inventions

Article
An Efficient Ring-Shaped Electromagnetic Thruster
Daniele Funaro 1,∗ and Alessandro Chiolerio 2,∗

1 Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103,
41125 Modena, Italy
2 Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Center for Converging Technologies, Soft Bioinspired Robotics, Via Morego 30,
16165 Genova, Italy
* Correspondence: daniele.funaro@unimore.it (D.F.); alessandro.chiolerio@iit.it (A.C.)

Abstract: An electromagnetic thruster is proposed and successfully tested. Its design is inspired by
theoretical considerations whose qualitative predictions are well matched with the experimental
results. The efficiency is higher than any other device so far reported in the literature, producing
a directional thrust of approximately 2.7 × 10−6 m, where m is the mass of the thruster itself, with
a nominal power injected of approximately 10 Watts. The prototype has the shape of a ring and
is powered by both radio frequency signals and a stationary high voltage. Improvements and
generalizations can be easily devised by adjusting the geometry of the device.

Keywords: electromagnetic thruster; radio frequency; high voltage; vortex ring

1. Introduction
Cavity thrusters use radio frequencies (RF) as the only way to generate thrust, thus
justifying the name electromagnetic thrusters (EMT). The EmDrive [1] is a truncated conical
resonant cavity producing a thrust in the direction of the major base when it is fed inside
with electromagnetic waves of the proper intensity. The thrust results from the radiation
pressure difference due to the asymmetry of the device. Subsequently, other geometries
were tested, such as the Cannae Drive. Some research groups have actually measured the
presence of very little thrust in their tests, but the same experiments conducted by other
authors did not confirm the results. Indeed, since the forces were too small, they could
Citation: Funaro, D.; Chiolerio, A.
An Efficient Ring-Shaped
have been explained by the interference of thermal effects or by the action of the Earth’s
Electromagnetic Thruster. Inventions
magnetic field. Updated information is also available in [2].
2023, 8, 51. https://doi.org/ Indeed, these devices violate the law of conservation of momentum. One explanation
10.3390/inventions8020051 is that an EMT works by transferring momentum to the so-called quantum vacuum [3–5].
In fact, the zero-point energy is the lowest possible energy state assumed by a quantum me-
Academic Editor: Craig E. Banks
chanical system. Such radiation has an electromagnetic nature and pervades the universe.
Received: 10 January 2023 A typical quantum manifestation is the Casimir effect, where two parallel discharged metal
Revised: 3 February 2023 plates kept at a suitable distance are subject to an attractive force [6]. This phenomenon is
Accepted: 17 February 2023 extremely mild and is usually explained by claiming that the energy of the vacuum outside
Published: 24 February 2023 the plates is larger than the one trapped in the middle, resulting in a gradient of pressure
acting on the surfaces.
A similar area of interest concerns asymmetric capacitors, also known as lifters. When
the device is charged, the two conductors tend to attract each other with a non-zero resultant
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. (Biefeld–Brown effect). In this way, the the entire setup is subject to side acceleration. The
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
so-called anti-gravity flying machines are very light capacitors immersed in a dielectric (air,
This article is an open access article
for example). They are charged with a potential difference of the order of tens of kVolts.
distributed under the terms and
Due to their asymmetry, the devices start to rise and float freely [7]. The official explanation
conditions of the Creative Commons
is based on the fact that there is the production of ionic wind due to a corona-type effect.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
The asymmetrical movement in the air of these ions would be responsible for the thrust.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
However, these arguments are not definitively convincing, since some devices seem to

Inventions 2023, 8, 51. https://doi.org/10.3390/inventions8020051 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/inventions

