
maximum angle of attack, earlier poor decision making.
is combined with the As an exercise, the rapid-roll in and smooth

maximum angle of bank. roll out provide excellent coordination
practice, because two different rates of rudder
The maximum rate of turn occurs when the and elevator application are required to
aeroplane is changing direction at the highest match the rate of roll. Logically, these turns
possible rate, ie, maximum degrees turned would not be continued past 180 degrees in
through in minimum time. In most light two-seat the case of collision avoidance.
training aeroplanes, the angle of bank during
this exercise is approximately 60 degrees.
A minimum radius turn achieves a change of

direction using less space and is usually done
at a lower speed.

Airspeed
Objective
Figure 1
To carry out a balanced, maximum rate, level turn
using full power.
Vg diagram – velocity versus G loads or load factor
5
Structual failure area
Principles of flight No lift area
3
t
lif
The limitations of turning while using the highest um

Load Factor – G
m
2 a xi
possible angle of attack and at the highest possible m
Caution
angle of bank are discussed. range
1
Smooth
Safe area air only
Briefly revise the forces in the turn and the increasing
0
load factor with increasing angle of bank. ma
xim
um
-1 lift
No lift area
Maximum lift -2 Structual failure area
Lift varies with angle of attack and airspeed. The Airspeed – knots 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
ASI colour coding
highest useful angle of attack is just before the vS0 vS1 vFE vA vNO vNE
critical angle, about 15 degrees. At this high angle of
Definitions
attack, maximum CL, considerable drag is produced, vA Design manoeuvre vS0 Stall speed – flaps extended
and if the aeroplane stalls, or the buffet is reached, vNO Normal operating speed vS1 Stall speed – clean
the drag will increase dramatically. Ideally, sufficient vNE Never exceed speed vFE Maximum speed with flap extended
backpressure should be applied to activate the

stall warning (if it is operating) on its first note. The speed we are particularly interested in, with
Alternatively, the very edge of the buffet will need to regard to maximum rate turns, is VA (see Figure 1).
be used as a guide to maximum CL.
VA is the maximum speed at which the pilot can
Note: flying the aeroplane with the stall warning make abrupt and extreme control movements and
activated and not carrying out the stall recovery not overstress the aeroplane’s structures. Above
could be considered negative transfer. On the other VA and the aeroplane can be overstressed before
hand, considerable situational awareness is required it stalls. Below VA the aeroplane will stall before it
to purposely operate the aeroplane in this regime. is overstressed.
This is a particularly important consideration if the

nose is allowed to drop during steep turns, and
the pilot pulls back harder on the control column
to regain height. The correct recovery technique is
to reduce the angle of bank before increasing the
back pressure.
VA is determined by multiplying the basic stall speed

by the square root of the maximum load factor. If the
aeroplane has a basic stall speed of 50 knots and a
maximum flight load factor of 4, the VA speed would
be 100 knots (50 × √4 = 100). Practically, the speed
will be found in the Flight Manual.
Advanced manoeuvres: Maximum rate turns 197

VA is affected by the aeroplane’s weight and If speed is below VA at entry, full power can be used
reduces as weight reduces. This is because a heavier before rolling into the turn. If speed is at VA, full power
aeroplane will take longer to respond to a full can be applied in conjunction with the roll. When
control deflection than a lighter aeroplane. The quick speed is above VA, roll into the turn first and then
response of the lighter aeroplane results in higher apply power, so as not to exceed VA.
loading. Therefore, as the weight of the aeroplane is
reduced, the speed at which full and abrupt control To make a maximum rate turn, you need to turn at the
movements can be made is also reduced (refer highest angle of bank that can be sustained at the
Flight Manual). lowest possible airspeed – just above VS – that is why
the stall warning is used to indicate maximum rate.
Rate of turn is the rate of change of direction, ie, how
many degrees are turned through in a specific time,
usually a minute. Angle of bank
Somewhere between wings level and 90 degrees
Radius of turn is the size of the arc made by the there is a practical limit to the angle of bank that can
aeroplane as it turns. be used, as the aeroplane cannot be turned at 90
degrees angle of bank because there would be no
Figure 2 vertical component to balance the weight, no matter
how much lift was produced.
High airspeed means high turn radius
90 kts
Structural limit
Figure 3
Increasing load factor, and stalling speed, with increasing

60 kts angle of bank
5
Load factor
4.4
4
A low speed means a higher rate of turn; a higher 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

forward speed means a lower rate of turn.
Increase in stalling speed 8% 18% 40% 100%
Bank angle
A high speed allows you to generate more lift and
therefore use an increased angle of bank, but the
This diagram shows the relationship of load factor to
high airspeed means the radius of the turn (how many
increasing angle of bank (see Figure 3). The structural
nautical miles it takes to make the turn) is high and
load limit for the aeroplane will determine the
therefore the rate will be lower (see Figure 2).
maximum angle of bank that could be used without
To turn at maximum rate we need maximum structural failure. Most light training aeroplanes have
centripetal force and maximum lift. The increased positive structural load limits of +3.8G in the normal
angle of attack means increased drag, so full power category and +4.4G in the utility category. It can be
is used. As rate of turn is proportional to velocity, the seen that this limit is reached between 70 and 75
limiting factor in a maximum rate turn is power. degrees angle of bank. Therefore, the average light
training aeroplane cannot turn at angles of bank
greater than about 75 degrees without causing
structural damage.

Angle of bank limit Limitations of the pilot
From the graph, state the limiting angle of bank you The only other limitation on achieving the maximum
will be using in your aeroplane. rate of turn is that of the pilot.
The steep turn, generally approved as a semi-

aerobatic manoeuvre in most light training
aeroplane’s Flight Manuals, involves an angle of bank Considerations
of about 60 degrees.
Semi-aerobatic manoeuvres approved in the Flight

Entry speed above VA
Manual may be carried out only while operating in
the utility category. If the airspeed is above VA for the weight, the
entry must employ a smooth roll in. Generally, the
The difference between the normal and utility application of power is delayed until the aeroplane
category is determined by the position of the C decelerates to VA. Then, power is applied as required
of G (refer Flight Manual). For most light training to counter the increasing drag in an effort to maintain
aeroplanes there is no difference in the C of G range, VA (for the weight).
only a restriction that the baggage compartment
must be empty for the aeroplane to be in the utility or
semi-aerobatic category. Entry speed well below VA or normal cruise
This would be any airspeed around the stall speed for
As was seen in the Steep turns lesson, an increase 60 degrees angle of bank (VS plus about 40 percent,
in angle of bank requires an increase in the angle eg, 50 knots plus 40 percent = 70 knots).
of attack to increase the lift, which in turn increases
drag, adversely affecting the L/D ratio, resulting in a In this case, power should lead the roll-in or be
decrease in airspeed. applied rapidly, but smoothly, as soon as the roll-in
is started.
Power is used to oppose the increase in drag.
However, since power available is limited, the
airspeed will reduce as the angle of bank increases.
The stalling speed increases as the square root of

Airmanship
the load factor. With a basic stall speed of 50 knots,
75 degrees angle of bank increases the stall speed to The aeroplane’s VA speeds at all up weight and
approximately 100 knots. Even if there were no drag empty (if given in the Flight Manual) are most relevant
increase this would be about the normal cruise speed. to this exercise. A stall, or the use of abrupt control
movements to initiate the entry, must be avoided
Therefore, the maximum angle of bank will also above this speed.
be limited by the amount of power available to
overcome the increasing drag. For most light training Any organisation-imposed minimum altitude for the
aeroplanes, this is the limiting factor at about 60 conduct of maximum rate turns should be stated
degrees angle of bank. With the amount of power (refer CFI).
available, the highest possible speed that can be
maintained is a stall speed well below VA (about
a 40 percent increase over the basic stall speed).
However, it’s not necessarily the only limiting factor, Aeroplane management
as a light twin-engine aeroplane or high performance
single may well have sufficient power to combat the For light training aeroplanes, the increase in drag will
increased drag and maintain or exceed VA. Commonly require that maximum power is used – do not exceed
in this case, the aeroplane’s structural limitations limit the RPM limit.
the maximum angle of bank.
The aeroplane’s C of G limitations for the normal and
utility categories may be revised.

When the stall warning is activated, maintain
Human factors backpressure and hold the angle of bank to maintain
height. This will be recognised through attitude and
confirmed through instruments, a slight check will
Disorientation is minimised by choosing a very
be required to overcome inertia in roll and rudder
prominent reference point. In addition, regular
pressure will need to be reduced to maintain balance.
practice at conducting the turn through 360 and
180 degrees (in later lessons, refer CFI) will also
In the entry from straight and level, excess airspeed
improve orientation.
may permit a higher angle of bank to be selected
initially, especially if the roll is very rapid. However, as
With an increasing positive load factor or G, the
the airspeed reduces, the angle of bank will need to be
heart has more difficulty pumping blood to the brain.
reduced to CLmax to maintain altitude. Therefore, for the
Because the eyes are very sensitive to blood flow, the
purposes of coordination, it may be beneficial to roll
effects on vision of increasing G are noted.
rapidly but smoothly, so that the airspeed reduction
During the maximum rate turn, in most light training coincides with CLmax and with the application of full
aeroplanes, the increased G would not be expected power (refer CFI).
to exceed +2G.
If the very rapid roll-in is preferred (for a true
Spots before the eyes form at about +3G, with grey- avoidance turn rather than a coordination exercise),
out occurring at about +4 to +5G, and blackout at the initial angle of bank must not exceed the angle of
about +6G. bank at which the structural limits are reached.
These effects vary between individuals and are

Maintaining the turn
affected by physical fitness, regular exposure and
anti-G manoeuvres or devices, for example, straining, Maintaining the turn incorporates the LAI scan.
or the use of a G-suit. Emphasise lookout, and maintain the attitude for
CLmax and level flight.
The effect of side-by-side seating on attitude

Air exercise recognition should be discussed, preferably with the
aid of an attitude window.
The air exercise discusses entering, maintaining and

During the turn, maintain the maximum amount of lift
exiting the level maximum rate turn.
for the airspeed by maintaining the first note of the
stall warning with backpressure.
Entry
As the lift cannot be increased any further, the
A reference altitude and very prominent reference altitude is maintained with angle of bank. Therefore,
point are chosen and the lookout completed. with the stall warning activated, if altitude is being
gained or lost, alter the angle of bank.
A check is made to establish where the aeroplane’s
speed is, in relation to VA for the aeroplane’s weight. Angle of bank can only be increased to the maximum
For most light training aeroplanes the airspeed will coinciding with the aeroplane’s structural limit. An
be about 10 to 20 knots below VA when entering the alteration of ±5 degrees angle of bank should be
maximum rate turn from level flight. sufficient to maintain altitude.
Assuming the airspeed is below VA, full power is applied

and the aeroplane is rolled rapidly, but smoothly, Exit
into the turn with aileron, and balance maintained
Look into the turn for traffic and the reference point,
by applying rudder in the same direction as aileron.
and allow for inertia by anticipating about 30 degrees
As large deflections of aileron are used, more rudder
before (half the angle of bank), and roll out smoothly.
than usual will be required to overcome adverse yaw.
Theoretically, the emergency is over; anticipating
Backpressure is increased on the control column to
by half the bank angle will require a reduced rate
keep the nose attitude level relative to the horizon,
of rudder application compared to the entry. This
pulling smoothly to the stall warning (or light buffet)
provides practice in coordination.
to maximise lift.

Smoothly roll wings level with aileron, balance with
rudder in the same direction to overcome adverse
yaw, and relax the backpressure to re-select the level
attitude. Most low-powered training aeroplanes
require the reduction of power to be delayed on
exiting the maximum rate turn.
Therefore, through ____ knots (normally the same

airspeed used in entering straight and level from the
climb) reduce power to cruise RPM.
Airborne sequence
The exercise
Once the student has taken you to the training area
you should start the exercise with medium level turns,
making sure the student notices the attitude. Follow
with practice of the steep turns from the last lesson,
also noting the attitudes required.
Then you take over and demonstrate, with patter,

the maximum rate turn in one direction, followed by
student practice with you talking them through, and
then the student has the opportunity to practise.
Then the other direction.
During one demonstration, the student’s attention

should be drawn to the rate of turn by looking at the
rate at which the nose progresses around the horizon.
If the aeroplane is brought to the buffet or stall, the
rate of turn will noticeably decrease. Inclusion of this
demonstration is at the CFI’s discretion.
The majority of the lesson is taken up with student

practice, as it may take some time for them to reach
an acceptable standard.
After flight
Be clear with the student about whether you are happy
for them to practise this exercise solo. There will be
plenty of opportunity to practise these in dual flights.

Maximum rate turns ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Objective Considerations
To carry out a balanced, maximum rate, level turn using full power. Entry above VA Entry below VA
• Smooth roll in, delay power until decelerated to VA • Lead with power or at same time as roll in
• To change direction at the highest possible rate – maximum degrees in minimum time Air exercise
Entry
Maximum lift Rate of turn and radius of turn • Choose reference altitude and prominent reference point • Through 30° AoB increase backpressure to
• L AoA and Airspeed • Rate of turn = rate of change of direction – ° /min • Check speed relative to VA maintain altitude
• Max CL at start of stall warning or edge of • Radius of turn = size of the arc made by the • Apply full power, roll in smoothly, balance with rudder • Stop at the stall warning (light buffet)
buffet aeroplane – will need more rudder than usual • Check ailerons and rudder
• Slow speed – high rate of turn • Maintain backpressure and AoB
Airspeed • High speed – low rate of turn
• Max rate turns limited by VA
• Turning at max rate requires max CPF and Maintaining
• VA is the speed at which you can make
max lift • LAI
abrupt and extreme control movements and • Rate of turn velocity therefore power is • Attitude differences due side by side seating
not overstress the aeroplane’s structures
limiting factor in a max rate turn • Maintain first note of stall warning with backpressure
• Found in Flight Manual
• Altitude maintained with AoB
• Affected by weight Angle of bank
2 301
1
302
303
• With stall warning sounding if altitude is being gained

R
5
ALTMETE
9
5 4 3
8
6
• Between level and 90°

7

or lost, alter AoB
VACUUM
14
0
0
0
10
20
40
0
20
S
4
10 80
140 010
40
12 KNOT 60
80 60
120
100 KNOTS
No lift area Structural limit

VACUUM
8
9
0
ALTMET
7 6
ER
• For this aeroplane is G

5
3
1 2
301
4
302
303
3
t
lif
um
im
2 ax Limiting angle of bank
m
Caution
range
•  in AoB requires  in AoA to  lift, associated 
1
Smooth
drag  decrease in airspeed
Load Factor – G
Safe area air only
• Power available limited therefore airspeed will
0

ma reduce as AoB 
xim
um
-1 lift • Stalling speed  as the load factor Exit
No lift area
• Maximum AoB limited by the amount of power • Anticipate roll out by 30°
-2 Structual failure area
available • Smoothly roll wings level with aileron, balance with rudder, and relax the backpressure to re-select the level attitude
Airspeed – knots 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170
• Delay power reduction
ASI colour coding
vS0 vS1 vFE vA vNO vNE • Through kt, reduce power to cruise RPM
Definitions
vA Design manoeuvre vS0 Stall speed – flaps extended
vNO Normal operating speed vS1 Stall speed – clean
vNE Never exceed speed vFE Maximum speed with flap extended Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors
• VA is kt • RPM limit • 360° turn to minimise disorientation
• Smooth control movements • C of G limits • Physical G limits during turn,
• Minimum altitude generally 2G

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Wing-drop
stalling
This briefing discusses By wing-drop stall we mean a stall where

one wing stalls before the other. The wing
the reasons why one that reaches the critical angle first (at about
wing may stall before the 15 degrees) will stall first, losing lift and
other, resulting in the stall causing a roll at the stall. This often happens
because of poor pilot technique where the
commonly known as a aeroplane is out of balance at the stall, or
wing-drop stall, as well aileron is being used.
as the consequences and
Once the wing stalls, aileron will not stop the
correct recovery technique. roll, it will worsen the situation. If the wing-
drop is not promptly recovered, a spin may
Stalling in the turn may produce the same
develop. The purpose of this exercise is to stop
consequences and requires the same recovery
the natural tendency to pick the wing up with
technique. If the turn is to be maintained
aileron and to practise the correct method
rather than level flight regained, only the
of recovery.
entry and the last item in the recovery are
different. Therefore, stalling in the turn may
be incorporated in this briefing. However, at
the PPL level, the CFI may prefer a separate
briefing for stalling in the turn (refer CFI).
Advanced manoeuvres: Wing-drop stalling 203

Turbulence
Objectives
When operating near the critical angle, a gust
To revise stalling with power and flap. or turbulence may result in aileron being used to
maintain wings level, or the modified airflow as a
To carry out a stall from straight and level flight (and result of the gust may cause one wing to exceed the
the turn) recovering from a wing drop with minimum critical angle.
altitude loss.
Rigging
One wing can stall before the other due to
Principles of flight incorrect rigging.
Revise the cause of the stall – exceeding the critical

Power
angle of attack, regardless of the observed airspeed.
Slipstream modifies the angle of attack on each wing
There are many reasons why aileron may be in use at because of its rotational nature. In clockwise rotating
the stall. engines (as viewed by the pilot), the angle of attack
is decreased on the starboard wing and increased on
the port. Again, due to aileron use, or an increased
Turning angle of attack, the aeroplane may drop a wing more
During the turn, angle of bank is maintained readily when partial power is used.
with aileron.
Flaps
Out of balance It’s possible for flap to extend at slightly different
If the aeroplane is permitted to yaw at or near the angles. In addition, when flap is extended, the
stall there will be a tendency for the aeroplane to roll aeroplane is less laterally stable, because the centres
(further effect of rudder), which will increase the angle of pressure on each wing move in toward the wing
of attack on the down-going wing. In addition, if an root. This increases the tendency for the aeroplane to
attempt is made to maintain wings level with aileron, be easily disturbed in roll, which may cause one wing
the down-going aileron will increase the mean angle to exceed the critical angle. However, there is also a
of attack on that wing. This usually results in that greater need to use aileron to maintain wings level in
wing reaching the critical angle first. this configuration. Therefore, the aeroplane may drop
a wing more readily when flap is selected.
Ice or damage
Consequences
If ice forms on the wings, or one wing is damaged,
by bird strike or ‘hangar rash’, the smooth airflow The consequences of one wing exceeding the critical
over the wing will be disturbed, and may break away angle before the other are discussed.
sooner than the flow over the other wing – resulting in
that wing stalling earlier than the other. The wing that stalls first has a reduction in lift,
causing roll. The roll increases the angle of attack on
the down-going wing and may delay the stall of the
Weight imbalance up-going wing. Increasing the angle of attack past
the critical angle will result in a decrease in lift but
If all the passengers or fuel are on one side of the
a substantial increase in drag – use CL (coefficient
aeroplane, some aileron will be required to maintain
of lift) and CD (coefficient of drag) against angle of
wings level.
attack graph (see Figure 1).

Figure 1
Airmanship
CL and CD versus angle of attack
Revise the requirement to carry out all stalling

practice in a safe environment.
Revise the HASELL and HELL checks.

CL
Emphasise symptom recognition for avoidance.
The student should strive to improve situational

awareness by integrating the attitude and airspeed
with the aeroplane’s configuration, phase of flight,
and symptoms of the approaching stall.
CD
As the objective is to carry out a stall with a

wing-drop, a configuration most likely to induce
a wing-drop is used, commonly 1700 RPM and full
flap. The combination of these two factors will often
- 4˚ 0˚ 4˚ 8˚ 12˚ 16˚ 20˚
lead to a wing-drop occurring at the stall.
Angle of attack
Some aeroplane types, eg PA38, will perform good
The increase in drag yaws the aeroplane toward the
wing-drop stalls in the basic configuration (power
down-going wing, which may further delay the stall of
idle, flap up) (Refer CFI).
the up-going wing as a result of increased airspeed.
This process, where yaw causes roll, which causes Revise the airspeed and RPM limits.
yaw, is known as ‘autorotation’.
By using aileron to stop the roll (a natural tendency),

the mean angle of attack increases on the down-
going wing. The lift continues to decrease with an
Human factors
increase in angle of attack (past the critical angle),
Overlearning is used to improve information
while the drag continues to increase rapidly with any
processing to recognise the situation and consciously
small increase in angle of attack. Show the effect of
ignore the roll while responding with the correct
aileron on the CL and CD curves on the graph.
recovery technique.
The use of aileron adversely affects the roll
and favours autorotation. This is the reason
for maintaining ailerons neutral in the initial
stall recovery. Air exercise
The correct method of stopping autorotation Start by revising stalling in various configurations.
is to break the yaw-roll-yaw cycle, and since This will help make the student more comfortable
aileron cannot be used effectively to stop the roll, before tackling the wing-drop stalls.
rudder is used to prevent further yaw. The nose
is lowered simultaneously by the control column When satisfied that the student is ready to
checked centrally forward (no aileron input) with progress, you should begin the exercise with the
the application of rudder, and this will stop the demonstration and patter of a wing-drop stall
roll immediately. (see Airborne Sequence).
Advanced manoeuvres: Wing-drop stalling 205

Excessive rudder should not be applied (to level the
Entry wings through the secondary effect of rudder) as this
HASELL checks are completed, and a prominent may cause a stall and flick manoeuvre in the opposite
outside reference point (backed by the DI) on which direction to the initial roll (wing drop).
to keep straight is nominated.
From level flight, carburettor heat is selected HOT

To minimise the altitude loss
and the power smoothly reduced to ____ RPM. As Full power is smoothly but positively applied. At
the nose will want to yaw and pitch down, keep the same time, level the wings with aileron (as the
straight with rudder and hold the altitude with aeroplane is now unstalled), centralise the rudder,
increasing backpressure. and raise the nose smoothly to the horizon to arrest
the sink and minimise altitude loss.
Below ____ knots (in the white arc) select flap
gradually, if applicable to the aeroplane type. During Hold the nose at the level attitude, and reduce
the application of flap, check forward to prevent the flap setting (as appropriate to aeroplane
any gain in altitude due to the increase in lift, before type) immediately.
reapplying backpressure to maintain altitude.
At a safe height, safe airspeed, and with a positive rate
Through ____ knots, or when the aural stall warning is of climb, raise remaining flap (counter the pitch change).
heard, select carburettor heat COLD, as full power will The aeroplane will continue to accelerate, and at the
shortly be applied. nominated climb speed select the climb attitude.
At the stall, altitude is lost, the nose pitches down, Straight and level flight should be regained at
and one wing may drop. the starting altitude and the reference point or
heading regained.
If the aeroplane is reluctant to drop a wing at the stall,
alter the power and flap combination (refer CFI) and
relax rudder pressure to simulate the pilot’s failure to
maintain directional control. Alternatively, a gentle turn
Airborne sequence
may be required (5 degrees angle of bank).
There is nothing underhand about these techniques,

The exercise
as permitting the aeroplane to yaw or stall in the turn
are possible causes of a wing-drop stall. The student should be capable of positioning the
aeroplane within the training area at a suitable
Avoid an accelerated stall (by zooming the entry) which altitude, completing the necessary checks, and
may produce a rapid roll. The student should see a possibly carrying out the advanced stall and recovery.
rapid stall at some point in their training, but the first Instructor assistance is given only as required.
stall is not the time for it. If a pronounced wing-drop
occurs, the application of full power may need to be For the purposes of demonstration and patter, the
delayed to avoid exceeding flap limiting speeds, or VNE. recovery may be broken down into three separate
phases (refer CFI). Alternatively the three phases may
be condensed into two or even one phase, depending
Recovery on your assessment of the student’s ability.
The recovery may be discussed in three parts, but the
It is recommended that all stalling exercises
ultimate objective is to coordinate all three actions.
finish with a reminder that outside of the training
environment the student would recover at the onset
To unstall of the stall at the latest.
Keep the ailerons neutral. At the completion of this exercise, there may be time
to practise Maximum rate turns, if previously covered.
At the same time

Simultaneously decrease the back pressure (check
forward) and apply sufficient appropriate rudder to
prevent further yaw.

Wing-drop stalling ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To revise stalling with power and flap. Entry
• To carry out a stall from straight and level flight (and the turn) recovering from a wing drop with minimum altitude loss. • HASELL checks
• Prominent reference point
• Carb heat HOT
Principles of flight • Set power to RPM
• Cause of stall – aeroplane exceeding critical angle of attack • Keep straight with rudder, and maintain altitude with backpressure
• Below kt (white arc), select flap
Aileron use at stall • Through kt (stall warning) – carb heat COLD
• At the stall, altitude is lost, nose pitches down, and one wing may drop
Turning AoB maintained with aileron
Recovery
Out of balance • Yaw at or near stall  tendency to roll, which  AoA on down-going wing
• Also, if trying to maintain wings level with aileron, down-going aileron will  the mean AoA on that wing
To unstall Keep ailerons neutral
Ice or damage • Smooth airflow over affected wing disturbed, may break away sooner than over other wing
At the same time Simultaneously
Weight imbalance • If all passengers / fuel on one side of the aeroplane, aileron needed to maintain wings level • decrease the back pressure/check forward and
• apply sufficient appropriate rudder to prevent further yaw
Turbulence • May result in aileron being used to maintain wings level, or may cause one wing to exceed the critical
angle To minimise the Smoothly but positively apply full power.
Rigging • Wings fitted at different angles of incidence, or flaps rigged incorrectly – one wing would reach the altitude loss At the same time:
critical angle before the other • level the wings with aileron,
• centralise the rudder, and
Power • Slipstream modifies the angle of attack on each wing therefore aeroplane may drop a wing more readily
• raise nose smoothly to horizon – to arrest the sink and minimise
when partial power used
altitude loss
Flaps • Flap may extend at slightly different angles
• Also, with flap extended aeroplane less laterally stable (CoP on each wing moves in toward wing root).
• Hold nose at level attitude, reduce flap setting immediately
 tendency for aeroplane to be disturbed in roll
• Also, greater need to use aileron to maintain wings level in this configuration • At safe height, safe airspeed and positive RoC – raise remaining flap (counter the pitch
change)
• Wing that stalls first has a  in lift  roll • Regain starting altitude and reference point
• Roll  the AoA on down-going wing and may delay stall of up-going wing
•  AoA past critical angle   lift but substantial  drag CL
•  drag yaws aeroplane toward the down-going wing, may further delay Airmanship Aeroplane management
stall of up-going wing as result of  airspeed – yaw causes roll, which • HASELL and HELL checks • Carb heat
causes yaw = autorotation
• Stall with power and flap • Airspeed and RPM limits
• Using aileron to stop roll   AoA on down-going wing CD • SA – attitude, airspeed, configuration, flight phase,
Lift  with  AoA (past the critical angle), while drag  rapidly
symptoms
with any small  AoA
• Rudder used to prevent yaw and lower nose Human factors
CL and CD
• Overlearn correct technique
versus angle
of attack
- 4˚ 0˚ 4˚ 8˚ 12˚ 16˚ 20˚
Angle of attack

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Short field take-off

and landing
Developing the student’s Performance (‘P’) charts, where available, are

a valuable source of take-off performance
decision-making processes information. Manufacturer’s graphs in Flight
in relation to taking off Manuals should be used in the absence of P
or landing on runways charts. If using the latter, it’s recommended that
pilots apply the appropriate surface correction
of minimal length factors from Advisory Circular 91-3 Aeroplane
provides a real challenge performance under Part 91.
for the professional
An approach to a field where the runway
flight instructor. length is unknown, or is known to be too short,
may occur during the precautionary landing.
This briefing uses the performance data
This is an emergency procedure, but the
provided in the Flight Manual to operate
approach technique is the same as for a short
the aeroplane at its safe and legal limit.
field landing.
A short (or minimal) field is one where the

The Take-off and landing performance GAP
runway length is shorter than that normally
booklet is a useful reference for this lesson.
available for the conditions, but is still
sufficient for take-off and/or landing. It’s not
one that is too short. Nor is it one where the
runway length is unknown.
When a runway group number is not available,

or is available but less than the aeroplane’s
group number, reference must be made to the
Flight Manual to ensure there is adequate
runway length available under the existing
conditions. As a rule, if doubt exists under any
circumstances, refer to the Flight Manual.

