Biology S2 SB

Biology
and
Health Sciences
For Rwanda Schools
Senior Two
Student's Book
Godfrey Wasswa
Benson Mugarura
Selah Ndiwa
Published by
Longhorn Publishers (Rwanda) Ltd

Remera opposite COGE Bank
P.O. Box 5910
Kigali, Rwanda
Longhorn Publishers (Kenya) Ltd.

Funzi Road, Industrial Area
P. O. Box 18033-00500
Nairobi, Kenya.
Longhorn Publishers (Uganda) Ltd

Plot 4 Vubyabirenge, Ntinda
P. O. Box 24745
Kampala, Uganda
Longhorn Publishers (Tanzania) Ltd.

New Bagamoyo/Garden Road
Mikocheni B, Plot No. MKC/MCB/81
P. O. Box 1237
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
© Text: Godfrey Wasswa, Benson Mugarura, Selah Ndiwa, 2017
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher.
First published, 2017

Reprinted 2018
ISBN 978 9997 74 740 2
Acknowledgements
The publisher would like to thank Nematex Graphics, James Mugo, Hilary Njathi and
Olivier B. Muhizi for design work, generating the illustrations and providing photographs
used in this publication. Acknowledgements inadvertently left out are regretted and will be
done in subsequent editions following notification of such omission.
Printed by Printing Services Ltd., Factory Street off Commercial Street,

Industrial Area, P.O. Box 32197-00600, Nairobi, Kenya.
Contents
Topic area 1: Biodiversity and classification

Sub-topic area: Classification of living things
Unit 1: Classification of Kingdom Animalia ...............................................1
1.1: General characteristics of animals ................................................... 2
1.2: Phylum Chordata................................................................................ 3
1.3: Phylum Arthropoda ......................................................................... 14
1.4: Other phyla belonging to kingdom Animalia .............................. 23
Test your Competence 1..............................................................................26
Topic area 2: Ecology and conservation

Sub-topic area: Environmental Biology
Unit 2: Introduction to environmental biology.........................................29
2.1: Concepts of ecology ......................................................................... 30
2.2: Energy flow in ecosystems ............................................................... 35
2.3: Ecological pyramids ......................................................................... 39
Topic area: Organisation and maintenance of life
Sub-topic area 1: Movement into and out of cell
Unit 3: Passive movement of substances across a cell membrane..............45
3.1: Diffusion of gases and solutes ......................................................... 46
3.2: Osmosis .............................................................................................. 49
Unit 4 : Active transport..............................................................................63

4.1: Active transport and its importance .............................................. 64
4.2: Endocytosis and exocytosis ............................................................. 67
iii
Sub-topic area 2: Biological molecules
Unit 5: Identification of food components.................................................71

5.1: Components of food substances ..................................................... 72
5.2: Testing for starch and reducing sugars .......................................... 72
5.3: Testing for proteins ........................................................................... 76
5.4 : Testing for lipids ............................................................................... 79
5.5: Testing for vitamin C........................................................................ 80
Unit 6: Enzymes...........................................................................................84
6.1: Types of enzymes .............................................................................. 85
6.2: Characteristics of enzymes .............................................................. 86
6.3: Factors that affect enzyme activity ................................................. 88
6.4 : Mode of enzyme action .................................................................. 92
Sub-topic area 3: Nutrition
Unit 7: Photosynthesis ................................................................................96

7.1 : Necessity of chlorophyll, light energy and carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis............................................................................. 98
7.2: Limiting factors for photosynthesis ............................................. 102
7.3: Adaptation of a leaf to photosynthesis.......................................... 105
7.4: Importance of photosynthesis....................................................... 107
7.5: Mineral requirements for plant growth........................................ 108
Test your Competence 7............................................................................111
Sub-topic area 3: Transport in plants

Unit 8: Transport of water, minerals and organic foods in plants...........113
8.1: Transport systems in plants ........................................................... 114
8.2: Transpiration ................................................................................... 120
8.3: Adaptations of plants to different environmental conditions ... 124
iv
Sub-topic area 3: Gaseous exchange and smoking
Unit 9: Gaseous exchange in humans and plants.....................................132
9.1: The concept of respiration and respiratory surfaces................... 133
9.2: The mechanism of breathing in humans...................................... 134
9.3: Respiratory diseases and smoking ................................................ 140
9.4: Gaseous exchange in plants ........................................................... 145
Sub-topic area 3: Homeostasis

Unit 10: Excretion in humans...................................................................150
10.1: Need for excretion .......................................................................... 151
10.2: The role of the liver in excretion ................................................... 152
10.3: Structure of the human urinary system........................................ 154
10.4: Practices that maintain healthy urinary system.......................... 160
Test your Competence 10..........................................................................162
Sub-topic area 3: Support and locomotion

Unit 11: Joints and movement..................................................................164
11.1: Types of joints ................................................................................. 165
11.2: Action of antagonistic muscles in the movement of a
hinge joint ........................................................................................ 169
11.3 : Practices that promote healthy bones and joints ........................ 170
Topic area: Health and disease

Sub-topic area 1: Infectious and non-infectious disease
Unit 12: Infectious diseases ......................................................................173

12.1: Transmission of infectious diseases ............................................ 174
12.2: Defence against infection .............................................................. 176
12.3: Symptoms, prevention, control and treatment of
common diseases ............................................................................ 179
v
Unit 13 : Immunity and vaccination.........................................................188
13.1: Antibodies and antigens ................................................................ 189
13.2: Immune response ........................................................................... 190
13.3: Immunisation and autoimmunity ................................................ 193
Sub-topic area 2: Infectious and non-infectious disease

Unit 14 : Sexual behaviour and sexual response.......................................196
14.1: Male and female sexual responses ............................................... 197
14.2: People and sexual relationships..................................................... 199
Unit 15 Pregnancy prevention..................................................................204

15.1: Contraceptives ................................................................................ 204
15.2: Natural contraceptives ................................................................... 206
15.3: Artificial contraceptives ................................................................. 208
Unit 16 Reducing risk of STI and HIV and AIDS ...................................215

16.1: Transmission of STIs ...................................................................... 216
16.2: Ways of reducing STIs and HIV infection .................................. 219
Glossary ....................................................................................................223
References .................................................................................................229
vi
Unit
Classification of Kingdom
1 Animalia
Key unit competency
To be able to classify animals into their main groups based on their external
features.
Learning objectives
After studying this unit, I should be able to:
• State the characteristics of all animals.
• Identify the common features of chordates.
• Explain the economic importance of arthropods to humans.
• State other phyla of kingdom Animalia and give examples of each.
• Distinguish different groups of animals using observable features.
• Appreciate the existence of animal diversity and the need for classification
of animals.
Introduction
In Senior 1, you learnt about biodiversity and classification of organisms in the
environment. Can you recall the five kingdom system of classification and the main
features of each Kingdom?
Now, look at the picture below. Which animals can you see? Write down their
external features.
Fig. 1.1: Animal diversity
1
With a friend think about how the
features can be used to classify the 2. Put on gloves and use a pair of
animals. Try putting the animals into forceps to transfer the collected
various groups. Do you now have an animals into specimen bottles.
idea of what you will learn in this topic? 3. Carry the collected animals to the
Biology laboratory.
1.1 General characteristics 4. Observe the animals collected and
of animals note down their external features.
There are many species of animals living Caution! Some animals can bite or
on land (about 6.5 million), in water sting. Be careful when handling them.
(about 2.2 million) and approximately 5. Your teacher will also show you
10,500 species in the air. However, pictures and photographs of
only a few of these animals are clearly different animals.
understood. It is therefore important to • Can you identify the animals?
study and describe the characteristics of
the main groups of the animal kingdom. 6. Keenly observe the animals you
This study enables us to be familiar with collected and do the following:
our environment as we interact with • Count the number of legs and
these animals in our day to day lives. wings (if present) in each animal.
How are animals different from other • How many wings does each
organisms and from each other? animal have?
• Touch the outer covering of each
Activity 1.1: To identify the main animal. Describe it.
characteristics of kingdom Animalia 7. Discuss with your classmate the
Requirements external features you observed.
Obtain the following for collection
Study questions
of specimen:
(a) Do all animals have the same
• Specimen bottles number of legs and wings?
• Pair of forceps
(b) W hat are the features used to
• Gloves
• Sweep nets classify animals?
• Pooter (c) What is the meaning of the
following terms?
Procedure
• Eukaryotic
1. With the guidance of your teacher,
go to the school field and collect • Multicellular
animal specimen of different types. • Heterotrophic
• For crawling animals use a pooter. I have discovered that…….
• Use a sweep net to collect hopping The main features used to classify
animals such as grasshoppers. animals include:
Caution: Some animals are • Presence or absence of appendages
harmful in some ways. Care (An appendage is a projection from
should be taken when making the body of an organism), their type
collections. and number.
2
• The body form; whether segmented I have discovered that ….
or unsegmented.
The term ‘chordata’ comes from the
• Presence of skeleton and its type;
Latin word chorda which means chord.
exoskeleton or endoskeleton.
Organisms in this phylum, at one time
• Type of body symmetry; whether
bilateral or radial. in their life have a chord-like structure
called notochord.
The facts
Animals have the following general
The facts
characteristics:
1. They are multicellular organisms.
2. They have eukaryotic cells. We differ from other organisms because
3. Their cells are differentiated into we have a backbone that enables us to
tissues and organs. stand upright. The main characteristics
4. They are all heterotrophic, meaning of organisms in phylum Chordata are:
they depend on other organisms for
1. Presence of a chord like structure
food.
called notochord. The notochord
5. Their cells lack cell walls, cell sap
supp or t s t he b o dy i n l owe r
and chloroplasts. They only have cell
membranes and this makes their cell chordates while in higher chordates
to be irregular in shape. (vertebrates) it is present only during
6. Most animals are able to move embronic stages. It is replaced by a
the whole body from one place to vertebral column.
another (locomote).
2. Presence of a vertebral column
7. Reproduction in most animals takes
place through fusion of gametes. which forms part of an internal
8. They respond to external stimuli. skeleton. Vertebral column is a bony
structure made up of vertebrae. It
1.2 Phylum Chordata protects the spinal cord.
Discussion corner 3. Presence of a nervous system with a
1. Look up the meaning of the brain which is connected to a hollow
following words; backbone, nerve tube or a single tubular nerve
notochord, exoskeleton and cord. The nerve tube runs along the
endoskeleton from reference back and forms a brain anteriorly.
materials provided.
2. Write the meaning of the words in 4. Bilateral symmetry: this means that
your notebook. the body can be divided along one
3. S h a r e y o u r f i n d i n g s w i t h plane into two equal halves that are
classmates. roughly mirror images of each other.
4. Did you all get the meanings right?
3
Look at these pictures below. Can you
Activity 1.2: To examine external
state all the similarities and differences features of fish
among the organisms.
Requirements
• Tilapia or any other type of fish
(freshly killed)
• Hand lenses
A • White tiles
D • Gloves
• A pair of forceps
B Procedure
1. Using the hand lens, observe the
C body surface of the fish and note
the arrangement of the scales.
2. Put on the glove on one hand and
E place the hand on the anterior part;
F
slowly move your hand over the
Fig 1.2: Different chordates body surface of the fish towards
All the animals in the picture belong to the tail region. How do you feel?
phylum chordata. Based on this, what 3. Using a pair of forceps, gently lift
can you say about phylum chordata? the flap-like structure (operculum)
Organisms in the phylum Chordata can covering the gill chamber to expose
further be subdivided into 5 different the gills.
classes. These are:
4. Note the shape of the body of the
• Pisces (fishes) fish.
• Amphibia
Study questions
• Reptilia
• Aves (birds) Discuss the following questions
• Mammalia in your groups then present to the
rest of the class.
Class Pisces
The term ‘Pisces’ is derived from a (a) State the observable external
Latin word ‘Piscis’ which means fish. features which all fish possess.
Therefore, the class pisces is made up of
(b) Draw the arrangement of scales
the fish family. The class consists of all
on fish.
type of fish such as:
(c) Draw the structure of a gill.
• Tilapia • Nile perch
• Cod fish • Shark (d) What is the function of the gills
• Ray fish • Mud fish you observed in the gill chamber?
4
Note: Fish use gills for gaseous exchange
The facts except lung fish that lives in oxygen
deficient swamps and use lungs for
Main characteristics of animals in
breathing.
class Pisces
A d ap t a t i o n o f f i s h t o a q u a t i c
1. All fishes are aquatic. They live in
environment
places such as seas, lakes, oceans,
How does fish survive in water?
rivers and dams.
2. The skin of the fish is covered with Research Activity
scales which overlap backwards. 1. Using reference materials such
3. Fish have gills which are used for as textbooks and the internet,
gaseous exchange. The gills are research on the adaptive features
located in a space called gill cavity on of a fish. Use the following
the side of the head. The number of questions as a guideline.
gills in a fish ranges from 4 - 7 pairs. a) What kind of body
4. Fish have fins that aid in movement. symmetry does fish have?
The fins on the sides of the body are b) Describe how the following
usually found in pairs, for example, structures enable fish to live
the pelvic and pectoral fins. The in water:
dorsal, ventral and tail fins are i) Body shape
usually unpaired. ii) Arrangement of scales
5. Fish are poikilothermic: Their iii) Fins
body temperature is dependent on iv) Gills
environmental temperature because v) Scales
they cannot regulate their own body 2. Compare your finding to the ones
temperature. below.
6. Fish exhibit external fertilisation
where eggs are first laid by the female The facts
then the male sheds sperms over them.
7. Fish have a lateral line on their body The following features enable fish to
for sensitivity. survive in water.
8. Fish have a single circulatory system 1. Gills
with a two chambered heart. Fish use gills to breathe under water.
Dorsal fin Most fish have to swim constantly. This
Mouth enables water to pass through the gills
to allow for gaseous exchange.
Tail fin 2. Streamlined body
The body shape of a fish is well suited
Anal fin Operculum to its particular habitat. Most fish have
Lateral line Pelvic fin a streamlined body to allow water to
Pectoral fin easily pass over them, reducing friction
Fig 1.3: External features of Tilapia fish (resistance) as they swim.
5
3. Fins and tails
Activity 1.3: To examine external
Fins and tails allow fish to move through features of amphibians
water. The tail propels the fish while
Requirements
fins guide their movement in water by
controlling their direction and balance. • Preserved specimen of toads and
frogs or freshly killed.
4. Lateral lines • Photos and illustration of newts
The lateral line allows fish to detect and salamanders.
vibrations in water, alerting them of Procedure
predators.
1. Examine the external features of
5. Huge number of eggs the specimen provided. Note the
A single fish can lay more than a following:
million eggs, which can all be fertilised. (a) The nature of the skin.
However, a lot of eggs are eaten by (b) Presence or absence of
predators while others are washed away scales.
by water currents. A large number of (c) Number of legs.
eggs ensures that at least some will 2. Draw a labelled diagram of a toad,
survive to maturity. a newt and a frog.
Caution: Do not touch the warty
Class Amphibia skin of toads. It contains glands
The word amphibia comes from the word which produce poison.
‘amphi’ which means ‘dual’ or ‘two’. This
class of chordates can live both on land Study questions
and in water. Most adult amphibians live
a) What is the difference between a
on land. However, they go back to the
toad and a frog?
water to breed. Examples are:
b) Do these amphibians have scales
on their skins?
c) How m a ny l e g s d o t h e s e
amphibians have?
d) Share your findings with the rest
Newt Salamander
of the class.
The facts
class Amphibia
Frog Toad 1. They have mucus glands under the
Fig 1.4.: Examples of amphibians skin to keep it moist.
2. The skin has no scales unlike that
of fish and reptiles. (Reptiles will be
discussed later in this unit).
6
3. Adult amphibians use the lungs, Procedure
moist skin and mouth cavity for 1. Observe the specimens, photos
gaseous exchange. However, their and illustrations provided
young ones use external gills for carefully.
gaseous exchange while in water. 2. Do the following:
4. The adult female amphibians always (a) Note the nature of the skin.
lay their eggs in water. (b) Note the presence and
5. They exhibit external fertilisation. number of limbs.
6. They have two pairs of limbs. (c) Count the number of limbs
and the terminating digits.
Class Reptilia Caution: Do not attempt to catch
The term ‘Reptilia’ comes from a latin live animals like snakes or even
word, ‘Reptilis’ which means ‘crawl’. The go close to them because they are
animals in this class move by creeping poisonous and dangerous.
or crawling. Unlike amphibians, reptiles Study questions
do not breed in water because they lay a) How are the scales attached onto
eggs with leathery shells; hence cannot the skin?
dry out. Examples of reptilia are; snakes, b) Is the skin of reptiles moist or is
turtles, tortoises, crocodiles and lizards it dry?
c) Compare the scales of reptiles to
those of fish.
d) Which reptile does not have legs?
e) How many legs do the other
reptiles have?
(a) Tortoise f) What is the habitat of each of the
reptiles studied?
The facts
(b) Crocodile
Fig 1.5: Examples of reptiles Main characteristics of animals in
Activity 1.4: To examine external Class Reptilia
features of reptiles 1. They have a dry scaly skin. Some like
Requirements the tortoise have scales which have
• Live specimens of non-poisonous hardened to form a shell.
reptiles such as lizards 2. They are mostly terrestrial with a few
• Preserved specimens being partially aquatic.
• Photos and pictures 3. They undergo internal fertilisation,
where the male introduces sperms
• Films and videos on lives of into the female body. The eggs laid
reptiles thereafter are covered with a shell.
7
4. Most of them have two pairs of legs except the snake.
skin
neck
digits
Fig 1:6 Parts of a lizard
Class Aves (birds) Activity 1.5: To examine external