Inventions 2023, 8, 51 2 of 12

work even when the two capacitor plates are embedded in a solid dielectric material. We
refer to the review document [8], which contains a useful list of references and US patent
history relating to the subject.
Here, we propose and characterize a new EMT. Its design is prompted by theoreti-
cal considerations and takes some inspiration from the aforementioned devices, putting
together all of their peculiarities. In particular, the following characteristics are taken
into consideration:
• The asymmetry of the device;
• The provision of RF in the “resonant” range of the device;
• The sum of stationary high-voltage electric fields;
• The presence of a dielectric, possibly with a high dielectric constant.
The main argument is based on the following considerations. In the EmDrive, the
electromagnetic radiation is injected into the cavity with very little control of what actually
happens in there. In our prototype, the wave is specifically driven to form closed patterns.
Due to the asymmetry of the paths, the device behaves like an “unbalanced washing
machine”, spiraling toward a prescribed direction. The assumption is that some sort
of “friction” occurs naturally within the electromagnetic vacuum. This should allow
momentum to be transferred from the device to the environment. Thus, the asymmetrical
dynamic behavior imitates a kind of “swimming” within the omnipresent electromagnetic
background. The delay in information transfer due to the finiteness of the speed of light is
also a variable to take into consideration. An attempt to explain the phenomenon in the
framework of general relativity is given in [9]. Finally, unconventional considerations on
mass and gravitation were advanced in [10], Section 2.6 . They might help to solve the
puzzle. A theoretical analysis is in any case out of the purposes of this technical report.
We start by introducing particular electromagnetic waves that rotate about an axis.
Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, involving electric and magnetic fields (~E and ~B, respec-
tively), read in MKS units as follows:

∂~E ∂~B
= c2 curl~B = −curl~E (1)
∂t ∂t
with c denoting the speed of light. The Ampère’s law is here implemented without current
sources. To the system of Equation (1), we add the following divergence free conditions:

div~E = 0 div~B = 0 (2)

Peculiar solutions of the whole set of equations, circulating in rounded cavities, are
available in [10–13]. For an infinitely long cylinder, the exact expressions can be computed
in terms of the classical Bessel’s functions. The magnetic field is distributed along the axis
of the cylinder, whereas the electric field assumes a dynamic distribution that simulates
a rotation around the same axis. The simplest displacement is shown in Figure 1. In the
figure, ~B is orthogonal to the page and periodically swings up and down. The figure
rotates rigidly at a uniform angular velocity. In this way, the electric field does not remain
orthogonal to the direction of motion (in fact, it also shows a longitudinal component)
and the entire electromagnetic wave does not travel at a constant speed c, equal to that of
light. This may seem atypical. On the other hand, it corresponds to what can be directly
recovered from solving the set of equations in (1)–(2).
There are infinite such solutions. In the one shown in Figure 1, the magnetic field
vanishes (for any time) at the boundary of the cylinder. At the same boundary, the electric
field is tangent to the boundary and oscillates according to a function such as sin(vt − φ),
where v is the peripheral speed of propagation and φ is the angle. In this scenario, the
magnetic and electric fields are coupled via Faraday’s law of induction. They both display
closed lines. As for ~E, these can be clearly recognized in Figure 1, whereas, for ~B, the lines
are straight and parallel to the axis of the cylinder. In this way, they close at infinity.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 3 of 12

Figure 1. Electric field displacement inside the section of the cylinder at a prescribed time. The image
rotates clockwise with constant angular speed. This particular solution of Maxwell’s equations was
constructed with the help of Bessel’s functions. The radial component is zero at the boundary, so the
field is tangent to the cylinder there. The magnetic field is orthogonal to the page and is also zero at
the boundary.