However, if you’re not on the aerodrome of take-
Objectives off, you need to know the aerodrome’s QNH (from
the METAR) and elevation (from the aerodrome chart)
in order to calculate pressure altitude.
To ensure, by calculation, that there is adequate
runway length for take-off and landing in accordance
with the aeroplane’s performance data. Aeroplane weight
To apply sound decision making principles before The aeroplane’s weight is derived from the weight
adopting the recommended procedure for take-off or and balance calculations and will directly affect the
approach for a runway of minimal length. take-off and climb performance.
To operate the aeroplane in accordance with the

manufacturer’s recommended short field techniques Runway surface
in order to obtain the best possible performance. The take-off roll is reduced on a firm or sealed
surface compared to a soft or grass surface, as there
is less surface friction. Since the take-off performance
figures provided in the Flight Manual must be
Take-off considerations calculated using known parameters, a grass surface
is defined as short dry grass. Long or wet grass will
markedly increase the take-off distance.
Temperature
The most important effect of temperature is to Slope
change density. An increase in temperature will result
in a decrease in density. Since the expected engine An up slope increases the take-off distance and a
performance is based on a standard temperature of down slope reduces it. The slope of a runway, as a
15 degrees Celsius at sea level, a correction will need percentage, is given in the operational data on the
to be made for the actual or ambient temperature. aerodrome chart in the AIP Vol 4.
If you’re in the aeroplane, on the field of take-off,

the aeroplane’s outside air temperature (OAT)
Headwind component
gauge gives ambient temperature. Otherwise, this When the wind is at an angle to the runway in use,
information is provided in a METAR, if available. the headwind component will need to be calculated.
Use the chart provided in the Flight Manual.
Density
Density also affects the indicated airspeed (IAS). As
Wind
density decreases, IAS decreases. Therefore, as the If strong or gusty winds are present, there is always
density decreases, the aeroplane’s actual speed (TAS) the possibility of windshear in the climbout. If a
will need to be increased to achieve the same IAS for decrease in wind speed is suddenly encountered
any given rotate IAS. This will increase the length of during take-off, additional power will not be
the take-off roll, but the effects of density on engine available to arrest the sink. Therefore, the rotate
performance are far more critical. speed (VR) and the take-off safety speed (VTOSS) are
increased by an appropriate amount to counter the
possible effects of windshear.
Pressure altitude
The calculation of pressure altitude (PA) is vital For steady wind speeds of 10 knots or less, use the
for take-off, as this corrects the aerodrome book figures.
elevation under the existing conditions to an
For winds above 10 knots, this speed is progressively
elevation within the standard atmosphere, and the
increased (refer CFI and Flight Manual).
standard atmosphere is what the expected engine
performance is based on.
Whenever the rotate, take-off safety speed or best
angle-of-climb speed needs to be increased because
If you’re on the aerodrome of take-off and in the
of the conditions, think about whether to continue
aeroplane, you can simply set 1013 hPa on the
with the exercise.
altimeter sub-scale and read off the pressure altitude.
Advanced manoeuvres: Short field take-off and landing 209

The calculated take-off distance to a height of
Calculation 50 feet assumes full power is applied before brake
The calculation of the required take-off or landing release and that the stated flap setting is used. The
distance should be a relatively simple process that distance required for take-off includes the ground roll
encourages its regular use and the application and the distance travelled over the ground to reach
of ADM principles. a height of 50 feet at the take-off safety speed (VTOSS)
which is based on the aeroplane’s stall speed and
The use of performance graphs should have been therefore varies with the weight.
covered in previous lessons.
The take-off safety speed (VTOSS) is the speed to be
Collect all the necessary information and consult achieved after lift off and before a climb above 50
the Flight Manual to determine the required feet. Although, for most light training aeroplanes, it’s
take-off distance. commonly the same speed as the best angle of climb
speed (VX). However, this speed does not usually
The take-off performance graphs in most light aircraft include the use of flap (refer to Flight Manual for
Flight Manuals provide only one weight, all up weight manufacturer’s recommended procedures and/or CFI).
(AUW). This is because the range of weights for take-
off or landing is insignificant and, since AUW cannot Some Flight Manuals have two take-off charts, one
be exceeded, provides a safety margin at lower without flap and another with flap. The use of flap
weights. Larger aircraft Flight Manuals provide two is often recommended for take-off from a soft field
or more weights. Where only an AUW is given, lesser or where obstacles are present in the climb-out path
weights cannot be extrapolated. AUW must be used (refer Flight Manual). This is because the increase in
regardless of the aeroplane’s actual weight. lift provided by flap allows the aeroplane to lift off
sooner at a lower airspeed, thereby minimising the
Using either P charts where available, or the Flight ground roll and surface friction.
Manual performance data, plus AC91-3 surface
correction factors, calculate the distance for take-off Commonly, a lower take-off safety speed (VTOSS) is
under the existing conditions. Compare this with the nominated when flap is used. This is because flap
distance available, as given in the aerodrome chart’s lowers the stalling speed, making a lower take-
operational data, or as determined by other means. off speed possible. In addition, the decreased
groundspeed resulting from the lower climb
If the take-off distance available is less than the take- airspeed allows a similar angle to the best angle,
off distance required – walk away! to be achieved.
If the take-off distance available is equal to or Take-off distance calculations should be based on
slightly more than the take-off distance required – the appropriate performance figures, depending
think carefully! on whether flap is recommended for take-off or not.
Double-check your calculations. Have all factors been Unless all of these are complied with, calculation
properly taken into account? of the required take-off distance is negated.
Remember that an accurately performed short field As this exercise is not generally carried out from
take-off will be required in order to ensure that the minimal length fields, remember to advise students
performance data contained in the Flight Manual that such conditions are being simulated.
is met.
Do not allow the student to round off the rotate or
Take-off performance figures are based on shiny new take-off safety speed to the nearest mark on the
engines and propellers – how does this aeroplane airspeed indicator. For example, take-off safety
compare? Is the surface short dry grass or a bit long? speed 54 knots, which is “near enough to 55 knots”.
How important is it that a take-off be conducted This exercise requires accurate flying skills, and these
now – under these conditions – and how will the only come from practice. Although one knot may
conditions be affected by a delay? make no appreciable difference to the aeroplane’s
performance, this practice will ultimately make a
considerable difference to the student’s attitude
towards performance.

Whenever the approach or threshold speed needs to
Landing considerations be modified, consider whether to continue with the
exercise. The answer may be affected by the excess
runway available over that required.
Aerodrome elevation or pressure altitude
Because of the low power setting used on the Calculating the landing distance
approach, aerodrome elevation is used when
With the necessary information collected, the Flight
calculating landing distance and the effects of pressure
Manual is consulted in order to determine the landing
altitude ignored. However, an increase in altitude
distance required.
will result in a decrease in the air density. As density
decreases, IAS decreases and the aeroplane’s actual The calculated distance for landing under the existing
speed (TAS) will be increased for any given indicated conditions is compared to that available, which is
threshold crossing speed. Therefore, the aerodrome given in the aerodrome chart’s operational data.
height above sea level will affect the length of the
landing roll, and pressure altitude may be used for more If the landing distance available is less than the
accurate calculations (refer Flight Manual and CFI). landing distance required – walk or fly away!
If the landing distance available is equal to or

Weight slightly more than the landing distance required –
The aeroplane’s weight affects inertia and therefore think carefully!
the stopping distance.
Double-check your calculations. Have all factors been
properly taken into account?
Runway surface
Remember that an accurately performed short field
The landing roll is reduced on a firm dry surface
landing will be required in order to ensure that the
compared with a grass or wet surface because of
performance data contained in the Flight Manual
the improved braking action. Remember that grass
is met.
is defined as short dry grass.
The Flight Manual for each aeroplane type states the
maximum speed for crossing the threshold, and the
Slope
flap setting to be used.
An up slope decreases the landing distance, and
a down slope increases it. Slope is given in the The required landing distance in the Flight Manual
aerodrome operational data. is calculated from a height of 50 feet above the
threshold in the stated configuration. That is, the
distance required for landing includes the distance to
Headwind component touch down from 50 feet over the threshold and the
When the wind is at an angle to the runway in use, ground roll to a full stop.
the headwind component will need to be calculated.
Use the chart provided in the Flight Manual. Crossing the threshold higher than 50 feet, using less
than full flap, or crossing the threshold at a higher
airspeed, will increase the landing distance.
Wind
If strong or gusty winds are present, there is always
the possibility of windshear on the approach. The
approach and target threshold speeds (VTT) are Airmanship
increased by an appropriate amount to counter
the possible effects of windshear. Pilots should consider their own ability before
attempting a take-off from or landing onto a runway
For steady wind speeds of 10 knots or less, use the of minimum length.
book figures.
The decision-making considerations of a normal take-
For winds above 10 knots, this speed is progressively off apply; but additional decision making is required
increased (refer CFI and Flight Manual). in relation to a strong or gusty wind and EFATO.

The possibility of EFATO during a short field take-off
requires an amendment to the take-off safety brief. Human factors
Rather than simply lower the nose, as a result of the
very high nose attitude and the low airspeed during
Vision may be affected by the high nose attitude
the initial climb out, the brief is modified to emphasise
on take-off and terrain ahead may produce a
immediately and positively lowering the nose.
false horizon. Therefore, regular cross-reference
to instruments is emphasised.
Discuss the decision making required when deciding
to go or to abort the take-off or landing.
During an approach to land, perception may be
influenced by the visual cues of surrounding terrain,
a false horizon or runway length and width. Therefore,
regular cross-reference to instruments is emphasised.
Full power before brake release is confirmed by

checking that the required static RPM is being Air exercise
achieved. This figure (often stated as a range,
eg, 2280 to 2380 RPM) is in the Flight Manual.
Take-off
If static RPM is not achieved, simple ADM should
result in a logical sequence of: full power is not While holding the aeroplane on the brakes
achieved therefore, maximum performance cannot (nosewheel straight) with elevator neutral, full
be achieved, and therefore, the take-off must not power is applied. Static RPM and temperatures and
be attempted. pressures are checked for normal indications.
Have an aircraft engineer check out and clear the Good aviation practice dictates that all take-offs
problem before further flight. must be made using full runway length.
There are a few reasons why static RPM may not be Ensure a clean brake release, and as soon as the
achieved, and consideration of these requires the aeroplane starts to move, take the weight off the
application of a higher level of ADM. nosewheel with elevator, to reduce surface friction,
and check for normal acceleration.
Icing The nosewheel should be held on the ground until

the rotate speed (VR) is achieved. This will require an
Check for carburettor ice and that the carburettor
adjustment to backpressure as the airspeed increases
heat control is set to COLD. If this cures the problem,
and the elevator becomes more effective. Rotating
continue with the take-off.
early only increases the aerodynamic drag and
prolongs the take-off roll.
Instrument error
As VR is reached, smoothly rotate the aeroplane
Is this RPM normal for this aeroplane? Has this and lift off (don’t ‘haul’ it into the air). Lower the
RPM reading been confirmed by the engineers as nose and allow the aeroplane to accelerate to the
indicative of full power in this aeroplane? (If so, why take-off safety speed (VTOSS). This generally requires
is this state of affairs acceptable? Refer CFI). only a small decrease in backpressure rather than
a noticeable check forward.
Propeller On reaching VTOSS the attitude is adjusted and

Is the propeller in good condition, and is it the same held. As a result of the high power setting and low
propeller installed by the manufacturer on which the airspeed, more rudder than normal will be required
static RPM is based. Or has it been replaced with a to keep straight on the reference point.
propeller of coarser pitch?
At a safe height (assuming that any obstacles have
These last two possibilities cannot be confirmed while been cleared), accelerate to best rate of climb (VY)
sitting at the holding point; taxi back to the start-up or the normal recommended climb speed (refer CFI).
area and consult an aircraft engineer. Check the aeroplane is in balance.

Before raising flap (if used), there are three criteria Once established on final, full flap is selected and the
that must always be met: safe height, safe airspeed, airspeed progressively decreased, by adjusting the
and a positive rate of climb. When these conditions attitude, to achieve the nominated target threshold
have been met, raise flap and counter the pitch speed (VTT) by about 200 feet AGL. Power will
change. Allow acceleration to continue, and on generally need to be adjusted as speed is decreased.
reaching the climb speed required (best rate or
normal), trim to maintain the appropriate attitude. It’s important to carry some power into the flare.
If the aeroplane is not properly configured by 200 feet

Landing AGL on final approach – that is, on centreline, on
correct glideslope, aim point identified, and airspeed
During the downwind leg, the conditions used for
correct – go around!
the approach and threshold speeds are confirmed
and an aim point chosen. The aim point should be as
The landing is carried out in one phase. The round-
close to the threshold as is safe (consider obstacles
out and the hold-off are combined into the flare
on approach). If the exercise is being flown onto a
(a reduction in rate of descent to zero). The aim is to
marked runway, a point just short of the numbers
reduce the rate of sink to zero at the same time as
painted on the surface is a good choice as an
the main wheels touch the ground and the throttle
aim point.
is closed.
The selection of this aiming point should not be

The nosewheel is lowered, then brakes immediately
confused with the club competition of spot landings,
applied as required; elevator backpressure is used
where the objective is to land on a spot, usually
to keep the weight off the nosewheel. Do not use
well into the runway. Although the same approach
excessive braking.
technique is employed, nominating an aiming point
well into a field of minimal length would negate the Flap is raised on completion of the landing roll.
landing distance calculations.
The procedure to achieve the optimum aeroplane

performance for landing as stated in the Flight
Manual is used. The stated performance figures
Airborne sequence
are based on the aeroplane being operated at
its optimum.
On the ground
The turn onto base is carried out in the normal The distance required for take-off has been
manner but delayed slightly by extending the determined as adequate, and flap has been selected
downwind leg to ensure some power must be used in accordance with the Flight Manual.
throughout the entire approach.
Because this type of approach employs a The exercise

low threshold speed, a heavy aeroplane with
considerable inertia may not have sufficient elevator
Before line up
effectiveness to initiate the flare even though full
elevator deflection may be used. Using power The conditions are assessed and compared with the
throughout the approach gives total control over the conditions that were used in calculating the required
rate of descent and additional elevator effectiveness take-off distance.
during the flare.
A decision is made on the rotate and take-off safety
The approach path is monitored by reference to the speed for the existing conditions.
aiming point and the power adjusted as required to
maintain a steady rate of descent to touch down – A safe height at which to accelerate to best rate or
power controls the rate of descent. If the aeroplane the normal climb speed, is nominated dependent
is correctly trimmed, the power adjustments will be on the height of obstacles in the climb out path. An
very small. obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) is stated, rather
than a height above ground, as an altitude is what
the student will see on the altimeter.

The OCA should be varied during subsequent Do not allow the student to round off the approach
exercises to simulate clearing various obstacles in the or target threshold speeds to the nearest mark on the
climb out path. airspeed indicator.
The pre-take-off safety brief is completed, with A full stop landing should always be made when
emphasis on a positive check forward, in the event flying this exercise.
of an EFATO.
After flight
On line up
The student will have plenty of time to practise these
Full runway length is used, and the high reference take-offs and landings in their circuit flights.
point is chosen.
If propeller damage is a possibility because of a

loose surface, the aeroplane is not held on the
brakes. The minimum static RPM is confirmed as
soon as full power is applied. At the point of brakes
release, always check that the student drops their
heels to the floor.
Landing
Except for extending downwind a little to ensure
power is used throughout the entire approach,
the turn onto base, base leg and the turn onto final
are all normal.
On final (it may look like the profile is too low, due to
the downwind extension) full flap is selected.
The airspeed is progressively reduced to the

nominated target threshold speed by 200 feet AGL.
To reduce the airspeed, the nose attitude will need

to be raised, and this usually results in the student
assessing the approach as high, with a consequent
immediate reduction in power.
During a normal approach, the aeroplane is flown

down the approach path at 70 knots, whereas during
this exercise the aeroplane sinks down the same or
steeper approach path at progressively decreasing
speeds. Only the attitude and airspeed are different.
The approach profile should never be flat and low.
The importance of selecting an attitude for the

required speed, particularly the VTT, and trimming
the aeroplane to maintain that attitude, cannot
be over-emphasised.
If the aeroplane is not properly configured by

200 feet AGL, or the landing is not assured for any
reason – the student should be taught to go around.

Short-field take-off and landing ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Objectives Landing considerations Air exercise

• To ensure by calculation that there is adequate runway length for take-off and landing in Take-off
Elevation • Aerodrome elevation is used when calculating
accordance with the aeroplane’s performance data. • Hold brakes on (nosewheel to best RoC (VY) or normal
or PA landing distance and effects of pressure
• To apply sound decision making principles before adopting the recommended procedure for straight), elevator neutral, recommended climb speed.
altitude ignored
take-off or approach for a runway of minimal length. apply full power. Static RPM, Check balance
• Aerodrome height AMSL will affect LDR
• To operate the aeroplane in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommended short-field Ts and Ps checked • Before raising flap,
and PA may be used for more accurate
techniques in order to obtain the best possible performance. • Clean brake release, take the – safe height,
calculations
weight off nosewheel – check – safe airspeed, and
Weight • Affects inertia and therefore stopping
for normal acceleration – a positive rate of climb
distance
• Hold nosewheel on ground
Take-off considerations • When these conditions have
Runway • Landing roll is  on a firm dry surface until VR
been met, raise flap and
Temperature • Changes density.  temperature   in density. Correction needed surface compared with a grass or wet surface due • At VR smoothly rotate and counter the pitch change.
improved braking action
• OAT gauge or METAR lift off. Lower nose and Allow acceleration to
Slope • Up-slope  LDR, and down-slope  LDR accelerate to VTOSS continue, and upon reaching
Density • As density  , IAS  therefore as the density  , TAS will need to be  to
HWC • When wind at an angle to runway, • Reaching VTOSS adjust attitude the climb speed required
achieve same IAS for any given rotate IAS
the HWC needs to be calculated and hold, keep straight on (best rate or normal), trim
•  take-off roll, but effects of density on engine performance
reference point to maintain the appropriate
far more critical Wind • If strong or gusty winds, always possibility of
windshear on the approach • At safe height accelerate attitude
Pressure altitude • Corrects airfield elevation under the existing conditions, to an elevation
• Approach and VTT speeds are increased to
within the standard atmosphere Landing
counter the possible effects of windshear • Downwind, confirm approach • It is important to carry some
• Set 1013 hPa on sub-scale and read off the pressure altitude
• Or QNH and elevation required for calculation and threshold speeds and power into the flare
Calculation choose aim point • If the aeroplane is not
Aeroplane weight • Directly affects take-off and climb performance • Information from Flight Manual and AC91-3
• Slightly delay turn onto base properly configured by 200 ft
Runway surface • Take-off roll is reduced on a firm or sealed surface compared • Calculated landing distance from 50 ft assumes correct to ensure some power must AGL – go around!
to a soft or grass surface speed at 50 ft and stated flap setting is used be used throughout approach • The round-out and the hold-
• Grass surface is defined as short dry grass • LDR includes distance to touch down from 50 ft over the • Monitor approach path by off are combined into the flare
threshold and the ground roll to a full stop reference to the aiming point •
Slope • Up-slope  the TODR • Down-slope  TODR Aim to reduce the rate of sink
• Crossing the threshold higher than 50 ft, using less than and adjust power to maintain to zero at the same time as the
HWC • When the wind is at angle to runway, need to calculate headwind full flap, or crossing the threshold at a higher airspeed, a steady rate of descent – main wheels touch the ground
component will increase the landing distance power controls RoD and the throttle is closed
Wind • With strong or gusty winds, always possibility of windshear in the climb-out • Established on final, select full • Lower the nosewheel, brake
• VR and VTOSS increased to counter the possible effects of windshear flap and decrease airspeed immediately, keep weight off
Airmanship by adjusting attitude the nosewheel with elevator
Calculation • Additional decision-making required in relation to strong/ • Achieve nominated VTT by backpressure
• Information from Flight Manual and AC-91-3 • Calculated take-off distance to 50 ft assumes gusty wind and EFATO – immediately and positively lower 200 ft AGL • Raise flap on completion of
full power is applied before brake release and the nose the landing roll
• Take-off performance figures based on
new engines and propellers – how does this that stated flap setting is used
aeroplane compare? • TODR includes ground roll and distance
• Is the surface short dry grass or a long and wet? travelled over the ground to reach 50 ft at Aeroplane management Human factors
• How important is it that a take-off be VTOSS • Full power before brake release – check static RPM • Vision affected by high nose attitude
conducted now – under these conditions – and • No rounding of take-off speeds – fly them • If static RPM not achieved could be due • During approach perception may be influenced by visual cues of
how will the conditions be affected by a delay? accurately – Icing – Instrument error – Propeller damage surrounding terrain, a false horizon, or runway length and width
• Get problem checked • Cross-reference instruments regularly

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Low flying
introduction
Commonly, low flying This exercise allows the student to observe

the effects of inertia, experience the visual
refers to any flight at illusions caused by drift and a false horizon,
or below 500 feet AGL and recognise that the stress of low flying is a
that may be practised situation to avoid.
only in designated low These lessons will not make anyone an expert
flying zones. at low flying. Setting personal limits well
above the legal minimum should be stressed.
It’s important for the student to be exposed Recap the importance of always leaving a
to operating close to the ground, not only way out, and turning back or landing at the
when forced to fly low, but also when nearest suitable aerodrome, long before the
mountain flying. Maintaining good situational situation simulated in this exercise is reached.
awareness should eliminate the need for low
flying due to poor weather. Whether the designated low flying zone (LFZ)
is over water or not, limited value will be found
Low flying improves the student’s awareness in this lesson if winds are less than 10 knots.
of terrain and the effect of wind. Good
aviation practice requires that a pilot should
never fly lower than they must, but each take-
off and landing involves low flying operations,
when the recognition of potential visual
illusions is critical.

Objective
The poor visibility configuration
To compensate for the effects of visual illusions, The poor visibility configuration for your aeroplane
inertia, and stress when operating the aeroplane should be stated and its benefits explained.
close to the ground.
In the poor visibility configuration, the airspeed is
Introduce the poor visibility configuration. reduced, flap is extended (generally 15 to 20 degrees
depending on aeroplane type (refer CFI)).
The benefits are as follows.