The term ‘aves’ comes from a Latin features of birds
word ‘Avis’ which means bird. Animals Requirements
in this class consist of birds such as the
humming bird, ostrich, fowl, sparrow, • Photos and illustrations of
hawk, eagle, sea gull, parrot, crow and different kinds of birds.
ibis. • Live specimen of caged or
Look at the following pictures. Have you domestic birds.
ever see them? Procedure
1. Examine the birds, photographs
and illustrations carefully.
2. Note the following:
(a) The nature of the skin
covering on their body.
A B (b) The skin on their legs.
(c) Number of limbs.
(d) Adaptation of the limbs to
their function.
(e) The nature of the feathers.
3. Draw and label different parts of
C D the bird.
Fig 1.7: Examples of birds
8
The facts b) What is the importance of birds
having a streamedlined body?
Main characteristics of Class Aves c) Why do birds have hollow bones?
1. Their bodies are covered with d) Why do birds have beaks?
feathers.
2. Their legs are covered with scales.
The facts
3. Their front limbs are modified to
form wings. The hind legs are used
1. The forelimbs of birds are modified
for walking, running, swimming
to form wings for flight. The sternum
among other uses.
of pectoral girdle is expanded for
4. They have hollow bones that make attachment of flight muscles.
them light for flight.
2. Flight birds are light in weight. Their
5. They have toothless jaws covered by bones are air-filled and therefore
a horny beak or bill. have low density to enable ease of
6. They lay eggs with a hard shell made flight.
of calcium. 3. Birds lay eggs with hard calcareous
7. They carry out internal fertilisation. shells to avoid drying out.
Comb 4. The beaks of birds are modified
beak Eye for different modes of feeding, for
Tail Wattle example:
• Seed eaters – like sparrows
Wing Neck
have short thick conical bills
for cracking seeds.
Leg • Flesh eating birds – like
toes hawks have sharp curved
Fig 1.8: Parts of a hen beaks for tearing meat.
A d a p t a t i o n s o f b i rd s t o t h e i r • Nectar eating birds – like
environment humming birds have long
slender beaks to probe the
Discussion corner flowers.
1. Using text books and the internet • Insect eaters – like bee-eater
find out the adaptive features of have thin pointed beaks.
birds. • Filter feeders – have serrated
2. Answer these questions: beaks to filter food from
muddy water. An example is
a) Why do birds have wings?
the duck and flamingoes.
• Water plant eaters – like
ducks have flat beaks to strain
small plants and animals
from the water.
9
• Feet for scratching – like
Activity 1.6:To Identify the mode those of chickens. They have
of feeding of the birds whose nail-like toes to scratch the
beaks are shown below. soil for food.
Use a table like the one given below. • Swimming birds – like ducks
have webbed feet used like
Table 1.1: Birds and their mode of paddles.
feeding • Perching feet – like that of a
Bird Mode of feeding robin. They have long back
toes to grab and perch tightly
on a tree branch or bark.
• Feet for running – like those
A. of ostrich. They have three
toes to enable stability when
running.
B. Activity 1.7: Identify the adaption

of the bird's feet shown below.
Use a table like the one given below.
Table 1.2: Birds and their feet adaptation
C. Bird's feet Adaptation
D.
A.
E.
B.
F.
5. Birds have different types of feet

C.
to adapt them to their different
environments. These include:
• Feet for grasping – like those
of a kingfisher. They are large
and curved to grasp a prey D.
tightly.
10
2. Draw the expected type of Activity 1.8: To examine the
feet to match the type of beak in external features of mammals
birds.
Requirements
Use a table like the one given below.
Table 1.3: Matching birds beaks to feet • Live specimen of animals in
class Mammalia in the school
Bird's beak Bird's feet compound such as rabbits or rats.
• Photos of aquatic mammals.
• Illustrations and videos of other
members of class Mammalia.
A. Procedure
1. Examine the animals of class
Mammalia found in your school
compound or in the school
surroundings.
2. Recall a goat or a cow in your
B.
home or at your neighbour.
3. Note the following:
• Presence of mammary
glands.
C. • Presence of hair or fur on
the skin.
• The nature of the ears.
4. Locate a mammal with young
one(s). For instance a rabbit with
D. its litter.
• What is the behaviour of
the mother towards its
young ones?
Class Mammalia
Study questions
The term Mammalia is derived from
the Latin word ‘mammalis’ which (a) What is the importance of
means ‘mammal’ or ‘mamma’ which mammary glands in a mammal?
means milk secreting organ of female (b) What is the covering on the skin
mammals. Most mammals are terrestrial of mammals?
except a few like dolphins and whales
which are aquatic. (c) Describe the ears of mammals.
• Name some organisms in this class.
11
The facts
Class Mammalia
1. They have mammary glands. They
suckle and take care of their young Camel
ones.
2. Their bodies are covered with fur,
hair or wool.
3. They give birth to young ones except Human being
the duck-billed platypus and spiny Dog
ant-eater which lay eggs.
4. They have external ears. These are
the only class of chordates that have
the external ears.
Kangaroo
5. They exhibit internal fertilisation.
6. They are Homeothermic. Their Bat
body temperatures do not depend
on the environment. It is maintained
constantly.
Duck-billed platypus
7. They have differentiated teeth (i.e
incisors, canines, pre-molars and
molars) each with different function.
They are therefore referred to as Spiny ant-eater
heterodonts. Others with uniform
teeth differing only in size are Dolphin
homodonts. Fig. 1.9: Examples of mammals
12
Self-evaluation Test 1.1
1. Study the two rats below.
Which features seen in the picture show that rats are mammals?
A. Two pairs of limbs
B. Tail
C. Whiskers and fur
D. Diaphragm and closed circulatory system.
2. Which group of chordates is both aquatic and terrestrial?
A. Mammals
B. Birds
C. Amphibians
D. Reptiles
3. What type of skeleton is possessed by members of phylum Chordata?
A. Endoskeleton
B. Skeletal muscles
C. Hydroskeleton
D. Exoskeleton
4. Place classes in phylum Chordata as either homeothermic or poikilothermic
in the table below. The classes are Mammalia, Pisces, Aves, Reptilia and
Amphibia.
Poikilothermic Homeothermic
13
5. Using your knowledge on characteristic features of the five classes of chordates,
complete the table below, using a tick (√) where the feature is present and (X)
if absent.
Class of phylum Scales External Mammary Feathers
chordate ear glands
Birds
Reptilia
Amphibia
Mammalia
Pisces
the animal kingdom. The animals in

1.3 Phylum Arthropoda
this group inhabit land, water and soil.
What are arthropods? How do they
differ from chordates? Some arthropods are useful in many
ways, for example:
Look at the pictures in fig 1.10. Can you
identify the animals in the pictures? • Butterflies and bees act as pollinators
Come up with a list of the differences of flowering plants.
between these animals and chordates. • Bees make honey.
• Lobsters are used as food.
Some arthropods are harmful to other
living organisms, for instance:
• Ticks transmit diseases in animals.
• Mosquitos transmit malaria.
(a) (b) • Tsetse flies transmit trypanosomiasis.
• Aphids destroy crops such as maize,
coffee and cassava.
Main characteristics of organisms in
phylum Arthropoda
1. They have jointed legs (appendages).
(c) (d) 2. They have a tough coat or covering
Fig. 1.10: Examples of Arthropods made of chitin. This coat forms
The word arthropod comes from two an outer skeleton known as the
words ‘Arthros’ meaning ‘jointed’ and exoskeleton. The tough coat protects
‘poda’ meaning ‘leg’ or ‘foot’. Therefore the internal organs against damage.
arthropods are animals with jointed The exoskeleton does not grow. It is
appendages. It is the largest phylum in usually shed in a process known as
14
moulting to allow the organism to Activity 1. 9:To examine features
grow. of animals in phylum Arthropoda
3. They have bilateral symmetry. This You will be provided with pictures
means that they can be cut into two or photographs of animals in
similar halves in only one way. Each phylum Arthropoda.
half is a mirror image of the other.
1. Observe the external features of
the animals.
2. Discuss with your class members
the features observed.
3. Write down the common features
Fig 1.11: Bilateral symmetry in arthropods possessed by the different groups
of organisms.
4. Muscles for movement are attached
on the cuticle or exoskeleton, for 4. Note the number of body parts,
example in insects. legs, antennae and eyes.
5. They have a fluid filled body cavity 5. Summarise the features of the
called haemocoel for example in different groups of organisms in
earthworms. a table.
6. Their bodies are segmented.
Table 1.4: Features of Arthropods

Number of Number Wings Presence and Type of eyes and
body parts of legs (presence and number of number
number) antennae
6. Share your findings with the rest of the class.

• What do these findings tell you about arthropods?
15
I have discovered that… Activity 1.10: To observe the
Organisms in phylum Arthropoda can external features of insects
further be grouped into various classes. Requirements
The organisms are grouped on the basis
of: • Sweep nets
• Hand lenses
• Number of legs
• Glass jars
• Presence and absence of antennae
• Gloves
• Number of antennae
• Number of body parts Procedure
• Type of eyes
1. Collect a large variety of insects
from the school compound.
The facts
C au t i o n : Av o i d c a t c h i n g
The 5 classes of phylum Arthropoda are: dangerous insects like wasps and
bees as they can sting you.
a. Insecta
b. Arachnida 2. Use sweep nets to catch flying or
c. Crustacea jumping insects like houseflies
and grasshoppers.
d. Diplopoda
e. Chilopoda 3. Put them in glass jars and take
them back to the laboratory for
Class Insecta
observation.
This is the largest class in the phylum
Arthropoda. The term ‘insecta’ comes Note: To make observation easier,
from the word ‘incised’ which means some insects can be immobilised
‘cut.’ The body of organisms in this class using chloroform.
are divided into three distinct parts; that Precaution: Do not inhale
is head, thorax and abdomen. chloroform. It is toxic.
Look at the pictures below. Can you 4. Examine the specimen carefully
identify the different insects? and note the following features.
(a) The number of body parts.
(b) The types of eyes: simple or
compound.
A (c) Presence or absence of
C
antennae.
B (d) Presence or absence of
wings
(e) Number of legs.
D
E
5. Draw and label clear diagrams of
Fig 1.12: Examples of insects the specimen.
16
Study questions Class Arachnida
This class of arthropods includes
(i) Insects have ……………..body
spiders, mites, ticks and scorpions.
parts?
(ii) Insects have…………….pairs of
legs?
(iii) Draw well labelled parts of an
insect.
My environment, my life! (a) Spider (b) Tick
Do not kill the insects. It is important to

release insects after observation while
they are still alive.
(c) Scorpion (d) Mite

The facts
Fig. 1.14: Examples of Arachnida
Main characteristics of organisms in Activity 1.11: To examine the

class Insecta main features of class Arachnida
1. They have three distinctive body Requirements

parts; head, thorax and abdomen. • Hand lens
2. They have a pair of long antennae. • Live or preserved specimen
3. They have three pairs of jointed legs, or photographs of any of the
which are attached to their thorax. following organisms: spiders,
4. They have a pair of large compound ticks or mites.
eyes. • White tiles, papers or petri dishes
5. Some have one or two pairs of wings Caution: Some animals in this class
that are attached to the thorax. like spiders can be poisonous.
6. They breathe by means of spiracles, Procedure
which are found on the sides of the 1. Using a hand lens, examine the
abdomen and thorax. specimen provided.
Antenna Head 2. Note the following
Compound • Number of body parts.
eye • Number of legs.
Thorax • Presence or absence of
Jointed legs
antennae.
Abdomen divide
into segments
• Presence or absence of
wings.
Fig 1.13: Parts of an Insect • Number and type of eyes.
17
Study Questions The term crustacea is derived from
“crusta” which means a ‘hard shiny
1. How many body parts can be coat’. They are aquatic arthropods
observed in the organisms? except for wood lice which are the only
2. How many legs do they have? fully terrestrial crustaceans.
3. Do they have any antennae?
Activity 1.12: Investigating
4. Describe the type and number of external features of class
eyes present in the organisms. Crustacea
5. Do the organisms have wings?
Requirements
The facts • L ive s p e c i m e n , pre s e r ve d
specimen or pictures or
Main features of organisms in class illustrations of crustaceans like
Arachnida crayfish, crabs, prawns, lobsters
1. The body is divided into two parts: and shrimps.
cephalothorax and abdomen. The
• Hand lens
head and thorax are joined to form
a cephalothorax. Procedure
2. They have four pairs of jointed legs 1. Identify the specimens you have
attached to the cephalothorax. been given.
3. They have simple eyes about 8 in 2. Examine the specimens and note
number. the following for each specimen:
4. They do not have antennae. Instead • Number of body parts.
they have a pair of pedipals. • Number of antennae.
5. They posses a pair of poison glands • Position of the eyes.
called chelicerae. • Type of eyes.
Class Crustacea • Types and number of
Have you come across a crab, wood appendages present.
louse or water flea? All these are • Nature of the carapace.
Crustaceans. Other animals in this Study questions
class include lobsters, crayfish, shrimps (a) How many body parts are
and barnacles. observed on each of the specimen
given?
(b) Comment on the number and
nature of antennae.
(c) How many walking legs can you
(a) Lobster (b) Crayfish observe on the specimen?
(d) Are the eyes on the specimens
simple or compound?
(e) How many types and number of
appendages are present on the
organisms?
(c) Crab (d) Prawn
(f) What is the nature of the carapace?
Fig: 1.15 Examples of crustaceans
18
Activity 1. 13: Investigating
The facts the characteristics of class
Diplopoda
Requirements
class Crustacea
• Hand lenses
1. Their body is divided into two parts:
the cephalothorax and the abdomen. • White tile or a white piece of
The head and the thorax are joined paper
to form the cephalothorax. The • Petri dish
cephalothorax is covered by a shiny • Millipedes (live specimens,
coat known as carapace. pictures, illustrations or preserved
2. They have different types of specimen)
appendages. Their appendages Procedure
are modified to form legs for
walking, feeding, protection, and 1. Place the specimen on the petri
for swimming. dish or white tile.
3. They have two pairs of antennae. 2. Examine the specimen carefully
using a hand lens.
4. They have a pair of compound eyes
at the end of stalks. 3. Observe the following features:
• The number of legs on the
5. They have ten or more legs. The
organism.
walking legs are usually located
• Number of legs per
on the cephalothorax while the
segment, and position of
swimming legs are located in the
legs on the segment.
abdomen.
• Number of body parts.
6. They breathe by use of external gills • Presence or absence of
on the underside of the carapace. antennae.
Class Diplopoda • Number of antennae.
• Type of eyes.
Diplopoda means arthropods with two
pairs of legs per segment. They also have Study questions
elongated cylindrical bodies. Diplopods
are herbivores and mainly feed on a) Millipedes have ……………..legs
vegetables and dead organic matter. This per segment?
class consists of millipedes. Millipedes b) What type of eyes does a millepede
are of various sizes. There are giant have?
millipedes and small sized millipedes. c) Millipedes have …………body
parts.
19
number of legs. Centipedes have only
The facts one pair of legs per segment.
Main characteristics of organisms in Activity 1.14: To investigate the