In practice, we should be able to achieve a similar evolution through a winding

consisting of a conductive wire (solenoid) positioned around a long dielectric cylinder
of fixed diameter. Another rectilinear conductive wire is placed along the axis (i.e., the
one passing through the center of the disk in Figure 1) and is connected to ground. The
outer wire is then powered by alternating current. The signal is applied to one extreme,
whereas the other is kept at a floating potential. This setting guarantees the rotation of the
peripheral signal around the axis, which consequently induces a peculiar dynamic field
distribution inside the cylinder. The right frequency to be applied depends on various
factors, such as the composition of the cylinder, its diameter and the conductivity constant
of the outer wire. The resonance of the turns of the outer winding is obtained when the
magnetic field generated swings back and forth inside the cylinder in synchrony.
From the case of the cylinder, one can easily pass to that of a ring (not necessarily with
a circular section) [14]. Here, the exact solutions of (1)–(2) are not available, but they can be
calculated numerically [15]. The evolution of the electric field recalls that of fluid dynamic
vortex rings [16]. Now, the magnetic field circulates within the body along closed lines.
By suitably coupling Maxwell’s equations with Euler’s equation for non-viscous fluids,
one can obtain:

∂~E ∂~B
= c2 curl~B − ρV
~ = −curl~E div~B = 0 (3)
∂t ∂t
!
~
−1 D V
ρ µ + ~E + V
~ × ~B = −e0−1 ∇
~p (4)
Dt

with ρ = div~E. These modeling equations were firstly introduced in [11]. Thus, we refer
to that publication for clarifications. The first equation is the Ampère law, where V ~ is a
velocity field that describes the evolution of the electromagnetic information (not necessarily
consisting of real massive charges, such as electrons). Moreover, the term DV/Dt ~ is the
substantial derivative, e0 is the dielectric constant in vacuum and p is a potential denoting
a pressure density per unit of surface. Differently from fluid dynamics, p can also take
negative values. Under the action of ∇ ~ p, a surface tends to shift in the direction of lower
pressure. In addition, note that the term ~E + V ~ × ~B recalls the Lorentz’s force. Finally,
the constant µ is dimensionally equivalent to Coulomb/Kg. An estimate of µ under a
very special circumstance was provided in [10], appendix H. If we set ρ = 0, we return to
Equations (1) in a vacuum. Thus, the modeling Equations (3)–(4) extend Maxwell ones.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 4 of 12

Exact rotating solutions on a cylinder of infinite length can be computed for ρ = constant.
This is achieved by linearly combining the solutions for ρ = 0 and the stationary one corre-
sponding to a radial electric field (with respect to the axis), as occurs within a dielectric. Such
a condition is important for developing a pressure p, which is the sum of a steady component
and an oscillating one showing zero average over a period of time. The situation is far more
complex in the case of a ring, though presents similar characteristics.
In a real experiment, the dielectric constant of the body (cylinder, ring or other more
complicated structures) must be taken into account. This has a meaning in determining
the displacement of fields. Indeed, we expect that the angular speed of rotation (and
the corresponding resonance frequency) varies with dielectric properties. To know what
happens inside the body, it is necessary at this level to rely on numerical computations. It is
not easy to understand what the balance between the terms in the Equation (4) is. This can
vary depending on the orientation of ~E. In addition, some quantities grow linearly with
the magnitude of ~E, whereas others are quadratic. We avoid in this preliminary phase to
conduct a more accurate analysis.
For domains that exhibit symmetry (such as the cylinder with a circular section),
the instantaneous integral of the pressure gradient is zero, so we do not expect neat forces
acting on the body. If we want to generate a non-vanishing resultant (i.e., the integral
extended to the whole domain of the pressure gradient), it is necessary to work with an
asymmetrical body. We can draw some conclusions considering what happens on the
surface, though such an analysis should be performed on the whole body. We also want
this resultant to be different from zero when averaged over a period of time. The practical
example that we have in mind is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Possible configuration of a ring with asymmetric section (section view (a); top view (b)).