Considerations
Reduced airspeed
Inertia This means less momentum and a lower
groundspeed, allowing more time to think and react
The effects of inertia, and the sensation of speed,
to obstacles, as well as reducing the radius of turns.
become most apparent at low level. At normal cruise
speeds, the degree of anticipation and the amount
of horizontal airspace required to turn the aeroplane
Flap
is substantial.
Flap increases the lift and drag and adversely affects
the L/D ratio. The increased lift results in a decreased
Visual effects stall speed, allowing safe flight at the lower airspeed.
The adversely affected L/D ratio means a relatively high
The effect of wind is very apparent at low level and
power setting must be used to maintain straight and
this can lead to quite powerful visual illusions.
level flight. Use of flap has the added advantage of
When flying into wind at a constant airspeed, the achieving a lower nose attitude for enhanced visibility.
groundspeed is low and this can lead the student
into either lowering the nose or increasing power.
Power
Downwind, the groundspeed is high, and this may result Maintaining the RPM in the normal range means
in the nose attitude being raised or power reduced. that the continuous use of carburettor heat is not
required, and operating temperatures and pressures
When flying across the wind, the effect of drift is most should remain within their normal ranges. However,
noticeable. A suitable reference point on track must prolonged use of this configuration may lead to
be chosen. In order to track towards this reference increasing oil temperature.
point, the appropriate amount of drift must be offset
and balanced flight maintained. Avoid any tendency Power also reduces the stall speed and provides
to fly with crossed controls. slipstream. Slipstream not only provides additional
effectiveness to the rudder and elevator (for most
When turning from into wind to downwind, an illusion aeroplanes) but also helps to clear the windscreen
of slipping into the turn will occur and likewise, when in drizzle.
turning from downwind into the wind, an illusion of
skidding out of the turn will occur. The strength of this Remember from the turning lessons, power must
illusion increases in proportion to the wind strength. always be increased in turns. The level of power
Never attempt to correct an apparent skid or slip required increases as the angle of bank increases.
with rudder. Cross-reference to the balance indicator
during low-level flight is vital.
Low flying zone
Discuss the effects of inertia at low level in
Management of the exercise requires a careful
anticipation of any required manoeuvring.
inspection of the low flying zone and preparation
of the aeroplane before entering the area.
Many designated low flying zones are over water,
and flight over calm water, with its lack of texture,
Low flying must take place within the boundaries
produces depth perception problems (empty field
of a designated low flying zone. The boundaries
myopia). For this reason, low-level flight over water in
of the area should be described with reference to
less than 10 knots of wind is not recommended.
Advanced manoeuvres: Low flying introduction 217

a VNC and the minimum descent height stated. Flight E Engine
below 200 feet AGL is not recommended (refer CFI).
Fuel on fullest tank, fuel pump ON, mixture RICH,
and a full SADIE check is completed. Check for
If low-level flight is to be conducted over water,
carburettor ice.
lifejackets should be worn, not just carried in
the aeroplane.
L Location
A broadcast or report, including the estimated The boundaries of the low flying zone are
elapsed time (EET) to be spent in the zone must positively identified.
be made on entering – and a vacating report
when leaving. L Lookout
Look into the area for indications of wind direction

and strength, possible causes of turbulence (tall trees
or cliffs) and downdraughts, other aircraft, birds,
Airmanship obstructions (especially wires) and suitable forced
landing sites – as little time for field selection will be
When flying close to the ground, if the aeroplane’s available from low level.
high speed and inertia are combined with conditions
of poor visibility, there is little time to react to L Lights
obstacles or plan a course of action. Therefore, to Turn on all external lights, especially the landing light.
better manage the flight, the use of the poor visibility
configuration is recommended. Since ordinarily there would only be one aircraft in
the low flying zone at a time, the student may be
It should be noted that most low flight will be in the wondering, why turn on the landing light? The reason
normal cruise configuration. The need for training is that birds have been shown to be more sensitive
in the operational application of the poor visibility to bright lights than moving objects. This is one
configuration is relevant but raises the questions: reason why landing lights are commonly used below
“Have I gone too far?” “Should I turn back?” “Should 1000 feet during take-off and approach.
I take an alternative route?” “Should I consider a
precautionary landing?”.
The use of the term poor visibility rather than bad

weather configuration is recommended, because bad Aeroplane management
weather is not necessarily perceived by the student
as poor visibility. If the weather is otherwise fine Carburettor heat is cycled more often throughout
but the aeroplane is experiencing severe turbulence low flying.
(where the aeroplane’s structural load limits may
Fuel management needs to be considered if
be exceeded), the student may consider this to be
additional power is required to control speed or
bad weather! However, in such situations, if the poor
overcome the drag associated with the use of flap.
visibility configuration is selected, extending flap
usually reduces the aeroplane’s maximum structural
load limits (refer Flight Manual).
For this purpose, many organisations adapt the Human factors

HASELL checklist, adding an extra L for lights
(refer CFI). Discuss the difficulty of detecting obstructions at low
level (wires, birds) against a cluttered background.
Discuss the need to be aware of low flying sensations
Height not below 200 feet above ground level
and potential illusions. Challenge any mindsets to
(refer CFI).
help avoid the need for reactive actions because
A Airframe visual cues have been misleading.
State the configuration.
S Security
No loose articles, harnesses secure (life jackets).

Flying the aeroplane close to the ground in poor
visibility is a very stressful situation. The poor Poor visibility configuration
visibility configuration increases the time available Reduce the power to _____ RPM (refer CFI) while
for processing. High stress levels result in a decrease maintaining straight and level flight, and when the
in performance and may cause a narrowing of airspeed has reduced to inside the white arc, lower
attention by fixating on one instrument or aspect, the flap to _____ degrees (refer CFI). As the airspeed
and/or hyperventilation. approaches the nominated configuration speed,
power is increased as required, to maintain straight
Avoiding bad weather will eliminate one reason for
and level flight at the nominated speed. Trim.
low flying altogether.
The level to which the power will need to be
increased varies depending on the aeroplane weight
and other factors. At typical training weight and
Air exercise configuration this setting will be about _____ RPM.
Note the pilot has more time to respond to external

Low flying zone boundaries threats. Caution is needed for airspeed control with
flap extended.
Complete the HASELLL checks and at 1000
feet AGL fly around the edge of the LFZ.
Using a powered descent, enter the LFZ at 500

feet AGL. Airborne sequence
Visual illusions On the ground

At 500 feet AGL, it can be hard to identify the horizon, Make sure there are no loose objects.
unless you are over water, so the horizon will need
to be mentally superimposed over the terrain. This
will be covered in more detail in the Basic mountain The exercise
flying lesson. The low flying zone should be identified by the
student flying around the outside the boundary at
The most common illusions are those caused by wind.
a minimum of 1000 feet AGL, keeping it on the left,
Look specifically at the effect wind has on turning
or student’s side, so that the student can look into
radius, and how to track over the ground with a
the area.
crosswind. In addition, you should note the effects of
flying upwind and downwind on the groundspeed. The student should complete the HASELLL checks and
enter the low flying zone using a powered descent.
The effects of inertia The effects of inertia, resulting in a large turning

Maintain straight and level at 500 feet AGL and note radius and requiring anticipation, are experienced by
the time for the aircraft to react to control input. the student in the normal cruise configuration. This is
best achieved by having the student follow a winding
Complete medium level turns and note the reaction road or river. If these features are not available within
times required and the radius of turn. your low flying zone, flying around the boundaries
at 500 feet AGL may substitute. Note that the
visual impression of greater speed becomes more
3-D effect noticeable as height is reduced.
At lower levels the three-dimensional effect of terrain
and obstacles is more apparent. In this light, such Level medium turns through 360 degrees may also
things as wires, sun strike, shadows, and mechanical be practised (refer CFI).
turbulence need to be discussed.
Describe the sensations and potential illusions the
student may encounter.
Advanced manoeuvres: Low flying introduction 219

The student should then be taught the poor visibility
configuration as discussed in the briefing. After flight
The next lesson will look at some further
This will usually be the first time the student has
considerations of low flying and additional types
ever flown the aeroplane level in this configuration.
of turns, and why they might be needed.
Therefore, allow adequate time for student practice
(refer CFI). Remind the student of the need to use
power in the turn, especially with the flap lowered.
In this configuration, the effect of visual illusions

created by flying across the wind, downwind and
upwind can be experienced by the student and
compared with the previous cruise configuration. In
addition, the visual effects of slipping into the turn
when turning downwind and skidding out of the turn
when turning into wind are seen.
The visual illusions caused by drift on the track

made good are first demonstrated by flying along
a line feature at right angles to the wind. Crossing
the aeroplane’s controls is avoided by choosing a
reference point on which to maintain level balanced
flight, and regular cross-reference to instruments –
especially balance.
The effects of groundspeed changes and apparent

slip or skid are commonly demonstrated by
establishing a race track or circuit type pattern at less
than 500 feet AGL.
Medium level turns are practised in this configuration

as part of the race track or circuit pattern. Medium
level turns through 360 degrees may also be
practised (refer CFI).
On completion of the exercise, you may gain some

insight into whether or not transfer of learning has
occurred by simply asking the student to “take
me home”.
The student has been previously taught that, before

raising flap, there are three criteria that must always
be met: safe height, safe airspeed (above a minimum
and accelerating) and a positive rate of climb. These
will be achieved only by using full power.
Returning the aeroplane to the clean configuration,

in anticipation of a climb out of the low flying zone
should be treated as a go-around.
Remember to make a call vacating the LFZ.

Low flying introduction ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

To compensate for the effects of visual illusions, inertia, and stress when operating the aeroplane close to the ground. Low flying zone boundaries
• Complete the HASELLL checks and at 1000 ft AGL fly around the edge of the LFZ
• Using a powered descent, enter the LFZ
Considerations
Visual illusions
Inertia Poor visibility configuration • Superimpose horizon over the terrain
• Inertia and sensation of speed seen clearly at low level • Airspeed kt, Flap setting • Look at effect wind has on turning, and how to track over the ground with a crosswind
• At cruise speeds need lots of anticipation and airspace to Reduced airspeed • Note effects of flying upwind and downwind on the groundspeed
turn aeroplane • Less momentum and lower groundspeed = more time
to think and react to obstacles + reducing turn radius Effects of inertia
Visual effects Flap • Maintain straight and level – note the reaction time needed to initiate a manoeuvre
• Effect of wind can lead to visual illusions •  lift and drag and adversely affects the L/D ratio
• Medium level turns noting the reaction times required and the radius of turn
• Flying into wind, groundspeed is low  lowering the nose •  lift   stall speed
or  power • Poorer L/D ratio means higher power setting needed to 3-D effect
• Downwind, groundspeed high  nose attitude being maintain straight and level • Terrain/obstacles – wires, sun, shadow, mechanical turbulence
raised / power  Power
• Across the wind, drift is most noticeable. Track on reference • Carb heat cycled not on continuously, Ts & Ps should Poor visibility configuration
point. Avoid crossed controls remain within normal range • Reduce power to RPM, maintain straight and level flight, lower the flap to degrees
• Apparent slip or skid when turning. Do not correct with • Prolonged use may lead to  oil T • As airspeed  to configuration speed,  power (about RPM) to maintain straight and level. Trim
rudder. Cross-reference balance indicator • Also  stall speed and provides slipstream • Note the reduced speed
• Increase power in turns
Visual illusions Groundspeed is higher
Low flying zone
• Inspect low flying zone and prep aeroplane before entering
• Stay within the boundaries, do not descend below ft
• If low-level over water, wear lifejackets Apparent slip
• On entering, broadcast EET in the zone – when leaving, make a vacating report Wind
Apparent skid
Airmanship
• Poor visibility configuration used
H Height > 200 ft agl
A Airframe Config stated Groundspeed is lower
S Security Loose articles & harnesses secure
E Engine Fullest tank, pump ON, mixt RICH, SADIE, carb heat
Aeroplane management Human factors
L Locality Boundaries identified
• Carb heat use • Obstructions difficult to detect at low level
L Lookout Wind indications, obstructions, birds, forced landing sites • Fuel management • Flying close to the ground is stressful, can lead to
L Lights All external lights ON • Use of power during turns with flap narrowing focus
lowered • Poor visibility configuration used to give more time
• Avoid bad weather

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Low flying
consolidation
Turning at low level in the The reasons for practising turning at low level
is to improve confidence and flying accuracy,
poor visibility configuration as well as to prepare against the possible
is slightly different from need of operating in deteriorating weather.
turning in the cruise at
altitude. When turning
during the cruise at
altitude, a reduction in
airspeed or some altitude
loss is not necessarily
dangerous. However, at
low level, low airspeed,
and in the poor visibility
configuration, it’s vital
to maintain altitude
and airspeed.

As will be discussed in Terrain and weather
Objectives awareness and in Basic mountain flying, avoid the
centre of a valley because, if a decision to turn back
is made, regardless of which way the turn is executed,
To compensate for the effects of inertia, visual
the maximum turning space will not be available.
illusions, and stress when operating the aeroplane in
close proximity to the ground.
When in a valley, fly according to right-of-way rules,
ie, right side of the valley, unless attitude and altitude
To carry out various level turns in the poor
are challenged. Then fly on the upwind side of hilly
visibility configuration.
terrain, or updraught side of valleys, where relatively
smooth updraughts can be expected. If a turn back
is required, the full width of the valley is available for
turning, minimising the turn radius.
Considerations
Crossing obstacles
Perspective
Power lines should always be crossed at the pylons.
The observation of ground features is changed The pylons are easier to see, and there can be no
from a plan view to more of a profile view. This can wires above the pylons or the aeroplane. Many high-
make map reading and navigation more difficult tension power lines have a very thin earthing wire
due to a reduced radius of visible features, and in stretched between the pylons, well above the main
hilly terrain may obscure the true horizon. In this cables. It’s very difficult to see these.
situation, the horizon will need to be estimated and
more frequent cross-reference to instruments made to Ridges should always be crossed at an oblique
confirm performance. angle. This method requires less bank angle if a turn
away from rapidly rising terrain or downdraughts
is required.
Sloping terrain
During flight at low level, height above ground is Crossing ridges and passes is covered in more depth
estimated visually, and the altimeter is used as a in the Terrain and weather awareness lesson, and
secondary reference. further in the Basic mountain flying lesson.
A dangerous visual illusion may occur when flying

over gently rising terrain. As the ground gradually
slopes upwards, there is a tendency to align the Airmanship
aeroplane with the slope so that the impression of
level flight is maintained. If the airspeed indicator The boundaries of the low flying zone and the
and altimeter are not cross-referenced regularly, the minimum permissible height are revised.
aeroplane may eventually be brought to the stall.
This situation can be particularly dangerous if only Solo flights must be specifically and individually
the reduction in airspeed is observed. In an attempt authorised immediately before the intended flight.
to compensate for the decreasing airspeed, the pilot
increases the power, until a turn away from rising Some organisations do not permit solo low flying
terrain is forced on the pilot at low airspeed and full practice at all (refer CFI).
power – usually resulting in a stall in the turn.
Revise flight over water if applicable.
Terrain rises steeply in New Zealand, with the
gradient of a significant proportion exceeding the Make a careful inspection of the low flying zone,
climb performance of the average training aeroplane. and prepare the aeroplane before entering the
area (HASELLL).
Mechanical turbulence A broadcast or report, including the estimated

elapsed time to be spent in the area, must be made
Avoid flying in the lee of hills or ridge tops where
on entering the low flying zone. A vacating report
turbulence and downdraughts are most pronounced.
must be made when leaving.
Advanced manoeuvres: Low flying consolidation 223

stalling speed. In addition, the amount of power
Aeroplane management required to maintain altitude at angles of bank
greater than 45 degrees may not be available as a
result of the rapidly increasing drag.
Restate the poor visibility configuration for your
aeroplane. Re-emphasise that good management of
The second reason involves the aeroplane’s structural
the whole flight should negate the need for using the
limits. Most aeroplanes have a reduced maximum
poor visibility configuration.
G-load limit when flap is extended. For example, the
PA38 is limited to +2.0G when flap is extended, and this
Prolonged use of the poor visibility configuration
G loading is reached at an angle of bank of 60 degrees.
may affect flight planning (fuel reserves or daylight)
and engine operating temperatures. Use SADIE
When entering the steep turn from normal cruise,
more frequently.
backpressure is increased to maintain altitude and,
although the increase in drag is not ignored beyond
30 degrees angle of bank, some decrease in airspeed
as a result of the substantially increased drag is
Human factors expected and acceptable.
Be aware of the visual illusions created by drift, When entering the steep turn at low level in the
and maintain a regular crosscheck of instruments, poor visibility configuration, however, absolutely no
especially the balance indicator. decrease in airspeed is acceptable, because of the
small margin over the stalling speed.
To maintain this margin over the stall speed, power is

Air exercise increased on entry – the power increase required may
be substantial, although not necessarily full power.
During the turn, attitude, angle of bank, speed, and

Medium turn
balance are monitored.
When entering a medium turn in normal cruise, the
angle of attack is increased by increasing backpressure If altitude is being lost, reduce the angle of bank,
to maintain height, and the reduction in airspeed is increase power if necessary. If full power has been
ignored, for example, 90 knots reduces to 87 knots. applied and altitude is still being lost, there is only
one option available – further decrease the angle
When turning, even at medium angles of bank, in the of bank – quickly!
poor visibility configuration, no reduction in airspeed
is acceptable. Therefore, in order to maintain the On exiting the turn, power is reduced in anticipation
nominated configuration speed, increase the power. during the rollout, keeping the airspeed constant.
The required power increase for a medium turn is

generally quite small. Obstacle avoidance or reversal turn
This is a 180-degree turn to avoid an obstacle or poor
weather ahead. The direction of the turn is dictated
Steep turn
by the wind, but in nil wind conditions turn left or right
Steep turns in the poor visibility configuration are to maximise visibility.
generally restricted to a maximum of 45 degrees
angle of bank. There are two reasons for this. It’s common practice during basic training to simulate
the worst case scenario. Therefore, this exercise
Firstly, as covered in the Steep turns lesson, the assumes a line feature is being followed (road, river,
increase in drag and the stalling speed are not or railway line) in conditions of poor visibility and an
proportional to angle of bank but are exponential. obstacle appears ahead, or a decision to turn back
Therefore, as the angle of bank increases beyond is made (see Figure 1). A turn 45 degrees off the line
45 degrees, both the stalling speed and drag feature downwind is made to allow sufficient space
rapidly increase. to turn back into wind, to cross the line feature and
return with the feature on the left is recommended
With the aeroplane already operating at a low (an allowance for drift may be required).
airspeed, there is little margin for an increase in the

Figure 1 The aim of this manoeuvre is to keep the reference
(the coast) in sight throughout the turn to seaward
Reversal turn and then track back along the coast in the
opposite direction.
Wind
This procedure should not be confused with an

Line feature instrument procedural turn. The coastal reversal turn
is a totally visual procedure, with cross-reference to
instruments being only for accurate flight. Throughout
the procedure, the reference (the coast) must be kept
in sight.
The wind direction and strength will determine which

heading is chosen to track away from the coast to
provide enough space to complete the reversal turn.
It’s important to maintain visual contact with the line
With the wind parallel to the coast (head or
feature throughout the manoeuvre.
tailwind), a turn away from the coast of about 45
Note, however, that an earlier decision to turn back, degrees is recommended. This may be backed up
probably in conditions of better visibility, may have by a DI heading or simply estimated. Keep the coast
required only a medium turn. reference in sight and track out far enough to ensure
sufficient space to complete the turn.
Coastal reversal turn If the wind is offshore, and depending on wind

strength, tracking out at a lesser angle and/or a
shorter time is used to remain closer to the coast
Figure 2
while still ensuring sufficient space to complete
Coastal reversal turn the turn.
If the wind is onshore, tracking out at a larger angle is

High ground not generally recommended because of the difficulty
in keeping the reference in sight. However, if the
coastal terrain so dictates, there will be no choice.
This is a good reason to turn back well before the
situation deteriorates to this degree.
The angle of bank used in the initial turn away from

the coast will be influenced by the pilot’s ability to
keep the reference in sight. If the coastline is on the
left-hand side, a larger angle of bank can be used
than if the coastline is on the right-hand side.
When the distance out has been assessed as enough,

Once again the worst case scenario is simulated. the turn is reversed, turning toward the reference
An obstruction ahead or weather requires a (coast) to keep it in sight.
turn back when the feature being followed is
the coastline. Simulated poor visibility means no In this reversal, a steep turn should be entered,
definable horizon is available seaward, and the and as soon as it’s obvious that the turn can be
coastal terrain is simulated as being higher than completed within the space available, the angle
the aeroplane (see Figure 2). of bank can be reduced.
Starting the reversal with a medium turn is not

recommended. If it becomes obvious that a steeper
angle of bank will be required, this may not be
possible while maintaining altitude.
Advanced manoeuvres: Low flying consolidation 225

Constant radius turn After flight
The aim of a constant radius turn is to counteract the The next lesson will be using the newly acquired low
effects of drift while turning in order to maintain a flying skills and should be Precautionary landing.
constant distance from a ground reference.
Figure 3
Constant radius turn
Wind
Inc G/S
Inc AoB
Vary angle of bank

in proportion to
groundspeed
changes
Dec G/S
Dec AoB
It’s simplest to identify four points equidistant

from the feature/reference point to scribe a circle
around (see Figure 3). Maintain a constant radius
by overflying each of the four points on the circle,
applying the principle; increasing groundspeed,
increase angle of bank, decreasing groundspeed,
decrease angle of bank. This will account for the drift.
Airborne sequence
The exercise
The medium turns can be practised by the student,
and depending on the student, they may be able to
practise steep turns without a demonstration from you.
Demonstrate the obstacle avoidance or line feature

reversal turn, and then the student should practise.
Taking into account the wind direction and strength,

discuss the manoeuvre with the student before you
demonstrate the turn in both directions. The student
can then practise as you talk them through, followed
by their own practice.
Repeat for coastal reversal turn scenario.
Demonstrate the first constant radius turn and from

then on the student should be able to practise this
with coaching from you.

Low flying consolidation ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To compensate for the effects of inertia, visual illusions and stress when operating Medium turn
the aeroplane in close proximity to the ground. • In poor visibility configuration, do need a small increase in power to maintain the airspeed
• To carry out various level turns in the poor visibility configuration in response
to deteriorating weather. Steep turn
• In poor visibility configuration steep turns limited to 45° • No decrease in airspeed is acceptable so power is increased
because substantially at the roll in
Considerations – drag and stall speed increase exponentially beyond 45° • Monitor attitude, angle of bank, speed, and balance
AoB, and as power is limited, may not be able to maintain • If altitude is being lost, reduce the angle of bank, increase
Perspective
the airspeed power if necessary
• Ground features look different – • Need to estimate horizon –
– The G-load limit is lower with flap extended • Anticipate roll out and coordinate power reduction
plan view to profile view cross-reference instruments
Sloping terrain Wind

Obstacle avoidance
• Height above ground estimated visually – • Gently rising terrain – cross-reference
• Simulate the worst case scenario Line feature
altimeter secondary reference airspeed indicator and altimeter
• Following a line feature in poor visibility an obstacle appears ahead
Turbulence • Drift downwind at 45° to line feature to turn back into wind,
• Turbulence more pronounced, updraughts and downdraughts more significant completing the turn with feature back on the left
• Avoid flying in the lee of hills or the centre of valleys
• Fly on the upwind side of hilly terrain, or updraught side of valleys
Coastal reversal turn
Crossing obstacles • Need to turn back, no horizon out to sea, high ground along the coast
• Cross power lines at the pylons • Cross ridges at an oblique angle High ground
• Must keep the coast in sight throughout the turn seaward
and then track back along the coast
• Wind direction and strength determines heading needed to track away from
Airmanship the coast to provide enough space to complete the turn
• Revise boundaries of LFZ and minimum height • Headwind or tailwind – turn 45° away from coast. Compensate for crosswind
• Solo flights must be authorised, and only one aircraft in LFZ by increasing or decreasing the 45° – do not lose sight of the coastline
• Make careful inspection of LFZ, and HASELLL checks • Angle of bank used depends on ability to keep coast in sight
• Broadcast on entry and exit • Continue away from shore until enough distance available to turn back
• Start turn with 45° AoB and reduce if not needed
Wind
Constant radius turn
Aeroplane management Human factors • Adjust AoB to compensate for drift to maintain constant distance
• Poor visibility configuration • Visual illusions created by drift from object on surface
• Prolonged use of the poor visibility • Maintain a regular crosscheck of • Identify 4 points equidistant for reference to overfly
Inc G/S
configuration may affect fuel reserves instruments, especially the balance • As turn down wind, groundspeed increases, so increase AoB Inc AoB
and engine operating temperatures indicator

• Turning crosswind again, groundspeed decreases, so decrease AoB Vary angle of bank
• Use SADIE more frequently in proportion to
• Turning into wind, groundspeed decreases, so decrease AoB groundspeed
changes
Dec G/S
• Turning crosswind again, groundspeed increases, so increase AoB Dec AoB

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Precautionary
landing
This exercise discusses If for any reason pilots find themselves in this
situation, they should accept the mistake –
the procedure to follow and not make another one by pushing on.
in the event of needing
to land somewhere The decision to make a landing off-aerodrome
will create considerable stress. However, the
other than a recognised longer the landing is put off, the more limited
aerodrome for the reasons the options.
discussed below. Avoid this whole situation by careful pre-flight
It differs from the forced landing because planning and by choosing to turn back or
the aircraft has power and it’s possible to divert early.
choose the most appropriate landing site
for the circumstances.
If, due to a lack of situational awareness

and/or poor flight planning, the pilot becomes
hopelessly lost, is running out of fuel or
daylight, or is forced to fly in conditions of
poor and deteriorating visibility, they may
need to consider landing anywhere suitable.