class Diplopoda characteristics of centipedes
1. They have elongated and cylindrical Requirements
bodies.   • P r e s e r v e d s p e c i m e n o f a
2. Their bodies are divided into centipede, illustration or picture
two main parts; the head and a of a centipede.
segmented trunk. The number of • White tile or paper
body segments ranges from 25 – 100. • Hand lens
3. Each body segment has two pairs Caution: Centipedes have poison claws
of legs except the first thoracic and should never be handled when
segments that have one pair of leg alive.
each.
Procedure
4. They have a pair of antennae.
5. They may have simple or compound 1. Place the specimen on the white
eyes, or in some cases no eyes are tile or white paper or petri dish (in
present. the case of preserved specimen).
6. They breathe through spiracles 2. Examine the specimen carefully
found on the sides of the body using a hand lens.
segments. 3. Note the following observable
7. Millipedes roll their bodies when features:
disturbed. After coiling, they produce • The number of legs on the
a stinking substance from their organism.
stink glands. This is self- protective • The number of legs per
behaviour against enemies and segment and position of
predators. legs on segment.
Head
• Presence or absence of
Simple
wings.
eye
Body
• Number of body parts.
Antenna segments • Presence or absence of
Mandible antennae.
(Jaw) legs
• Number of antennae.
• Type of eyes.
Fig 1.16: External features of a millipede 4. Study the first segment after the
head.
Class Chilopoda Note the large structure with a
This class is composed of centipedes. claw at its end, projecting from the
They are found in virtually all habitats first segment. It is called a poison
but unlike the millipedes, they have less claw.
20
Study questions Economic importance of arthropods
(a) How many legs does the centipede Arthropods have both advantages and
have in a segment? disadvantages.
(b) Does it have wings? Activity 1.15: Discussing the
importance of Arthropods
(c) What type of eyes does it have?
(d) How many body parts can be seen? Team up with your class member and
come up with a table like the one shown
(e) Does it have antennae? If so, how
below.
many?
Table 1.5 Economic importance of
(f) Where do centipedes live?
arthropods
(g) In what way are they similar to
diplopods? Advantages of Disadvantages of
arthropods arthropods
1.
The facts
2.
class Chilopoda 3.
1. They have flat bodies with the legs
positioned on either side of the body. 4.
2. They have a pair of legs in each
segment. 5.
3. Their body is divided into a head
and a segmented trunk. However, 6.
they have 15 -21 segments, which
are fewer than those of animals in 7.
the class Diplopoda.
4. They are carnivorous. They use their
poison claws to kill their prey.
The facts
5. They may have compound eyes,
simple eyes or no eyes.
1. Some arthropods are useful to us in
6. They breathe through spiracles many ways. They include:
found on each side of the body • Butterflies and bees act as
segments. pollinators of flowering
Legs plants.
Antenna
• Bees make honey.
• Lobsters and prawns are used
Head as food.
Body segments 2. However, most arthropods are
harmful to other living organisms.
Fig 1.17: External feature of a centipede
21
For instance: • Aphids destroy crops such
• Ticks transmit diseases in as maize, coffee and cassava
animals; for example East in the fields while weevils
Coast Fever
destroy stored grains.
• Mosquitos transmit malaria.
• Tsetse flies transmit 3. Some arthropods cause harm and
trypanosomiasis in human injury to human beings as well.
beings and Nagana in cattle. Some are poisonous if they bite, for
example, spiders, wasps, centipede
and crabs.

1. What is the difference between class Arachnida and class Crustacea?
2. The diagram below shows a spider in its web. What is the importance of the
web?
3. Explain why animals in class Amphibia must always lay their eggs in water.
4. Give an explanation for each of the following observations.
(a) A dolphin resembles a fish but it is in class Mammalia.
(b) A bat resembles a bird but it is in class Mammalia.
(c) A Kangaroo has a pouch in its belly.
5. Which characteristics are used to group phylum Arthropoda into different
classes?
6. Give the similarities and differences between Diplopoda and Chilopoda by
filling the following table.
Similarities Differences
Diplopoda
Chilopoda
22
• Cnidaria
1.4 Other Phyla belonging
• Porifera/sponges
to Kingdom Animalia
• Echinodermata
Apart from the two phyla; Chordata
These animals are complex and therefore
and Arthropoda, Kingdom Animalia
are not studied at this level in details.
comprises of other lower level organisms
that belong to different phyla. These
phyla include: The facts
• Platyhelminthes The main features that are used to group
• Nematoda animals further into other phyla include;
• Annelida • Body symmetry
• Mollusca • Type of skeleton
• Coelenterata • The body form
Table 1.6 The different phyla, their main characteristic and examples of organisms in
each.
Phyla Main characteristics Examples
Platyhelminthes • Have a mouth but no anus. Tapeworm, liver
• Dorso-ventrally flattened bodies flukes, flat worms
with bilateral symmetry. and planaria
• Mainly hermaphroditic.
Nematoda • Rounded unsegmented body with Round worms,

tapering ends. hook worms,
• Body covered with thick elastic ascaris spp
cuticle.
• Have a simple alimentary canal
with mouth anteriorly and anus
posteriorly.
Annelida • The bodies have segments Earthworms, lung
(metameric). worms, leeches
• Body segments are separated by
sheet-like septa.
• They lack legs; instead each
segment has bristle- like chaetae
to aid in locomotion.
• Have an alimentary canal with oral
and anal opening.
23
Phyla Main characteristics Examples
Mollusca • The dorsal side of the body is Octopus, slugs,
covered by a hard external shell; squids, snails and
although some Molluscs do not oysters
have a shell.
• The ventral side of the body has
one soft muscular foot adapted for
movement, attachment to surfaces
and food capture.
• Have sensitivity structures called
tentacles on which eyes are located.
C o e l entre ate • Have a sac-like body cavity that The sea anemones,
(cnidarian) also acts as a gut. hydra and jelly fish
• The body has radial symmetry i.e.
any section passing through the
body gives two equal halves.
• Possess tentacles.
Porifera • They are sessile. They attach Sponges
themselves on rocks or dead corals.
• They have a simple body made of
a cavity or interconnected cavities
opening to the outside through
pores.
• The body cavities are lined with
flagellated cells that create water
currents.
• They lack a nervous system.
Echinodermata • The skin has calcareous exoskeleton Sea cucumbers,
and spines. sea urchins and
• Body of the larva has bilateral the starfish
symmetry while adult body
has a five-way radial symmetry
(pentaradiate).
• The mouth is located on the lower
side (oral) while the anus is located
on the upper (aboral) side.
24
Further Activity 1.16: Observing Self-evaluation Test 1.3
organisms in Kingdom Animalia
and Classifying them 1. S o m e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t
characteristics of some phyla
Requirements belonging to the Kingdom
• Specimen bottles or jars Animalia are listed below. Against
• Forceps each characteristic, write the
• P r e s e r v e d s p e c i m e n o f name of the phylum.
roundwor m (As c ar is) and (i) Animals with a two layered
tapeworm in different petri body wall enclosing a single
dishes. cavity .
(ii) Animal whose gut has only
• Petri dishes
one opening .
• Labels (iii) Simplest multicellular
• Gloves animals with a tube-like
Procedure body and pores in the body
1. Visit a damp place around the wall .
school compound. Carry with (iv) Unsegmented sea animals
you specimen bottles and petri with an exoskeleton of
dishes. spines .
(v) Animals with unsegmented
2. With your gloves on and using
bodies with tapering ends
a pair of forceps, collect the
_ .
following specimen; snail and
earthworm. 2. Match the animals in column A
with the phylum they each belong
3. Put the snail in a specimen bottle
in column B.
and the earthworm in a petri dish.
Label them and take them to the A B
laboratory for examination. Platyhelminthes
4. Examine the specimens carefully
with a hand lens.
5. Note the external features for Coelenterata
each organism.
6. Construct a dichotomous key
using the features you have noted
in (5) to place each organism in Mollusca
the correct phylum.
7. Discuss the steps you followed
to identify each organism and
present your work to the rest of
the class.
25
• Mammals are the only chordates that
A B have mammary glands and produce
Porifera milk to feed their young ones.
• Phylum Arthropoda is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom.
Organisms in this phylum inhabit
Echinodermata land, water and soil. They have
become very successful in their
environment due to possession of a
water proof exoskeleton.
• Phylum porifera comprising of
Annelida
sponges are the simplest animals
since they lack a nervous system.
3. The largest phylum of Kingdom  Test your competence 1

Animalia is .
1. The animal kingdom is divided into
My environment, my life! taxa such as order, family, class,
species, phylum and genus. Rewrite
To maintain biodiversity, the different these categories in the descending
species in the environment have to be order starting with phylum.
preserved and protected. Therefore, only 2. Identify an echinoderm from the
collect the specimen you need for study following?
and avoid killing them; if possible, return A. Starfish
them to their habitat.
B. Roundworm
C. Sponge
Unit summary
D. Elephant
• Animals are multicellular and
3. Among mammals, man is considered
eukar yotic organisms with
to be superior. This is because:
heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
A. Man has sense organs, which
• Kingdom Animalia is grouped are more efficient.
further into several phyla: Chordata, B. Man is born with the ability
Arthropoda, Platyhelminthes, to speak.
Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, C. Man has a well developed
C o e l e nt e r at a , Po r i f e r a , a n d brain.
Echinodermata. D. Man possesses hands,
• Chordates have an endoskeleton and which are more skilled than
a notochord. forelimbs of other mammals.
26
4. When trying to determine whether (d) Unsegmented soft bodied
two birds (male and female) belong animals with a hard
to the same species, the most certain calcareous protective shell
method would be. .
A. Mate the two birds. 9. Insects are both useful and harmful
B. Compare their feathers. explain.
C. Mate the two birds and see if 10. Name the characteristic that is
they produce fertile offspring. common to:
D. Compare the colour of their (a) Fish, amphibians, and
feathers. reptiles.
5. Which of the following statement is (b) Amphibians and reptiles but
correct? not to fish.
A. Grasshopper, mosquito, (c) Birds and mammals, but not
cockroach and spider are all to reptiles.
insects. 11. Study the following diagrams
B. Crab, scorpion, millipede and representing organisms in a given
centipede are all arachnids. phylum.
C. Centipede, crab, spider and
mosquitoes are all crustaceans.
D. Crab, cockroach, mosquito
and spider are all arthropods.
6. (i) Name the two largest groups
into which all animals are
classified. W X
(ii) What is the main difference
between these two groups?
7. Name the phylum to which all
vertebrates belong.
8. B elow is a list of imp or t ant Y Z
characteristics of different phyla a) To which phylum do the
belonging to the animal kingdom. above organisms belong?
Write the name of the phylum Give reasons for your answer.
against each characteristic. b) How does animal Z protect
(a) Moves by means of a itself from enemies?
muscular foot . c) Which animal above belong
(b) Posses a notochord and a to a class that lacks antennae?
tubular dorsal nerve chord Name the class.
. 12. Some animals under class Arachnida
(c) Segmented animals with are dangerous. They can both
jointed limbs and an bite and sting. According to your
exoskeleton of chitin . experience in Activity 1.11, suggest
27
ways in which such organisms can
be handled.
13. Organise a discussion in your class
on the topic "are insects important or
not important to our environment?"
14. You are provided with specimens
below. They represent animals in
different phyla under kingdom A B
Animalia. a) Choose one of the animals
and describe its external
characteristics.
b) Draw and label the diagram
of the animal described above
A B
28
Unit
Introduction to
2 Environmental Biology
Key unit competency
To be able to explain the concepts applied in environmental Biology including
interaction and interdependence of organisms.
Learning objectives
• Define terms used in ecology.
• Construct and interpret simple food chains, food webs, pyramids of biomass
and numbers.
• Appreciate the interdependence of living organisms.
• Appreciate the role of green plants and interdependence of living organisms.
Introduction
Look at the picture below. Can you explain what is happening? What is the importance
of the action in the picture? Supposing one of the animals in the picture becomes
extinct, what would happen?
Fig. 2.1: Lions preying on a buffalo

Talk to your friend about how such relationships in your area are regulated. What
does this tell you about what you will learn in this topic?
29
2.1 Concepts of ecology The facts
An old saying goes ‘no man is an
island’. This seems to apply to all other During the study of ecology, the
organisms on earth. Organisms do not following terms are widely used.
exist in isolation. They depend on each
other for survival. • Ecosystem: This is a stable unit of
nature consisting of all communities
Plants obtain their energy from the sun.
interacting with each other and their
Herbivores like cows eat the plants for
surrounding physical environment.
survival. On the other hand, carnivores
Examples of ecosystem include a
like lions feed on herbivores if they are to
pond, a grassland and desert.
survive. Through this interdependence,
organisms have developed feeding • Biosphere: This is the part of the
relationships. The scientific study of Earth and its atmosphere capable of
these relationships between organisms supporting life. It is an area where
and their environment is called ecology. organisms live, including the ground
and the air.
Therefore, ecology seeks to explain the
connection between plants and animals • Producer: This refers to all green
and their surroundings. It also provides plants (for example, beans, mango
information about the benefits of the tree and pine) which manufacture
ecosystem and how we can use the their own food by the process of
Earth’s resources efficiently. The study photosynthesis.
of ecology enables us to appreciate the • Habitat: An area in which an
environment and leave it healthy for organism lives. The habitat for
future generations. a leopard should have the right
amount of food (gazelle, rabbits
Research Activity
and impala) water (a lake, river or
1. Using text books and the internet spring), and shelter (trees or dens
research on the meaning of the on the forest floor).
following words:
• Biodiversity
• Ecosystem
• Population
• Community
• Habitat
• Niche
• Biotic and abiotic factors
• Food chains and food webs
2. Discuss the meaning of these
words with a classmate.
3. Note the meaning of the words in
Fig. 2.2: Flamingoes in their habitat
your notebooks.
30
• Community: A combination of • Biome: This is a large naturally
different species of organisms living occurring community of animals
together in an area. An example is (fauna) and plants (flora) occupying
a forest of trees and undergrowth a major habitat. Examples include:
plants, inhabited by animals and forest, grassland, freshwater, marine
rooted in soil containing bacteria and desert.
and fungi.
• Biomass: This is the total mass of
• Population: This is the total number organisms in a given area or volume.
of organisms of the same species
living together in a specific area at a Activity 2.1:To investigate
certain time. various concepts of ecology
• Biotic factors: These are the living Procedure
components of an ecosystem. These 1. Take a walk in the school
may be plants, animals, fungi, and compound or the surrounding
any other living things. area.
• Abiotic factors: These are the non-
living components of an ecosystem. 2. Look for the various organisms
They include pH, sunlight intensity e.g: termites, cockroaches, birds,
and temperature. grasshoppers, earthworms and
grasses. Alternatively, look at
• Niche: This is the position that an these animals:
organism occupies in a habitat. It
includes where it lives, its role and
feeding habits, for example, a garden
spider is a predator that hunts for
prey among plants, while an oak tree
grows to dominate a forest canopy,
A B
turning sunlight into food.
• Carrying capacity: The maximum
size of a population that a given area
can support without straining.
• Edaphic factors: These are all non-
living components of an ecosystem C D
both chemical and physical. They are Fig. 2.3: Different animals
related to abiotic factors. 3. Find out the following for each of
• Environment: This is a combination the organisms.
of all factors that affect the life of an
• Where it lives.
organism.
• Biodiversity: This is the variety of • Its role in the environment
life in the world or in a particular • The factors in its surroundings
habitat or ecosystem. (habitat) that attract it to this
specific area.
31
4. Give a rough estimate of the Activity 2.2 Class Activity
number of some of the organisms
1. You will be provide with pictures
in your environment.
or photographs of different
• Are the numbers of these ecosystems by your teacher.
organisms influenced by the
• S t u d y t h e p i c t u r e s a n d
availability of what they eat?
photographs carefully.
That is the amount of grass
and number of grasshoppers • Identify the different ecosystems
noticed. shown in the photographs.
5. Record your observations. • Identify both biotic and abiotic
6. Share your findings with the rest factors in the photographs and
of the class. pictures.
2. Can you identify in your locality
Study questions
where the ecosystems seen in (1.)
(a) W hat role does each of the above are found?
organisms play in the
3. Suggest how important wetlands
environment?
are to the community.
(b) State at least two physical aspects
that attract the organisms to this • What problems w i l l t he
particular habitat. community face when wetlands
are interfered with?
(c) Which organisms are abundant
in the area studied?
Aquatic ecosystem
(d) Where are the grasshoppers
more concentrated in relation to Aquatic biomes or ecosystems form the
the amount of grass in the area? largest part of the biosphere. Since water
Explain. bodies contain different amounts of salt
in them, they are classified into two:
Ecosystems marine and fresh water ecosystem.
Ecosystems are also known as biomes. (a) Marine ecosystems
They are made up of both the living
These are aquatic ecosystems made up
component (biotic factors) and the
of water with high salt concentration.
non-living component (abiotic factors).
Oceans, seas and all organisms in them
There is a close interaction between the
form part of such ecosystems. This
two components whereby each affects
covers the largest part of the earth’s
the other. Ecosystems are broadly
surface.
subdivided into two: terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems.
32
Fig 2.6: Terrestrial ecosystem
Biotic and abiotic factors