The parameterized elements are:

• The size of the whole device;
• The ratio between the radius of the internal and external diameters;
• The profile of the section;
• The composition of the dielectric.
All of these elements affect the resonance properties of the ring following the applica-
tion of the RF signal. The limitations imposed on the manufacturing of a real device do not
appear to be highly restrictive, however. Hence, there are ample margins for generalizations
and improvements. The shape of the ring section should still be the primary concern.
A rough analysis conducted on the surface of the ring of Figure 2 leads us to Figure 3.
For a rotating wave, a strong acceleration is produced at the top of the section, where
the signal suddenly changes direction. If the section is well designed, we can conclude
that there is a neat directional force acting on the body, and the verse of the resultant
does not change with time. Note that the ring is not just asymmetrical because the top is
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 5 of 12

different from the bottom, but also because a descending signal along the internal side
(the one corresponding to the hole) and going up along the outer side follows different
electromagnetic patterns (i.e., the pitch between the wires is greater on the outside than the
pitch between the wires passing through the inside hole).

Figure 3. Qualitative distribution of the velocity V~ (blue arrows) and acceleration DV/Dt~ (red
arrows) along the boundary section of the ring (compare with Figure 2). The section has been
designed in order to enforce a sharp variation in V~ on top. This locally results in high values of
~
DV/Dt (red arrow pointing down on top), which are not compensated by the integral extended to
the remaining portion of the boundary. The final resultant turns out to be different from zero.

If we are to preserve the action–reaction principle, we can argue that, in addition

to the internal electromagnetic field, there is an external one, generated by the fact that
the device itself acts as an emitting antenna. Thus, part of the energy is asymmetrically
radiated outwards. We do not believe, however, that the amount of energy emitted can
quantitatively explain the thrust based on radiation pressure theory.

2. Materials and Methods

We built the ring according to the following procedure. By using fused deposition
modeling (FDM) 3D printing, we created two hollow half-rings as shown in Figure 4, made
in PLA, supplied from MakerBotTM . The dielectric constant of PLA (and of any other
polymer) is strongly influenced by both temperature and frequency and, according to
literature, in the GHz range, it is around 3 [17]. One of the two parts supports a circular
copper wire that will be connected to ground. The proportions are approximately those
shown in Figure 2, and the outer diameter is approximately 10.5 cm. Both parts were filled
with a commercial double-component epoxy resin (Henkel, relative dielectric constant
approximately 2.5) and then glued together.
Next, as in a toroidal solenoid, the ring was wound by two sets of windings. According
to Figure 5, they form two independent circuits. These are interlaced and wound following
the same chirality. Here, the parameters that can vary are:
• The number of turns in each winding;
• The width of the wires;
• The metal used for the wires, and therefore its electrical conductivity;
• The chirality.
In our case, there are 65 turns for each wire, made with commercial annealed copper
in insulating sheath. The final result is shown in Figure 6.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 6 of 12

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Printed support of the ring (picture a), relative to the bottom part. The internal copper loop,
to be connected to ground through a small radial conductor, is visible. In (b), we can see the two
parts assembled. The maximum diameter of the device is approximately 10.5 cm and the proportions
are those shown in Figure 2.

Figure 5. Electric scheme.

Figure 6. Final appearance of the ring. There are two independent coils. The one indicated by the
red arrow is supplied with an alternate radio-frequency signal. The one indicated by the white
arrow is connected to the high-voltage generator. The common ground is represented by the copper
wire running inside the ring as shown in Figure 4a. The corresponding electric diagram is visible
in Figure 5.

The endpoint of one of the two wires is connected to the RF signal source, the mass
being connected to the central wire within the ring. The other final point is left uncon-
nected. The second wire is connected to a high-voltage generator with the aim to create a
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 7 of 12

capacitor having the other pole connected to the center grounded wire. This allows for the
development of an internal stationary electric field that would provide a constant value of
ρ depending on the dielectric characteristics of the material that makes up the ring.