If any of the above situations have developed, the
Objective recommended procedure is to adopt the poor visibility
configuration and carry out an off-aerodrome
landing. To execute the recommended procedure may
To learn the procedure to adopt in the event of an
take about 15 to 20 minutes, so a timely decision to
off-aerodrome landing.
avoid additional stress is recommended.
Considerations
Airmanship
The reasons an off-aerodrome landing may be
Making an early decision to land gives more time
required are discussed, with particular emphasis
available to make the plan.
on recognising approaching threats early to avoid
these situations.
Continued wind awareness.
The appropriate passenger briefing and security

Weather
checks are carried out.
Pushing on into deteriorating weather is the most
common cause, and is the easiest to avoid. In the real situation make a PAN call and squawk 7700.
If the outcome doesn’t look favourable you may wish
Avoid this situation by setting personal to make a MAYDAY call (refer CFI). Consider activating
meteorological minima well above the legal minimum. the ELT.
Have a careful consideration of the weather before
any flight, and always have an escape plan. See As with all low flying, more frequent use of SADIE
the VFR Met GAP booklet for more strategies. checks is advised.
The minimum descent altitude for this exercise is

Lost restated (refer CFI).
Becoming hopelessly lost would not necessarily
require the implementation of this procedure, but it’s
considered here in conjunction with one or more of
the other reasons. Aeroplane management
Becoming lost is avoided by maintaining situational Consider the poor visibility configuration to slow
awareness and careful pre-flight planning. things down and allow for the increased stress. If the
landing is because of bad weather, carburettor heat
needs to be considered. If it’s due to a low fuel state,
Fuel manage the landing within the available fuel.
Running out of fuel, which may result from becoming
lost or trying to get around weather, rather than
diverting early, is a situation that will heighten any
existing stress levels. Human factors
Careful pre-flight planning and in-flight fuel
When flying at low level or in reduced visibility,
monitoring will help avoid this situation.
disorientation can quickly occur. The student will need
to make an enhanced effort to remain orientated.
Daylight
Stress has a significant effect on decision making,
Most organisations require all aeroplanes to be situational awareness, mental workload, problem
on the ground, or in the circuit, 30 minutes before solving, and performance. Minimising stress involves
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT). Plan to start early and good aviation practice to avoid the situations that
avoid ECT issues. call for this procedure, overlearning the procedure
to deal with it, and applying effective stress
management techniques.
Advanced manoeuvres: Precautionary landing 229

Alternatively superimposing a known and acceptable
Air exercise image over the selected site such as “looks about the
distance between the threshold markers and the 500-
foot markers of the home aerodrome”, ie, 150 metres.
This exercise is carried out in the low flying zone,
unless this is over water. The low flying zone pre-entry
checks and radio calls are made. If the exercise is to The pattern
be simulated by maintaining 500 feet AGL outside the
low flying zone, amend the briefing as required. Once a landing site into wind has been selected for
closer inspection, flying overhead at right angles to
the landing option/vector can help determine if a left
Simulating the conditions or right hand circuit is the best option (see Figure 1).
It will also confirm the wind assessment through drift,
Descending to 500 feet AGL simulates a lowering
and provide an opportunity to look at the approach
cloud base and reduced visibility. The poor visibility
and overshoot paths before any descent. It may also
configuration is adopted, and the decision to land
provide cues to help identify any gradient.
off-aerodrome is simulated.
In low cloudbase situations, it’s recommended that

With the decision made to discontinue the flight,
the circuit altitude be established at about 100 feet
a search for a suitable landing site is initiated, the
below the cloud base. This provides both maximum
emergency is declared, and the passengers and
visibility and ground clearance.
cabin secured.
Figure 1
Assessment of the wind is based on the same
indicators as the forced landing, with the importance
Pattern for a precautionary landing
of drift increased. (see whiteboard layout for key to numbers)
1 1
Landing site selection
Revise the ‘seven S’s, C and E’: size, shape, slope,
6
surface, surrounds, stock, sun, communication
and elevation. Power will be used to maintain an 5
estimated height above ground level, but avoid Wind

2
operating unnecessarily low, as this will only increase
stress levels. 3 4
Right-hand Left-hand
Establish poor vis config

If time permits, a suitable landing site with ground
assistance nearby can be chosen.
7 8
The position of the sun may be a major factor in the

choice of a suitable landing site, especially if the
Ideally, the aeroplane is positioned into wind at 500
onset of ECT is the reason for landing.
feet AGL, with the chosen landing site on the left-
hand side, far enough out so the pilot can look across
The length of the landing site can be assessed by
at the landing site and assess it in relation to the
flying into wind, from fence to fence in the direction
‘seven S’s, C and E’.
of landing and timing how long it takes. Two knots
is equal to approximately 1 metre/second. Assuming
On this and subsequent legs, the chosen landing site
the airspeed is 70 knots, then groundspeed is about
is assessed in relation to the ‘seven S’s, C and E’, with
70 knots. If the time it takes to fly the length of the
particular emphasis on surrounds in the approach
landing site is 10 seconds at 70 knots, then that
and climb-out areas.
is approximately equal to 350 metres. If the basic
landing distance is known the landing site can be
Landmarks are chosen (if available) at the beginning
assessed as suitable or not.
and end of each circuit leg to help remain orientated
in case the pilot loses sight of the landing site.

In addition, on the first upwind leg, the heading of Climb out in the poor visibility configuration to 500
the landing direction can be noted. To reduce mental feet AGL. Generally, this climb-out is not treated as a
workload, however, another less common method is go-around with appropriate configuration changes,
to align the DI to north while on this leg, regardless of because re-establishing the poor visibility configuration
actual heading. Each leg of the required circuit will now on reaching 500 feet AGL increases the workload.
have a cardinal heading in nil wind and the landing will
always be carried out on a heading of north. The aeroplane is re-established on the downwind leg,
the passenger briefing is completed, and a short field
This, however, may contribute to overall approach and landing is carried out.
disorientation. The important focus is on the chosen
landing area and noting of relevant threats.
The landing
On the downwind leg, spacing is assessed using the During the landing roll, use braking as required,
same airframe reference as a normal circuit. Since avoid major obstacles and above all else, keep the
the short field landing technique will be used, the cabin intact.
downwind leg is extended – visibility permitting.
After landing, the shutdown checklist is completed.
At the end of the downwind leg, a ground feature (if
available) is selected as a turning point reference.
Assuming the chosen landing site appears suitable

up to this point, a second inspection is carried out at
Airborne sequence
a minimum of 200 feet AGL.
The base leg is extended through the centreline and The exercise
the aeroplane turned into wind, with the landing The student should be capable of positioning the
site on the left-hand side, but closer than during the aeroplane within the low flying zone, checks complete
first inspection. This inspection is to decide exactly at 500 feet AGL, and established in the poor
which side or part of the landing site will be used visibility configuration.
for the landing roll. Are there any tree stumps in the
long grass? To inject some realism to this exercise talk the student
through the scenario. The weather has deteriorated,
Established on and parallel to final, a gradual they are not entirely sure of their position, and
descent to a minimum of 200 feet AGL is carried out. it’s starting to get dark – they need to carry out a
precautionary landing.
Descent below 200 feet AGL is not recommended,
because it takes considerable concentration to fly the First they must find a suitable landing site. Have the
aeroplane level and look at the landing site surface. student talk you through what they are looking for,
Also, there is a possibility of unseen obstructions, while you fly the aeroplane. They should remember
and since a climb to 500 feet AGL will be initiated on the ‘seven S’s, C and E’ from previous lessons and
completion of this inspection, the climb is minimised. the briefing.
Unless committed to the landing, never descend
below the highest obstacle in the go-around path. Take some time to discuss all of the elements.
Although a time constraint may be introduced in later
The major portion of the aeroplane’s momentum will flights, allow the student enough time to complete the
be spent in the first two thirds of the landing roll. recommended inspections.
Therefore, it’s generally recommended that the low-
level inspection is not prolonged, but a climb to 500 Now set the aeroplane up in the pattern. Choose the
feet AGL initiated about two thirds of the way along landmarks, note the heading of the landing direction,
the landing site (refer CFI). descend to 200 feet for the closer inspection,
and time the downwind leg to calculate landing
Ensure the decision points for the approach and aim distance available.
point are easily identifiable because, unlike a forced
landing, time to go around in the event of a poorly
executed approach should be available.
Advanced manoeuvres: Precautionary landing 231

Consider the decision making points for the approach
and aim point. If they are not achieved a go-
around will need to be executed to reposition for
another approach.
Continue the circuit and set it up to land. The height

at which you execute a go-around will be determined
by your CFI.
Now let the student practise, while you monitor

their progress.
After flight
Re-emphasise to the student that this is a last resort
procedure, and the best course of action is not to get
themselves in this position in the first place.

Precautionary landing ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

To learn the procedure to adopt in the event of an off-aerodrome landing. • In low flying zone • Decision to land simulated
• Low flying area pre-entry checks and radio • Descend to 500 ft AGL, adopt poor visibility • Start search for suitable site
calls configuration • Declare emergency
Considerations • Secure pax and cabin
Cause Avoidance
Pattern
Weather • Avoid by setting personal meteorological minima 1 Search and approach to cross centre at right 3 Radio call if not already completed 5 Descend to 200 ft
well above the legal minimum angles • Pax brief • check Ss, C, and E as appropriate
• Have a careful consideration of the weather
2 Observe drift – confirm wind assessment • Checks • assess length of paddock by timing or by
before any flight and always have an escape
• Establish left/right hand circuit at 500 ft – 4 Check: superimposing known image
plan
or 100 ft below cloud base • approach • note heading or set DI to North
Lost • Avoid by maintaining situational awareness and • Position so that the site can be seen and • aim point
• obstacles
careful pre-flight planning evaluated • overshoot options
• wind
Fuel • May result from becoming lost or trying to get • Check approach/overshoot while height
• go-around point 6 Climb
around weather, rather than diverting early available
• alignment 7 Confirm:
• This situation will heighten any existing stress • Consider gradient cues
• Choose landmarks, if available, • radio call
levels
1 1 particularly one at end of downwind • pax brief
• Avoid by careful pre-flight planning and in-flight
• checks
fuel monitoring
• normal circuit spacing
Daylight • This organisation requires all aeroplanes to be
6 8 Establish short-field approach
on the ground, or in the circuit, 30 minutes before
Evening Civil Twilight (ECT) 5
• Start early, finish early Wind
2 Landing
• Use short field technique
• If these situations arise, adopt poor visibility configuration and carry out 3 4
• Use braking as required
an off-aerodrome landing Right-hand Left-hand
• Avoid obstacles
• This can take 15–20 minutes to complete – don’t leave it too late Establish poor vis config
• Keep cabin intact
• After landing, shutdown checklist
7 8

• Make early decisions – • PAN call and squawk 7700. • Consider poor visibility configuration • Disorientation due low level
time to plan Possibly MAYAY call • Fuel – avoid exhaustion before landing achieved • Stress
• Wind awareness • SADIE checks • Overlearn the procedure
• Passenger briefing and • Minimum descent altitude
security checks

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Terrain and weather

awareness
This training should These exercises do not require high mountains

to establish the basic principles.
expand on the syllabus
requirements of low flying The introduction exercise could be completed
to incorporate an increased in most low flying zones. Where this is not

possible flying at 500 feet AGL above an
level of experience open area with a definable ‘confined area’
and understanding of of approximately 500 metres x 500 metres
flying near terrain and will meet the requirements. This is followed by
replicating the exercise within a valley, where
its associated weather, a real horizon is not available.
especially wind.
Opportunities for scenario based decision
Fundamental to safe flight near terrain is the making, and recognition of threats in context,
ability to establish an appropriate horizon should be maximised.
reference when the visual horizon is not
available because of terrain or weather. Terrain awareness training should focus
on recognising the significance of weather,
It’s important to develop the student’s especially wind, relative to the terrain and its
awareness of space and inertia while they impact on flight conditions and flight path.
are operating in a confined space using
an imaginary horizon.

Identify a useable imaginary (or real) horizon by
Objectives visualising where the sky meets the sea, as if the terrain
or obstacle to the visual horizon were transparent.
To establish a useable horizon reference when the

Use this horizon line to reference the nose attitude,
actual horizon is not available.
whether in straight and level flight or level
turning flight.
To operate in a confined area.
Review wind cues and how to estimate drift, as

To develop further awareness of space and inertia
covered in the low flying lessons.
when confined by terrain.
Discuss varying the angle of bank in order to use

To safely cross ridges, saddles, passes or spurs.
all the available space, and the use of power to
maintain a safe speed during all manoeuvres.
Discuss the importance of being aware of the

Considerations wind direction and speed relative to the terrain.
Demonstrate how the wind will behave in varying
The student should experience the exercises in strengths, and how it will flow around and/or over
a variety of configurations and conditions: terrain depending on its strength.
1. In both the clean configuration, and poor
visibility configuration.
Operating in a valley
2. In both calm and light wind conditions (less than
Discuss where to position the aeroplane in a valley,
15 knots).
considering;
3. In clear conditions, and with some precipitation.
• right of way rules,
4. They should complete turns through 180
• lift and sink conditions,
degrees and 360 degrees both clockwise
and anticlockwise. • use of space – depending on weather and
airspace conditions,
• positioning right of centre in a large valley,

Superimposed horizon
• positioning on the right side in a narrow valley –
Define the horizon as where the sea meets the sky.
so that you can immediately escape by turning
Identify the real horizon. 180 degrees, should it be necessary because of
weather, sink, turbulence, traffic, or running out
An imaginary horizon can be used when the real of space.
horizon is obscured by terrain or weather. The horizon
can be imagined by visualising the obstruction Discuss the need to use the minimum angle of
(terrain or weather) as transparent, and visualising bank necessary to use all the space. This will also
where the sea would meet the sky. minimise the stall speed and improve the potential for
anticipation by allowing more time to assess factors
such as, horizon, space, inertia, rate of closure, radius
Operating in a confined space required, turbulence, etc.
Define a simulated confined area, free of obstacles

The poor visibility configuration will slow the
and with clearly defined boundaries. A flat paddock
aeroplane down and reduce the turn radius.
of approximately 500 metres x 500 metres would suit
Consideration of a reduced flap selection may be
most light training aircraft.
required to maintain aeroplane performance.
Define a similar area in a location where a clear

It’s important to remember that this exercise is not
horizon is not available.
a minimum radius turn. If a minimum radius turn is
required, a good decision is long overdue.
Discuss how to superimpose the horizon when the
real one can’t be seen.
Discuss the use of check turns to assess the available
space well before committing to any area the student
is unsure of.
Advanced manoeuvres: Terrain and weather awareness 235

Good decision making is critical, especially crossing
Crossing ridges, saddles, passes, or spurs ridges and passes, to maintain escape options and to
Students will need to take into account all aspects of minimise any commitment period.
the crossing including the approach to the crossing, the
The student must remain aware of their situation
actual crossing, and the flight path after the crossing.
at all times, in particular remaining aware of the
When planning a crossing, the approach angles must changing weather, nearby terrain, other traffic in the
take into account the effects of wind and terrain, and area, and their own performance.
allow escape options throughout the crossing, that
It’s helpful to make position reports both before
minimise the period of commitment – a 45-degree
and after crossing a saddle or pass to assist with
angle, or less, is ideal.
traffic awareness.
The aeroplane must be in level flight, speed under
As with any low flying, more frequent use of SADIE
control; not in a climb where visibility and airspeed
checks is advised.
are compromised; not in a descent where VA may be
compromised in turbulence at the saddle and loss of
altitude may compromise return options back over
restated (refer CFI).
the saddle.
The student should be able to use parallax to help

recognise the aeroplane’s height in relation to
the saddle. Aeroplane management
If the terrain beyond the saddle is disappearing, the Revise the poor visibility configuration – considering
aeroplane is not high enough. If the terrain beyond when it’s necessary to adopt, and the effect it has
the saddle is staying the same, the aircraft is at on performance.
terrain height and 500 feet can be added for safe
clearance. If there is increasing terrain beyond the Review VA, VS, and operating speed range considerations.
saddle then the aeroplane is higher than the saddle. Review the use of power as necessary to remain safely
above stall speed, but in anticipation of potential
Discuss how much terrain clearance is needed for a turbulence, below the maximum manoeuvring speed.
safe crossing.
Carburettor heat as required.
Discuss the types of saddles, and their relative merits.
A knife-edge saddle is the most preferable because Fuel management – review leaning the mixture for
of the shorter time it takes to cross. It allows for a engine considerations, performance and economy.
shallow angle of approach (45 degrees or less) and
allows a shallow angle of escape. Revise control coordination to ensure smooth,
balanced, handling to reduce unnecessary stress on
It’s critical that escape options are always available. the aeroplane, passengers and pilot.
The effects of weather, terrain, traffic, turbulence,
sink, and confined turning radius can require the use Consider the positioning of the aeroplane in relation
of an escape option at a moment’s notice. These to the terrain while taking into account wind direction
escape options should be downstream, downhill and and speed, so as to mitigate the effects of turbulence.
through the minimum possible angle of bank, in order
to maintain a margin over the stall in anticipation of
potential sink or turbulence.
Human factors
Good planning and situational awareness will

Airmanship reduce disorientation.
Thinking ahead of the aeroplane is an important Discuss the illusions associated with inaccurate
part of this exercise. In the real situation it will ensure horizon definition, most commonly an insidiously
that the student does not find themselves forced into climbing terrain gradient which tricks the pilot into
reacting to an unforeseen situation. raising the nose.

Potential hazards associated with illusions and poor Ensure every opportunity is taken to enhance
horizon definition include inadvertently reaching wind awareness, especially noting wind strength
the stall speed with high power and no room, or and direction.
performance, available to escape.
Relocate from the obstacle free simulated confined
Motion sickness can be a problem, use the I’MSAFE area to a suitable valley to carry out the same
checklist, good planning and training to reduce exercise but near terrain, and consequently a
anxiety levels. Use smooth coordinated control inputs, less defined horizon. Carry out check turns before
and provide sick bags as a backup. entering, and during early positioning in the
valley to make sure the operation is not beyond
Direct the student towards more reading on this personal limitations.
subject, there are a number of GAP booklets that
deal with flying in mountains, such as Mountain Appropriately position the aircraft to execute level
flying, Survival, the In, out and around series, as well 180 degree and 360 degree turns using all the
as the Mountain flying DVD. available space, minimising the bank angle and
using only sufficient power to maintain a safe speed
between VA and VS – appropriate to conditions and
aeroplane loading.
Air exercise
Crossing ridges, saddles, or passes
In the ‘confined area’ within a low flying area, fly the
boundaries using a minimum angle of bank using all Determine the lift or sink sides of the saddle. Assess
the available space. Control the speed with power. the approach, crossing, and after crossing options.
Use the clean configuration and the poor visibility Approach at 45 degrees or less to provide the best
configuration, calm and light wind conditions, as escape downhill, downstream, and with the minimum
well as no precipitation and some precipitation. angle of bank required.
Make turns left and right through 180 degrees and
360 degrees. Fly left to right to allow for the best visibility. However,
if the escape to the right is obstructed, or the sink
All opportunity to identify wind speed and direction on approach is significant, consider flying right to
cues should be maximised. left. If this approach presents too many threats, the
options are to fly higher if cloud base permits or find
Repeat the exercise in an area confined by terrain a safer saddle.
without a real horizon available.
Show the student the difference between the
Use saddle crossing techniques to enter or exit this ‘knife-edge’ saddle and the flat saddle, choosing
‘confined by terrain’ area. the ‘knife-edge’ to cross at.
Refer to the Mountain flying training standards guide. Approach level and below VA, as discussed.
Show the student how to use parallax to assess sink

and their height in relation to the saddle.
Airborne sequence
Have the student gain experience in making decisions
using a variety of approach options.
Operating in a confined area

Starting with a larger area, and gradually reducing
to the smaller ‘confined area’ will help students to
manage this exercise.
In the clean configuration, fly the boundaries using

minimum angle of bank, using all available space.
Repeat in the poor visibility configuration, noting
the differences.
Advanced manoeuvres: Terrain and weather awareness 237

Terrain and weather awareness ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To establish a useable horizon reference when the actual horizon is not available. Conditions Confined area with no horizon
• To operate in a confined area. • Clean configuration • Same exercise and conditions as confined area
• To develop further awareness of space and inertia when confined by terrain. • Poor visibility configuration • Use saddle crossing technique
• To safely cross ridges, saddles, passes or spurs. • Calm conditions
• With wind / wind indicators Crossing ridges, saddles, passes or spurs
• Determine lift/sink side
• No precipitation
• Approach at 45° or less for best escape options
Considerations • Some precipitation
• Left to right best for visibility and escapes
• Left turns
Superimposed horizon • Look at different saddles
• Right turns
• Horizon is where the sea meets the sky
• Approach level and below VA
• 180° turns
• Imaginary or superimposed horizon used
• Use parallax to assess sink and relative height
• 360° turns
when real horizon can’t be seen
• Have escape route available at all times – other than
• Visualise where sea meets sky
Operating in a confined area during period of commitment
• Fly boundaries with minimum angle of bank
• Use all available space
• Control speed with power
• Note wind direction and speed
• Position for 360° and 180° turns
• Check turns
Operating in a confined space – valley turning
• Select a clear area 500 m x 500 m
• Select another area the same size, where there is no horizon available
• Identify imaginary horizon, as if terrain were transparent, use it to reference nose attitude
• Think ahead, decision making • Clean and poor visibility configuration • Disorientation
• Wind cues and drift estimation
critical • Operating speed range between • Visual illusions
• Use all available space by varying bank angle, power to maintain safe speed
• Situational awareness VS and VA • Motion sickness
• Develop awareness of the significance of wind velocity relative to the terrain
• Position reports • Carb heat as required
Crossing ridges, spurs, saddles or passes • SADIE • Engine leaning

• Consider the approach, the actual crossing, and after the crossing • Minimum altitude • Smooth control movements
• Ensure approach angles take wind and terrain into account, allow escape options • Aeroplane position near terrain
that minimise period of commitment – 45° or less is best
• Attitude for crossing – level, speed under control, no climb or descent
• Use parallax to judge height above saddle
• How much clearance is required?
• Types of saddles and merits
• Escape options must always be available

ADVANCED MANOEUVRES
Basic mountain
flying
This training introduces The exercises do not require high mountains

to establish the basic principles.
students to the principles
of basic mountain flying Opportunities for scenario based decision
and further develops making and recognition of threats in context

should be maximised.
their experience and
understanding of operating Whenever the opportunity presents itself,
near terrain with its the training should focus on recognising

the significance of weather, especially wind
associated weather. relative to terrain and its impact on flight
This is a CPL level exercise. conditions and flight path.
Advanced manoeuvres: Basic mountain flying 239

Review the illusions associated with inaccurate horizon
Objectives definition, most commonly an insidiously climbing
terrain gradient which tricks the pilot into raising the
nose. Potential hazards associated with illusions and
To consistently identify a useable horizon and to
poor horizon definition include inadvertently reaching
mentally superimpose it on to a variable background.
the stall speed with high power and no room, or
To appropriately position an aircraft in a valley and performance, available to escape.
to conduct level, climbing and descending turns.
To safely approach, cross, and position after crossing
ridges, saddles, passes, or spurs. Review and expand on:
• use of check turns,

Experience real or simulated circumstances of
disorientation and the strategies for reorienting • positioning in a valley,
in place and time.
• turning using minimum angle of bank to use
all available space,
To practise emergencies where options may
be limited. • poor visibility configuration use and
considerations.
Discuss the considerations of climbing and

Considerations descending turns when entering and vacating a
valley. This will help the student to experience the
changing horizon perspective and consequent
The student should experience these exercises to
importance of attitude/speed control.
increase their awareness of mountain flying and the
associated weather:
Discuss valley gradients – the student should
1. In clean and poor visibility configuration, experience flying at a constant height above the
valley floor while descending down a valley to
2. In both calm and windy conditions (greater than
observe the VSI indications and predict the climb
15 knots, at instructor discretion),
performance necessary for flight in the opposite
3. In clear, and some precipitation, conditions, direction. The gradient in most valleys far exceeds
4. Completing turns through 180 degrees and the climb performance of the average light
360 degrees both clockwise and anticlockwise. training aeroplane.
Wind below 15 knots is generally predictable. It’s Discuss the effects of sun and shade – if possible,
important that instructor discretion is applied in wind in a controlled dual environment, expose the student
conditions above 15 knots, when ability to accurately to the sun suddenly appearing and disappearing
predict conditions is more challenging and affected behind a ridge.
by the terrain shape, size, and presentation of airflow.
Crossing ridges, saddles, passes, or spurs

All wind speed and direction potential cues should
be discussed. Review and expand on the considerations from
the Terrain and weather awareness lesson:
Importantly, basic mountain flying requires completion
• consider all aspects of crossing,
of a ground course – please refer to the Mountain
flying training standards guide for the content of • configuration and attitude of aeroplane,
this course.
• effect of wind and terrain,
• escape options,
Superimposed horizon
• use of parallax, and
Revise the definition of the horizon.
• types of saddles.
Identify the real and imaginary horizon.
In increased wind conditions the student will need
to assess the areas of lift and sink, and areas of
potential turbulence for all phases of a crossing.

The student must consider the approach path or The wind will also affect the glide range – avoid sink
angle from well before the crossing. They must assess and use lift if possible. It may be possible to take a
the approach angle (left to right or right to left) for calculated gamble on the presence of an anabatic or
wind, cloud and turbulence conditions, and provide katabatic wind.
for the best escape option at all times.
The valley being flown over will probably have a
Escape options should be available through a gradient – how steep is it? What will be the elevation
shallow angle (45 degrees or less) to minimise the of the landing site? Are there any wires?
angle of bank and consequent VS. The best escape
option should provide for a downstream, downhill Be aware of the illusions and mindsets that can
escape on both sides of the crossing to anticipate the be experienced.
effects of potential turbulence or sink.
Make an early MAYDAY call, possibly on 121.5 MHz,
The student should experience as many options set transponder code to 7700 and activate the ELT.
as possible, including those that may not be the
best, provided that the experience stays within the Look for habitation and head for it.
instructor’s limitations.
Before take-off, there should be an appropriate
survival kit on board and the pilot should
Route finding have knowledge of its contents and use. See
the Survival GAP booklet for more information.
Discuss the importance of good planning and map
preparation. Time spent on the ground significantly
reduces workload in the air, especially in the
mountains where a good lookout is more critical
because of proximity to terrain.
Airmanship
Being able to identify the direction of water flow/ In this lesson the student must be doing more
gradient will help greatly when it’s critical to be than just thinking ahead, they must anticipate the
assured of the aeroplane’s position. The student environment they cannot yet see, in order to ensure
should develop the skill of recognising flow direction they are not left in a situation where reacting quickly
and by assessing the amount of white water present, is the only option left open to them.
gain a clear indication of valley gradient.
It’s important that they learn to recognise threats
Being aware of the alignment of the valley being and develop appropriate strategies to mitigate
flown in, and of those nearby, will help maintain those threats.
It’s much better to have sound decision making than
Discuss using the position of the sun to improve rely on inadequate aeroplane performance to provide
situational awareness and knowledge of orientation. escape options.
For example, if the sun was in front of the right shoulder
entering the valley, and if insignificant time elapses, The student must remain aware of their situation
it should be behind the left shoulder exiting the valley. at all times, in particular remaining aware of the
changing weather, nearby terrain, other traffic in
the area, and their own performance.
Emergencies
It’s helpful to make position reports both
Emergency landings, whether forced or precautionary,
before and after crossing saddles to assist with
are more of a challenge when flying below
traffic awareness.
the ridgeline.
As with any low flying, more frequent use of SADIE
The lack of a real horizon is the primary problem.
checks is advised.
There are many variables to consider: height available,

distance to viable landing sites, existence of viable
restated (refer CFI).
sites within reach, wind/turbulence/precipitation
conditions, and light conditions, to name just a few. Recognition of the 500, 1000, and 1500 feet AGL
reference points should be discussed.
Confined spaces will affect the plan.

