Reboilers

The design methods given in this section can be used for

reboilers and vaporizers. Reboilers are used with distillation
columns to vaporize a fraction of the bottom product;
whereas in a vaporizer essentially all the feed is vaporized.
Types of reboilers
1. Forced circulation, in which the fluid is pumped
through the exchanger,
2. Thermosyphon, natural circulation
3. Kettle type, in which boiling takes place on tubes
immersed in a pool of liquid; there is no
circulation of liquid through the exchanger. This
type is also, more correctly, called a submerged
bundle reboiler.
 Thermosyphon Reboiler

• Return piping to the column

must be sized for two-phase 2-Phase
Flow Region
flow.

• Thermosyphons operate based

on thermodynamic principles,
rather than gravity.

• Therefore, design detail is

important.

• Thermosyphon operation is
simple, but they are often
difficult to design for a wide
operating range.
All-Liquid
• Proper elevation is critical! Flow Region
• Thermosyphon reboilers are the most economical
• Not suitable for high viscosity fluids or high vacuum
operation.
• They would not normally be specified for pressures
below 0.3 bar.
• A disadvantage of this type is that the column base
must be elevated to provide the hydrostatic head
required for the thermosyphon effect.
 Forced Circulation Reboiler

• Forced circulation reboilers are

designed to operate liquid full.

• Flashing occur as the liquid

crosses the control valve.

• Valve should be located close to

the column shell.

• Forced circulation reboilers offer

greater operational flexibility than
thermosyphons, yet have a smaller
footprint than kettle reboilers.

• Elevation is less critical due to

pump and control valve.
• Forced-circulation reboilers are especially suitable
for handling viscous and heavily fouling process
fluids;
• The circulation rate is predictable and high
velocities can be used.
• The major disadvantage of this type is that a pump
is required and the pumping cost will be high.
• There is also the danger that leakage of hot fluid
will occur at the pump seal;
 Kettle Reboiler

All-Vapor Cross Section of

Kettle
• Vapor-Liquid disengagement
Flow Region
occurs in the vapor space,
therefore return piping is sized
for all-vapor flow.

• Proper elevation is critical to

kettle reboiler operation.

• Kettles have a large footprint,

but require less elevation than
a thermosyphon.

• Works by gravity, rather than

thermodynamics.

All-Liquid
Flow Region
• Kettle reboilers have lower heat-transfer
coefficients than the other types, as there is no
liquid circulation.
• Not suitable for fouling materials, and have a high
residence time.
• They will generally be more expensive than an
equivalent thermosiphon type as a larger shell is
needed.
• They are suitable for vacuum operation, and for
high rates of vaporization, up to 80 per cent of the
feed
 Reboiler Design

Reboiler Selection Flowchart Cost Comparison of Reboiler Types

Thermosyphon

Kettle

Forced Circulation
Boiling heat-transfer fundamentals
• The mechanism of heat transfer depends on the temperature difference
between the heated surface and the liquid.
• At low-temperature differences, heat is transferred by natural convection.
• As the surface temperature is raised we will see a large increase in the rate
of heat transfer. This phenomenon is known as nucleate boiling.
• As the temperature is raised further the rate of heat transfer increases until
the heat flux reaches a critical value.