3. Results
To measure the thrust generated, we used a mechanical scale (nonius). Several attempts
were made to use electronic tools, as also described in Section 4, until we realized that the
interference between the RF, high-voltage electric fields and the measuring device would
severely affect the experiment. Therefore, we opted for a purely mechanical tool and used a
Mettler B5C1000 Laboratory Scale Analytical Balance Machine that can support masses of up
to 1 Kg and can appreciate differences of up to 100 µg using an optical vernier. Together with
a plastic stand, our device has a total mass of approximately 370 g and is shown in Figure 7.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. The device on the plate of the balance machine (general view (a); enlarged view (b)). The
orientation is the one referred to in Table 1 as DOWN. The black coaxial cable carries the RF signal.
The red cable is connected to the high-voltage generator.

Table 1. Absolute mass change (positive = gain, negative = loss) as a function of the electromagnetic
fields submitted to the device. The RF frequency is expressed in MHz, the power in dBm, the DC
bias in volts and the mass and their standard deviations in µg. The label UP says that the device is
oriented as in Figure 2, whereas DOWN indicates the opposite orientation. We recall that the device
has a mass of approximately 370 g.

Frequency Device Mass Variation

Power [dBm] DC Bias [V]
[MHz] Orientation [µg]
913 5 0 UP 400 ± 50
913 5 99.95 UP 400 ± 100
913 5 250 UP 450 ± 100
913 5 1000 UP 400 ± 100
913 5 0 DOWN −700 ± 200
913 5 1000 DOWN −900 ± 100
940 5 0 DOWN −600 ± 150
940 12 0 DOWN −800 ± 100

As a frequency generator, we used a Rohde & Schwarz SWM02, which provides

frequencies from 0.01 up to 18 GHz. The maximum output power is 12 dBm, equal to
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 8 of 12

15.85 mW, while most of the experiments were conducted at 5 dBm, equal to 3.16 mW. The
signal is driven by a 10 W (nominal power) amplifier powered by 12 volts. The high-voltage
DC generator was a Keithley 2410 1100V SourceMeter. The current fed through the circuit
is negligible, except for the transient one, necessary to charge the capacitor made up of the
dielectric material that separates the inner ring and one of the two outer wires (compare
with the scheme in Figure 5 ). This produces a value of ρ 6= 0 inside the ring, which can be
positive or negative depending on the polarity of the applied voltage.
At frequencies between 913–940 MHz, the balance shows consistent and systematic
variations in the weight of the EMT. This range is compatible with the size of the device,
according to information circulating at speeds of the order of that of light. In particular,
the EMT was tested in different conditions, varying the RF frequency and power, the DC
bias and the orientation of the ring with respect to the vertical axis (up-down or down-
up, in relation to the scheme of Figure 2). The frequencies were changed manually with
steps of 1 MHz. The response profile looks Gaussian, showing a width of approximately
30–40 MHz.
Figure 8 shows examples of the results obtained in the experiments that we performed
by keeping the value of DC bias fixed and repeatedly switching on/off the RF power
approximately every 10 s. A mass variation of slightly less than 1 mg is observed for a
maximum RF power not exceeding 10 watts. The effect of DC bias was also evaluated
(Figure 9), while the radio frequency was maintained.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. Outcomes relative to two typical experiments performed while applying the RF field and
a DC bias. The RF source is switched on and off periodically approximately every 10 seconds of
acquisition (black open squares: ‘1’ represents the device on, ‘0’ represents the device off), at 913 MHz
at the power of 5 Dbm (panel a), and 940 MHz at the power of 12 Dbm (panel b). The DC bias is set
at a fixed value (blue triangles). The balance readings are converted into a relative variation scale by
taking the initial value (red circles) as zero and eventually removing the small linear drift that can
sometimes be found, presumably due to heating/cooling phenomena during the day. The measure in
(a) was performed positioning the EMT as shown in Figure 2, whereas the one in (b) was performed
by reversing the orientation.