Aeroplane management Air exercise
Revise the poor visibility configuration, considering Review the previous lesson and the skills
when it’s necessary to adopt, and the effect it has developed there.
on performance.
This lesson should start approaching any terrain.
Review VA, VS, and operating speed range considerations. Discuss horizon, wind, gradient and potential lift/sink
Review the use of power as necessary to remain safely well in advance of the arrival in any valley.
above stall speed, but in anticipation of potential
turbulence, below the maximum manoeuvring speed. Identify and interpret wind cues for speed
and direction.
Carburettor heat as required.
Review leaning the mixture for engine considerations, Superimposed horizon

performance, and economy. Fly a constant altitude while maintaining a constant
wingtip distance from terrain to provide the
Revise control coordination to ensure smooth,
instructor with insight into the student’s performance
balanced, handling to reduce unnecessary stress on
near terrain.
the aeroplane, passengers and pilot.
By using outside reference as the primary source, and
Consider the positioning of the aeroplane in relation
only confirming performance with instruments, this
to the terrain while taking into account wind direction
exercise will help to develop the skill of accurately
and speed, so as to mitigate the effects of turbulence.
superimposing the horizon onto varied backgrounds.
This exercise should be flown smoothly and with

coordinated control movements. While flying
Human factors smoothly and maintaining a constant altitude and
distance from terrain, encourage the student to
The illusions experienced when flying without a develop an awareness of the area around them
horizon have been discussed earlier, but expand and their position in it. They should also be gaining
on the other illusions the student may experience. an appreciation of inertia when they make turns,
Whiteout and disappearing ridgelines, for example. be consistently aware of their escape options,
be applying the right of way rules, and using an
Workload, stress, fatigue and effect on performance appropriate lookout technique.
– employ sound planning techniques, good training
and currency to reduce any degrading effect Next, fly a constant height above a descending valley
on performance. floor to give the student an appreciation of gradient
and shifting horizon perspective.
Hypoxia and dehydration factors – be knowledgeable
and aware of the effects on performance. Turn around and fly a constant height above a rising
valley floor to appreciate the same things.
Direct the student towards more reading on this
subject. There are a number of GAP booklets that
deal with flying in mountains, such as Mountain Operating in a valley
flying, Survival, the In, out and around series, as well This is ideally carried out in a valley that provides
as the Mountain flying DVD. a variety of slopes, valley sides, background terrain,
and weather conditions. This may not be practical,
so a variety of valleys and conditions should be used.
Turns should be made while level, climbing,

and descending.

When approaching the entrance to a valley, or in a The student should apply sound decision making and
narrowing valley and unsure of the radius required; be able to discuss the process. Their consideration of
make check turns to evaluate the turn radius of the suitable escape options in conditions of unexpected
aeroplane, exit options, and the space available for sink or turbulence should be of primary concern.
an escape.
Start with complete 360 degree level turns both left Route finding
and right, in the cruise configuration, using the full While conducting mountain flying training, or during
width of the valley. Then the same level turns in the dual cross country training and operating below the
poor visibility configuration. ridge line, allow the student to experience their own
real disorientation and guide them through strategies
Note the difference in appropriate aeroplane position
for reorientation. If this is not possible, you may need
when in a narrow valley compared to a large one.
to simulate the exercise.
Make steep descending turns into a valley. The

student should correctly anticipate the location the Emergencies
aeroplane should roll out, and notice the changing
horizon perspective and reduced space available. Take opportunities to simulate forced or
precautionary landings whenever the aeroplane is
The student should be able to make efficient climbing below a ridge line. Emphasise the need to recognise
turns, to enable the aeroplane to either climb out of and mitigate any threats.
a valley or to position for a saddle crossing using the
available lift to assist, and avoiding sudden sun strikes. The student may have difficulty adjusting to a
situation where the standard pattern cannot be
If the valley has a vertical face, experience the turning flown, including a forced landing without power
radius through 180 degrees in both the cruise and where the only option is straight ahead.
poor visibility configurations, to appreciate the effects
of illusions.
Airborne sequence
Crossing ridges, saddles, passes, or spurs
Apply a CPL standard to the previously established Develop local simulated scenarios so you can assess
principles of assessing the appropriate flight path a student’s entry into and exit from a valley system,
for approach, crossing, and after crossing, that climb into and out of a valley system or crossing from
applies the safest compromise of the options and one valley system into another.
principles involved.
When conducting cross country training, consider
This exercise will be carried out in wind conditions routes and altitudes that facilitate practical
that may exceed 15 knots. application of principles learned.
Demonstrate use of parallax to assess height in

relation to a saddle.
The student should be able to demonstrate saddle

crossings, while taking into account, the approach, the
effect of wind, the turbulence, their height, their speed,
an efficient crossing, and be able to show you where
they would escape to at any point. A safe airspeed
must be maintained at all times and the aeroplane
flown smoothly. Where compromise may be required,
assessment of the best option should be made.

Basic mountain flying ADVANCED MANOEUVRES

• To consistently identify a useable horizon and to superimpose it on a variable background. • Identify and interpret wind cues
• To appropriately position an aircraft in a valley and to conduct level, climbing and descending turns. Superimposed horizon
• To safely approach, cross, and position after crossing ridges, saddles, passes or spurs. • Fly constant altitude and constant wingtip distance • Awareness of: area and environment, inertia while
• Experience real or simulated circumstances of disorientation and the strategies for reorienting in place and time. from terrain for indications of student performance turning, escape options, right of way rules, lookout
• To practice emergencies where options may be limited. • Smooth coordinated control movements • Fly constant height above descending valley floor
• Fly constant height above climbing valley floor
Considerations • Check turns • Steep descending turn into valley
• Wind indicators for speed and direction
• Level, climbing and descending turns • Climbing turn out of valley or for saddle crossing
Superimposed horizon • Cruise configuration, using full width • Right of way
• Horizon is where the sea meets the sky • Experience factors affecting contour • Poor visibility configuration, using full width • Lookout principles
• Illusions – most dangerous is slowly rising flying at constant altitude • Position in the valley dependent on space available
terrain in bottom of valley
Crossing ridges, saddles, passes or spurs
Operating in a valley • All factors of approach, crossing, after crossing and • Saddle crossing, taking all effects into account
• Check turns • Climbing and descending turns for
escape options throughout • Show sound decision making
• Select appropriate position in valley entry and exit of valleys • Wind >15 kt
• Use minimum angle of bank • Valley gradients
• Poor visibility configuration • Sun and shade Route finding
• Simulate or use actual opportunity to experience/practise
Crossing ridges, saddles, passes or spurs
• Consider all aspects of crossing, effect of wind and • Approach path should be planned well ahead Emergencies
terrain, escape options, parallax, saddle types • Escape options • FLWOP and precautionary landing where no real • Adapt standard pattern
• Increased wind horizon • Identify and mitigate threats
• Apply sound decision making
Route finding
• Good planning and preparation • Valley alignment
• Water flow • Sun’s position
Airmanship
Emergencies • Anticipate environment and recognise threats • Position reports
• No horizon  more difficulties • Confined space • Aeroplane performance • SADIE
• Variables: • Wind, lift/sink • Situational awareness • Always have escape options
– Height • Valley gradient
– Distance to landing site • Illusions and mindsets
– Existence of landing site • Early MAYDAY Aeroplane management Human factors
– Wind/turbulence/precipitation • Habitation • Poor visibility • Use of power • Illusions – whiteout, brightout
– Light • Survival kit – contents and use configuration • Carburettor heat • Workload, stress, fatigue – effect on performance
• Operating speed • Engine leaning • Hypoxia
range between VS • Control coordination • Dehydration
and VA • Aeroplane position • Further reading

Instrument flying
The instrument lessons are

to be carried out as dual
instruction only and will be
dictated by the conditions
on the day. For the compass
turns and night flying lessons,
these will also involve solo
practise subsequent to dual
instruction. Please refer to
your CFI.
INSTRUMENT FLYING
Compass use
The magnetic compass is The magnetic compass displays several errors

in its use, most of which the DI eliminates.
the primary navigation aid If, for any reason, the DI becomes unusable,
for most light aeroplanes. the pilot will need to be able to turn onto and
maintain a compass heading.
It’s the only instrument in most light
aeroplanes that indicates the correct heading. The cause of compass errors is not as
The direction indicator (DI) or directional gyro important as how to compensate for those
(DG) is simply gyro-stabilised and can be set errors in flight. A basic understanding of the
to any heading. To be of any value it must be causes of compass errors is all that is required.
manually aligned with the magnetic compass
on a regular basis.
In using the magnetic compass for navigation

purposes there are more considerations than
just the turning errors.

Deviation
Objective
When the bar magnet or magnetic compass is acted
To turn accurately onto, and maintain, compass on by a magnetic field other than the earth’s, the
headings, compensating for known errors in the magnet deviates. Most metal objects or electrical fields
magnetic compass. produce a magnetic field that will cause the compass
to read incorrectly. This effect is known as deviation.
It’s compensated for by the ‘compass swing’ procedure,
which minimises errors and records residual errors.
Considerations The compass deviation card displays the correction

to apply.
Variation
The earth has a geographical (true) North Pole and Dip
a geographical (true) South Pole. At the magnetic equator, the earth’s magnetic field
lies parallel with the earth’s surface, and a bar
A magnetic field exists around the earth, produced by
magnet would also lie parallel. As the poles are
the equivalent of a very large bar magnet within the
approached, the lines of flux dip down toward the
earth (see Figure 1). This results in a magnetic North
earth’s surface, and so does a bar magnet.
Pole and a magnetic South Pole.
Suspending the compass card from a pivot point
Figure 1
above the magnet almost eliminates dip.
The earth has geographical and magnetic north and

The pivot arrangement is unstable, so the compass card
south poles
and magnets are immersed in a fluid that damps out
oscillations, and also provides lubrication (see Figure 2).
Figure 2
Magnetic compass
pivot
liquid filled bowl
cup
compass
case
lubber line
compass card
magnet (1 of 2)
The magnetic poles are not in the same places as the Acceleration errors
true poles; however, currently they are close, enabling
The compass always sits at a slight angle to the
us to use magnets to navigate around the world.
earth because the magnet is suspended below a
pivot point. The centre of gravity of the magnet will
The angular difference between true north and
not lie directly beneath the pivot point, and when
magnetic north at any point on the earth is called
the aeroplane accelerates or decelerates, the centre
variation. This difference is more relevant when
of gravity lags behind due to inertia and rotates the
navigating because maps are drawn with reference
compass card.
to true north, and the aircraft is navigated by
reference to magnetic north. This will be covered
This does not happen when heading north or south,
during future navigation lessons.
and is at a maximum when heading east or west.
Instrument flying: Compass use 247

In practice, the compass will indicate an apparent The turn coordinator will indicate a balanced rate
turn toward the South when Accelerating and an one turn at normal cruise airspeed (it will not indicate
apparent turn toward the North when Decelerating. the angle of bank).
The mnemonic SAND is used to remember
these effects.
Power changes, in aeroplanes with sufficient Airmanship

power, produce acceleration or deceleration errors,
although these errors are most noticeable during
During taxiing, the compass is checked for correct
attitude changes.
sense – turning right, numbers increasing, turning
left, numbers decreasing. On lining up, the compass
Turning errors heading is compared with the runway heading
and can be expected to be within approximately
In a balanced turn, the bar magnet stays aligned with 10 degrees.
the aeroplane and therefore increases its angle to
the horizon. The turn coordinator or indicator should also be
checked for serviceability. Most turn coordinators
To compensate for this, when turning onto northerly are electrically driven and display a red warning flag
headings the pilot must continue the turn past when power is not being supplied. During turns while
the indicated heading, and when turning onto taxiing, the turn coordinator should display a rate of
southerly headings, stop the turn before the desired turn in the correct sense.
compass heading.
Emphasise that lookout is the most important part of
The mnemonic ONUS is used to remember this any turn and must be maintained, before, during and
(see Figure 3): after the turn.
• Overturn the required heading when turning
onto Northerly headings, and
• Underturn the required heading when turning

onto Southerly headings.
The compass turn is carried out at ‘rate one’ – this is The compass system should be checked for
a turn of 360 degrees in two minutes. serviceability before flight.
While turning at rate one, the error between the If the fluid in the compass has bubbles or leaks out,
desired heading and the indicated heading on the compass will become less stable. Check for cracks
000 and 180 is approximately 30 degrees. For or fluid leaks as well as fluid discoloration.
this correction to work, the turn must be rate one,
balanced, level and without pitch changes. Ensure the deviation card is valid by checking that the
expiry date has not passed. Although the corrections
given for various headings are generally considered
Figure 3
insignificant for practical flight use, the deviation
card is the only indication that the compass swing
Using the mnemonic ONUS
has been done, and that any errors found were
not excessive.
000
330 030
The introduction of any metal object or electrical
30 field, such as headphones, GPS, or calculators, into
300 20 20 060
the cockpit will affect the accuracy of the magnetic
10 10
ON compass. Keep these items as far away from the
270 0 0 090 compass as possible.
10
US 10 Except for Technically Enhanced Aircraft (TEA), often
240 20 20 120 referred to as ‘Glass Cockpit’ aircraft, vacuum pump
30
failure is the most likely cause of DI failure, so the
210 150 suction gauge should be checked during engine run-
180
up (4.5 to 5.2 inches Hg).

There are several methods available.
Human factors
First – and best – the back of the cover used to hide
the DI could have a drawing printed on it that shows
To minimise disorientation, a three-dimensional
the error or correction associated with each cardinal
picture, including the cardinal points of the
and intermediate heading (see Figure 4).
compass, should be developed and retained in the
pilot’s memory. Second, if the aeroplane is fitted with an ADF or VOR,
the remote indicators associated with these (ADF
In-flight mental calculations should be kept to
card or CDI) may be used as a reference.
a minimum.
The first step in visualising which way to turn, is
The pilot should not have access to unreliable
to read the compass. This heading is plotted on
information that could be used. It’s recommended
the substitute.
that unreliable information, ie, instruments that have
failed, are covered. Then the desired heading is plotted in the same
manner and the shortest arc chosen. For example,
to turn from 040 to 270 – which way would you turn?
Air exercise Figure 4
Draw the compass rose in plan view, and divide it into Aircraft compass (left), compass rose in plan view (right)
two halves with the cardinal headings labelled. Turning
errors are zero on east and west, and a maximum of 000
330 030
30 degrees on north and south – label these. 30
300 20 20 060
10 10
Intermediate headings and their associated error are ON
270 0 0 090
now labelled. In addition, the top half of the rose is US
10 10
labelled ON and the bottom half US. 240 20 20 120
30
210 150
This information will need to be memorised by the 180
student and should be included in the lesson handout.
The procedure for turning onto a specific compass This method avoids mathematical calculations.
heading is broken down into several steps. However, when the heading required is near the
reciprocal of the current heading, it may result in a
turn the wrong way. In practical terms, if the desired
Making the turn
heading is at or close to the reciprocal, a turn in the
wrong direction will have little impact.
Which way to turn?
The turn is always made in the shortest direction.
Will an overturn or underturn be required
For example, a turn from east to north requires
(ONUS)?
a turn to the left.
Without access to the error/correction drawing,
Given the presentation of the compass rose, this is this would require the student to know, for example,
quite a simple deduction. However, the aeroplane’s that 120 is a southerly heading.
magnetic compass does not present the information
in this format. Therefore, some method of deciding In practice this can be deduced from the
the shortest arc to turn through must be provided methods above.
to the student.
It’s assumed that the DI has failed, or is unreliable, What correction will need to be applied?
so should be removed from the pilot’s scan. As the Unless a drawing on the back of the DI cover
simple plan view of the compass rose is easy to is supplied, the student needs to memorise the
interpret and is what the student has memorised, correction factors.
some other instrument, preferably orientated with
north always at the top, is substituted for the DI.

What will the compass read when the roll out Which way to turn?
is started?
One method is to reverse the sense. For example, if
There are three methods to determine this. the required heading is left of the lubber line, turn
right. This sounds simple but many students find this
First, the heading on which to start the roll out can method confusing.
be calculated mentally by adding or subtracting the
correction factor. However, this not only requires an Another is for the student to visualise themselves in
appreciation of whether to underturn or overturn but the centre of the compass rose and looking down the
also depends on which way the turn is being made. compass heading over the nose of the aeroplane.
For example, a turn onto north from 090 requires an If the compass reads, for example, 038 and the
overturn of 30 degrees to a roll out heading of 330 desired heading is 035, the desired heading is left
(subtract 30), while a turn onto north from 270 will of the present heading (see Figure 5). Do not look at
result in a required roll out heading of 030 (add 30). the compass.
The second method relies on the emphasis placed Figure 5

on the meaning of overturn and underturn.
Visualise being in the centre of the compass
Overturn means go past the desired heading, while
035
underturn means to stop short of it. In the case of 038
overturn, therefore, the turn is continued until the Turn left

desired heading is seen under the lubber line and
the turn continued for the appropriate correction.
In the case of underturn, when the desired heading
is seen approaching the lubber line the roll out is
started before the desired heading is reached by the
appropriate correction.
A third method, more appropriate to CPL training

than basic training, of estimating when to roll out Yet another method is to employ the serviceability
relies on timing. Since a rate one turn results in a turn check carried out during taxiing, turning right,
of 360 degrees in two minutes, the rate of turn is numbers increase, turning left, numbers decrease.
calculated as three degrees per second. Knowing the Therefore, a turn from 038 to 035 requires a decrease
arc to be turned through, the amount of time required or left turn. This method has the advantage that
at rate one can be calculated and the turn timed nothing new needs to be learned. But, this method
using the clock. works only for small heading changes, or corrections,
and cannot be applied to the initial turn direction
When the calculated heading to roll out on is seen calculation. For example, turning from 030 to 300, the
under the lubber line, roll out smoothly. Anticipation shortest arc is left but numbers increase to the right.
of the heading by 3 degrees, given the roll out takes
about one second, should allow for an accurate Where more than one method is available to explain
compass turn. Immediately choose a reference point a procedure or calculation, it’s recommended that
on the horizon and fly on the reference point, wings you choose only one explanation to deliver to the
level, and balanced. Give the compass time to settle – student. If the student cannot understand that
don’t chase the heading. explanation, rather than just repeat it a little louder,
you can then use another explanation. Once the
When reading the compass, ensure that the wings student has grasped the principles, other methods of
are level and that the aeroplane is in steady arriving at the same conclusion can be introduced to
balanced flight, as these are the only conditions reinforce learning.
under which the compass will read accurately.
When to roll out?

Making the correction
There are two methods available to determine this.
Often the required heading will not have been
achieved exactly, so minor corrections will need to The first, used primarily in instrument flight, relies on
be made using the 3 degrees per second rate one timing the turn at three degrees per second and is
turn principle. reasonably easy to do for small corrections: 5 to 10

degrees = approximately 2 to 3 seconds. Saying “one The demonstration of acceleration errors is concluded
thousand” equates to about one second, therefore, with a reminder that when accelerating, decelerating
begin counting when the rate one turn is started, or pitching, keep straight on the reference point. In
rather than timing on the clock. addition, to compensate for turning errors accurately,
it will be necessary to avoid pitch changes during the
The second, used in a practical VFR sense, is to rate one turn.
estimate the required heading change and select
a new reference point on the horizon, and complete Turning errors are demonstrated by completing a
a turn onto the new reference. 360 degree rate one turn and noting the difference
between the compass heading and the DI on cardinal
In either case, roll out smoothly, maintain balanced and intermediate headings. Point out that these
level flight on the reference point, and allow the errors or corrections are only true in a level, balanced,
compass time to settle. rate one turn. Start on a compass heading of 090 or
270 (with the DI aligned) and have the student read
out the compass heading when you read out a DI
heading. In a turn to the right you read out 030 (DI),
Airborne sequence the student should read out about 010 compass, a
20-degree difference.
On the ground Once the errors have been observed, a DI failure is

simulated. Using the recommended steps, compass
During the preflight inspection pay particular
turns onto cardinal headings are practised.
attention to the serviceability checks of the compass
and the validity of the deviation card. Beware of lookout degradation during calculations.
Look at the compass heading before turning the Commonly, when the aeroplane is rolled wings level,
master switch on and the watch the effect of starting there is a tendency by the student to fixate on the
the engine. compass rather than maintain level flight on a distant
reference point. This tendency can be overcome by
During the taxiing instrument checks, note that the
covering the compass with your hand just as the
turn coordinator gives a rate of turn, not the angle of
student starts the roll out and insisting that they
bank, and that the DI can be set to read any heading
choose and fly a reference point. Allow the compass
desired, regardless of the aeroplane’s actual heading.
adequate time to settle, ensure the aeroplane is in
balanced flight, and then remove your hand to read
the compass.
The exercise
The airborne sequence starts with a demonstration Depending on which method is used for minor
of acceleration and deceleration errors. Maintaining corrections, cover the compass again and calculate
a heading of 090 or 270 by reference to the DI which way to turn. Calculate the time required or
or reference point, accelerate the aeroplane by choose a new reference, turn and regain balanced
smoothly pitching the nose down; note the apparent level flight. Allow the compass to settle and remove
turn toward the south. This exercise is repeated your hand to read the compass.
to demonstrate deceleration effects by smoothly
pitching the nose up; note the apparent turn toward When the compass reads the correct heading,
the north. emphasise the reference point to maintain heading.
Do not allow the student to fixate on the compass
Smoothly increasing and decreasing the throttle also – instruments are used to confirm performance, not
produces this effect in all but low powered aircraft. set it.
Remember the engine handling principle of 3 seconds
to open or close the throttle.
After flight
When this exercise is repeated on headings of 000
The student will need to practise these solo.
or 180 no apparent turn will occur, although the
compass may be seen to dip. Ensure the aeroplane is
kept straight by reference to the DI or reference point.

Compass use INSTRUMENT FLYING

To turn accurately onto and maintain compass headings, compensating for known errors in • Demonstration of acceleration and deceleration errors
the magnetic compass. • Demonstration of turning errors
Making a turn
• Check present heading against desired heading – use shortest arc
Considerations
• Decide on amount of overturn or underturn – ONUS
Variation • Lookout and roll in using rate one turn – balance
• Difference between true North and magnetic North
• Anticipate roll out
• Bar magnet will align itself with lines of flux
• Select reference point
• Level wings – hold for compass to settle
• Check heading and make correction if required (3° per second)
000
Deviation 330 030
• Aircraft magnet acted on by things other than the lines of flux, ie, metal objects, aircraft, etc 30
300 20 20 060
• Compensated for by a compass swing – done by an engineer
10 10
ON
Dip 270 0 0 090
• At magnetic equator flux lines are parallel with surface US

10 10 TURN COORDINATOR
• As they approach the poles they dip down towards the earth’s surface 240 20 20 120 L 2 MIN R
30
• A bar magnet tries to align with the lines of flux dip towards the earth’s surface
• To compensate, the bar magnet is set on a pivot, but some residual dip remains 210 150
180
• The pivot arrangement is fairly unstable, so compass card and magnets are immersed in
fluid that damps out oscillations – also providing lubrication
Dip angle

Equator Pole
• Compass checked during taxi for • Compass system checked for • Helpful to have a 3D picture of
correct sense and runway heading serviceability before flight compass in your head
Acceleration errors Turning errors • Turn coordinator checked for • Deviation card is valid • In-flight mental calculations
SAND ONUS serviceability • Keep metal items as far away from the should be kept to a minimum
• Apparent turn South when Accelerating, • To compensate must Overturn on North • Lookout compass as possible • Cover failed instruments to avoid
apparent turn North when Decelerating and Underturn on South • Suction gauge should be checked confusion
• Use rate one turn, maximum error on N or during engine run-up (4.5–5.2 inches)
S = 30°

INSTRUMENT FLYING
Instrument flying
introduction
Flight in cloud can be However, instrument flying has a practical

application to visual flying when the normal
dangerous because when cues are missing or misleading. For example:
we are deprived of visual low flying, mountain flying, night flying, or
references, the body’s flying over water with a poor horizon.
other senses may provide Instrument flight is challenging because of

conflicting information the need to interpret and anticipate the
to the brain. Without the instrument readings while recognising or
ignoring the conflicting messages sent to the
benefit of visual references brain by our earth-bound orientated senses.
to resolve these conflicts,
loss of aeroplane control Inadvertent flight into cloud can be avoided
by maintaining a high level of situational
can occur very quickly, awareness. However, a five-hour course
usually within a minute. of instrument flying is included in the
requirements for PPL issue to give the pilot
and passengers some chance of survival
should the event occur.
Instrument flying: Instrument flying introduction 253

Tachometer
Objectives The tachometer directly indicates the
engine RPM and indirectly the engine power output.
To experience the sensory illusions that occur when In addition, RPM may indirectly indicate pitch attitude
deprived of visual references. (RPM increasing – nose low, RPM decreasing –
nose high).
To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference
to the aeroplane’s instruments. The tachometer is commonly driven from the engine
by a mechanical cable.
To climb, descend, and turn by sole reference to the
aeroplane’s instruments.
Performance instruments
Airspeed indicator
Considerations
This gives the aeroplane’s speed directly and,
indirectly, pitch attitude (airspeed increasing – nose
Describe the method of simulation that you will use,
low, airspeed decreasing – nose high). Its source of
for example, hood or glasses.
information is the pitot-static system.
Discuss the direct and indirect information that each

of the flight and engine instruments give, as well as Altimeter
their power source.
The altimeter directly indicates the height of
The formula Power + Attitude = Performance the aeroplane above a datum, usually sea level.
remains unchanged for instrument flight. There are Indirectly, it indicates pitch attitude (altitude
two types of instruments – control instruments and decreasing – nose low, altitude increasing – nose
performance instruments. high). Its source of information is the static system.
Control instruments Heading indicator

The heading indicator is known as the direction
Attitude indicator or artificial horizon indicator (DI), directional gyro (DG), or horizontal
situation indicator (HSI). The DI directly indicates the
The attitude indicator (AI) or artificial horizon (AH)
aeroplane’s heading when aligned with the magnetic
is the master instrument, because it presents pitch
compass. Indirectly, it can indicate bank. Heading
and bank attitude information directly (in miniature)
indicators are commonly driven by the engine-driven
against an artificial horizon.
vacuum pump.
Miniaturisation of the outside world means that
small movements indicated on the attitude indicator
Turn coordinator
represent quite noticeable changes in pitch and
bank. Therefore, it’s common to speak of pitch The turn coordinator (TC), or turn indicator, directly
attitude changes in relation to the width of the wing indicates the rate of change of direction. Indirectly, it
bars representing the aeroplane within the AI. For can indicate limited angles of bank (provided balance
example, the straight and level attitude is half a wing is maintained), commonly up to about 35 degrees.
bar width above the horizon. Any further increase in bank angle will not be
indicated by the turn coordinator. Turn coordinators
Indirectly, the attitude indicator is a guide to airspeed are normally electrically driven.
(nose low – high or increasing airspeed, nose high –
low or decreasing airspeed).
Balance indicator
Unless in a Technically Enhanced Aircraft, the attitude The balance indicator is commonly incorporated
indicator is most commonly driven by an engine- within the turn coordinator and directly indicates
driven vacuum pump. balance. Indirectly, it indicates yaw if the wings are
level, or bank. Its power source is gravity, or the
resultant forces of in-flight accelerations (CPF, CFF).