Fig 2.4: A mangrove forest forms part of the
marine ecosystem Discussion corner
(b) Freshwater ecosystems 1. Talk to a classmate about the

following:
These are made up of water with a less
salt concentration. Lakes, wetlands and • Non–living things that
rivers with all organisms in them fall you interact with in the
under this category of ecosystems. environment.
• Ways in which non-living
things are important to living
organisms.
2. Share your findings in class.
C ommunities and their physical

surroundings constitute an ecosystem.
The environmental conditions that affect
a community are temperature, light, pH,
wind, salinity and atmospheric pressure.
Fig 2.5: Fresh water ecosystem These physical factors that affect the
type of organisms and their distribution
Terrestrial ecosystems
are called abiotic factors. Communities
This is the land ecosystem. Terrestrial include living organisms that is plants
ecosystems are always named according and animals. These are known as biotic
to the climate and physical features factors.
that define them. They include savanna
grasslands, deserts, temperate grasslands Abiotic factors
and forests. Terrestrial biomes usually These are the environmental factors
cross cut into each other without clear in an ecosystem. They describe the
boundaries. physical conditions in the ecosystem.
33
These factors influence the type of (f) pH– This is the degree of acidity or
organisms living in an ecosystem. alkalinity. The pH of an ecosystem
They also influence the distribution of affects the type of distribution of
the organisms in that ecosystem. The organisms found in it.
abiotic factors in an ecosystem include (g) Wind – This is moving air. Air moves
the following: in different directions and speed.
(a) Light - The sun is the main source Wind influences environmental
of light energy in all ecosystems factors such as temperature and
on earth. Light is important in any humidity.
ecosystem because plants use it to
Biotic factors
make their own food.
There are many different people who
(b) Temp erature – Temp erature
form the school community. There are
variation in an ecosystem affects the
teachers, parents, students, secretaries,
type and distribution of organisms
cooks and watchmen. The school cannot
found in it. Some organisms prefer
be able to run efficiently if all these
high temperatures while others
people do not perform the jobs or tasks
prefer low temperatures. Therefore
they are supposed to perform. If the night
they will inhabit different parts of
guard slept while on duty, then robbers
the ecosystem.
might get into the school and steal all
(c) Atmospheric pressure – This is the students' books. This would affect the
the pressure exerted by air in the learning process.
atmosphere. Atmospheric pressure
With the interelationship among different
affects the amount of oxygen in the
people, the school runs smoothly. A
air. At the sea level, air pressure is
similar form of interelationship exist
high. This reduces at higher altitudes.
among organisms in any ecosystem.
Therefore different organisms will
occupy different altitudes based on Biotic factors are the entire living
their endurance. components in an environment. They
(d) Salinity – This is the degree of salt affect each other either positively or
concentration in water. This is a negatively.
factor that is mainly found in aquatic Autotrophic organisms such as plants
habitats. Some organisms live in use energy from the sun and simple
salty environments while others live elements to make food. Without them
in fresh water environments. other species of organisms in the area
(e) Humidity – This is the amount of cannot survive. Herbivores eat food
water vapour in the atmosphere. from plants; they affect the population of
It influences evaporation and the plants and at the same time support
transpiration rates. other organisms that depend on them.
Organisms in an ecosystem interact in
many ways.
34
Activity 2.3: Class Activity 2.2 Energy flow in
1. Your teacher will show you ecosystems
a film or video on wildlife Its common knowledge that a bicycle
interdependence. cannot move unless the person ridding it
2. Watch the film or video carefully. peddles! Human beings cannot perform
3. From the film or video you have their daily activities like talking and
watched. moving if they do not eat good food.
• Can you identify the biotic Where do living things obtain energy
and abiotic factors in the
film? from? How is energy transfered from one
organism to another?
4. Share your findings with the class.
The primary source of energy is the
sun. Energy enters ecosystems in form
Self-evaluation Test 2.1 of sunlight. Part of it is then converted
into chemical energy by the green
1. Match the following terms and
plants (producers) through the process
their definition.
of photosynthesis. For this reason they
Terms Definition are known as Autotrophs.
a) Population (i) Where an Plants pass on this energy to the grazers
organism lives. who feed on plants for food. These
organisms that feed on plants cannot
b) Community (ii) Eating another
manufacture their own food. They are
organism for
therefore known as heterotrophs. Those
food.
organisms that feed on plants directly
c) Habitat (iii) Total number
are known as herbivores. Herbivores fix
of species in
part of the energy into their bodies; the
an area. rest is lost into the surroundings. They
d) Niche (iv) Depending are also in turn eaten by the carnivores
on other who take in part of this energy losing
organisms for the largest part in form of heat and
food. waste excreta.
e) Predation (v) A group The carnivores are grouped into first
of related level, second level up to the topmost
organisms level. The top most carnivores receive
living in an the least portion of energy as most
area. of it has been lost. The last trophic
f) Parasitism (vi) The role an level in an ecosystem is that of the
organism decomposers. They decompose organic
plays in the matter thus allowing the recycling of
environment nutrients. Decomposers are saprophytic
2. Non-living things affect the life of organisms. They act on the dead remains
living things. Explain. of organisms in all the other levels.
35
It should be noted that sometimes in an ecosystem, organisms can feed on both plants
and animals. In this case, they are known as omnivorous organisms. Examples of
such organisms are pigs and human beings.
In ecology, a trophic level refers to the position an organism occupies in a food
chain. Green plants form the first trophic level known as the producers. Some
organisms such as herbivores feed directly on the plants to obtain energy. Other
organisms obtain this energy indirectly by feeding on the herbivores. Collectively,
these organisms are called consumers because they cannot make their own food.
Herbivores like grasshoppers form the second trophic level. First level carnivores
like the lizards form the third trophic level, followed by snakes on the fourth level
and then eagles come on the fifth level as top level carnivores. Some consumers
called the detrivores derive their energy from non-living organic material such as
feaces and fallen leaves.
The table below gives a summary of organism we expect in each trophic level
Table 2:1: Organisms in different trophic levels
Trophic level Composition of organism
Producers First trophic level • Green plants

• Photosynthetic bacteria
• Algae
• Phytoplankton (All are autotrophic)
Consumers Second trophic level • These are plant-eating organisms.
Primary consumers • They depend on plant materials.
• They include filter feeders in water,
herbivores, (all feed on plant materials)
Third trophic level Small carnivores like insectivores insects,
Secondary spider, tadpoles, hydra, small fishes, lizards,
consumers frogs, toads, chameleons etc.
Fourth trophic level Large carnivores such as lions, leopards,

Tertiary consumers cheetah, hyena and sharks among others.
Fifth trophic level Carnivorous that eat tertiary consumers.

Quaternary An example is the hawk that eats owls.
consumer
Decomposers • All are saprophytic.
• Most are fungi and bacteria.
• They can only get food from dead materials.
36
Food chain
A food chain is a linear representation of how organisms eat each other before
they are eaten in return. It is a sequence describing a feeding relationship between
producers and consumers. When the feeding relationship is put down schematically,
what is formed is known as a food chain.
Energy in an ecosystem can be passed on from the sun through several organisms.
Insects like grasshoppers feed on grass. The grass is the producer because it makes
its own food. The grasshoppers are the primary consumers because they obtain
chemical energy directly from the plant. The insects are eaten by birds which obtain
chemical energy from them. The birds are secondary consumers. If a bird is eaten by
a wild dog, then the wild dog is quarternary consumer. This is an example of food
chain as shown below.
Grass Grasshopper Bird Mongoose Wild dog
Fig 2.7: A food chain
If any of these organisms dies, then saprophytes like fungi and bacteria decompose it to
obtain food nutrients. The saprophytes are described as decomposers. They too obtain
chemical energy through food chains. Some energy is released into the ecosystem.
Note: The arrow on the diagram means ‘eaten by’.
Examples of food chains include:
Plant caterpillar chameleon snake mongoose
Sun algae tadpole dragon fly frog turtle
Plant insect mouse owl
Food web
It is rare in an ecosystem to find that organisms eat only one type of food. They always
have other options in case one is not in place to be consumed. A food web is therefore a
complex series of interconnected food chains. It shows feeding relationships between
various species of organisms in a given community. A food web is composed of all
possible food chains in any given ecosystem. When a schematic representation is
made to show other options an organism has for food, a food web is obtained.
Tertiary Lizard Snake
consumers
Secondary praying mantis spider frog

consumers
Primary
locust aphids caterpillar mouse
consumers
Producers Grass
Fig 2.8: A food web

37
In the food web identify as many food chains as possible.
Note that the higher organisms such as the snakes and owls depend on more than
one particular food. Also note that decomposers such as the bacteria and fungi are
involved in all parts of the food web.
The food web comprises the relationship within a community. It is easily made by
arranging organisms in their trophic levels.
The arrows in the food chain indicate the flow of energy from the food web. One
organism can provide energy to more than one trophic level.
Activity 2.4: Investigating trophic levels occupied by organisms

1. Take a walk in the school compound or to an area around the school.
2. List all the organisms found in the school compound.
3. Group the organisms according to their trophic levels.
4. Record your work in a table.
5. Construct several food chains using the organisms you have listed.
6. Model a simple food web from the organisms above.
Study questions
(a) How are the organisms in one trophic level related to those in the next trophic
level?
(b) From the food chains, identify organisms that can be eaten by more than one
organism.
(c) Discuss in groups the importance of each tropic level in a food chain.
(d) Discuss the effect of removing one tropic level from the food chain.
How energy flows in an Ecosystem

Study the diagram
Fig. 2.6 below. What Energy
doesFlow
it show?
RESPIRATION, EXCRETION & MOVEMENT
SUN Producers 1st Consumer 2nd Consumer 3rd Consumer

10 Kj
106Kj 103Kj 580 Kj 100 Kj
DECOMPOSER
Fig. 2.9: Energy flow in an ecosystem
38
From the diagram above, we can A. An omnivore
see that energy from the sun flows
B. A carnivore
through producers to the consumers.
It also shows that not all energy from C. A decomposer
the producers is transferred to the D. A scavenger
consumer. 3. An ecologist carried out a
Energy flows into a food chain from survey to estimate the number
the sun to plants through the process of organisms in a certain dam.
of photosynthesis. It then moves up The following table shows the
the food chain to higher trophic levels. record of the survey.
Since the transfer of energy from one Organisms Estimated
trophic level to the next is inefficient, number
less energy enters higher trophic levels.
• What brings about the loss of energy Miscoscopic algae 450,000
at each trophic level?
Small fish 290
Several factors account for the loss of
energy as one moves from one trophic Mosquito larvae 5,500
level to the next. They include the
following: Crocodiles 10
• Respiration Large fish 160
• Part of the energy is lost as undigested
food matter. (a) Which of the above
• The rest is lost as excretory products. organisms are consumers
of the last order?
Self-evaluation Test 2.2 (b) Which organism is likely
in urine, sweat and faeces. to get finished first in the
1. Consider this food chain dam? Give a reason to
Grass Grasshopper Birds support your answer.
(a) The birds in this food chain (c) Draw a possible food chain
are: that shows the energy flow
A. Producers in the dam.
B. Primary consumers 4. Explain why food chains are not
C. Secondary consumers endless; they are limited to four
D. Tertiary consumers or five and rarely six organisms.
(b) If a disease killed all the
birds, what effect will it
have in this food chain? 2.3 Ecological pyramids
2. A vulture feeds on dead bodies What does the word pyramid reminds
of animals. The vulture is best you of ? The Egyptian pyramids
described as: probably? Look at the picture below,
what shape does it have?
39
A pyramid of biomass is a chart drawn
to scale showing the amount of biomass
at each stage in a trophic level. The bars
become narrower from the base to the
top of the pyramid.
Fig. 2.10: Egyptian pyramids Eagle (1 kg square

unit area)
Rats (2 kg square
Compare the shape of the Egyptian
unit area)
pyramid above and the ecological
pyramids discussed below. Maize (500 kg
square unit area)
Ecological pyramids are diagrams
that show how important factors in an
Fig 2.11: A pyramid of biomass
ecosystem such as energy, biomass and
population size change at each trophic It is always hard to construct a pyramid
level. Traditionally, these diagrams place of biomass because of the following
the primary producers (green plants) at reasons
the bottom. The highest trophic levels • Measuring biomass often means
are placed at the top. The size of the death of the organism.
portion of the diagram associated with • Organisms may belong to more than
each trophic level shows the amount of one trophic level in an ecosystem. It
factor in consideration. A food chain is therefore not accurate to represent
can be expressed in a measurable way by it with only one bar.
using pyramid of numbers or pyramid Note: When making a pyramid of
of biomass. biomass, you must use a scale.
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of numbers
This is a diagrammatic representation The number of all organisms at each
of mass or weight of organisms in each trophic level of a food chain can be
trophic level in a food chain. If the dry counted. These numbers can be used
mass of all organisms at each trophic to draw a diagram called pyramid of
level of a food chain can be weighed, numbers. The number of organisms in
the mass can be used to draw a type of each level can be obtained by totalling
diagram called pyramid of biomass. the population of all the species making
Biomass means the dry mass of any up that level for instance:
living material at any trophic level • Total number of plants. (Producers)
in a food chain. Biomass reduces as
• Total number of herbivores. (Primary
one moves from the producers to the
consumers)
various levels of consumers. This is the
same trend observed with the amount • Tot al numb er of car nivores.
of energy. (Secondary consumer)
40
The pyramid is therefore a diagramatic Activity 2.5:To investigate
representation of numbers of organisms various concepts of ecology
in each trophic level in a food chain.
Make a simple pyramid for an imaginary
In this way, it is possible to know the
habitat using the following data:
number of organisms that are capable
of transferring energy from one trophic • Producers - 200 kg/2km2
level to the next. The Figure below • Primary consumers - 80 kg/2km2.
shows pyramid of numbers. Its shape as • Secondary consumer - 40 kg/km2.
we can see is like that of a pyramid. This
is called an upright pyramid. 1. For this data you must use a scale.
You can choose a scale of 1 cm
represents 40 kg.
One hawk
2. Convert the masses given above
into cm by dividing by 40, for
four mice example,
(a) 200 = 5 cm, 80 = 2 cm,
40 40
grass plants 40
= 1 cm
40
3. Draw boxes whose lengths are 5
Fig 2.12: Pyramid of numbers cm, 2 cm and 1 cm respectively on
The pyramid indicates that organisms top of one another.
transferring energy to the next energy Note: The height of the boxes
levels decrease as we rise up. Sometimes should be the same.
the pyramid is not upright, for instance, 4. What do you think is the reason for
if you were to construct pyramid of the shape of the diagram?
numbers using the tree as a habitat. It
would be the only producer and the
consumers such as caterpillars and birds
would be many. If we were to construct Self-evaluation Test 2.3
pyramid of numbers, the smallest box 1. Plot the following data by placing
would represent the tree. It would be at the producers at the bottom. Use
the bottom and not at the top. The shape the scale 1cm = 50g/m2 for length
of this pyramid would be inverted as and 1 cm height for each level.
can be seen in the figure below.
Tropic level Dry weight
Secondary consumer
(gm/m2)
Primary consumer Carnivores 10
Producer (tree) Herbivores 60
Fig 2.13: Inverted pyramid of numbers Producers 500
41
(a) What does this pyramid (b) Identify the producer in the
indicate? food chain.
(b) Explain why the dry weight of (c) Name the source of energy
the carnivores must be low. entering this food chain.
2. If the total weight of producers (d) Name two main groups of
in an ecosystem is 1000 kg, what organisms referred to as
would you expect the total weight decomposers.
of secondary consumers to be? 4. Do you agree with the statement
3. Study the food chain given below below?
Oak tree insect larvae ‘All food chains begin with green
insectivorous birds plants’
The food chain can be represented Explain your answer.
in _______ diagram.
Secondary consumer Unit summary