The figures of merit are: a mass variation of approximately 2.7 × 10−6 m, where m is
the mass of the EMT, and a maximum thrust of approximately 9.8 µN. Despite the low
power injected, the efficiency turns out to be at least one thousand times higher than the
results achieved previously by other authors. The reverse orientation of the ring causes a
change in the sign of the force exerted, and therefore a loss of mass, instead of a mass gain.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 9 of 12

Figure 9. Effect of the high voltage DC bias on the force variations while the RF field is kept on
at the frequency and power indicated in the inset. Here, the device is oriented as in Figure 2. The
voltage was varied from −1 kVolt to 1 kVolt and backwards, with steps of 100 volts, completing a
full hysteresis loop. The indication of raw force variation is due to the fact that data are untreated to
compensate for any eventual thermal drift.

4. Discussion
Based on the results of the experiment, the following facts were verified:
• The effect is systematic. It clearly appears and disappears by turning the RF power
on and off. There is a slight viscous lag related to the stabilization of the mechanical
balance. Linear drift is sometimes observed during the measurements, possibly due
to temperature variations in the laboratory and instrumentation.
• The result strictly depends on the frequency. Reasonably, this is related to the reso-
nance properties of the device. We did not systematically check the entire frequency
range, mainly because the amplifier did not support a large band.
• The strength of the outcome is proportional to the applied power. Without the ampli-
fier the effect is hampered.
• The phenomenon is also observed without applying the high-voltage component.
We observed a marginal improvement in performance by applying a potential of ±1
kV, as shown in Figure 9.
• Applying high voltage without the high-frequency signal produces no result, as ex-
pected.
• The direction of the thrust depends on the verse of the orientation of the device, and
points downwards as shown in Figure 3. This is the most important property, which
validates the entire experiment.
For completeness, we report here a brief history of the experiments carried out in the
past on similar devices. Soon after the publication of the book [11] (based on the preliminary
partial version [18]), a rough prototype was built as shown in Figure 10. The electron model
introduced in [11], Section 5.3 (and successively re-examined in [10], Appendix H) inspired
the realization of such a ring-shaped device, with a wiring formed by 208 coils. The idea
is that time-varying electric fields can autonomously create regions where the divergence
ρ is different from zero (see, for instance, the explanation given in [19] in the case of a
pulsating charge). This activates the pressure term p in (4) with the consequent generation
of Newtonian-like forces. The size of the ring (total diameter around 70 cm) was decided
depending on the frequency generator available at that time, working at the frequency of
approximately 1 GHz. The lack of adequate instrumentation and the absence of an internal
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 10 of 12

solid dielectric (not essential in principle, but necessary for realistic results) did not allow
for an observation of appreciable effects. A possible asymmetry of the device was not
taken into consideration. At that time, the purpose was not to gain directional thrust, but
to create some kind of very mild gravitational shielding. This aspect was also suggested
by further observations (as reported later in [10], p. 58). For practical impediments, this
project was abandoned.

(a) (b)
Figure 10. The cover of the book (a) and an archaic version of the ring (b).

Another experiment was attempted in 2014 at the Physics Department of Politecnico

di Torino. In this new device shown in Figure 11, an electromagnetic wave is generated
by a quarter-wavelength dipole antenna. A copper ring is connected to a high-voltage
source (up to 5 kV). The purpose was to make the wave circulate around the ring in
closed patterns, thus generating mechanical pressure (see also the computational results
in [20]). For some theoretical assumptions, we expected a higher pressure compared to
the classic electromagnetic radiation pressure, which is notoriously extremely mild. In
light of the experiences described here in Section 3, that idea now seems very naive. The
forces were measured through the continuous monitoring of the resonance of a silicon
cantilever, amplified by the deflection of a laser beam focused on the reflecting surface of
the cantilever itself, and collected by a four-quadrant photodiode, as shown in Figure 11 .
When the forces, mediated by the emitting device, act on the volume that also contains the
resonant cantilever, a variation in the resonant frequency is expected. The test failed due to
an interference between the electromagnetic wave and the solid-state laser instrument that
produced artifacts. This is also the reason why, in the experiments of Section 3, we opted
for a purely mechanical balance.
The possibility of introducing a dielectric was considered years later. A material
with a high dielectric constant at the operational frequencies of the experiment reinforces
the density ρ in (4) and slows down the transfer speed of electrodynamical information,
allowing for the use of smaller objects within a specific frequency range.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 11 of 12