Vertical speed indicator
The vertical speed indicator (VSI) directly indicates the Aeroplane management
rate of change of altitude in feet per minute. Indirectly,
it indicates pitch attitude, and it’s most useful when The aeroplane’s vacuum and pitot-static systems
used as a trend indicator, as it will indicate a tendency should be described.
to change altitude before the altimeter registers any
change. Its information source is the static system. The method of setting the attitude indicator’s
aeroplane symbol before flight, and the desirability
of not altering it in flight, are explained.
Instrument layout
The four instruments, attitude indicator, airspeed
indicator, altimeter, and heading indicator, are
arranged on the instrument panel in a basic Human factors
‘T’ shape.
Humans use three sensing systems to gather and
The addition of the turn coordinator/balance transmit information to the brain in order to remain
indicator, and the vertical speed indicator make up orientated. These are the balance organs within
the full instrument flying panel. the vestibular system of the inner ear, the muscular
pressure sensors of the nervous system, and vision –
While not part of the six instruments referred to, the the most powerful system of the three.
RPM gauge is incorporated into scan techniques
as appropriate. The balance organs of the vestibular system sense
angular acceleration or change of direction in three
different planes by the detection of fluid movement in
Instrument lag the semicircular canals. In addition, the otolith organs
All instruments suffer from lag, some to a greater sense linear acceleration as well as head or body
extent than others. All instruments can be considered tilt, through the movement of a jelly-like mass over
to be responsive enough for light aeroplane use. The sensitive hairs.
VSI, however, suffers from significant lag, and must
be cross-referenced with other instruments to check This system is limited by the inability to detect change
its indications. when the direction or the angular acceleration
is constant or very slow. It can also misrepresent
acceleration as a nose pitch up, because of the effect
of inertia.
Airmanship The muscular pressure sensors of the nervous system

are affected by gravity and allow us to detect, for
The importance of checking instruments while taxiing, example, whether we are standing or sitting when our
and in-flight SADIE checks are revised. eyes are closed.
During visual flight training the requirement to Crucially, this system cannot differentiate between the
counteract inertia (change – check – hold – adjust – various causes of increased G – for example, as the
trim) will have become automatic as a result of cues result of pulling out of a dive or of entering a steep turn.
detected by peripheral vision. These cues will no
longer be available and the necessity to consciously The visual system is the most powerful of the orientation
counteract inertia through this process when systems and normally resolves any ambiguous or
changing attitude will need to be emphasised during conflicting information received by the brain. For
early instrument lessons. example, this is a steep turn not a pull-out of a dive.
The student should be prompting the lookout, by In instrument flight conditions, the visual references
calling “clear left?” if a left turn is to be conducted used to resolve ambiguous or conflicting orientation
and should receive a “clear left” response from information are not available. Until considerable
the instructor. practice has been carried out to replace the normal
visual cues with instrument readings, orientation
conflicts may occur, causing various illusions. For
example, the ‘leans’.
Instrument flying: Instrument flying introduction 255

Because the limitations of the human orientation student what attitude the aeroplane is in. Their
system are considerable, and instrument failure is balance and postural sensations will normally lead
rare, trust the instruments. them to conclude that the aeroplane has entered
a turn to the left.
The false sensation of climbing

Air exercise
In straight and level flight, ask the student to close
The air exercise starts with a demonstration of the their eyes and lower their head. Enter a medium
limitations of the vestibular and muscular systems. turn to the left using a positive entry, then very
gently change to a turn to the right while applying
consistent backpressure to the control column. Ask
Selective radial scan the student to tell you what attitude they think the
Selective radial scanning recognises that the attitude aeroplane is in. The sensation they have felt will be
indicator is the master instrument. Therefore this that the aeroplane is in a climbing left turn.
scan employs an instrument scanning pattern
Once the student has seen that the sensation
that radiates out from, and always returns to, the
received from the senses of balance and posture can
attitude indicator.
be misleading, they’ll have a better appreciation of
The relative importance of the performance the need to be able to fly by instrument reference
instruments varies, and therefore the scan rate should they inadvertently enter cloud or any other
varies, with the manoeuvre being executed. Describe condition where outside visual references are minimal
this in relation to maintaining straight and level, as or completely absent.
well as achieving straight and level from the climb
It’s not necessary to handle the aeroplane violently
and descent.
or adopt extremes of attitude to achieve the effects
of disorientation.
During transitions from the climb or descent to

Airborne sequence straight and level, it will be necessary to slow the
students actions down to consciously follow the
‘change – check – hold – adjust – trim’ sequence.
The exercise
It’s important to demonstrate the limitations of the
Student practice
body’s physiological orientation systems carefully.
The instructions below should be followed exactly so Reinforce what the student should have observed
that the student experiences the false sensations of with the instruments on previous VFR flights to verify
turning and pitching. An unconvincing demonstration that small movements on the AI result in noticeable
may lead the student to believe they are immune to changes in pitch and bank.
false indications. There are many demonstrations
that show the susceptibility of the human senses to Now have the student put on the hood or glasses, get
disorientation. It should only be necessary to show a comfortable and ensure they cannot see out. Then
few of them. they should practise the selective radial scan, first
in straight and level, and then moving on to climbs,
descents and turns, emphasising the ‘change – check
The false sensation of turning – hold – adjust – trim’ sequence.
In straight and level flight, ask the student to close
their eyes and lower their head, remind them to resist
On the ground
any temptation to look out, if they do they will not feel
what is normally sensed during instrument flight. The handout for this lesson should include the
limitations of the human balance system, as well
Lower the right wing very gently and then positively as a range of articles on incidents and accidents
roll the wings level while raising the nose attitude resulting from attempting continued VFR flight into
without changing power. At this stage ask the deteriorating weather.

Instrument flying introduction INSTRUMENT FLYING

• To experience the sensory illusions that occur when deprived of visual references. • Demonstration of limitations of vestibular and muscular system
• To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to the aeroplane’s instruments.
Selective radial scan
0
0
140 20 9 1
Considerations AIRSPEED ALTIMETER
8 2
1012
120 40 1013
• Power + Attitude = Performance KNOTS 1014
100 7 3
60 VACUUM 6
80 5 4
Control instruments
Primary
• Attitude indicator
• Tachometer 33
N 3 Secondary
10
5 15
30
VERTICAL SPEED
UP
E
20
W
Performance instruments 0
DOWN
TURN COORDINATOR DIRECTION INDICATOR
24
12
• Airspeed indicator L 2 MIN R 5 15
21
15 10
• Altimeter SET
S
• Directional indicator
• Turn coordinator
Maintain straight and level Attain straight and level Turns
• Balance indicator
• Set attitude, check altitude, heading from a climb or descent • All turns at rate one
• Vertical speed indicator
and airspeed being maintained • APT and PAT
• Check in balance and VSI showing level
ASI AI ALT RPM
Airspeed Pitch+Bank Altitude Engine revs
Pitch Airspeed Pitch Power+Pitch
Airmanship Human factors
Pitot static Vacuum Static Cable • Instrument check while taxiing Balance organs
• Can’t use peripheral vision • Sense angular acceleration and change of direction in 3
• Need to consciously counteract inertia planes, and body tilt
TC DI VSI • Change – check – hold – adjust – trim • Can’t detect change when it’s very slow or constant
Rate of turn Heading RoC+RoD • Lookout “clear left”….
Bank+Balance Bank Pitch Muscular pressure sensors
• Affected by gravity
Electric Vacuum Static
• Know if standing or sitting with eyes closed
Aeroplane management • Can’t distinguish between causes of increased G
• Pitot static system operation
Instrument layout • Set AI symbol before flight, don’t change Vision
• Basic T plus TC, VSI and RPM • Most powerful system
• Usually resolves ambiguous information from other senses
Instrument lag • But in IF conditions visual references not available
• All instruments have lag (delay in indicating correct information)
• Leans
• Only VSI lag is significant, must be checked against other information
• Trust the instruments

INSTRUMENT FLYING
Limited panel
When any one or more This exercise simulates the failure of

one or more flight instruments before or
of the basic six flight after inadvertently entering cloud. In this
instruments fails, or situation, indirect readings of the other flight
is unserviceable, the instruments are used to fill in the gaps as a
result of losing the direct information from the
instrument panel is limited. failed instruments.
Failure of the master instrument, the Attitude

Limited-panel instrument flight still employs
Indicator (AI), is the most serious and,
the selective radial scan technique that
therefore, the most commonly simulated.
recognises the changing importance of
However, failure of the other instruments
various instruments with the phase of flight.
does occur and it’s important to recognise
the failure early. In a Technically Enhanced Aircraft, should
the glass cockpit instrument malfunction, the
Limited-panel instrument flight at the PPL level
‘redundancy’ instruments are used as below
requires only the ability to fly straight and
for limited panel flying.
level and carry out level rate one turns onto
compass headings (sufficient to reverse course
and fly out of cloud). Additional briefings
will be required to adequately cover the
requirements of limited-panel instrument flight
for CPL students.

Airspeed indicator
Objectives
The airspeed indicator’s source of power is a
To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference combination of the static and pitot system. If the
to a limited flight instrument panel. static vent is blocked, airspeed indications will
decrease in the climb and increase in the descent.
To carry out rate one level turns onto If the pitot system is blocked (most commonly by ice),
compass headings. airspeed indications will decrease in the descent and
increase in the climb or, depending on the type of
pitot-static system, airspeed indications may simply
reduce to zero in level flight.
Considerations
Failure of the ASI requires use of the control
instruments (AI and tachometer) to achieve the
Various power or information source failures, and
desired performance.
their effects on the flight instruments, are discussed,
from the least serious to the most serious.
The pitot tube is inspected for blockages during the
Although the tachometer is not a flight instrument, its
possible failure should be briefly discussed. RPM can
be estimated from sound and, since only the gauge Heading indicator
is unserviceable, power is still available to be used
as required. Heading indicators are gyro-stabilised and are
commonly driven by an engine-driven vacuum
pump. If the vacuum pump fails, the gyro will
Turn coordinator (or turn indicator) gradually run down, losing rigidity, and the DI will
become unusable.
Turn coordinators are normally electrically driven. If
power is not being supplied to the turn coordinator, a
Failure of the DI requires direct use of the magnetic
warning flag is displayed. Its failure would mean that
compass for heading information.
the rate of turn would have to be estimated using
angle of bank (about 15 degrees for rate one, up to The DI and vacuum system are checked for
100 knots). The balance indicator is unaffected. serviceability before flight during the taxi and the
engine run-up, and in-flight with SADIE checks.
The turn coordinator is checked for serviceability
during taxiing and the electrical system during Remember that the DI will need to be regularly
SADIE checks. aligned with the compass, as precession will cause
it to indicate the wrong heading.
Vertical speed indicator and altimeter

Both VSI and altimeter rely directly on outside air Attitude indicator
pressure sensed at the static vent. If the static vent The attitude indicator is most commonly driven by
becomes blocked, neither the VSI nor the altimeter will an engine-driven vacuum pump.
indicate correctly.
Failure of the AI will require use of the indirect
Failure of the VSI and altimeter would require use information available from the performance
of the control instruments (AI and tachometer) to instruments to establish the aeroplane’s attitude.
achieve the desired performance. For example, an
attitude for 70 knots plus power setting of about AI serviceability is checked during taxiing and in flight
1500 RPM, equals a rate of descent of about 500 feet with SADIE checks.
per minute.
The static vent is inspected for blockages during the

Instrument flying: Limited panel 259

Pitch
Airmanship
Pitch is determined from airspeed, altimeter, vertical
Revise the importance of checking instruments while speed indicator and RPM (noise).
taxiing, and in-flight SADIE checks.
Bank
Bank is determined from the turn coordinator when
Aeroplane management balanced (ball), and compass.
Revise knowledge of the aeroplane’s systems in the

Yaw
event of a malfunction.
Yaw is determined from balance (ball).
The turn coordinator and electrical system are
protected by circuit breakers (CB). Electrical The selective radial scan (SRS) technique is described
failure may affect other instruments, for example, in relation to maintaining straight and level and
fuel gauges. completing rate one turns onto compass headings
without the master instrument.
The static system is commonly backed up by an
alternate static source, the location and operation For straight and level, the altimeter and turn
of this should be described. coordinator are incorporated in the primary scan
with VSI and compass included in the secondary
The pitot head is commonly heated to prevent ice scan. Airspeed requires little attention since the
build up. Attitude + Power combination will provide the
desired performance.
The serviceability of the vacuum system is confirmed
by regular reference to the vacuum gauge. For level rate one turns onto compass headings,
the altimeter and turn coordinator remain in the
Using the SADIE checks will help to ensure the DI is primary scan, with the importance of the compass
regularly aligned with the compass. gradually increasing as the required roll out heading
is approached. Once again, airspeed requires
less attention.
Human factors
Developing a systematic instrument scan to maintain Airborne sequence

situational awareness is critical.
Because the limitations of the human orientation The exercise

system are considerable, and instrument failure is
Start from straight and level on full panel.
rare, trust the instruments.
A vacuum failure is simulated and therefore the AI

The pilot should not have access to unreliable
and DI are unserviceable. These instruments are
information that could be used in any way. It’s
capable of providing unreliable information that
recommended that unreliable information from
could be used, so they are removed from the scan
instruments is covered.
by fitting them with instrument covers.
Straight and level is maintained on limited panel

and rate one turns practised, eventually onto
Air exercise compass headings.
For this exercise, a failure of the vacuum system All instrument flight requires considerable
is simulated – AI and DI unserviceable – and the concentration, therefore, do not keep the student at
information available from each instrument to the exercise for long periods – little and often is best.
maintain control in each spatial plane is revised.

Limited panel INSTRUMENT FLYING

• To maintain straight and level flight by sole reference to a limited flight instrument panel. • Simulate vacuum system failure
• To carry out rate one level turns onto compass headings. • AI and DI unserviceable
Pitch ASI, ALT, VSI, RPM
Considerations Bank TC, Compass
Turn coordinator Yaw Balance

• Electrically driven
• Failure shown by warning flag
TURN COORDINATOR Selective radial scan
L 2 MIN R
• Estimate angle of bank from AI – 15°
• Balance indicator okay
0
0
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks 140 20
9 1
ALTIMETER
AIRSPEED 8 2
1012
120 1013
KNOTS
40 AI and DI covered 1014
VSI and altimeter 7 3
100 60
• Rely on static pressure
5
10 0 80 6
15 9 1 5 4
VERTICAL SPEED ALTIMETER
UP 2
• If fails need to use AI and RPM 8 1012
0 20 1013
DOWN 1014
• Inspect static vent during preflight 7 3
5 15
10 6
5 4 10
5 15
VERTICAL SPEED
UP
0 20
DOWN
TURN COORDINATOR
Airspeed indicator L 2 MIN R 5 15 Primary
0
10
• Requires pitot and static pressure
140 20 Secondary
• Most common blockage by ice over pitot head AIRSPEED
120 40KNOTS
• Will indicate wrong airspeed, or zero
100 60 • Airspeed will require only a small amount of attention so long as attitude and power are set correctly
• If fails need to use AI and RPM 80
• During turns the compass’ importance will increase as approach heading
• Inspect pitot head and static vents during preflight
Heading indicator
• DI, DG, HSI 33
N 3 Airmanship Aeroplane management Human factors
30
• Gyro stabilized, powered by engine-driven vacuum pump • Instrument check during taxi very • Electrical system failure may affect • Develop systematic instrument scan
W
• If fails will slowly run down, card will spin DIRECTION INDICATOR
important other instruments • Trust the instruments
24
12
• If fails will need to use magnetic compass 21
15 • Static system often has backup system • Cover failed instruments
SET
S
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks • Pitot head heated
• Vacuum gauge checked regularly
Attitude indicator • Regularly checking DI is aligned to
• AH compass
• Driven by engine-driven pump
• May have failure flag
VACUUM
• If fails will have to use indirect information from
performance instruments
• Checked during taxi and SADIE checks

INSTRUMENT FLYING
Unusual
attitudes
The recovery from Basically there are two types of unusual

attitude, nose-high or nose-low. The most
unusual attitudes is dangerous of the nose-low attitudes is the
divided into full and spiral dive, because it’s difficult to identify.
limited-panel recoveries.
The spiral dive produces positive G, which
Full-panel recoveries feels like a dive pull-out when, in fact, the
are a requirement of aeroplane is being pulled tighter into the
the PPL syllabus, and spiral dive.
limited-panel recoveries Unusual attitudes may come about as a result

a CPL requirement. of disorientation, turbulence (which may be
quite pronounced in cloud), or a distraction
During full-panel recoveries the AI remains that breaks down the instrument scan.
the master instrument. During limited-panel
recoveries the indirect information of the Inadvertent flight into cloud, full or limited-
performance instruments must be used to panel, can be a very stressful experience.
assess the aeroplane’s attitude and achieve In addition, the effects of stress will affect
recovery to straight and level flight. performance and may result in fixation on
one instrument, or on a minor aspect of
The briefing deals with the recovery of the performance or problem.
aeroplane to straight and level once an
unusual attitude has been identified. Avoid the situation entirely.

stationary altimeter needle, hold that altitude as
Objective wings are rolled level and a normal straight and level
configuration is regained.
To recognise and recover to straight and level from

a nose-high or nose-low unusual attitude.
Airmanship
Considerations Ensure adequate height for recovery.
Revise systematic instrument scanning to maintain

A distraction, fixation, or high workload may cause
an interruption to the scan. Disorientation may
occur as a result of the ‘leans’ while night flying or in Revise limiting speeds (VA, VNO, VNE) and RPM limit.
poor visibility.
The first step in recognising an unusual attitude, is to

maintain faith in the instrument indications. This can
be difficult when your body senses are screaming at
you that the instruments must be wrong.
Smooth but positive throttle movements are required
The unusual attitude recovery is always carried out to when recovering from unusual attitudes.
regain straight and level. Then a gradual return to the
reference altitude and heading is made. No attempt
to return directly to the reference should be made, as
this may increase disorientation or lead to another Human factors
unusual attitude.
The limitations of the human orientation system
Recovery from unusual attitudes uses the same are considerable, and instrument failure is rare.
‘change – check – hold – adjust – trim’ sequence as If disorientation occurs, trust the instruments.
all flight. However, the initial movements are more
pronounced, and trim should not be required.
To regain straight and level, the position of the

horizon must be identified. There are several methods
Air exercise
of achieving this (refer CFI).
The air exercise covers the recognition and recovery
The limited-panel method recommended here is to from the nose-high, nose-low, and spiral-dive
use the airspeed or the altimeter. unusual attitudes.
The first action is to check the airspeed, ie, stop it

increasing or decreasing, while adjusting power to Nose-high
compensate and rolling wings level.
Recognition
If airspeed is increasing apply backpressure and
Low or decreasing airspeed, increasing altitude,
reduce power to fix the airspeed at a value. As
increasing rate of climb, and decreasing engine RPM.
the airspeed indicator needle stops moving, the
aeroplane is in the level attitude, so now using the
stationary altimeter needle, hold that altitude as Recovery
wings are rolled level and a normal straight and level
configuration is regained. Apply full power and simultaneously level the wings
(check balance), push forward on the control column
If the airspeed is decreasing, apply forward pressure until the airspeed/altimeter stops, check, and hold.
and increase power to fix the airspeed at a value. When normal cruise airspeed has been regained,
As the airspeed indicator needle stops moving, the reduce power to cruise setting and adjust (trim
aeroplane is in a level attitude, so now using the if required).
Instrument flying: Unusual attitudes 263

Nose-low
Airborne sequence
Recognition
High or increasing airspeed, decreasing altitude, The exercise
increasing rate of descent, and increasing RPM. Have the student close their eyes and place the
aeroplane in gentle unusual attitudes to start with,
gradually working your way up. This is best spread
Recovery
across a number of lessons, as too many unusual
Reduce power (how much depends on the rate of attitudes in one lesson is counter-productive.
airspeed increase) and simultaneously level the wings
(check balance). Ease out of the dive, and check Ensure a safe altitude, and avoid extreme attitudes.
airspeed. When the altimeter stops, check, set cruise
power to regain cruise airspeed, hold and adjust (trim
if required).
Spiral-dive
Recognition
High or increasing airspeed, decreasing altitude, high
angle of bank (usually turn coordinator on its stops),
high rate of descent, high or increasing G-loads, and
increasing RPM.
Recovery
Close the throttle and simultaneously level the wings
(check balance), ease out of the dive, and check
airspeed. When the altimeter stops, check, set cruise
power to regain cruise airspeed, hold and adjust (trim
if required). Remember smooth control movements
above VA.
Once straight and level flight has been regained,

return to the original references (heading and altitude).

Unusual attitudes INSTRUMENT FLYING

To recognise, and recover to straight and level from a nose-high or nose-low • Smooth control movements whenever speed above VA
unusual attitude.
Attitude Recognition Recovery
Nose high • Low or  airspeed • Full power and level wings

Considerations •  altitude • Push forward on c/c until airspeed/altimeter stops
• Unusual attitude can be entered due high workload, fixation, leans
•  rate of climb • Check
• Trust the instruments
•  engine RPM • Hold
• Recover to straight and level first
• At normal cruise speed reduce power
• Then regain altitude and heading
• Adjust
• Change – check – hold – adjust – trim
• Trim
• Must identify the position of the horizon
Nose low • High or  airspeed •  power and level wings
Limited panel •  altitude • Ease out of dive, check airspeed
1. Check airspeed–stop further increase or •  rate of descent • When altimeter stops
decrease •  engine RPM • Check
0
9 1 2. Adjust power to compensate
ALTIMETER • Set cruise power
8 2
1012 3. Roll wings level
1013 • Hold
1014
7 Change If altitude  –  backpressure (push)
3 • Adjust
6 If altitude  –  backpressure (pull)
• Trim
5 4 Until 100s pointer stops moving
Check Spiral dive • High or  airspeed • Close throttle and level wings
Hold •  altitude • Ease out of dive, check airspeed
Adjust • High angle of bank • When altimeter stops

• High rate of descent • Check
Trim (but you shouldn’t need to)
• High or  G-loads • Set cruise power
•  engine RPM • Hold
• Adjust
• Trim
• When straight and level regained, return to original reference altitude and heading

• Enough height for recovery • Smooth positive control movements • Human orientation system has limitations
• SRS – A/S, Alt, then the rest • Instrument failure rare
• Limiting speeds – VA, VNO, VNE, and RPM limit • Trust the instruments

INSTRUMENT FLYING
Night flying
Flying VFR at night is
inherently more risky than
flying VFR during the day.
These risks and threats can,
and must, be managed
carefully with good
preparation and instrument
flight currency.
A student’s night flying ability will not be
assessed by an examiner, so it’s important
that the instructor uses the night flying
instructional time to ensure the student is
aware of the issues and is competent at
night flying.

Figure 1
Objective
In low light, central vision doesn’t work as well
To operate the aircraft safely both on the ground and

in the air at night.
Area of best
night vision
Considerations
Night is defined as the time between the end of

evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning
civil twilight. These times are published in AIP New
Zealand GEN 2.7 Daylight Tables, and are dependent
on location and the time of year. Cones detect colour, details and faraway objects.
Discuss the following legal requirements for night Rods are used when something is seen out of the
flying: Aerodrome and aircraft lighting requirements, corner of the eye, ie, for peripheral vision. They detect
VFR night minimas for controlled (1500 feet/5 km) objects, particularly those that are moving, but do not
and uncontrolled (1500 feet/8 km), including the give detail or colour. Rods make night vision possible.
prerequisites below. Because the rods are distributed in a band around
the cones and do not lie directly behind the pupil,
off-centre viewing (looking to one side of an object)
Prerequisites is important during night flight.
Students must have completed at least two hours
instrument flight time, which includes the following In low light, central vision doesn’t work as well, so
instrument flight manoeuvres, before they may peripheral vision is relied on. As peripheral vision is
undertake night flight training: good at noticing changes, objects are more likely to be
noticed at night with peripheral vision (see Figure 1).
• Straight and level flight – maintain heading to
a required accuracy of ±5 degrees, ±100 feet Central vision is still required to read instruments
altitude and in balance. or charts, but it’s important to preserve as much
• Medium and rate one turns – at least 180 function in peripheral vision as possible. In order to
degrees turns left and right, in balance, to within achieve this, allow time for the eyes to adapt to the
±10 degrees of pre-selected roll out heading dark, avoid bright light by keeping cockpit lights
with a maximum altitude variation of ±100 feet. and torches as dim as possible, and use a practised
scanning motion when looking outside the aeroplane.
• Climbing and descending – to preselected
altitudes. Level flight to be re-established at the
preselected altitude, no more than ±100 feet. Dark adaptation
• Unusual attitude – prompt and correct recovery Allow time to adjust to low light after completing any
from unusual attitudes. tasks that need to take place in bright light, such
as the preflight inspection. The rods become fully
PPL night flying requirements: two hours dual, two effective after approximately 30 minutes, so avoid
hours solo, five hours total. any bright light once dark adaption has started.
Be aware that mobile phones can have very

Night vision bright displays.
Light-sensitive nerves, called cones and rods,
are located at the back of the eye. The cones are
located in the centre of the retina, and the rods are
concentrated in a ring around the cones.
Instrument flying: Night flying 267

All lights should be checked to ensure they are
Illusions working, including but not limited to: navigation
A careful lookout on the ground and in the air is lights, anti-collision lights, strobe lights, taxi lights,
critical. It’s very easy to lose sight of other aircraft and landing lights. The pilot should also be familiar
lights as they merge with background lights. with the lights operation, how much can be seen with
them and when they are used.
Speed perception is very difficult at night, and it’s
common to find the taxi speed building up without Internal aeroplane lighting, including the compass,
noticing it. Consciously taxi slower than normal. must be operational and the pilot should know how
to adjust the lighting levels.
Transfer to instruments quickly after take-off. The
horizon will probably not be visible, so attitude, speed The pilot’s personal night equipment should include:
and direction must be maintained with reference to • Torch, with spare batteries
the aeroplane’s instruments.
• Pen attached to the flight log, and a spare
The student should already be familiar with the nearby
illusions they may experience when instrument flying. • Mobile phone
These will still be present at night.
• Watch
In addition, the following illusions can be experienced • Warm clothing and a survival kit
at night:
• May like to carry a spare handheld VHF radio
• Flicker vertigo – flashing lights and flickering or GPS.
from propellers can cause disorientation.
• Auto-kinesis – a fixed light source against a dark

Familiarity with the aeroplane
background can appear to move. Avoid looking
directly at the light. It’s important to know the location of the controls
and switches, so the pilot can operate them without
• Ground light, starlight, or fishing boats, etc. In
needing to look at them. At this stage of their training,
areas with little ground lighting, isolated lights
the student should be familiar with the aeroplane.
can appear to be stars, making it seem the
aeroplane is in an irregular attitude.
• Black hole – can happen when approaching a Familiarity with the aerodrome
lit area over unlit terrain. That can cause the AIP Vol 4 aerodrome charts operational data details
runway to seem out of position. Use the visual the lighting available on the aerodrome – a thorough
approach slope indicators, if available, or knowledge of lighting facilities is important.
carefully monitor the flight instruments.
Discuss the location, colour, and if applicable, the
direction of all aerodrome lighting, including: apron,
Equipment
taxi, holding point, runway, and approach lighting.
For the preflight check, a torch will be required, in If pilot activated lighting (PAL) is available discuss
particular a torch powerful enough to be able to see the operation of this.
the detail required. A headband torch can be useful.
Review ATC light signals.
While carrying out the preflight, note the position of
the aeroplane on the aerodrome and the position Discuss the particular approach lighting available
of other aircraft. at the aerodrome, and how it’s to be used, eg, PAPI.
Check that the student can decode the lighting
It’s also advisable to wear a high visibility jacket, codes, and they know where to find the decodes
and to be conscious of personal safety. for those they cannot.