• Ecology is a branch of Biology that
A. Primary consumer
deals with the relationship between
Producer (tree)
organisms and how they relate with
their physical surroundings.
• Biotic factor is any living component
Secondary consumer
that affects an organism.
B. Primary consumer • Abiotic factors are non-living
conditions which influence where
Producer (tree) plants or animals live.
• A food chain is a linear sequence that
Secondary consumer shows how organisms dependent on
one another for food.
C. Primary consumer
• A food web is a system of interlocking
Producer (tree)
and interdependent food chains.
• Trophic levels are the several
hierarchical units in an ecosystem,
Producer (tree)
comprising of organisms that share
D. Primary consumer the same function and nutritional
relationship in the food chain.
Secondary consumer
• The sun is the main source of energy
in the ecosystem.
(a) Which of the pyramids • Green plants are the producers in
above (A, B, C and D) best the ecosystem. They are able to
represents this food chain? manufacture their own food through
the process of photosynthesis.
42
 Test your competence 2 acidic.
C. The plant would die.
1. In parasitism
D. The oxygen content of water
A. Both the parasite and the host
would increase.
benefit.
B. Both the parasite and the host 4. Study the following food chain
lose. Grass zebra lion
C. The parasite benefits while a. What do you think would
the host loses. happen if lions ate all the
D. The parasite loses while the zebras?
host benefits. b. What is the role of
2. If a population exceeds its carrying decomposers in a food chain?
capacity 5. We get food, shelter, clothing, oxygen
A. The food supply increases to and energy, all of which come from
support it. plants. It can therefore be said that:
B. It can remain stable at this man and plants are interdependent
level indefinitely. or man can be independent of plants.
C. It must decline sooner or 6. (a) Why s h ou l d we c ons e r ve
later. ecosystems?
D. It will continue to increase for (b) In what ways do you think
the indefinite future. human activities endanger the
3. A balanced aquarium contains fish, environment?
an aquatic plant and a snail. If the (c) The government of Rwanda
fish were removed, which of the introduced a parastatal
following would probably occur b o d y k n ow n a s Rw a n d a
first? Environmental Management
A. Photosynthesis would Association (REMA); in what
increase. ways has it helped to conserve
B. Water would become more the environment?
7. The data in the table below shows how a predator and a prey affect each other’s
population over a period of several years.
Year 1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940
Carrying 35 35 35 35 35 25 15 15 15
capacity
Actual No. of 15 15 20 35 55 100 45 15 15
antelopes
Cheetah 10 25 20 15 10 0 0 0 0
population
(a) What conclusion can you make about the effect of the predator on the
population of the prey?
43
(b) In what way does the population of prey affect the population of the
predator?
(c) What would happen if all the predators died of a disease?
(d) How can a farmer apply the knowledge about the relationship between
predators and preys in his farm?
8. During an ecological tour of Lake in this lake was found to

Muhazi, a group of students from be greater than that of the
Kagarama S e cond ar y s cho ol primary consumers. Give
recorded the following observations. an explanation for this
(i) Tilapia feeds on mosquitoes observation.
larvae. (d) Using the food web you constructed
(ii) Mosquito larvae feed on in (a) above, name
planktonic algae. (i) Two organisms that compete
(iii) Planktonic crustaceans feed for food in the lake?
on planktonic algae. (ii) The source of food the
(iv) Hawks feed on tilapia, worms organisms in (d) (i) above
and planktonic crustaceans. compete for.
(a) From this record of observations, (e) St ate ways by w hich human
construct a food web. beings may interfere with this lake
(b) From the food web you have ecosystem.
constructed in (a) above, isolate 9. Consider the food chain below
and write down a food chain that A B C D E
ends with
(i) Hawk as a secondary Organism E gets energy from D, D
consumer from C, C from B and B from A.
(ii) Hawk as a tertiary consumer where does A get its energy from?
(c) (i) Which group of organisms in 10. Construct a food web that is found
this lake are the producers? within your home environment.
(ii) The biomass of the producers
44
Unit Passive movement of substances
3 across a cell membrane
Key unit competency

To be able to explain the processes involved in the movement of water molecules
and ions into and out of a cell.
Learning objectives
• Define diffusion and osmosis.
• Describe the importance of diffusion and osmosis.
• Explain turgor pressure.
• Investigate diffusion and osmosis through experiments.
• Appreciate the importance of turgidity in plant cells.
Introduction
Look at the diagrams below. Can you tell what is happening in flasks A, B, C and D?
Water
Potassium
permanganate
A B C D
Fig 3.1: Diffusion in a liquid
In real life situations, what can we compare the observations above to? What does
this tell you what this topic is about?
45
Our bodies are made of cells that carry Activity 3.1:To investigate
out several metabolic and physiological diffusion using copper (II)
processes. In order to carry out these sulphate solution
life processes, a cell needs to take in
Requirements
various substances. It also produces
certain substances, some of which are • Crystals of copper (II) sulphate
waste products which may be toxic and • 250 ml beaker
can harm the organism, hence need to • Water
be removed from cells. • Glass rod (open ended)
Other products are useful to cells within Procedure
the tissue. These useful substances 1. Insert the open ended glass rod
are transferred to cells where they into the empty beaker.
are needed for important metabolic 2. Drop a crystal of potassium
processes like respiration. permanganate to the bottom of
the beaker through the upper
Therefore substances are always moving end.
into and out of the cells. The way
substances move into and out of the
cells depends on certain properties of
the substances, for example, size of the
molecule and the type of substance.
There are three main physiological Copper(II) sulphate
processes by which substances move
Fig 3.2: Demonstrating diffusion
in and out of cells. These are diffusion,
osmosis and active transport. 3. With the glass rod still intact,
pour water to fill the beaker.
4. Gently remove the glass rod so as
3.1 Diffusion of gases and not to tamper with the potassium
permanganate crystal.
solutes
5. Make your observations.
When a drop of ink is placed into a glass 6. Share your findings with the rest
of water, the ink particles spread in the of the class.
water until all the water is uniformly
coloured. Study questions
(a) What observation did you make
You are also able to smell perfume that
when the glass rod is lifted from
other people have worn because the
the beaker?
particles of perfume diffuse from them
through the air to our organs of smell, the
nose.
46
(b) Describe the movement of 2. Are the factors that affect the rate
particles of the copper (II) of diffusion related?
sulphate crystals.
(c) Why does the movement occur?
The facts
(d) Other than using the above
experiment, describe how you The rate of diffusion of particles refers
would demonstrate diffusion to the time taken for the particles to
using perfume. move within an available space (fixed)
until they are evenly distributed. Several
factors affect the rate of diffusion. They
The facts include:
Diffusion involves movement of particles a.Temperature
(ions or molecules) from a region of When the temperature of particles is
high concentration to a region of low high, their kinetic energy increases and
concentration. This process continues the particles move faster. Therefore, the
until the particles are uniformly higher the temperature, the faster the
distributed throughout the system or particles will diffuse while the lower
until equilibrium is reached. Diffusion the temperature the lower the rate of
is a product of constant random motion diffusion.
(kinetic energy) of all atoms, molecules,
or ions in a solution. The area with b. Concentration gradient
higher concentration of the particles This is the difference in the amount of
has more random motion resulting to particles present in two regions.
the net movement of the particles to the A greater difference in concentration of
area with lower concentration. particles between two regions, results
Net movement of particles will always in a steeper concentration gradient
take place whenever there is a difference which causes diffusion rate to be faster.
in concentration of particles between When the concentration gradient is low,
two regions. This difference is known diffusion rate is also slower.
as concentration gradient. Diffusion
is important since it enables useful Semi-permeable
mebrane
molecules to enter the cell and waste
products to be removed. molecules A
Beaker
molecules B
Factors that affect the rate of
diffusion
Fig 3.3: Difference in concentration gradient
Discussion corner c. Size of molecules
1. What do you think affects the rate Larger molecules are heavier and will
of diffusion? diffuse at a slower rate compared to
smaller molecules which are lighter.
47
Activity 3.2: Relating surface
d. Diffusion distance
area to volume ratio with the
The rate of diffusion depends on the size of an organism
distance that particles have to travel in
order to be evenly distributed within the Requirements
available space. An even distribution • Potato
of particles is reached faster when the • Razor blade
distance involved in diffusion is small
• Ruler
compared to longer distances. It takes
a longer time for molecules to diffuse Procedure
across a thick membrane while It takes 1. Using the razor blade, cut five
less time for molecules to diffuse across cubes of potato each of sides 1cm
a thin membrane. long. Name this cube X.
(e) Surface area to volume ratio 2. Cut another five cubes each of
sides 3 cm long. Name this cube
When the surface area to volume ratio
Y.
is large, more of the substance diffuses
across it than when it is small. This takes 3. Calculate the surface area to
place as long as the concentration and volume ratio of the cubes.
temperature of the diffusing molecules Study questions
remain the same.
(a) Which cube has a smaller surface
Note: A larger surface area to volume
ratio does not increase the speed of area to volume ratio?
diffusion of the particles. It simply • Calculate the surface area
enables more particles to diffuse across (S.A) of the two cubes.
it in a given time. • Also calculate the volume (V)
The figures below show two cubes, of each cube.
calculate the surface area (S.A) of the • Divide the surface area (S.A)
two cubes). with the volume (V) to obtain
the surface area to volume
ratio (S.A)
(V)
.
• Which is bigger X or Y? How
will this affect the rate of
diffusion?
A B (b) What is the significance of surface
Fig 3.4 Cubes of different sizes area to volume ratio?
Also calculate the volume (V) of each
cube. Divide the surface area (S.A) with
the volume to obtain the surface area to The facts
volume ratio (SA/V).
• Which is bigger A or B? Small organisms such as Amoeba have a
• How will this affect the rate of greater surface area compared to volume
diffusion? than larger organisms, for example human
beings. Therefore, diffusion of substances
48
into and out of smaller organisms is faster (d) Diffusion is involved in exchange of
than in larger organisms. Such small gases in stomata, skin of frogs and in
organisms can absorb oxygen and other the lungs of animals.
materials from the environment much
more rapidly than large ones. They also Self-evaluation Test 3.1
can excrete waste products at a faster 1. Diffusion is a passive process,
rate than large organisms. In human explain.
beings and other larger organisms, 2. State the condition that must
diffusion of substance into their bodies be in place for diffusion to take
would be slow. Therefore, their bodies place.
have developed a complex system of
3. The rate of diffusion increases if
transport called the blood circulatory
the
system.
A. Temperature of solution
Discussion corner decreases
1. Discuss with a classmate the B. Concentration gradient
importance of diffusion. Use the decreases
following guidelines: C. Vi s c o s i t y o f s o l u t i o n
• Gas exchange decreases
• Excretion D. All of the above
• Absorption of materials in 4. Concerning the process of
both plants and animals diffusion, at equilibrium ______
2. Share your work with the rest of A. R and om move me nt of
the class. molecules continues.
B. T h e c o n c e nt r at i o n o f
Importance of diffusion in plants and particles is equal throughout
animals
the solution.
(a) Plants absorb water, mineral salts C. Net movement of particles
and oxygen from the soil through either side is equal.
the root hairs by diffusion. D. The diffusion gradient
(b) Digested food such as glucose and increases.
amino acids move from the small
intestine into the blood of animals
by diffusion. These substances move
3.2 Osmosis
from the blood to the cells and Osmosis is the movement of water
tissues by diffusion as well. molecules from a region of high water
potential (dilute solution) to a region
(c) Cells and unicellular organisms
of low water potential (concentrated
such as Amoeba get rid of waste
solution) through a partially permeable
substances by diffusion.
membrane.
49
Activity 3.3:To demonstrate Note: The capillary tube level of
osmosis using visking tubing
the solution in the visking tubing
Requirements and the beaker at the beginning
• 10 cm long visking tubing of the experiment.
• Distilled water 8. Leave the set-up undisturbed for
at least 30 minutes.
• Concentrated salt solution
9. Remove the visking tubing
• Capillary tube from the beaker and make your
• Two pieces of strings each observations at the end of the
measuring 30 cm experiment.
• 250 ml beaker
Study questions
Procedure
(a) State three observations you made
1. Tie one end of the visking tubing
at the end of the experiment.
using a string.
(b) Account for your observations in
2. Open the other end of the visking
(a) above.
tubing and half-fill it with the salt
solution. (c) Discuss your findings with your
class members.
3. Tightly tie the open end of the
visking tubing and allow part of
the string to hang. Since the concentration of solutions is
4. Fill the beaker with distilled defined in terms of solute concentration
water. and not in terms of water content; water
molecules diffuse from less concentrated
5. Gently put the visking tubing
solution (fewer solutes, more water) to a
containing the salt solution into
more concentrated solution (more solute,
the beaker with distilled water.
less water).
6. Tie the hanging end of the string
on the visking tubing onto the Activity 3.4: To demonstrate
capillary tube and inverse the osmosis in a tuber
visking tubing into the distilled Requirements
water
• Fresh arrow roots, cassava, sweet
7. Support the capillary tube using potatoes or Irish potatoes
a rhetort stand as shown below.
• Strong salt solution
rhetort stand • Distilled water
Capillary tube
• Scalpel
Beaker
Visking tubing
• Large beaker or small basin
Concentrated salt Procedure
solution
Distilled water 1. Using a scalpel, peel a large Irish
Fig 3.5: Demonstrating the osmosis potato. You can also use an arrow
process root, cassava or sweet potato.
50
2. Cut off a piece so that it stands at Activity 3.5: To investigate
least 6 cm high. osmosis in a plant tissue
3. Cut and scoop out a deep hollow Requirements