(a) (b)
Figure 11. The structure of the device tested in 2014 is shown in (a), with quotes reported in cm. The
same device under test is shown in (b). The labelling describes how the measurement was conducted.
The acrylate transparent stand was used to keep the ring and RF antenna in position on the one side,
and to provide a stable horizontal surface where the cantilever is positioned, to explore the pressure
effects. The yellow arrows represent the laser beam (1 mW @ 850 nm) directed to the cantilever and
reflected toward the four-quadrant photodetector. Red and blue lines represent the high-voltage
(5 kV) connection scheme (the ring on the one side, the copper dish on the other), whereas green
lines represent the RF (10 W @ 1 GHz) connection scheme (the central copper wire and the dish).
A silicon cantilevered chip was positioned at the reflection point of the laser beam, centered using
the microscope objective visible at the top of Figure 11b . The piezoelectric actuator that triggers
the oscillation of the silicon cantilever was located on the front of the picture, fixed to the horizontal
acrylate plate. The power was supplied via two black wires vertically aligned and running through
the experiment volume from the microscope objective to the plate. The signal to power the piezodrive,
locked to the four-quadrant sensor output, had an amplitude of 10 V and a frequency between 20 Hz
and 50 kHz.

5. Conclusions
An EMT apparatus was successfully designed and tested. It is based on a ring geom-
etry and responds to the combined effect of high-frequency signals and stationary high
voltage. The impact on the mass m of the body is equivalent to a variation of approximately
±2.7 × 10−6 m, corresponding, in our case, at an applied force of 9.8 µN for a nominal
applied power of 10 W. More thrust is expected by injecting additional power. There is a
large amoount of room for improvement while playing on the geometry and wiring of the
prototype. In the apparent violation of the principle of conservation of momentum, the
device can be used in all applications where, in the absence of moving parts, magnets or
external fueling, it is necessary to impart acceleration to a frame by means of an electro-
magnetic input. This phenomenon can be of fundamental importance in many engineering
applications, such as in the development of new space propulsion units. Our invention
does not require the use of any solid/liquid propellant, thus offering huge savings and
greater reliability, not needing it for pump systems, valves, nozzles, etc. It only requires
electricity, like any other instrument or calculator onboard. For orbital positioning, where
smaller forces/impulses are needed, the EMT is perfect. Further applications may be air
pumping/conditioning, water pumping, etc.

Author Contributions: D.F.: conceptualization, theoretical formalization, design, assembly of the

components, arrangement and supervision of experiments, first draft of the paper and editing of the
final version. A.C.: technical discussion, performing experiments and data analysis, public relations,
contacts, editing of the final version of the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Inventions 2023, 8, 51 12 of 12

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are available upon reasonable request to the authors.
Acknowledgments: The successful test discussed in this paper is the result of the help offered by
various people of Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche and the Dipartimento di Ingegneria
‘Enzo Ferrari’ of the Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia. In particular, we would like to thank
Andrea Marchetti and Claudio Fontanesi for providing the laboratory instrumentation, Francesco
Gherardini and Enrico Dalpadulo for the 3D printing of the ring, Lorenzo Tassi for the filling with
epoxy resin and Moreno Maini for some preliminary electric measures on the device. Concerning
the previous experiments mentioned in Section 4, we would like to thank Marco Crepaldi (Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Genova) and Carlo Ricciardi (Dipartimento Scienza Applicata e Tecnologia,
Politecnico di Torino) for their kind support. Thanks also go to Alfredo Currado for some clarifying
theoretical discussions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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