• At this point, the rate of vapor generation is such

that dry patches occur spontaneously over the
surface, and the rate of heat transfer falls off
rapidly.
• Care must be taken in the design of electrically
heated vaporizers to ensure that the critical flux
can never be exceeded.
• The critical flux is reached at surprisingly low
temperature differences; around 20 to 30°C for
water, and 20 to 50°C for light organics.
Estimation of boiling heat-transfer
coefficients
• Two types of boiling:
1. Pool boiling: is the name given to nucleate boiling in
a pool of liquid; such as in a kettle-type reboiler.
2. Convective boiling occurs where the vaporizing fluid
is flowing over the heated surface, and heat transfer
takes place both by forced convection and nucleate
boiling; as in forced circulation or thermosiphon
reboilers.
• Boiling is a complex phenomenon, and boiling heat-
transfer coefficients are difficult to predict with any
certainty.
• experimental values obtained for the system being
considered should be used, or values for a closely
related system.
Pool boiling
• In the nucleate boiling region the heat-transfer
coefficient is dependent on the nature and
condition of the heat-transfer surface, and it is not
possible to present a universal correlation that will
give accurate predictions for all systems.
• correlation given by Forster and Zuber (1955) can
be used to estimate pool boiling coefficients,
 • correlation given by Mostinski (1963) is simple to
use and gives values that are as reliable as those
given by more complex equations.

The equations can be used for close boiling range mixtures, say less
than 5°C; and for wider boiling ranges with a suitable factor of safety
 Critical heat flux
• It is important to check that heat flux is well below the
critical flux.
• for predicting the critical flux. Zuber’s equation can be
written as:

• Mostinski also gives a equation for predicting the

maximum critical heat flux:
Film boiling
• The equation given by Bromley can be used to
estimate the heat-transfer coefficient for film
boiling on tubes.
example
 Convective boiling
• The mechanism of heat transfer in
convective boiling, will depend on the
state of the fluid at any point. Consider
the situation of a liquid boiling inside a
vertical tube:
• In forced-convective boiling the effective heat-transfer
coefficient hcb can be considered to be made up of
convective and nucleate boiling components; h’fc and h’nb.

x, the mass fraction of vapour.

• ReL is evaluated assuming that only the liquid phase is flowing in the conduit
• G is the total mass flow rate per unit flow area.
Example
Design of forced-circulation reboilers
• In forced-convection reboilers we calculate the heat transfer
coefficient assuming that the heat is transferred by forced
convection only.
• Conventional shell and tube exchanger designs are used,
• One shell pass and two tube passes, when the process fluid is on
the shell side
• One shell and one tube pass when it is in the tubes.
• High tube velocities are used to reduce fouling, 3- 9 m/s.
• Because the circulation rate is set by the designer, forced-
circulation reboilers can be designed with more certainty than
natural circulation units.
• The critical flux in forced-convection boiling is difficult to predict.
Kern (1950) recommends that for commercial reboiler designs
the heat flux should not exceed 63,000 W/m2 for organics and
95,000 W/m2 for water and dilute aqueous solutions.
 Design of thermosiphon reboilers
• The design of thermosiphon reboilers is complicated by the fact
that, the fluid circulation rate cannot be determined.
• The circulation rate, heat-transfer rate and pressure drop are all
interrelated, and iterative design procedures must be used.
• The fluid will circulate at a rate at which the pressure losses in
the system are just balanced by the available hydrostatic head.
• The exchanger, column base and piping can be considered as the
two legs of a U-tube;
• The driving force for circulation round the system is the
difference in density of the liquid in the “cold” leg (the column
base and inlet piping) and the two-phase fluid in the “hot” leg
(the exchanger tubes and outlet piping).
• To calculate the circulation rate it is necessary to make a
pressure balance
• A typical design procedure will include the following steps:
1. Calculate the vaporization rate required; from the specified
duty.
2. Estimate the exchanger area; from an assumed U. Decide the
exchanger layout and piping dimensions.
3. Assume a value for the circulation rate through the exchanger.
4. Calculate the pressure drop in the inlet piping (single phase).
5. Divide the exchanger tube into sections and calculate the
pressure drop section by-section up the tube. Use suitable
methods for the sections in which the flow is two-phase.
Include the pressure loss due to the fluid acceleration as the
vapor rate increases. For a horizontal reboiler, calculate the
pressure drop in the shell, using a method suitable for two-
phase flow.
6. Calculate the pressure drop in the outlet piping (two-phase).
7. Compare the calculated pressure drop with the available
differential head; which will depend on the vapor voidage, and
hence the assumed circulation rate. If a satisfactory balance
has been achieved, proceed. If not, return to step 3 and repeat
the calculations with a new assumed circulation rate.
8. Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient and heat-transfer rate
section-by-section up the tubes. Use a suitable method for the
sections in which the boiling is occurring; such as Chen’s
method.
9. Calculate the rate of vaporization from the total heat-transfer
rate, and compare with the value assumed in step 1. If the
values are sufficiently close, proceed. If not, return to step 2
and repeat the calculations for a new design.
10. Check that the critical heat flux is not exceeded at any point up
the tubes.
11. Repeat the complete procedure as necessary to optimize the
design.
 vaporization rate  Q