portion in its middle and pour • Tubular part of a pumpkin leaf or
strong salt solution halfway up black jack stem
the hollow portion. • Distilled water
4. Mark the level of the salt solution • 5% sucrose solution
using a scalpel. • Pair of scissors
• Ruler
5. Place the potato in a petri-dish
containing distilled water. Let it • Three Petri-dishes
stand for several hours then note • Two 200 ml beakers
the level of solution in potato. • Labels
• Pair of forceps
Beaker Procedure
Raw Irish potato 1. Using a ruler measure 4 cm of the
tubular part of the leaf or stem
Concentrated
salt solution
and cut using a pair of scissors.
Distilled water 2. Repeat the procedure (1) to obtain
two other pieces of the leaf or stem.
Fig 3.6: Determining osmosis 3. Make four cuts, each 2 cm long in
each of the cut pieces of the leaf
6. Repeat the experiment with or stem.
boiled pieces of Irish potato, 4. Put 100 cm3 distilled water into a
sweet potato, cassava or arrow petri-dish and label water.
roots.
5. Put 100 cm 3 of 5% sucrose
solution into another petri-dish
Study questions
and label sucrose solution.
(a) Draw a diagram to represent the 6. Put one of the cut pieces into
results of the experiment. t h e p e t r i - d i s h c ont ai n i ng
water, another in the petri-dish
(b) Is the level of the salt solution containing sucrose solution and
still the same at the end of the the last one in an empty Petri-
experiment? dish labelled air.
(c) Explain what brings about the 7. Leave the set-up undisturbed for
change in level of the salt solution. 25 minutes.
8. Remove the pieces of the tubular
(d) Compare these results with those
le af f rom t heir resp e c t ive
when boiled Irish potato is used.
conditions using a pair of forceps.
51
9. Hold the pieces from distilled water Concentration of a solution depends on
and sucrose solution between the amount of solute dissolved. A dilute
your fingers and record your solution has more water molecules
observations in a table below. compared to solute molecules whereas a
concentrated solution has more solute
Table 3.1: Results for osmosis in plant
molecules than water molecules.
tissues
Beaker
Tissue placed in Ti s su e pl a c e d i n
water sucrose solution
Water
Solute Particles
11. Share your findings with the rest
of the class.
(a) Dilute solution
Study questions
(a) Draw the pieces as they appear Beaker
after the experiment. Water
(b) Account for any differences that
you have observed for the three Solute Particles
pieces of leaves.
(b) Concentrated solution
(c) What was the purpose of putting
Fig 3.7: Dilute and concentrated solutions
one piece in the petri-dish
Suppose a dilute solution is separated
exposed to air?
from a concentrated solution by a
Types of solutions semi-permeable membrane as shown
in figure 3.8. Water molecules will
From your knowledge of chemistry; can
move from the dilute solution to the
you recall what the word solution means?
concentrated solution. This is because
What about solute and solvent?
the dilute solution has more water
When a solid is dissolved in water, we molecules than the concentrated one.
get a solution. The solid that is dissolved Water molecules are very small and pass
in this solution is called the solute. The easily through the channels or pores of
liquid that dissolves the solid is known the cell membrane. On the other hand,
as the solvent. solute molecules are too large to pass
Solute + Solvent = Solution through the pores.
Semi-permeable mebrane
(only water molecules can
pass through)
Solute molecules
Water molecules
Beaker
Fig 3.8: Movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane
52
Note:
• The concentration of water in a solution containing mixtures of different solute
molecules depends only on the total solute concentration and not the types of
solutes.
• If the total concentration of all ions and solutes on both sides of a membrane are
the same, there will be no osmosis.
It is important to first understand the terms used to describe the solutions of different
concentration with respect to cells function.
Table 3.2 Terms and their definitions
Term Meaning
Isotonic ‘Iso’ means ‘equal’
When two solutions of equal concentration are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane, the net movement of water out of a
cell balances water movement into the cell.
Hypotonic ‘Hypo’ means ‘under’
When two solutions that have different concentrations are
separated by a semi-permeable membrane, the dilute solution
is said to be hypotonic to the more concentrated solution. This
results into net movement of water from the hypotonic solution to
the concentrated solution.
If a solution has a lower concentration of solutes than the
cytoplasm of a cell, water molecules move into the cytoplasm. The
cell expands as water moves in.
Hypertonic ‘Hyper’ means ‘above’
A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes
than the cytoplasm of the cell. In this situation, water molecules
move, from the cytoplasm which is now the area of higher water
concentration, to the area outside the cell. The cell shrinks as its
cytoplasm loses water.
Water This is a measure of the concentration of free water molecules in a
potential solution. A solution with more free water molecules has a higher
water potential. It has a greater tendency to lose water molecules
to another solution separated by a partially permeable membrane.
Osmotic This is a force generated by a solution causing it to draw water
pressure molecules from another solution separated from it by a partially
permeable membrane.
53
Water relations in plant cells outwards against the cell wall. This
pressure exerted by the cell contents
Discussion corner
against the cell wall is called turgor
1. What will happen to an animal pressure. As turgor pressure increases
cell if placed in: due to intake of more water by osmosis,
• a hypertonic solution? the cell wall exerts a pressure that is equal
• a hypotonic solution? to turgor pressure on the protoplasm
• isotonic solution? called wall pressure.
2. Compare the structures of an A point will reach when no more water
animal cell and a plant cell in the can enter the plant cell. At this point, the
cases above. wall pressure is equal to turgor pressure
3. Draw the structure of turgid plant but opposite in direction. Because
cell and plasmolysed plant cell. the cell wall is made of rigid cellulose
4. Share your findings with other material, it does not stretch very much
class members. and the cell does not burst.
Living cells are surrounded by a fluid

medium which may be isotonic,
hypertonic or hypotonic to the cell (a)
contents. If the fluid is isotonic, there
will be no net movement of water into
or out of the cell. If the external fluid
is hypertonic to the cell contents, then,
water leaves the cell. If it is hypotonic, nucleus
(b)
then water enters the cell. The movement cell wall
of water into and out of the cell and the cell membrane
effects that such movements have on the
cell may be described as water relations vacuole
in the cell. Fig. 3.9 (a) Normal and (b) turgid plant cell
In the next section, we find out how However, turgor pressure causes the
various solutions affect how plant cells cell to become stiff or firm. Such a cell
behave. is described as being turgid. A plant
(a) Plant cells in hypotonic solutions in which all the cells are turgid always
appears firm and erect.
Plant cells have a large vacuole that Turgidity in plant cells is important
contains a fluid called cell sap. The sap because the stiff cells give support to
contains salt and sugar molecules. If a
the soft tissues such as petals and sepals.
plant cell is surrounded by a hypotonic
Turgor pressure enables soft, non-
solution, water molecules move from
woody plant stems to remain upright
the surrounding fluid through the cell
despite the downward force of gravity.
wall and cell membrane into the vacuole
If there is inadequate water in the
by osmosis.
environment, turgor pressure cannot be
As it receives water, the vacuole, swells maintained in a plant.
and pushes the cytoplasm and nucleus
54
(b) Plant cells in hypertonic solutions Note:
A plant cell that is surrounded by a Turgidity in plant cells is caused by
hypertonic solution will lose water. osmotic flow of water from an area of
Water is lost from the cytoplasm then low solute concentration to outside the
from the vacuole. The turgor pressure cell into the cell vacuole.
in the cell begins to decrease. If this The cell vacuole has a higher solute
continues, the cell membrane and concentration. Healthy plant cells
cytoplasm shrink away from the cell
are turgid. Plants rely on turgidity to
wall. The vacuole in turn reduces in size.
maintain rigidity and stand upright.
The moving of the cell membrane and
cytoplasm away from the cell wall is
called plasmolysis. The cell is said to Activity 3.6: To investigate turgor
be plasmolysed. When a plasmolysed pressure in plant cells
cell is placed in distilled water, it will Requirements
become turgid again. The cell is said to • Raw Irish potatoes
undergo deplasmolysis. The point at • Boiled Irish potato
which plasmolysis just begins is called • Distilled water
incipient plasmolysis. At this point, the • Sucrose
cell protoplasm that is, cell membrane • Spatula
and cytoplasm no longer exerts any • Glass rod
pressure against the cell wall. The turgor • Cork borer
pressure is zero, and the cell therefore • 10 cm ruler
loses its turgidity. It is now a flaccid cell. • Four 200 ml beakers
• Labels
Cell wall • Scapel
Vacuole Procedure
Nucleus
Cytoplasm Outer Your teacher will help you to
membrane
prepare these solutions:
Inner 1. Prepare 5% sucrose solution by
membrane dissolving 17.1 g of sucrose in
100 ml of water in a beaker. Stir
Fig 3.10 A plasmolysed plant cell the solution well until all the
sucrose dissolves. Label this 5%
Plants that are deprived of water sucrose.
for several days have their leaf cells 2. Prepare 20% sucrose solution by
plasmolysed. The overall effect is a dissolving 68.4g of sucrose in 100
drooping plant which is said to be cm3 of water in a beaker.
wilting. If this persists for long, the Stir the solution well until all the
sucrose dissolves. Label this 20%
plant cells become flaccid. The plant sucrose.
then dies. However, if the plant is well
watered before the cells become flaccid,
its turgidity is restored.
55
3. Put 100 cm3 of distilled water in 5. Repeat procedure (4) above so
the other empty beaker and label as to obtain at least six potato
it distilled water. cylinders.
4. Peel three Irish potatoes; insert 6. Put 2 potato cylinders in each of
the cork borer through one end the three solutions in the beakers.
of the potato and press hard so 7. Put the boiled potato tissue in the
it comes out through the other fourth beaker containing distilled
end of the potato to produce a water.
cylinder. Cut off the rough end of 8. Leave the set-ups uninterrupted
the potato cylinder and measure for 45 minutes.
6 mm, cut off the remaining part.
9. Prepare a table like the one shown below to record your observations.
Table 3.3: Results for investigating turgor pressure in plants
Solution Initial length of potato Final length of potato cylinder
cylinder
Distilled water Cylinder 1 Average Average length
(with raw Cylinder 2 length
potato tissue)
Cylinder 1
5% sucrose Cylinder 2
Cylinder 1
20% sucrose Cylinder 2
Distilled water Cylinder 1
(with boiled Cylinder2
potato tissue)
10. Remove the cylinders from the different solutions and measure their final length
using the 10 cm ruler. Record your results in the table you have prepared.
11. Compare your findings with those of other class members.
Study questions
(a) Work out the change in length of the potato cylinders in:
• Distilled water with raw potato tissue.
• 5% sucrose solution.
• 20% sucrose solution.
• Distilled water with boiled potato tissue.
(b) Account for the change in length in (a) above.
(c) Why was it necessary to include the set up with boiled potato tissue in the experiment?
56
Role of osmosis in plants and animal by osmosis. The cell sap in root
cells hair cells usually has a higher solute
Discussion corner concentration than water in the soil.
Therefore, root hair cells are able
1. Discuss the following with a to take up water from the soil by
classmate. osmosis.
• How are plants supported
3. Movement of water from cell to cell
by turgor pressure?
in tissues
• What is the importance
of osmosis in plant and When a cell takes up water by
animal cells? osmosis, its solute concentration
becomes lower (it becomes more
2. Share your findings with other
dilute) compared to the cell adjacent
members of your class.
to it. As a result, water moves from
The facts it to the adjacent cell whose solute
concentration is higher (more
1. Uptake of water by roots concentrated). In this way, water
Plants absorb water from the soil moves from the root hair cells to the
inner cells in the root.
direction of
movement of water
Fig. 3.11: Movement of water from cell to

cell in tissues
• Gaseous exchange takes place
through the open stomata.
2. Opening and closing of stomata
• Water vapour also exits through
When guard cells gain water by the open stomata.
osmosis from the surrounding cells, When guard cells lose water through
they become turgid. This changes osmosis to surrounding cells, their
their shape, making the stomata to size and shape changes. This makes the
open. As a result: stomata to close.
57
nucleus epidermal
cell
chloroplast
thin
outer
wall stoma
pore
thick
inner guard cell
wall water leaving
guard cells
Fig 3.12(a): Open stoma
epidermal
nucleus
cell
thin
outer chloroplast
wall water leaving
stoma guard cells
pore
thick
inner guard cell
wall
Fig 3.12(b): Closed stoma

4. Feeding in insectivorous plants
Insectivorous plants such as Pitcher plant prey on insects.
Fig 3.13: Pitcher plant
58
They trap insects when there is
a sudden change in their turgor
pressure when disturbed by the Visking
insect. tubing
Glucose Distilled
solution water
1. Which one of the following (a) Draw the diagram to
describes osmosis. show the results of this
A. Movement of sugar experiment.
molecules. (b) Account for observations
B. Movement of water you made in (a) above.
molecules, (c) What does the visking
C. Movement of sugar and salt tubing represent in a plant
molecules. cell?
D. Evaporation of water. 5. An animal cell bursts when placed
2. What will happen to an animal in water but a plant cell does not.
cell when it is placed in an Explain
isotonic solution? 6. Using your knowledge of plant
A. Shrink and animal cell structure. Explain
B. Burst why plant cells have regular shapes
C. Remain the same while animal cells have irregular
D. Expand shapes.
3. What kind of a membrane is
partially permeable? Unit summary
A. A membrane made of plant • Passive movement of substances into
tissue. and out of cells involves diffusion
B. A membrane that is made and osmosis. These processes involve
up of water molecules. kinetic energy of the molecules
C. A membrane that allows involved.
certain substances to go • Diffusion is the movement of
into and out of cells. particles from an area of higher
D. A membrane that concentration to one of lower
surrounds a food vacuole. concentration along a concentration
gradient. These particles move by
4. A learner set-up an experiment
their natural kinetic energy.
shown below to investigate
osmosis. • A concentration gradient is the
difference in solute concentration
between two points separated by a
distance.
59
• The end result of diffusion is a membrane, there is net flow
uniform distribution of the particles of water molecules from
(molecules or ions). a solution in which water
• Factors that influence diffusion molecules are
include: temperature, concentration into a solution in which water
gradient, surface area and distance. molecules are
• Osmosis involves movement of through the special membrane.
water molecules from a region of This process is known as
their higher concentration to a . It is described
region of their lower concentration as a special type of diffusion
across a semi-permeable membrane. in which
• Osmotic pressure is a force generated mole c u les move f rom a
to prevent movement of water solution into a
molecules from a solution across a solution.
partially permeable membrane. 2. Which of the statements below about
• Plant and animal cells behave osmosis is true?
differently when placed in an A. T h e g r e a t e r t h e s o l u t e
isotonic solution, hypertonic and concentration, the smaller the
hypotonic solution. osmotic pressure.
• Osmosis enables uptake of water B. O s m o s i s o c c u r s du e t o
into the plant through the roots, hydrostatic pressure outside
turgidity in plant cells and opening the cell.
and closing of stomata. C. O s m o s i s m o v e s w a t e r
• Turgidity in plant cells provides molecules from a greater solute
support to plant tissues. solution to a lesser solute
concentration.
 Test your competence 3 D. The higher the osmotic pressure
1. Complete the following statements: of a solution, the greater the
tendency of water to move into
(a) is the the solution.
movement of the molecules
of gas, liquid or solute from a 3. Container S contains a 5% salt
region of their solution while container T contains a
to a region 20% salt solution. If the solutions are
of their separated by a partially permeable
and which results in membrane; net movement of water
distribution. will occur from to
(b) When two solutions are
separated from one another A. S, T
by a s p e c i a l s e l e c t ive ly B. T, S
or C. Both ways
semi- D. None of the above
60
4. Draw a plant cell as it would appear when placed in a hypertonic solution for
several minutes.
i. What name is given to such a cell?
ii. Explain the appearance of this cell.
iii. Compare (ii) above with what would happen with mammalian red blood
cells in the same solution.
5. Slices of onion epidermis were placed in different concentrations of sucrose
solution. The percentage of plasmolysed cells was determined after thirty minutes.
The results were as follows:
Conc. of sucrose solution (Molar) 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75
% of plasmolysed cells 0 5 20 80 100
(a) What does the word plasmolysis mean?
(b) What causes plasmolysis of cells?
(c) Does plasmolysis also occur to animal cells? Explain.
(d) Explain the results of 0.55 molar sucrose solution.
(e) What is the relationship between molar concentration of sucrose solutions,
and percentage of plasmolysed cells?
(f) What description or term would be used on a plant where 100% of its cells
were plasmolysed?
6. Two potatoes were peeled. One of them was boiled. A cavity was made in each
of the potatoes and the experiment was set up as shown below. The experiment
was left undisturbed for 24 hours.
Beaker
Glucose solution
Glucose solution
Raw Irish potato Boiled Irish potato

Distilled water Distilled water
A B
(a) Draw a diagram to illustrate the result in each figure.