Weather
Airmanship
Inadvertent IMC is more likely at night. Exercise
extreme caution. It can be very difficult to recognise Preflight in the light if possible, otherwise use a
weather deterioration and extremely hard to good torch.
determine if cloud is blocking the view of terrain.
Correct use of taxi/landing lights and strobe light.
At night there is less mixing in the air up to 2000 feet
and the surface wind will lessen and back. This can Consider the number of other aircraft in the circuit,
also mean the surface wind is significantly different as it can be hard to see them at night.
from the wind at circuit altitude.
Caution – illusions as discussed above.
When the night is overcast, it will be much harder
to identify cloud than it would be on a clear night. Fly above the ‘minimum elevation figure’. This can be
determined from the MEF figures on the VNCs.
Pay particular attention to the temperature/dew
point relationship as an indicator of potential fog Identify local landmarks and lighting patterns – if any
and low cloud. disappear, such as a neighbouring community – there
is a strong likelihood of cloud or fog development.
Emergencies
Detail the procedures to carry out in the event of the
following emergencies: Aeroplane management
• Radio failure – follow the local procedure,
More frequent SADIE checks.
use the aeroplane’s lights and squawk 7600.
• Runway lighting failure – the flight will need to Particular attention should be paid to dew on
divert to another aerodrome where lighting is windscreens and frost on wings.
operational. This will need to be checked during
the planning stages. Cockpit layout familiarity.
• Landing light or navigation light failure – the

Trust the instruments.
flight can continue, but should end at the next
landing.
• Internal light failure – the flight can continue,

but should end at the next landing. Human factors
• Electrical failure – should be noticed before total
failure because of the increased frequency of Instrument flying illusions will be present.
SADIE checks. Total failure is a serious event and
the flight should land as soon as practicable. Night vision factors – 10/30 minute adaptation,
Use the standard overhead join procedure. health (I’MSAFE), importance of oxygen to brain and
eye function, colour perception, depth perception,
• Engine failure – is particularly difficult to deal focus (cones and rods), focal length (myopia), black
with at night. If the surface can be seen in the hole, lights and stars.
moonlight, plan for a normal forced landing. If
the ground cannot be seen, fly at the minimum
descent speed (1.1 VS) and turn into wind. Do not
use flap unless the ground can be seen. Landing
lights should only be used from below 400 feet
AGL as the glare will reduce the ability to see
beyond the light’s beam.
See the Night VFR GAP booklet for further information.
Instrument flying: Night flying 269

Figure 2
Air exercise
At night, use the runway edge lights to judge the
approach perspective
On the ground
Correct approach
Taxi slowly.
Recognise runway lighting position in peripheral

vision as this is the landing perspective.
When lining up, make sure to have a careful lookout

for aircraft on the approach.
During take-off, use the runway lighting to keep Too low

on the centreline, because a reference point in the
distance may not be available.
Once airborne immediately transfer to instruments

to establish the aeroplane attitude and speed, and
a positive rate of climb.
When established in the climb, a combination of

instruments and visual reference can be used. Too high
In the circuit
The first circuit should be a familiarisation circuit.
It’s a chance to see the local area, and compare how
it looks at night to how it looks in the day. It’s also
a chance to orientate and locate local landmarks
and townships.
During the landing, it’s important to use the runway
At night it can be difficult to see the runway perspective to judge the roundout and flare, not
lighting from the downwind position. Care must be look for the ground in the landing light. The first
taken positioning the aeroplane downwind at the few landings should be completed without the
correct spacing. landing light.
Be careful of too much speed when turning off

Approach and landing the runway.
At night the runway edge lights must be used to
judge the approach perspective (see Figure 2).

Airborne sequence
Teach night taxi principles, and application factors

such as: apron, runway, and light recognition.
Take off and vacate the circuit to familiarise the

student with the different night perspective, including:
black hole effect, lack of depth perception, other
illusions, speed and direction of other aircraft, and
above all, the importance of lookout.
Return to the circuit and carry out approach and low

overshoots to view the runway lighting perspectives
of too low, on profile, and too high.
Conduct night circuits, progressively introducing

various emergencies.
Night flying INSTRUMENT FLYING

To operate the aircraft safely both on the ground and in the air at night within On the ground
25 NM of the aerodrome. • Taxi slowly
• Notice runway light in peripheral vision
• Aircraft on approach
Considerations • Transfer to instruments as soon as airborne
• Night is between ECT and MCT • When established in climb, can use visual reference
• Legal: Aerodrome /aircraft lighting and minima (controlled /uncontrolled)
In the circuit
Prerequisites Familiarity with aeroplane • Familiarity with the circuit
• 2 hours IF • Know location of controls and • Local landmarks and townships
• PPL – 2 hrs dual, 2 hrs solo, 5 total switches • Downwind spacing
Night vision Familiarity with aerodrome

Approach and landing
• Rods and cones • Vol 4 operational data
• Approach perspective with runway edge lights
• Cones – colour • Aerodrome lighting
• Don’t look in to the area lit by landing light
• Rods – peripheral vision and • ATC light signals
• Speed when vacating
movement • Approach lighting
• Emergencies – simulate
• Used for night vision
• Illusions – experience
Weather
Dark adaptation • Inadvertent IMC
• 30 minutes • Diurnal wind effect
Correct approach Too low Too high
• Avoid bright lights • Overcast vs clear sky
• Temp and dew point
Illusions
• Lookout Emergencies
• Speed perception • Radio failure
• Lack of horizon • Runway lighting failure
• IF illusions • Landing or nav light failure
• Flicker vertigo • Internal light failure
• Auto-kinesis • Electrical failure
• Star light confusion • Engine failure
• Preflight in the light • More frequent SADIE checks • Instrument flying illusions
• Black hole
• Use of aeroplane’s lights • Dew and frost • Night vision factors – adaptation, health,
Equipment • Number of other aircraft in the circuit • Cockpit layout oxygen, colour perception, depth perception,
• Torch, and spare batteries • Illusions • Trust instruments focus, focal length, black hole, lights and stars
• High viz • Minimum elevation figures
• All lights operational
• Personal equipment – torch,
pen, mobile phone, watch,
warm clothing, survival kit, possibly
spare VHF or GPS

Visual
navigation
Navigation is much more than

simple map-reading, and
this navigation section of the
Flight Instructor Guide refers
to the guide Practical Flying
Guide 1: Visual Navigation.
The techniques recommended
in the guide are thoroughly
explained and are not
repeated here.
VISUAL NAVIGATION
1
Dead-reckoning
navigation
Whilst technology in the cockpit brings

Introduction many advantages and enhancements to
flight safety it is imperative that the basics
of visual navigation are thoroughly taught,
Having learnt how to fly an aircraft, and cope
using dead-reckoning techniques, supported
with emergencies and abnormalities, the
by use of a paper chart. Instructors may find
teaching of navigation brings the student to the
their students resistant to learning these
point of using the aircraft to travel somewhere.
basics when the technology is so good and
It brings together much of what has already
will need to provide strong reasoning as to
been learned into the context of a cross-country
the importance of learning the basics first.
flight, where the student learns not only how
There are two reasons for this;
to fly but also how to manage a flight. It is in
this phase of training that a student’s ability
• Firstly, the technology may fail. Tablets or
to build and maintain situational awareness,
phones may run out of power or overheat,
assess differing conditions and situations, and
causing them to shut down. Also, the
make good decisions needs to “step up” to a
GNSS signals that navigation software
higher level. In this sense, it is much more than
depends upon are very weak and easily
navigation training, and the instructor needs to
interfered with. Space weather may occur
make sure they emphasise these non-technical
with little warning and disrupt GNSS for
skills whilst teaching through this phase.
minutes or even days. GNSS is susceptible
to jamming and spoofing. In addition to
Visual navigation is a time-based activity,
GNSS interference, navigation displays
supported by map reading, and its success is
may freeze, or navigation systems may
dependent on good time management. There
suffer from electrical failures.
are many tasks for a pilot to remember and
carry out, and good workload management
PBN certified aircraft must have suitable
is essential. A major emphasis the instructor
back-ups in case of GNSS failure or
must impart during navigation training is that
disruption (inertial navigation, VOR/
of managing time and planning moments
DME or visual navigation). VFR aircraft/
where specific tasks can be accomplished.
pilots must use basic visual navigation
A workflow or “routine” needs to be taught,
techniques as the back-up.
based around a timescale.

• Secondly, but equally importantly is the When teaching climbing and descending, introduce
development of time-based management skills, the vertical aspects of navigation by checking
which will enhance workload management, airspace altitudes and planning a climb or descent
increase capacity, and improve the non-technical accordingly. In pre-flight briefings, always tell the
skills. These skills transfer well beyond VFR student where the lesson will be conducted and point
flying, and make the transition to IFR and high- it out on the chart. Refer again to the chart during the
performance aircraft much simpler. debriefing, reviewing where the aircraft had been.
Navigation is much more than simple map-reading, At the end of each lesson, where a join will be
and this navigation section to the FI Guide refers to necessary, a discussion can take place between
the guide Practical Flying Guide 1 – Visual Navigation. instructor and student as to their present position
with direct reference to the chart. Key features to
The techniques recommended in the guide are assist in finding the airfield can be identified and
thoroughly explained and are not repeated here. To followed. Airspace can be identified and in the later
understand the intent of the lessons, the techniques lessons, a heading and distance can be estimated.
to be taught, and the briefings in this section, it is Bear in mind that the student’s estimates will be
essential the instructor is familiar with the guide. somewhat wayward to begin, but with the experience
built up through practice, they will be building the
skill and knowledge needed for navigating and
cross-country flights.
Preparation
Use of the radio
Prior learning The use of the radio should be phased in over the
Before embarking on the navigation phase of early lessons, with limited exposure during the initial
training, there are some essential elements of exercises building up to the student taking more
learning which need to have been achieved. Whilst responsibility as the training progresses. By the end of
the student’s skill in these areas may not be perfect, the circuit phase the student should be dealing with
or complete, the basic principles and techniques need all the communications prior to leaving the circuit and
to have been well grasped. after joining. Competency with the calls necessary for
departing and joining the circuit, as well as changing
frequencies should quickly follow thereafter. It is all
Aircraft handling too easy for the instructor to make the joining call
on completion of each lesson, especially when the
Prior to the navigation phase the student must be able
frequency is busy, and time is pressing to get back
to climb the aircraft, whilst maintaining a heading to
for the next lesson. In some circumstances this is the
an altitude, level off and trim for straight and level
correct course of action, but whenever possible the
flight. An ability to maintain the heading and altitude
student should be encouraged to make the R/T call(s).
whilst ‘in trim’ will be essential, and without these basic
skills, attempting to learn navigation will be frustrating
During the post circuit training (such as Advanced
or even counter-productive.
Turning or Forced Landings) instructors should teach
their students how to make an accurate position
report. They should also teach how to contact FISCOM
Map reading
(or another suitable station) to obtain information such
The navigation phase, should not be the first time as an Area QNH, a NOTAM, or a METAR.
that a student has identified their position, or
estimated a direction to head in, on an aeronautical
chart or map. In fact, the basic skills of map reading Aeronautical publications
should have been instilled through the early lessons.
Instructors should be gradually introducing the use
and interpretation of the AIP, the Supplements and
The ability to use a chart should be introduced in
NOTAMs. It is important to keep this very simple to
small steps from the very first lesson. Initially pointing
start with, to avoid over-whelming the student. But,
out key landmarks in the local area and relating
like map reading, make small steps progressively
them to their depiction on the chart. On subsequent
building up knowledge.
lessons, teach the student to hold the chart “track
up” as well as pointing out airspace boundaries.
Visual navigation: 1 Dead-reckoning navigation 275

Weather assessment Visual Navigation Guide
At an early stage take the time to teach how to As previously stated, this navigation section of
assess the suitability of the weather from the the Flight Instructor Guide assumes the use of the
available weather information. Teach the principle of techniques described in the guide Practical Flying
assessing the ‘big picture’ of weather and asking the Guide 1 – Visual Navigation. As such it can be used
question such as is the weather expected to improve, as a reference text for students to understand and
remain stable or deteriorate? How will the weather be learn these techniques.
towards the end of the flight? Teach the comparison
of a TAF with actual conditions experienced so and It is well worth encouraging students to thoroughly
by ‘looking out of the window’. Relate visibility to learn or even over-learn, the techniques and “rules
the distance of a nearby visible feature. Encourage of thumb” from the guide, on the ground. This would
the student to check the forecast weather before include WHAT checks, track error estimation, standard
each lesson and, with some help, compare that with closing angle calculations, practising the free hand
actual conditions particularly as it relates to a Go/No drawing of track lines, estimating the degrees in True,
go decision. and converting to Magnetic.
In-flight teach the student to make reasonable

assessments of cloud base, visibility and wind at
typical cruising altitudes. Their initial attempts may Structure of navigation training
not be very accurate, but will improve rapidly with
experience, provided you remember to include it
during the lesson. AC61-3
The material and guidance to instructors offered
Threat and Error Management in this section should be used alongside the
requirements stipulated in AC61-3, and the FTSG PPL
Threat and Error Management (TEM) techniques
Cross-Country Demonstration of Competency. The
should be discussed from the outset of the training
lessons complement the ‘stages’ described in the AC
course, with the practical application of the
as shown in the table below.
techniques demonstrated and practised throughout
the early lessons.
Figure 1
Structure of Airborne Lessons
• AC61-3 • FI Guide Navigation Section
• Stage 1
Ground course • 1hr dual

• 1hr solo
• Lesson 1 – D.R. Navigation
• 1st solo cross country
• Stage 2
• 2hrs dual • Lesson 2 – Landing Away
• 2hrs solo • 2nd solo cross country
Whilst the student pilot will have thoroughly studied • Stage 3
• 2hrs dual (Cross-Country • Lesson 3 – Wx Avoidance & Diversion
navigation for the purpose of passing the theory Demonstration of competence)
• 2hrs solo • Lesson 4 – Inadvertent IMC & Lost Procedure
examination, a comprehensive ground course will • 3rd solo cross country
These are the Minimum Requirements
need to be delivered to apply those principles
in a practical sense before airborne navigation
training commences.
Included in Lesson 4 is the recovery from an
inadvertent entry into IMC. This is an additional
Syllabus and optional item to those listed in the AC and is
Appendix 1 provides a suggested syllabus for a recommended as a safety enhancement.
typical ground course and is based on the techniques
depicted in the guide Practical Flying Guide 1 – Visual
Navigation. This list can be used or adapted as
required to take account of the local environment.
The content of the ground course would take at least
a whole day to deliver but could be spread over
several briefings.

Airborne lessons
Lesson templates
The variables of aircraft type, student ability, local
airspace considerations and weather patterns will
ultimately dictate the construction of each flight
1. Dead-reckoning navigation
lesson and the exact order of events.
This is the first flight in the navigation phase and lays

Therefore Lessons 1 to 4 provided in this section
the foundational methods and techniques which will
are templates designed to be adjusted as
be built upon in further lessons. The instructor needs
appropriate to accommodate differences in
to focus on three areas in this lesson; flight planning,
operating environment. Ideally Lesson 1 should be
DR navigation and workload management within
a triangular route with 20-minute legs but can be
defined time frames.
adjusted if required. The remaining lessons should be
adjusted to suit the training location. For instance,
To ensure the integrity of the taught exercise, unlike
a relatively long flight may be required to reach a
other lessons, the instructor should not introduce
controlled aerodrome, or terrain may influence a
deliberate errors. Instead fly accurately and allow
route and individual legs. It may be more suitable to
errors, changes in the wind for example, to present
have 3 lessons, or even 5 lessons rather than 4. When
themselves naturally. And then correct these using the
making such adjustments it is important to ensure
appropriate techniques.
that the techniques are taught in a logical sequence
and that enough time is available on each leg to
prevent the student from becoming over-loaded.
Equally, the whiteboard briefing must be adjusted to
represent the actual route to be flown. Objectives
Routes to be planned by the student, should be 1. Complete pre-flight planning

determined by the instructor to ensure that they are 2. Conduct DR navigation
suitable for teaching the techniques during a dual
flight, and for safe practice and consolidation during 3. Utilise timing to manage workload
solo flights.
Solo flights must be integrated with the dual flights in

a similar manner to the Stages of the AC. Considerations
[For full details of the techniques used refer

In-flight navigation equipment
to: Practical Flying Guide 1 – Visual Navigation.]
Equipment used in the cockpit should be well
managed and kept to a minimum. Using the Before the day of the flight, the instructor should
techniques of the Practical Flying Guide 1 – Visual have given the student a simple triangular route to
Navigation, the only equipment that needs to be ‘to plan that will take approximately one hour, each leg
hand’ is the chart, a pen or pencil, a time piece and a covering approximately 20 minutes of flight time at
navigation log. All other equipment such as a circular normal cruising speed.
slide rule, a protractor or navigation ruler are for
planning on the ground and should be stowed. On the day of the flight ask the student to check
and interpret the AIP, supplements and NOTAMs
as applicable. They should also check and assess
the suitability of the weather conditions. They can
then complete their planning but will probably
need help with this. Their navigation log and chart
or map should be prepared as per the Visual
Navigation guide and the instructor should check this
and point out any corrections that may be needed.
Even if the school has a flight following system
installed in the aircraft, the student should still be
taught how to file a VFR Flight Plan.

The final stage of the planning process is to review
the route, identifying, or ideally refreshing from the Human factors
chart what might be seen at each of the fixes and
turning points so that there is an awareness of what
Always maintain a thorough lookout. Avoid too much
to expect prior to getting airborne. This is the time
time “head down” by determining when to put away
to identify potential threats (e.g. lowering cloud,
the map and concentrate on flying and looking
changes of wind, danger areas, likely traffic, circuit
outside of the aircraft. When looking at the map, hold
or instrument traffic at aerodromes) and human
it up so that peripheral vision outside, is maintained.
errors (e.g. misreading headings or times, airspace
boundaries including altitude changes) and discuss The student can suffer from a strong tendency toward
error prevention and mitigation (checking danger confirmation bias, particularly when identifying a key
area status, radio calls, gross error checks and feature to confirm their position, i.e.; “seeing what
WHAT checks). they want to see”. To prevent this, teach them not to
accept the feature until it is properly identified using
it’s “distinguishing features”.
Airmanship The student may sometimes feel uncomfortable in

not being certain of the aircraft position. Using the
Workload will be high when learning to navigate. method of TIME – MAP – GROUND, should establish
The structured and time-based approach to approximate position and dispel such discomfort.
navigating will help in distributing tasks and
managing workload.
Self-discipline needs to be applied to achieve Air exercise

accurate flying, particularly in holding a heading.
Guesswork must be resisted, and the heading only The student should pre-flight the aircraft, start up,
changed, when properly re-calculated. taxi and complete run ups and take-off checks.
Care must be taken to avoid becoming too absorbed Prior to take off, the initial stage of the flight should
in the navigating alone, but to ensure other important be reviewed or briefed, including circuit departure,
tasks are being attended to, such as lookout, radio visual references, speeds, airspace and altitudes.
calls and cruise checks. The student conducts the take-off and initial climb
and then the instructor should take control and teach
how to correctly identify the Start Point (SP), reading
from map to ground. The instructor should position
Aircraft management the aircraft over the SP at the planned altitude,
speed and on heading, and ask the student to
Regular cruise checks need to be integrated take note of the time overhead. Having established
using time as a prompt into the overall workload the aircraft straight and level, in trim and on track,
management of the flight. teach the gross error check. Orientate the map to
“track up” and compare features on the ground with
The alignment of the Direction Indicator (DI) must be the track drawn on the chart. Ideally use features
checked frequently. The DI should also be checked straight ahead and in the distance. Then teach the
after a Turning Point as a large change of heading WHAT check:
can lead to the DI being out of alignment.
• W Weather; check ahead
During a cross country flight, where the aircraft • H Heading; as per the Navigation Log. DI
is in the cruise configuration for most of the time, alignment checked
it is appropriate to lean the mixture for performance
• A Altitude; as per the Navigation Log, or
and economy. Remaining fuel and endurance
adjusted for weather. Airspeed as per planned
should also be noted in the Fuel Log section of
the Navigation Log. • T Time; in the Navigation Log write down the
time overhead the SP and ETA for the Turning
Point (TP) or destination, and confirm the time
for the next fix

Stow the map and hand over control to the student Essentially, during the first leg navigation tasks are
to fly straight and level. This is an important step as completed by the instructor while flying, with the
it demonstrates to the student that the map is not student only handling the controls during the straight
required all the time during navigation, and that and level portions of the cruise. A common instructor
there is no need to follow progress with a finger on error is to leave the student in control whilst teaching
the chart. Point out the time available till the first fix the navigation elements. This will quickly lead to
and suggest a task that fits within this time frame, the student being over-whelmed and the instruction
such as a cruise check. Emphasise that during this being in-effective. It is vital the student can give
period the student should have capacity, to lookout their full attention to the navigation instruction
and maintain situational awareness, such as weather being given.
conditions or traffic in the area.
During the second leg the same workflows are used,
Not less than 2 minutes before the first fix, take with time being the prompt to instigate the next
control and teach how to fix the position of the actions. The emphasis now changes with the student
aircraft. Emphasise TIME – MAP – GROUND and then given practice in managing time and completing
using “large to small”, “lead in” and “distinguishing” the navigation tasks (position fixing, calculating
features identify the fix and establish the aircraft corrections to heading and ETA, and amending the
position. Mark this on the map and teach how to Navigation Log), whilst the instructor flies the aircraft.
correct for any error in track and time. Begin by Again, the exception is the portions of the leg when
considering why the error exists. If it’s due to the wind, the map is stowed, during which the student should
then teach correcting for track error by calculating be in control. At the end of the second leg, the
a new heading. Then apply Standard Closing Angle student should be able to carry out the procedures at
(SCA) to regain the track. In the same way teach for the TP whilst retaining control of the aircraft.
any error in time using the Proportional Technique.
Write down the new heading or ETA in the Navigation For the final leg, the student will have been taught all
Log, if these have been changed. the necessary workflows and routines to complete the
leg from both a navigation and flying perspective, so
Teach the method for correcting heading or time should be tasked both to fly and navigate. However,
on an opportunity basis. Do not artificially induce the student may still require some assistance,
an error. particularly with any corrections at the fixes. Avoid
multiple prompts, but instead try to give the student
Point out the time available till the second fix, stow the opportunity to practise, only intervening if it
the map and hand over control to the student to fly seems the purpose of the leg will be lost. As this is the
straight and level, and suggest another task that fits final leg of the flight, during portions when the map
within the time frame, such as an appropriate radio is stowed, you might suggest the student reviews and
call. Make sure the student has had an opportunity to briefs the arrival and join, if their capacity allows.
contact FISCOM. In this flight it could be as simple as
obtaining the Area QNH or amending the SARTIME. Having navigated on the third leg, the aircraft
should be close enough to the aerodrome to allow
With 2 minutes to run to the second fix, take control the student to organise the join, enter the circuit
and repeat the process of identifying the fix, and land. To prove the accuracy of the student’s
establishing aircraft position and making corrections estimate for the field, it may be useful, if appropriate,
where necessary, noting this down on the Navigation to join overhead. This would then provide an ideal
Log. Then hand control back to the student, point opportunity to practice a Standard Overhead Join.
out the time available to the turning point (TP) and
suggest another task within the time frame.
With approximately 2 minutes to run to the TP, take

control and teach the actions to identify the TP and
execute the turn onto the next leg so that the aircraft
is overhead the TP and on the next heading. The
student can carry out a gross error check, followed
by the WHAT check. Make it clear to the student that
this is the same routine as was completed at the
SP. Developing these workflows and routines are an
essential part of the navigation training.