assume U & A

Assume circulation rate

pressure drop in the inlet piping

calculate the pressure drop section by-section

pressure drop in the outlet

Compare the calculated pressure drop with the

available differential head

Calculate the heat-transfer coefficient and

heat-transfer rate section-by-section

Calculate the rate of vaporization from the

total heat-transfer rate, and compare

Check that the critical heat flux

• design a thermosiphon reboiler using hand calculations
would be so difficult, the iterative nature favors the use of
computers.
• Approximate methods can be used for preliminary designs.
• The heat transfer and pressure drop in the tubes are based
on the average of the inlet and outlet conditions.
• This simplifies step 5 in the design procedure but trial-and
error calculations are still needed to determine the
circulation rate.
Frank and Prickett derive a general correlation
of heat-transfer rate with reduced
temperature for vertical thermosiphon
reboilers.
The basis and limitations of the correlation
are listed below:
1. Conventional designs: tube lengths 2.5 to
3.7 m (8 to 12 ft) (standard length 2.44 m),
preferred diameter 25 mm (1 in.).
2. Liquid in the sump level with the top tube
sheet.
3. Process side fouling coefficient 6000
W/m2 °C.
4. Heating medium steam, coefficient
including fouling, 6000 W/m2 °C.
5. Simple inlet and outlet piping.
6. For reduced temperatures greater than
0.8, use the limiting curve (that for
aqueous solutions).
7. Minimum operating pressure 0.3 bar.
8. Inlet fluid should not be appreciably sub-
cooled.
9. Extrapolation is not recommended.
• For heating media other than steam and process
side fouling coefficients different from 6000
W/m2°C, the design heat flux taken from Figure
may be adjusted as follows:
Example
• For preliminary designs for pure components, or
near pure components, Pricket and Frank’s method
should give a conservative estimate of the
operating heat flux. It is not recommended for
mixtures, other than binary mixtures with water.
Approximate design method for
mixtures
• For mixtures, the simplified analysis used by Kern
(1954) can be used
• The calculation procedure is set out below
1. Determine the heat duty.
2. Estimate the heat transfer area, using the
maximum allowable heat flux. Take as 39,700
W/m2 for vertical and 47,300 W/m2 for horizontal
reboilers.
3. Choose the tube diameters and length. Calculate
the number of tubes required.
4. Estimate the recirculation ratio, not less than 3.
5. Calculated the vapor flow rate leaving the reboiler
for the duty and liquid heat of vaporization.
6. Calculate the liquid flow rate leaving the reboiler
for the vapor rate and recirculation ratio.
7. Estimate the two-phase pressure drop though the
tubes, due to friction. Use the homogenous model
or another simple method, such as the Lochart-
Martenelli equation; see Volume 1, Chapter 5.
8. Estimate the static head in the tubes.
9. Estimate the available head.
10. Compare the total estimated pressure drop and the
available head. If the available head is greater by a
sufficient amount to allow for the pressure drop
through the inlet and outlet piping, proceed. If the
available head is not sufficient, return to step 2, and
increase the number of tubes.
11. Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient
using simple methods, such as assuming convection
only, or Chens’ method; see Section 12.11.3.
12. Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient.
13. Calculate the required overall coefficient and
compare with that estimated. If satisfactory, accept
the design, if unsatisfactory return to step 2 and
increase the estimated area.
Maximum heat flux
• Thermosiphon reboilers can suffer from flow
instabilities if too high a heat flux is used.
• Kern recommends that the heat flux in
thermosiphon reboilers, based on the total heat-
transfer area, should not exceed 37,900 W/m2
• For horizontal thermosiphon reboilers, Collins
recommends a maximum flux ranging from 47,300
W/m2 for 20-mm tubes to 56,800 W/m2 for 25-mm
tubes
General design considerations
• The tube lengths used for vertical
thermosiphon reboilers vary from
1.83 m for vacuum service to 3.66
m for pressure operation.
• A good size for general applications
is 2.44 m by 25 mm internal
diameter.
• Larger tube diameters, up to 50
mm, are used for fouling systems.
• The top tube sheet is normally
aligned with the liquid level in the
base of the column;
• The outlet pipe should be as short
as possible, and have a cross-
sectional area at least equal to the
total cross-sectional area of the
tubes.
Example
 Design of kettle reboilers
• Kettle reboilers, are essentially pool boiling devices, and their design is
based on data for nucleate boiling.
• Vapor rises from the lower rows of tubes passes over the upper rows.
• This has two opposing effects:
1. Rising vapor to blanket the upper tubes, which will reduce the heat-transfer
rate;
2. Increased turbulence caused by the rising vapor bubbles.
• Palen and Small (1964) give a procedure in which the heat-transfer
coefficient calculated using equations for boiling on a single tube is
reduced by an empirically derived tube bundle factor, to account for the
effects of vapor blanketing.
• it seems reasonable to use the correlations for single tubes to estimate
the coefficient for tube bundles without applying any correction
• The maximum heat flux for stable nucleate boiling
will, however, be less for a tube bundle than for a
single tube.
• Palen and Small (1964) suggest modifying this