(b) Give reasons to support your answer in (a) above.
7. Why is diffusion and osmosis referred to as passive processes?
8. The following apparatus were set up and the experiment left for hours.
61
Visking tubing
Starch solution
Beaker
Distilled water
(a) (i) What observation would you make after one hour?
(ii) Account for your observation in (a) i above.
(b) (i) If the starch solution was replaced with 10% glucose solution, and the
distilled water replaced with iodine solution, what observation would you
make?
(ii) Account for your observation in (b) i.
9. What would happen if osmosis was not available in plants?
10. What is turgidity and mention its importance in plants?
62
Unit
Active transport
4
Key unit competency
To be able to analyse and interpret the process of active transport and its significance
to living organisms.
Learning objectives
After studying this topic, I should be able to:
• Define active transport.
• Compare passive and active transport.
• Appreciate the importance of active transport.
• Describe how carrier proteins move particles across membrane during active
transport.
Introduction
Study the pictures A and B below.
Fig 4.1 A B
What is going in the pictures? Which is easier, climbing uphill or going downhill?
Why is that the case? How do actions in the pictures relate to active transport?
Think about how things are transported in our bodies. Are there special things that
help in the transportation process? What do they do?
63
4.1 Active transport and Passive transport Active transport
its importance
The types of movement of molecules Does not require Requires cellular
and ions that we have considered in cellular energy. energy.
Unit 3 involved molecules moving
down or along a concentration gradient. Involves osmosis Involves
These movements are passive hence and diffusion endocytosis
name passive transport. Molecules processes. and exocytosis
and ions can also move from an area processes.
of low concentration to that of higher
concentration. They are said to move Transports Transports
against a concentration gradient. Such a anything soluble proteins, ions,
process requires the use of energy and is water, oxygen large cells and
called active transport. and carbon complex sugars.
Discussion corner dioxide.
1. You will be provided with Manila
paper, marker pens and cello tape. Active transport is the movement of
2. Prepare a table on the Manila particles through the cell membrane
paper. from a region of low concentration to
3. Discuss and write the differences a region of high concentration using
between passive and active energy. This process requires the
transport. expenditure of energy since particles
4. Share your findings with the rest move against a concentration gradient.
of the class.
The role of proteins in active
The facts transport
The table below shows the difference The movement of substances across a
between passive and active transport. membrane by active transport requires
carrier protein molecules. They pick
Table 4.1: Difference between passive and up molecules of a substance from one
active transport
side of the cell membrane and transport
Passive transport Active transport them across.
Transport occurs Transport occurs
Carrier protein molecules have binding
from a high from a low
sites for the molecules. The molecules
concentration concentration
to be transported bind to the carrier
of molecules of solute to high
protein using energy. The carrier
and ions to low concentration of
concentration, in solute. protein changes shape and the particles
order to maintain are transported to the other side of the
equilibrium in membrane; and they diffuse away from
the cells. the carrier protein.
64
food particles
Fig 4.2 How a carrier protein transports a molecule
Activity 4.1 Demonstrating The facts

active transport
You will be provided with charts
In active transport, the cell must use its
and animated pictures involving
own energy to move the molecules against
active transport.
a concentration gradient. Such energy
1. Observe the charts and animations is supplied by the cell’s mitochondria.
carefully. Therefore active transport takes place
• Can you tell what is taking only in living cells.
place in the pictures?
• Which part of the body is Role of active transport in
the process taking place? living organisms
• What is the role of proteins 1. Through active transport, root hair
in active transport? cells in plants absorb mineral salts
2. Record what you see in the and ions from the surrounding
pictures. soil. This takes place even when the
3. Discuss with your partner concentration of these mineral salts
the importance of the process is already higher in the cells than in
involved. the soil.
2. The cells lining the human small
Study questions
intestines continue to absorb food
(a) What is the role of active transport molecules by active transport even
in organisms? when the concentration of these
(b) Which factors affect active molecules is higher in the cells than
transport? in the intestinal lumen.
65
3. Nerve cells need sodium ions membrane. This stops active transport.
and potassium ions to function. Active transport works best under
The concentration of sodium ions normal temperature which in human
outside a nerve cell is higher than beings is 37ºC.
the concentration on the inside.
The concentration of potassium d. Enzyme inhibitors
ions on the outside is lower than on An enzyme is a substance which
the inside. The nerve cells maintain speeds up reactions taking place in the
these concentrations in this way by cell. Enzyme inhibitors are chemical
active transport. substances which ‘poison’ or make an
4. When urine is first formed in the enzyme inactive. If enzymes involved in
kidney, it contains useful substances the release of energy during respiration
like glucose in addition to the waste are affected, there will be lack of energy.
substances. The useful substances This will prevent active transport from
are reabsorbed into the blood by taking place.
active transport. e. pH
5. Active transport is involved in
Abnormal changes in pH in the
accumulation of substances in the
environment of the cell can alter the
body of some organisms to offset
structure of the protein carriers. This
osmotic imbalances in arid and
will reduce their ability to transport
saline environments.
molecules across the cell membrane.
Factors that affect active
transport Self-evaluation Test 4.1
Any factor that affects energy production
1. Absorption of mineral salts from
also affects active transport.
the soil to the root hair requires
a. Concentration of oxygen energy. Which of these describe
At higher oxygen concentration, the the process used?
cells produce more energy. This leads A. Diffusion
to rapid active transport by the protein B. Osmosis
carriers. C. Active transport
b. Concentration of glucose D. Respiration
The amount of energy produced by a 2. Which one is a function of the
cell depends on the amount of glucose proteins in the cell membrane?
available. When more glucose is available, A. Communication
the cells produce more energy. This leads B. Cellular respiration
to rapid active transport. C. Cell transport
c.Temperature D. Cell repair
High temperatures can destroy (denature)
the protein carriers in the cell
66
Study questions
3. The root of a certain plant was
treated with a respiratory poison. (a) D i f f e r e n t i a t e b e t w e e n
phagocytosis, exocytosis and
(a) State the effect of this to the
pinocytosis.
uptake of mineral ions.
(b) How important are these processes
(b) Explain the effect you have
in a cell.
stated in (a) above.
Endocytosis
4.2 Endocytosis and This is the in folding of the cell
Exocytosis surface membrane to form a vesicle or
The movement of macromolecules vacuole. A portion of the membrane
such as proteins or polysaccharides wraps around the particle and fuses.
into or out of the cell is called bulk Thereafter the particle is surrounded by
transport. There are two types of bulk the plasma membrane. The portion of
transport, exocytosis and endocytosis, the membrane containing the particle
and both require the expenditure of then pinches off leaving the plasma.
energy. Endocytosis involves the bulk uptake
Activity 4.2: Investigating the of materials through the plasma
process of endocytosis and membrane. It takes place in two ways:
exocytosis phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
You will be provided with charts, (i) Phagocytosis
computer simulations and
Phagocytosis means ‘cell eating.’
animations.
This is a process by which plasma
1. Us e t h e c h ar t s , c omput e r membrane extend to form a
simulations and animations depression. The depression encloses
to illustrate the process of solid foreign particles. The food
endocytosis and exocytosis. vacuole formed moves towards
2. Discuss with your group members the interior of the cell. The process
the process involved. is selective and specific to solid
3. Share your findings with the rest materials engulfed. An example is
of the class. white blood cells that engulf bacteria
in our bodies.
Release of
microbial products
Fig 4.3: Phagocytosis
67
(ii) Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis means ‘cell drinking.’ This process is similar to phagocytosis only that
the cells take in materials in liquid form. In this case molecules dissolved in liquid
are taken up by formation of smaller vesicles compared to phagocytic vesicles.
Fig 4.4: Pinocytosis
Exocytosis
This is the process by which materials are removed from the cells. Materials
removed include solid particles, undigested remains from food vacuoles among
others. The molecules or cell secretions accumulate in secretory vesicles, which
then moves and fuses with the plasma membrane.
The contents of the vesicle are then expelled out of the cell.
Examples of exocytosis:
• Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas.
• Secretion of milk from mammary glands.
• Secretion of mucus by salivary glands.
cell membrane
extra cellular fluid
secretory vesicle intracellular

Fig 4.5: Exocytosis
68
Self-evaluation Test 4.2  Test your competence 4
1. State one difference and one
1. Active transport is affected by the
similarity between endocytosis
following factors except?
and active transport.
A. oxygen concentration
2. A white blood cell ingests solid
particles by forming vesicles. This B. glucose concentration
describes which process? C. thickness of the membrane
3. Given these characteristics: D. enzyme inhibitors
(i) Requires carrier proteins
2. Study the table below and answer the
(ii) Requires energy questions that follow.
(iii) Requires membrane channels Miner a l Concentration Concentration
(iv) Requires vesicles ion in soil solution in cell sap of
( a r b i t r a r y root hair cell
Choose the characteristics that
units) (arbitrary
define exocytosis. units)
Sodium 239 150

ion
Unit summary
• Active transport involves the use Chloride 50 280
of energy to move molecules across
the cell membrane. During active (a) State the processes by which
transport, molecules are moved each of the ions would be
against a concentration gradient. absorbed into the root.
• Factors affecting active transport (i) Sodium ion
include: concentration of oxygen (ii) Chloride ion
and glucose, temperature, enzyme (b) What condition needs to be
inhibitors and pH. fulfilled for chloride ions to
• Protein carrier molecules, which be taken up?
are part of the cell membrane, are 3. Complete the process of phagocytosis,
involved in active transport. by drawing the missing diagram
• Endocytosis is the process of
capturing a substance or particle
from outside the cell by engulfing
it with the cell membrane, and
bringing it into the cell.
• Exocytosis is a form of active
transport in which a cell transports
molecules out of the cell by expelling
them through the plasma membrane.
69
4. Compare endocytosis and exocytosis by fill the following table.
Endocytosis Exocytosis
5. Concentration of oxygen affects active transport. Explain?

6. Identify locations in plant and animal tissues where active transport occurs.
7. The following is a list of physiological processes. Match the physiological processes
to the correct description of it.
Physiological process Description
A. Diffusion (I) The process by which water molecules move

from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration through a semi-permeable
membrane.
B. Osmosis (II) The process by which molecules move from a
region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
C. Active transport (III) The process by which substances move across the
cell membrane against a concentration gradient.
D. Endocytosis (IV) The process by which materials from the inside of

the cell are brought to the cell surface within the
membrane bound vesicles.
E. Exocytosis (V) The process by which materials enter a cell without

passing through the cell membrane.
70
Unit
Identification of food
5 components
Key unit competency
To be able to carry out chemical tests on a variety of foods to identify the nature
of food substances.
Learning objectives
• State the chemical reagents used in the identification of each of the classes
of food.
• Carry out tests to identify food substances in a given sample.
• Appreciate the importance of different classes of food in one food substance.
Introduction
Have you ever visited a tea or coffee processing factory? What happens during grading
of coffee or tea? Look at the picture below. What is the person using to tell whether
the coffee of great quality?
Fig. 5.1: Coffee tasting
Coffee or tea is tasted to determine its quality during processing. The fragrance of
the brewed tea or coffee, the deep flavours when drinking and the pleasant after-taste
are used to tell the quality.
Based on this, do you think it is possible to know the components of the various
foods that we eat by tasting? Why? What can we use to do this?
71
5.1 Components of food to monosaccharides. Some foods
containing starch include sweet potatoes
substances
and cassava.
The foods that we eat contain different
types of nutrients. These nutrients
serve different functions in the body. It
is therefore essential that we know the
components of the food that we eat in (a) Sweet potatoes (b) Cassava
order to live healthy lives. Fig 5.2 Examples of food containing starch
Drinks and foods that are manufactured
Activity 5.1 Testing for starch
in factories need to be tested as well.
This is done to confirm the type and Requirements
Fig 5.2: Examples of food containing starch
percentage of nutrients they contain. • Iodine solution (brown)
This enables the consumer to be • Test tubes and test tube rack
informed on the product contents. • Droppers
Food contains mainly two classes • Water
of nutrients; organic and inorganic • Starch solution (sweet potato, or
nutrients. The inorganic nutrients plantain extracts)
include mineral salts like calcium, • Glucose solution
phosphorous and others like water. • Measuring cylinder
The organic nutrients include proteins, Procedure
carbohydrates, lipids and vitamins. 1. Using the measuring cylinder,
measure about 2 cm 3 of the
Chemical test for food following solutions into separate
substances test tubes: starch solution, glucose
The process by which foods and drinks solution and water.
are taken to the laboratory to confirm Precaution: Each time, rinse the
the type of food components in them measuring cylinder thoroughly
is called food testing. Food testing is before use.
done to confirm the presence of starch,
2. To each test tube, add a few drops
reducing sugars, proteins, fats and
of iodine solution and note any
vitamin C in a food sample.
colour change.
5.2 Testing for starch and
reducing sugars
a) Test for starch
Starch is a polysaccharide comprising
of glucose monomers linked together.
Starch is insoluble in water. It
does not have a sweet taste and on
hydrolysis, it readily converts back Fig 5.3 Testing for starch
72
3. Record your results in the table some sugars. Copper sulphate is mixed
below. with other chemicals to be used as
Table 5.1: Test for starch results Benedict’s solution which is used in the
test. Other examples of reducing sugars
Solution Observation Conclusion
include: maltose, lactose, fructose and
tested
galactose.
Starch
All monosaccharides are reducing
solution
sugars, they taste sweet and are soluble
Water
in water.
Glucose
solution Activity 5.2:Test for reducing
sugars
The facts Requirements
Starch is the storage form of glucose in • Benedict’s solution
plants. Each starch molecule has about • Test tubes and test tube rack
300 - 1000 glucose units. Most starch • Glass rod and a spatula
in plants is found in seeds and storage • Dropper
organs like potato tubers. Starch gives • Labels
a blue-black colour with Iodine in • Conical flask (100 cm³) or small
potassium iodide solution. This is the beaker
laboratory test for starch. The colour of • Motor and a pestle
Iodine turns from brown to blue-black • Source of heat
if starch is present. If there is no starch • Food extracts, for example,
in the food sample, the brown colour of banana juice
iodine persists. • Glucose, starch and sucrose
Money matters! solutions
• Distilled water
You should not waste laboratory
reagents because they are usually very Procedure
expensive. 1. If the food to be tested is in liquid
form, go straight to procedure (2).
b) Testing for sugars If it is solid do the following to
Based on their reaction with Benedict’s form an extract:
solution sugars are grouped into two. (a) Grind, crush (using a motor
and pestle) or chop the solid
• Reducing sugars food subtance.
• Non-reducing sugars (b) Scoop a small amount using
Reducing sugars a spatula and put into a test
tube to a depth of about 2cm.
Some simple sugars, for example glucose
(c) Add a similar amount of
can be made to reduce copper in blue
distilled water and stir with
copper sulphate to red copper oxide.
a glass rod.
This reaction can be used as a test for
73
5. Heat for about two minutes and
(d) Allow to stand for a few observe the colour change.
minutes. 6. Record your observations in the
2. Using a dropper put 2 cm3 of each table below.
of the solutions to be tested into Table 5.2: Results for test for reducing sugars
separate test tubes.
3. Label the test tubes with the Solution Observation Deductions
solutions in them. tested
4. To each test tube, add 2 cm3 of Glucose
Benedict’s solution.
Distilled
Water
Starch
Sucrose
Banana
Fig 5.4 Test tube holder juice
The facts
Benedict’s solution is the chemical reagent used to test for the presence of reducing
sugars. When boiled with glucose, which is a reducing sugar, an orange precipitate
forms.
A change in colour from blue to green, yellow and finally red indicates the presence
of reducing sugar. The colour changes depend on the amount of reducing sugars
present.
Dropper
beaker Test tube
Benedict's solution
Water bath Test sample
Bunsen burner
Test tube
Tripod stand
Fig 5.5: Testing for reducing sugars
74
• Green colour indicates small
Activity 5.3:Testing for non-
amounts of reducing sugars.
reducing sugars
• Yellow/orange shows high levels of
reducing sugars. Requirements
When Benedict’s solution, which is • Benedict’s solution
blue in colour, is boiled with substances • Dilute hydrochloric acid
with non-reducing sugar, its blue colour • 10% sucrose solution
persists. • Sodium hydrogen carbonate solid
Note: Water acts as the control. • Four test tubes and a test tubes
Health Check! rack
• Water
• Wear eye protection for eye safety.
• Means of labelling
• Take care while heating and
handling test tubes. This minimises • Measuring cylinder
risk of laboratory accidents. • Dropper
• Do not consume any food provided Procedure
in the laboratory, it may be poisoned 1. Arrange the four test-tubes in a
or contaminated. test tube rack and label them 1 - 4.
Non-reducing sugars 2. Put 2 cm3 of sucrose solution into
Some sugars such as sucrose are unable the test tube labelled 1 and add
to reduce the copper ions in Benedict’s 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution then
solution. This makes the colour of boil.
Benedict’s solution to persist when these
• Note down any observations.
sugars are boiled with it. Such sugars are
called non-reducing sugars. Most non- 3. Me a s u r e 2 c m 3 o f d i l u t e
reducing sugars are disaccharides. hydrochloric acid and pour it
This means they contain two single into the test tube labelled 2. Add
sugar units. to it 2 cm3 of Benedict’s solution
and boil.
Activity 5.3:Testing for non-
reducing sugars • Note down any observations.
4. Follow the following procedure
Requirements
for test tube labelled 3.
• Benedict’s solution (i) Measure 2 cm3 of sucrose
• Dilute hydrochloric acid solution into the test tube.
• 10% sucrose solution Add a few drops of the
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate solid dilute hydrochloric acid and
• Four test tubes and a test tube rack boil.
• Water (ii) Allow the contents of
• Means of labelling the test tube to cool, and
• Measuring cylinder then add a little sodium
hydrogen carbonate slowly
• Dropper until the fizzing stops.
75
Note: The sodium glucose and fructose. Both of these are
hydroxide helps to reducing sugars and as such, the colour
neutralise the excess acid in of the Benedict’s solution changes from
solution. blue to orange/brown precipitate.
(ii) Measure 2cm3 of Benedict’s Any excess acid is neutralised by the
solution and add it into the sodium hydrogen carbonate. Boiling
test tube then boil. is a requirement for the hydrolysis to
• N o t e d o w n y o u r occur. Heating the Benedict’s solution
observations. with the acid is to rule out the possibility
5. Compare the colour of the of the acid being the one changing the
contents of test tube 3 with that colour of Benedict’s solution from blue
in test tube 1 and test tube 2. to orange.
6. Record your result in a table Note: Any excess hydrogen carbonate
similar to table below. does not affect Benedict’s solution.
Table 5.3: Results for non-reducing sugars Self-evaluation Test 5.1
Test solution Observation Deduction 1. With examples, distinguish
Test tube 1 between reducing sugars and
Test tube 2 non-reducing sugars.
Test tube 3 2. What is the purpose of sodium
hydrogen carbonate in the test
for non -reducing sugars?
The facts 3. Starch is stored in seeds, stems
There are no special reagents used to and roots among many other
test for non-reducing sugars. The same places in plants. Where is starch
reagents used for reducing sugars are stored in animals?
instead applied. This time hydrochloric
acid is also added to hydrolyze these 5.3 Testing for proteins
non-reducing sugars to reducing form. Proteins are essential nutrients for
Later when Benedict’s solution is added, the human body. They are one of the
the test becomes positive. building blocks of the human tissue
There is no change in the colour of and can also serve as a fuel source. They
Benedict’s solution when it is heated contain as much energy as carbohydrates
with sucrose solution. This is because but less than lipids. Amino acids are the
sucrose is not a reducing sugar. building blocks of proteins. Most of the
Benedict’s solution changes colour only foods we eat contain these amino acids.
in the presence of a reducing sugar. Milk, eggs, meat, beans and peas are
Boiling the sucrose solution with dilute examples of foods that contain proteins.
hydrochloric acid hydrolyses sucrose to
76
Activity 5.4:To test for the presence
of proteins using Millon’s reagent
Requirements
• Test tubes and test tube rack
(a)Beans (b) Peas • Source of heat
Fig 5.6: Examples of food containing proteins • Dropper
There are two major ways in which • Measuring cylinder
scientists test for the presence of proteins
• Syringes
in food. They are:
• Cooking oil
• Millon’s test
• Egg albumen
• Biuret test
• Distilled water
(a) Millon’s test • Milk
In this test a reagent known as Millon’s • Millon’s reagent
reagent is used to test for proteins.
Procedure
Carry out the following procedures and record your observations and
deductions in the table below.
Table 5.4: Testing for proteins using Millon's reagent
Test Observation Deduction
(a) To 2 cm3 of cooking oil in a test tube, add
Millon’s reagent and boil.
(b) To 2 cm3 of egg albumen in a test tube,
add Millon’s reagent and boil.
(c) To 2 cm3 of milk in a test tube, add
Milion’s reagent and boil.
(d) To 2 cm3 of water in a test tube, add
Millon’s reagent and boil.
The facts
The table below shows the results that may be obtained during a Millon’s test
Table 5.5 Millons test results
Test procedure Observation Deduction
To 2 cm of the food sample in a test
3
Coagulated pink Protein present in
tube, add Millon’s reagent and boil. mass appears. the food sample.
To 2 cm3 of the food sample in a test The solution remains Protein absent in
tube, add Millon’s reagent and boil. colourless. the food sample.
77
These bonds hold amino acids together
Health Check!
to form a protein.
Care should be taken while boiling to
Activity 5.5 Test for proteins
avoid laboratory accidents.
using Biuret reagent
Millon’s reagent is very poisonous! Be
careful when handling it Requirements
• Soya bean solution
Quality Check! • Distilled water
Buying quality apparatus reduces the • 10% sodium hydroxide solution,
risk of breaking and therefore it is cost • 1% copper sulphate solution
effective. (Biuret reagent)
• Four test tubes
b) Biuret test • Means of labelling the test tubes
Note: No heating is involved
The Biuret’s test uses several reagents that
during the Biuret test.
are mixed in equal proportions. Copper
Procedure
(II) sulphate and sodium hydroxide
1. Place 2 cm3 of soya bean, distilled
make up the reagent. The normal colour
and water and orange juice into
of the reagent is blue. The reagent turns
three separate test tubes.
violet in the presence of peptide bonds.
2. To each of these test tubes, add 2 cm3 of sodium or potassium hydroxide
solution.
3. Add 1cm3 of 1% copper sulphate solution to each test tube then shake.
Potassium Copper
hydroxide sulphate
Soya beans
Shaking Results
Fig 5.7: Biuret test