280
Dead-reckoning navigation VISUAL NAVIGATION

• Complete pre-flight planning
• Conduct DR navigation
Turning point 1
CAA Flight Instructor Guide

• Utilise timing to manage workload Note time
Gross error check
WHAT Check 090/20
MD 10
Considerations
• Assess weather forecast and actual conditions
• Check NOTAM, AIP and supplements
Stow map
• Complete pre-flight planning & map preparation
Heading and altitude
• File a VFR Flight Plan (if required) Task?
• Review the route, identify threats
Flight conduct Turning point 2 TIME-MAP-GROUND

• Leg 1: Instructor flies while teaching navigation. Student flies when map stowed. Note time Fix position
Gross error check Heading or time corrections Start point
• Leg 2: Instructor flies while student navigates. Student flies when map stowed. WHAT Check Note time
• Leg 3: Student flies and navigates. Practice SOHJ Gross error check
WHAT Check

• LOOKOUT, workload – time-based • Cruise checks, DI alignment, fuel log, • Planning tasks, confirmation bias,
structure leaning disorientation; TIME-MAP-GROUND

VISUAL NAVIGATION
2
Landing away
procedures required when transiting or

Objectives entering controlled airspace, as well as those
for arriving at a controlled airfield. Referring to
the AIP discuss the published procedures and
1. To land at a controlled aerodrome
relevant information for the airfield. Review
2. To navigate at low level the layout, signage, taxiways, holding points,
3. To land at an unattended aerodrome refuelling points and the likely routing to a
suitable parking area after landing.
In the same way review R/T and procedures

published in the AIP for joining at an
Considerations unattended aerodrome.
[For full details of the techniques used Discuss the use of the “Minimum VFR Altitude
refer to: Practical Flying Guide 1 – to Continue” as a decision-making tool before
Visual Navigation.] there is a need to fly at low-level. However,
if a rapid and unexpected change of the
Like the previous lesson, the instructor will weather takes place, flight at low level may
have given the student a route to plan in be required. Discuss the effect of operating
advance, with a controlled aerodrome at at low-level on the ability to see features
the end of the first leg and an unattended on the map, particularly the inability to see
aerodrome at the end of the second leg. lateral features (towns, lakes, wooded areas,
etc), whereas vertical features such as masts,
The student should carry out all the normal
aerials and some elements of terrain become
planning with some assistance from the
more obvious. Aspects of wind effect and
instructor. Ensure that the landing and take-
illusions learnt in the Low Flying exercises, will
off performance at the land away airfields are
be applied where relevant.
considered using the AFM.
Discuss the checks recommended before
During the briefing, check the student’s
descent and the configuration to be used,
planning, including their assessment of
and revise Rule 91.311 Minimum heights for
the weather and NOTAMs. Brief the R/T
VFR flights.
Visual navigation: 2 Landing away 281

the clearance. Some guidance may be required to
Airmanship enable the student to orientate themselves as the
destination airfield is approached. It is sometimes
better to take control and demonstrate a join at the
The student should adopt a structured and time-
airfield if it appears to be becoming difficult for the
based approach to navigating, distributing tasks and
student, rather than make a hurried join with the
managing workload.
instructor delivering instructions for the student to
Self-discipline needs to be applied in holding a follow. Once established in the circuit, control can be
heading, and only changing the heading when passed back to the student to complete the circuit
properly re-calculated. and landing. On the ground vacate the runway
and, if possible, stop to review the airfield layout
Care must be taken to avoid becoming too absorbed on the AIP plate. The instructor should take control
in the navigating alone, but to ensure other important whilst taxiing and negotiating any runway crossing,
tasks are being attended to, such as lookout, radio pointing out relevant signage and R/T procedures.
calls, planning an arrival or standard overhead join, The student can follow along by looking at the plate.
and cruise checks. Navigating on the ground at an un-familiar airfield
can be quite challenging and presents many threats.
It is important to teach this well as part of this phase
of training.
Aircraft management
The student can carry out all the necessary actions
and procedures to get airborne again, and set off
As taught in the last lesson, aircraft management
on track at normal operating altitude, on the second
is integrated into the workflow and should include
leg of the planned route. Once established, simulate
regular cruise checks, leaning of the mixture, as well
an un-forecast and rapid lowering cloud base ahead
as fuel monitoring and recording.
by nominating a maximum operating altitude and
allow the student to practise descending to and
operating at low level. Additionally, poor visibility
could be simulated, and the student could then revise
Human factors the adoption of the poor visibility configuration. If this
configuration is used, a correction to the estimated
Workload management, using time frames, resulting time for the leg should be calculated, as well as
in a thorough lookout and situational awareness amending the fuel plan.
being maintained. Use of TIME-MAP-GROUND to
counter any disorientation, and descent checks for Once established at the lower cruise altitude, take
low level. control and teach the changes in features that are
now visible, as well as the need to anticipate ground
features coming into view. Highlight the value of
being able to follow a suitable line feature to achieve
Air exercise the next turning point, if one is available. When
following a line feature, revise the need to keep the
The first part of the lesson should be a revision of feature on the left. If it is not be possible to fly in a
the previous lesson, starting prior to take-off where straight-line track, teach how maintain an awareness
the student briefs the aerodrome departure and of the overall heading being flown and time being
heading to the SP. After take-off they should climb taken, to prevent disorientation.
to the SP and set course on the first leg. Throughout
Approaching the unattended airfield, the low-level
the flight the student’s task is to fly the aircraft and
part of the exercise is complete, and the aircraft
navigate using the previously taught techniques.
can be climbed back up to the normal operating
During the periods where the map is stowed, the
altitude, from which point the joining procedure can
student should be including collection of the ATIS (if
be practised. If the student’s workload is getting
applicable) and, with assistance, briefing the arrival.
too high at this point, take control to allow them to
Approaching the controlled airspace, which can be
catch up and be fully prepared. Once the student has
identified using TIME-MAP-GROUND, the instructor
caught up again, hand over control.
should take responsibility for the R/T in order to
demonstrate the correct calls and read-back of

Once the student has landed the aircraft, the
student should follow the procedures for vacating
the runway, giving way to other aircraft, crossing
runways, observing signage and making the radio
calls as applicable.
On the third leg, the student can practice their

low‑level navigation returning to the home airfield.
Visual navigation: 2 Landing away 283

284
Landing away VISUAL NAVIGATION
Objectives Air exercise Note: Diagram should represent actual planned flight
• To land at a controlled aerodrome

• To navigate at low level

• To land at an unattended aerodrome Prepare Airspace Ground
Review ATIS Clearance Taxiways, crossing
Brief Arrival Boundry EET runways, signage,
parking
Considerations
• Assess Wx and NOTAM, check planning and map SP
• Controlled airspace: R/T and arrival SP
• On the ground:
– Airfield layout, signage, parking TIME-MAP-GROUND
• Low level nav:
– Minimum VFR altitude to continue
– Map reading / effect of wind
Practice
• Unattended aerodrome: Low level Low level
– Arrival / SOHJ / ground movements Descent checks
Map reading 330/20
Wind effect MD 10
Heading/Time
SOHJ
LOOKOUT
Brief/Orientate,
Radio Calls

• LOOKOUT, Arrival, SOHJ – plan ahead • Cruise checks, DI alignment, fuel log, • Workload; plan using time frames,
leaning disorientation; TIME-MAP-GROUND

VISUAL NAVIGATION
3
Weather avoidance
and diversion
some instructor input and advice may well

Objectives be needed. Make sure the student has
marked the wind on the map including the
maximum drift.
1. To conduct the weather avoidance
procedure
A thorough briefing will be required before
2. To plan and execute a diversion this flight lesson is conducted, particularly the
techniques to be used for weather avoidance
3. To practice low level navigation
and the en-route diversion, as well as the
threats or errors which could require one.
Considerations
Airmanship
[For full details of the techniques used
refer to: Practical Flying Guide 1 –
A structured and time-based approach to
Visual Navigation.]
navigating, distributing tasks and managing
Like previous lessons, the instructor will have workload to ensure other important tasks
given the student a route to plan. The student are being attended to, such as lookout, radio
should plan three legs, each approximately calls, cruise checks and weather assessment.
20 minutes flight time. However, the third leg
should not go back to the home airfield, but
to another waypoint. The third leg will be used
to plan and execute an en-route diversion Aircraft management
back to the home airfield.
Regular cruise checks, leaning of the mixture,
On the day of the flight the student should as well as fuel monitoring and recording.
have completed planning for the route and
carried out all the pre-flight actions, including
NOTAMs and weather assessment. Again,
Visual navigation: 3 Weather avoidance and diversion 285

Once past the second TP, take control and teach how
Human factors to plan and perform a diversion to an alternative
destination. Start by nominating the diversion
destination (in this case the home airfield) and then a
Workload management, using time frames, resulting
suitable SP, either a ground feature or a point along
in a thorough lookout and situational awareness
the time scale (e.g. in 3 minutes time). Then teach
being maintained.
them to free hand a line on the chart from the SP to
the destination, and then to estimate the True track,
convert to Magnetic and calculate a heading derived
from the maximum drift already marked on the map.
Air exercise Position to be overhead the SP and on the new
heading. Note the time and emphasise the gross error
Starting prior to take-off the student briefs the check and the WHAT check, as the chance of making
aerodrome departure and heading to the SP. After a mistake in airborne planning is increased. The
take-off they should climb to the SP and set course student should then draw in 6-minute markers and
on the first leg. The student should be capable of estimate ETA. They can then choose suitable fixes
navigating to the first Turning Point (TP) with the noting the time to the next fix. Once this is complete,
minimum of instructor input using the techniques the map can be put away, hand control back to the
taught in the previous lessons. student and from this point onwards the techniques
to navigate this leg are no different to any other
On arriving at the first TP, the student should be able
leg previously flown. Once under way, other tasks
to identify the TP and set course along the next leg.
can be accomplished in the same managed way as
previously taught, and would include a review of any
Once the aircraft is successfully established on the
airspace ahead, fuel remaining, fuel required and
second leg, take control and teach the weather
MSA for the leg.
avoidance technique which uses a dogleg to leave
track, avoid the weather, parallel track if appropriate,
The student should be able to manage the arrival
and then return to track. If possible, try to regain track
and entry to the circuit. Consider practicing a
before the next fix, so that the success of the dogleg
different type of approach and landing, such as
technique is confirmed. After the fix, allow the student
a flapless, short-field or glide approach.
to practise the weather avoidance method, returning
to track before the next TP.
If an actual weather avoidance is not necessary,

rather than just simulating a rain shower try to
organise the route where there may be some isolated
high ground. Then simulate a low cloud base. This will
result in a dogleg around the high ground and being
able to literally see how it works. This does depend
on the local terrain and thinking ahead when the
route for planning is initially given to the student.

Weather avoidance and diversion VISUAL NAVIGATION
• Conduct weather avoidance procedure

Weather avoidance Note elapsed time
• Plan and execute a diversion Note time Turn back 2 x original hdg change
• Practice low level navigation Turn 30°, 45° or 60° For same as elapsed time
Considerations
• Assess Wx and NOTAM, check planning and map
Diversion
• Weather Avoid Choose SP
– 30°, 45° or 60° turn Draw Trk
TIME-MAP-GROUND
– Timing and ETA adjustment Calculate Hdg
6-min markers
– Turn back or parallel track ETA
• Diversion Choose fixes
– Select SP, draw Trk T° – M° – Hdg
– 6-Min Markers, ETA Overhead
Note time
Gross error check
WHAT check
170/10
MD 5

• LOOKOUT, time-based structure • Cruise checks, DI alignment, fuel log, • Planning tasks, confirmation bias,
– weather assessment leaning disorientation; TIME-MAP-GROUND

VISUAL NAVIGATION
4
Inadvertent IMC
and lost procedure
that the main priorities are to decisively

Objectives establish an instrument scan, keeping the
aircraft safe whilst planning a return to VMC.
1. To recover from an inadvertent entry

Brief the procedures for when uncertain of
into IMC
position using TIME-MAP-GROUND, and
2. To carry out the lost procedure the procedures when lost. Emphasise the
importance of keeping track of heading and
time, and not ‘wandering around’. Explain the
initial actions focus on getting some help, and
Considerations that the secondary actions follow when help is
not available, and a plan of action is needed
[For full details of the techniques used to locate the aircraft’s position.
refer to: Practical Flying Guide 1 –
Visual Navigation.]
This lesson will require some careful Airmanship

consideration and planning by the instructor to
ensure the sequence of lesson objectives flows Lookout. Assessment of weather.
smoothly and does not become overly complex.
Impress upon the student that an inadvertent

entry into IMC is a genuine emergency, and
Aircraft management
that the procedures you will teach need to be
well learnt, so that they can be recalled when
Regular cruise checks, alignment of DI, and
under stress. Discuss the actions to take to
descent checks for low level.
avoid flying inadvertently into IMC, and the
actions to take if this happens, emphasising

slightly distracted from the aircraft position. Whilst
Human factors maintaining the heading, take control, and whilst
the student is under the ‘hood’ ask them to locate
the aircraft’s position on the map. Ideally, they will
Decision making to avoid inadvertent IMC using
use TIME-MAP-GROUND, and based on the heading
“Minimum VFR Altitude to Continue”, and “Minimum
flown and time elapsed since flying overhead the
Safe Altitude” calculated during planning.
feature, they will be able to approximate position on
the chart.
Hand control back to the student, and whilst

Air exercise maintaining the heading, ask them to descend to
low level. After a few minutes, take back control,
The student can carry out all the necessary actions ask the student to remove the ‘hood’ and teach the
and procedures to get airborne and set off on track ‘lost’ procedure.
at normal operating altitude on the first leg of the
planned route. The instructor needs to emphasise the priorities if the
student becomes lost. Safety of the aeroplane is of
At a suitable point take control and ask the student prime importance. Noting down the time, remaining in
to put on a ‘hood’ and simulate a deterioration VMC, maintaining an effective lookout and carrying
in weather and an inadvertent entry into IMC. out a cruise check (particularly DI to compass check
Demonstrate the first action of maintaining control and fuel endurance remaining) should be the first
by decisively transferring from visual references to the actions. Point out the risk of “wandering” off the
instruments, building a scan whilst straight and level, heading, and that the heading should be maintained.
and ensuring the aircraft is in trim. Then review MSA Then make a call to the most appropriate ATC
and either climb to MSA if the aircraft is below this unit, most likely FISCOM, declaring being lost and
altitude or descend to MSA if above. In most cases a requesting assistance. If this is unsuccessful, maintain
return to VMC can be achieved by a 180° turn. Whilst the heading until a visual feature is seen. Then hold
this may not always be the case, there is a risk of overhead that feature, noting down the time, and
making the scenario too complex, and the desired trying to identify it using GROUND – MAP.
learning may not take place. Therefore, keep the exit
strategy simple and teach the 180° turn. This should Ask the student to check the actual heading flown
be planned with a target heading. Point out that since the last confirmed fix, and the time taken from
once the turn is complete, some time may pass flying that fix to the current position. From the last fix,
straight and level before exiting IMC. Also discuss they can plot the track flown, and add 6-Minute
actions in case this does not work. Maintaining the Markers to establish a DR fix and construct a “circle
instrument scan, squawking 7700 and transmitting of uncertainty”, radius 10% of the distance flown since
a “Distress” call to ATC without delay. During the last reliable fix. They should select a line feature
the debrief, discuss other potential scenarios of on the map outside the circle of uncertainty. Hand
the recovery from IMC as discussed in the Visual control back to the student and they can set heading
Navigation guide. towards the line feature, map reading using GROUND
– MAP. On reaching the line feature, they should fly
Once you have completed the demonstration, place along it until another feature is found and the aircraft
the aircraft in a suitable position and altitude, and position is established.
give the student control so that they can practice
these procedures. The result of this teaching should give a fix on the
chart, from which the student can practise calculating
Once the student has completed the recovery from an in-flight diversion to return the aircraft to the
IMC, take control and ask them to remove the ‘hood’. home airfield.
Point out and fly overhead a feature on the ground,
taking up a new heading, and noting the time. Then
ask the student to put the ‘hood’ back on, hand
control back to them and instruct them to maintain
straight and level flight, on the new heading. Ask
them to carry out a cruise check, and to update the
fuel plan, or other similar tasks. This will be good
instrument flying practice but will also keep them
Visual navigation: 4 Inadvertent IMC and lost procedure 289

290
Inadvertent IMC and lost procedure VISUAL NAVIGATION
• Recover from an inadvertent entry into IMC

• To carry out the lost procedure Maintain scan

Time to exit
250/15
MD 7
Considerations
• Assess Wx and NOTAM, check planning and map
• Inadvertent IMC:
– Prevention/transition to I/F and MSA Last fix
SP
– Exit plan/“Distress” call and 7700
• Practice I/F Inadvertant IMC
Build scan
• Uncertain of position: TIME-MAP-GROUND Straight and level in trim
• Lost: Initial actions/secondary actions TIME-MAP-GROUND Check MSA
• Practice diversion: Back to home airfield Plan exit
Lost initial actions Lost secondary actions

Check D.I and fuel Plot Trk from last fix
Practice Hold overhead feature 6-min markers and elapsed time
diversion Note time Circle of uncertainty
Contact: ATC/FISCOM/121.5 Head to a line feature
Squawk 7700 Follow until position fixed

• LOOKOUT, workload – time-based • Cruise checks, DI alignment, fuel log, • Workload; plan using time frames,
structure leaning disorientation; TIME-MAP-GROUND

VISUAL NAVIGATION
Supervision of solo
cross‑country
Solo flights will be As part of the supervision a “Sign-out

Checklist” is recommended to ensure all
integrated into this phase aspects of the flight have been checked
of training and will depend and briefed by the supervising instructor.
An example can be found at Appendix 2 and
on the order and content can be used or adapted to local requirements.
of dual flights as well as
the capabilities of the Students should be encouraged to carry a
phone, money or credit cards, a coat (even
individual student. in summer) and a small overnight bag. This
will make the decision to divert or turn back
It is recommended that all solo routes be to an airfield other than the home airfield,
carefully chosen by the instructor to minimise or possible overnight much easier.
problems such as airspace, lack of ground
features or high ground, unless these Whenever the student takes the decision
problems are intended to give the student to divert or wait out the weather on the
specific practice. ground, this must always be met with positive
reinforcement from the instructor, even if the
Students should only ever be sent on a solo weather seemed suitable.
cross-country flight where their competence
matches the requirements of the planned During the solo flight, the supervising
route, their planning has been carefully instructor should monitor weather and
checked, they are thoroughly briefed, the conditions such as issues at the airfield.
weather is suitable with healthy margins and If equipped, the student’s progress can also
the flight is properly supervised. be monitored with aircraft tracking devices.
The first solo landing away from the home At completion of the solo flight, a debrief
airfield should not be to any aerodrome at should always take place and the student’s
which the student has not previously landed map and Navigation Log checked. A great
dual, and should not present problems such deal of learning and confidence building will
as short runways, unfamiliar air traffic services take place on these solo cross-country flights,
or crosswinds. and the debriefing is essential to ensure good
practice is reinforced and errors or problems
are thoroughly discussed.
Visual navigation: Supervision of solo cross‑country 291

Appendices
Visual navigation: Supervision of solo cross‑country 293

VISUAL NAVIGATION
Appendix 1
Ground course
Maps Flight information
• Map selection • AIP, Supplement and NOTAMs
• Interpretation, legends • Radio frequencies
• Preparation; tracks, fixes, 6-minute • Selection of alternate aerodromes

markers, fan-lines
Aeroplane documentation
Flight planning
• Weather forecast, reports and Notification of the flight

interpretation • Pre-flight administrative procedures
• Choice of route • Flight plan, SARTIME, closure
• Controlled airspace • Supervision of solo cross-country
• Danger, prohibited and restricted areas • Sign-out procedures
• Navigation Log
Organisation of cockpit
• Navigation equipment
Calculations • Watch/stopwatch
• Phone, money, coat, overnight bag

• Magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route
• Safety altitudes
• Fuel planning
• Mass and balance
• Performance

Departure Arrival and aerodrome joining procedure
• Published departure procedures • Published arrival procedures
• Controlled aerodromes • Controlled aerodromes
• Unattended aerodromes • Unattended aerodromes
• Start point procedures • Altimeter setting
• Gross error check, WHAT check • Standard overhead join
• Entering the circuit

En-route • Circuit procedures
• Altimeter settings, Area QNH • Ground movement, signage, crossing runways
• ATC liaison in controlled airspace • Parking
• R/T procedures outside controlled airspace • Securing the aircraft
• Maintenance of heading, altitude and speed • Refuelling
• Time management; 6-minute markers, ETAs, • Closing of flight plan, if appropriate
time between fixes
• Post-flight administrative procedures,
• Use of map, identifying features occurrence reporting
• Track error and heading corrections
• Time corrections
• Regaining track, Standard Closing Angle
• Navigation Log maintenance
• Fuel monitoring and recording
• Turning point procedures
• Use of radio, flight information service
• Minimum weather conditions for continuation

of flight
• In-flight decision making
• Transiting controlled airspace, MBZs
• Danger and restricted areas, other hazards
• Weather avoidance procedures
• Diversion procedures
• Uncertainty of position procedure
• Lost procedure
• Inadvertent entry into IMC
Visual navigation: Appendix 1 Ground course 295

VISUAL NAVIGATION
Appendix 2
Sign-out checklist
The Solo cross-country

sign-out checklist is Solo Cross-Country –
Sign Out Checklist
provided on the CAA
website in an editable Note: Prior to the flight, this form must be
Word document, to be completed and signed by the student and the
instructor and left at the base airfield along
adapted as required to with a copy of the navigation log, prepared
the local environment chart and fuel plan.
and circumstances.

Planned route:
From: To:
To:
To:
For an ETD of: hrs NZST/NZDT on date:
The navigation plan has been checked and the following items discussed and, where applicable,
the required information noted on the plan.
Weather:
Forecast checked as suitable for route for entire period of flight (minimum by day
2000ft agl ceiling and 16km vis; minimum by night 3000ft agl ceiling and 16km vis).
Lowest altitudes to continue VFR specified, and diversion options discussed.
NOTAMs / AIP Supplement:

Checked for effect on flight. Discussed any action required.
Aircraft:
Serviceability and documents
Sufficient fuel and oil including reserves
Mass and balance
Performance for all airfields
Pilot:
Medical valid
IMSAFE discussed
Dual instruction last 5hrs and piloting last 30 days checked
Valid exams checked
Phone, money, coat, overnight bag
Route:
Need and method of maintaining VFR
Specific hazards en-route
Altimeter zones
Controlled airspace, MBZ’s, military areas and danger areas briefed
Destination: AIP plate available and briefed, special procedures, SOHJ, circuit direction,
fuel availability, choice of runways, and other points as applicable
Alternate aerodrome; suitability and procedures discussed
Visual navigation: Appendix 2 Sign-out checklist 297

R/T procedures:
Frequencies noted on plan
Use of FISCOM
SARTIME
Airfield joining
Lost procedure
PAN/MAYDAY
Abnormal and Emergency Procedures:

Action in event of intrusion into controlled airspace
Action in event of weather deterioration and/or fuel shortage
Action on becoming lost
Action in event of an unscheduled landing
Notes:
(Instructor must be A/B-Cat) I certify that the student has been briefed and that their planning has been
checked i.a.w. this form, and that I will supervise the flight i.a.w. Rule 61.105
Instructor name:
Licence No:
Instructor Cat:
Instructor’s signature:
Date:
I certify that I have been briefed for the navigation exercise detailed above and understand that in the event
of an unscheduled landing I will contact the CFI or his/her deputy by the quickest possible means and act
according to their instructions.
Student’s name:
Date/Time:
Student’s signature:
On completion of flight
Copy of completed navigation log, map and fuel plan attached to this form and returned to instructor
for document storage.

PO Box 3555
Wellington 6140
See the CAA website for civil aviation rules,
Tel: +64 4 560 9400
advisory circulars, airworthiness directives,
Fax: +64 4 569 2024
forms, and more safety publications.
Email: info@caa.govt.nz
View the FIG online at aviation.govt.nz/fig
aviation.govt.nz
Flight Instructor Guide

was revised in May 2023.

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Flight

Instructional theory 4 Basic concepts 57

This section of the Flight Instructor Guide

Instructional theory introduction 5 Straight and level 73

Learning theory 7 Climbing and descending 80

Human behaviour 15 Medium, climbing and descending turns 89

Effective communication 19 Slow flight 96

The teaching process 22 Basic stalling 101

References for instructional theory 48

Briefings 51 Crosswind circuit 140

Briefings introduction 52 Glide approach 147

Vacating and joining at aerodromes 152

Radio failure 159

Cover photo: iStock.com/Harbucks

2 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

Forced landing without power – pattern 164 1 Dead-reckoning navigation 274

Forced landing without power – considerations 174 2 Landing away 281

Steep turns 182 3 Weather avoidance and diversion 285

Advanced stalling 189 4 Inadvertent IMC and lost procedure 288

Maximum rate turns 196 Supervision of solo cross‑country 291

Wing-drop stalling 203 Appendices 293

Low flying introduction 216 Appendix 2 Sign-out checklist 296

Low flying consolidation 222

Precautionary landing 228

Terrain and weather awareness 234

Basic mountain flying 239

Instrument flying 245

Compass use 246

Instrument flying introduction 253

Limited panel 258

Unusual attitudes 262

Night flying 266

To define learning, it is necessary to analyse what

Sensory Short term can be physical and overt, or it can be intellectual or

6 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

Instructional theory: Learning theory 7

• Adults are affected by external motivation,

How adults learn Perception

8 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

Time and opportunity Insights

Instructional theory: Learning theory 9

Everyone wants to avoid pain and injury. Students are

10 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

Even though the process of learning has many

• correlating what has been learnt with other

When the student understands the procedure for

Instructional theory: Learning theory 11

Periods of practice As the instructor will not always be in the aircraft to

12 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

• Material not well learned suffers most from

Transfer of learning is concerned with how well the

Instructional theory: Learning theory 13

14 CAA Flight Instructor Guide

By definition, learning is – To students, the instructor is a role model,

and defence mechanisms • A human being will exercise self-direction

will aid you in organising and self-control in the pursuit of goals to

Instructional theory: Human behaviour 15

• Those that relate to self-esteem through

Egoistic • Those that relate to reputation through status,

Once a need is satisfied, it no longer provides