• To be written as:
• Palen and Small suggest that a factor of safety of
0.7 be applied to the maximum flux estimated from
equation 12.74.
• This will still give values that are well above those
which have traditionally been used for the design
of commercial kettle reboilers; such as that of
37,900 W/m2 (12,000 Btu/ft2h) recommended by
Kern (1950).
General design considerations
• triangular or square pitch, will not have a significant
effect
• tube pitch of between 1.5 to 2.0 times the tube outside
diameter should be used to avoid vapour blanketing.
• Long thin bundles will be more efficient than short fat
bundles.
• The shell should be sized to give adequate space for the
disengagement of the vapour and liquid. The shell
diameter required will depend on the heat flux.
• The following values can be used as a guide:
• The freeboard between the liquid level and shell should be
at least 0.25 m.
• To avoid excessive entrainment, the maximum vapor
velocity uv (m/s) at the liquid surface should be less than
that given by the expression:
 Mean temperature differences
• When the fluid being vaporized is a single component and the
heating medium is steam both shell and tubes side processes
will be isothermal and the mean temperature difference will be
simply the difference between the saturation temperatures.
• If one side is not isothermal the logarithmic mean temperature
difference should be used.
• If the temperature varies on both sides, the logarithmic
temperature difference must be corrected
• If the feed is sub-cooled, the mean temperature difference
should still be based on the boiling point of the liquid, as the
feed will rapidly mix with the boiling pool of liquid;
• The quantity of heat required to bring the feed to its boiling
point must be included in the total duty.
 Mixtures
• The equations for estimating nucleate boiling coefficients
can be used for close boiling mixtures, say less than 5°C,
• but will overestimate the coefficient if used for mixtures
with a wide boiling range.
• Empirical correction factor for mixtures can be used to
estimate the heat-transfer coefficient in the absence of
experimental data:

The inlet temperature will be the saturation temperature of the liquid at the base of the
column, and the vapor temperature the saturation temperature of the vapor returned to
the column.
Example