4. Record your observations in a table similar to the one given below.
78
Table 5.6: Results for testing for proteins 5.4 Testing for lipids
using Biurets reagent
Lipids are composed of fats and oils.
Solution Observation Deduction Fats are solid at room temperature while
tested oils are liquid at room temperature.
Cooking oil, animal fats, groundnuts,
Soya bean meat among others, all contain lipids.
solution
Distilled
Water
Orange
juice
Study questions (a) Beef containing fat (b) Coconuts
Fig 5.8: Examples of foods containing lipids
(a) What colour change was observed
Two types of tests can be carried out on
in each of the test tubes?
a food sample to identify if it contains
(b) What is the role of the test tube lipids. These are:
with distilled water?
• The ethanol emulsion test
• The translucent paper mark
test
The facts
(a) Ethanol emulsion test
Copper sulphate is pale blue in colour.
In this procedure ethanol is used as the
In the presence of a protein, its colour
reagent. Water is also added. A white
changes to purple. The appearance of
emulsion confirms the presence of lipids
purple colour, therefore, is a confirmation
in the food sample.
for the presence of protein in a food
sample.
Activity 5.6: Testing for presence
Self-evaluation Test 5.2 of lipids using the ethanol
emulsion test
1. The _________ test uses several
reagents. The reagents are mixed Requirements
in equal proportions. _________ • Test tubes and test tube rack
and __________ make up this • Droppers
reagent. • Ethanol
2. The bonds that hold protein • Distilled water
structure are known as • Cooking oil
_________ • Groundnut extract solution
3. To test for proteins, two reagents
are used. Millon’s reagent and
Biuret reagent. Which of these
two tests does not involve
heating?
79
Procedure
Carry out the following tests and record your observations and deductions in
the table below.
Table 5.7: Results for testing lipids using alcohol emulsion test
Test Experiment Observation Deduction
(a) To 2 cm of cooking oil in a test tube, add
3
ethanol and shake, then add water.

(b) To 2 cm3 of groundnut extract in a test tube, add
ethanol and shake, and then add water.
(c) To 2 cm3 of distilled water in a test tube, add
ethanol and shake then add water.
Study Questions
(a) Which food components are found in cooking oil?
(b) Why is it important to eat foods containing lipids?
(c) Which health problems are related to too much lipids in the diet?
The facts The facts

An emulsion forms when the solution A translucent spot indicates presence of
of oil and alcohol is shaken with water. oil or fat.
This is because the oil does not dissolve
in water. A cloudy or white liquid is 5.5 Testing for vitamin C
formed. If a food sample is used, the A reagent known as Dichlorophenol
alcohol extracts the oil from the food by indophenol (DCPIP) is used to test for
dissolving it. vitamin C. DCPIP is a deep blue reagent
in colour. When vitamin C is present in a
(b) The translucent spot test food sample, the blue colour disappears
Activity 5.7: Testing for presence (decolourised). Fresh fruits and green
of lipids using the translucent vegetables contain vitamin C. Table
spot test 5.8 shows the test for vitamin C using
Requirements DCPIP.
• Vegetable oil or cooking fat
• Blotting or absorbent paper
Procedure
• Put a drop of oil or fat on some
absorbent paper. Lemon Water melon
• Hold it up against light from
Fig 5.9: Examples of food containing vitamin C
the window and note what you
observe.
80
Activity 5.8
Table 5.8: Testing for presence of vitamin C
Test procedure Observation Deduction
a) To 1cm of DCPIP in a test tube, add the orange
3
extract solution drop by drop. Do not shake

b) To 1cm3 of DCPIP in a test tube, add distilled
water drop by drop. Do not shake
Further Activity 5.9

You are provided with the following:
• Specimen S which is an orange, • Millon’s reagent • DCPIP
• Specimen J which is milk • Source of heat • Scalped
• Test tubes and test tube rack • Distilled water • Droppers
• Syringe • Iodine solution • A stirrer
Procedure
1. Cut a transverse section of specimen S and obtain about 10 cm3 of juice from
the specimen by squeezing into a test tube.
2. Mix the orange juice in 1 above with the milk to form a solution. Label the
solution Extract A.
3. Carry out the following tests on this extract A using the reagents provided and
record your observations in table like the one shown below:
Table 5.9: Results for extract A test
Experiment Observations Deduction

(i) To 2 cm of extract A in a test tube, add 3 drops
3
of iodine solution.
(ii) To 2 cm3 of extract A in a test tube, add 2 cm3
of Benedict’s solution and boil.
iii) To 2 cm3 of extract A in a test tube, add 4 drops
of million’s reagent and boil gently.
(iv) To 1 cm3 of DCPIP in a test tube, add extract
A, drop by drop.
Study questions
(a) From your observations name the food substance(s) present in the extract.
(b) What is the biological significance of the food substance named in (a) above?
81
Self-evaluation Test 5.3 • Starch is tested in a food sample
by using Iodine solution. If it turns
1. Name diseases that result due to blue-black, it indicates the presence
lack of vitamin C in the diet. of starch.
2. Why is it not advisable to take too • Benedict’s solution is used to test
much food containing lipids? for the presence of reducing sugars.
3. Which of the following substances Reducing sugars change the colour
is the most abundant compound of Benedict’s solution from blue to
in a living cell? orange.
A. Fats • Non- reducing sugars do not change
B. Water the colour of Benedict’s solution.
C. Proteins Unless they are first boiled with
D. Carbohydrates dilute hydrochloric acid to hydrolyse
them.
Unit summary • Presence of proteins in a food
sample can be tested by Biuret test
• Starch is a polysaccharide that
or Millon’s reagent.
functions as a carbohydrate store
and is an important constituent of • The alcohol –emulsion test is used to
the human diet. test for presence of lipids in a food
sample.
• Food testing is the process that is
carried out to determine the food • Presence of vitamin C is tested by a
components in a food sample. chemical called DCPIP.
 Test your competence 5

1. Complete the following table on carbohydrates.
Type of carbohydrate Example Where found Functions

Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
2. Arrange the following in the order of the amount of energy they produce in the
body. Use < or >.
Proteins, carbohydrates and lipids
82
3. Match each food listed with the food (ii) Proteins
nutrient it is rich in. (iii) Lipids
Food Chemical 6. A food sample was tested by boiling
substance nutrient it in Benedict’s solution. It gave an
(a) Cassava (i) Proteins orange precipitate. This showed that
(b) Lean meat (ii) Vitamins the food sample contained ______
(c) Sugar cane (iii) Starch A. Reducing sugars
B. Fats
(d) Cabbage (iv) Lipids
C. Protein
(e) Bones (v) Sucrose
D. Sucrose
(f) Butter (vi) Phosphorus
7. Glucose is known as a reducing
4. If a solution of starch is mixed with sugar because
saliva and samples from the mixture A. It is a monosaccharide sugar
are tested with iodine solution at B. It is a hexose sugar
one-minute intervals after mixing: C. It reduces copper (II) sulphate
(a) What results would you expect to copper (I) oxide
if the mixture was kept at D. It is a disaccharide
(i) 30 oC? 8. Athletes are normally given glucose
(ii) 40 oC? and not sucrose. Give a reason for this.
9. (a) What three elements do
(b) Account for the results
carbohydrates and proteins
above
have in common?
(c) Relate the results in (a) above
(b) What element is found always
with the normal functioning of
in proteins but is not found in
human body.
carbohydrates?
5. Give the products of digestion after (c) Why is there a larger variety of
the following food substances are proteins than carbohydrates?
broken down completely.
10. DCPIP is a ______reagent in colour.
(i) Carbohydrates When ______ is present in a food
sample, the ______ disappears.
83
Unit
6 Enzymes
Key unit competency

To be able to explain the role of enzymes in living organisms and how they are
affected by temperature.
Learning objectives
• Define the term catalyst and enzyme.
• Describe why enzymes are important in all living organisms.
• Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity.
• Draw and interpret graphs for the rate of enzyme activity.
• Appreciate the importance and specificity of enzymes in speeding up
reactions.
Introduction
Look at the photographs below. Can you identify what is in the photographs? What
is the relationship between them?
(A) (B)
Fig 6.1
Try washing off the stain in a piece of cloth with water only, then using the detergent.
Where was it easy to remove the stain?
Detergents which are used to remove stains act as enzymes. During the washing
process, water and dirt are quickly combined together when the detergent is available
to form a new product. This new product is easily removed from the cloth as we
wash. On the other hand, water without detergent or soap can take a long time to
remove the stains.
84
Most metabolic reactions in the body are • Wooden splint
catalysed by enzymes; hence increasing
efficiency of these processes in living • Matchbox
organisms. It is important therefore to • Fine sand
understand the nature, properties of
• Test tubes
enzymes and how they function.
Enzymes are biological catalysts that are • Labels
protein in nature. They speed up or slow
Procedure
down the rate of chemical reactions
in the body without being used up 1. Label 4 test tubes as A, B, C and D.
themselves. 2. Measure 2cm 3 of hydrogen
peroxide solution and pour into
6.1 Types of enzymes each of the labelled test tubes.
Some enzymes are used within the cells
3. Into test tube A, do not add
that produce them. These are called
anything.
intracellular enzymes, for example,
respiratory enzymes and catalyse • Note any changes or
enzyme in the liver cells. observations.
Other enzymes are transported from 4. Into test tube B, add some sand.
the cells that produce them to be Shake the test tube and note down
used in other cells. These are called any changes.
extracellular enzymes. Some examples 5. Into test tube C add some pieces
of extracellular enzymes are those of potato that have been ground
secreted into the alimentary canal to into a paste (using a pestle and
help with digestion. mortar).
There are also different types of enzymes • Shake and obser ve what
based on the foods they act on, for happens.
example:
• Test for oxygen with a glowing
• Peptidases: Break down proteins splint at the mouth of the test
• Lipases: Break down lipids tube.
• Carbohydrases: Break down
carbohydrates 6. Repeat procedure (5) in test tube
D using some liver which has
Activity 6.1:To investigate the been cut up then pounded in a
presence of enzymes in living mortar using a pestle.
tissues
7. Record your observations in a
Requirements table like the one below.
• Samples of liver, potato or yeast
• 8 cm3 volume hydrogen peroxide
• Forceps, pestle and mortar
85
Table 6.1: Investigating the presence of enzymes in living tissue
Test tube Contents Observations Conclusion
A Hydrogen peroxide only
B Hydrogen peroxide + sand
C Hydrogen peroxide + potato tissue
D Hydrogen peroxide + liver
The facts The facts
Living tissues contain an enzyme called 1. Enzymes are protein in nature: all
catalase which breaks down hydrogen enzymes are made up of proteins.
peroxide to water and oxygen. 2. E n z y m e s a r e a f f e c t e d b y
temperature. They work best at
Hydrogen peroxide catalase water + oxygen
specific temperatures; for example,
2H2O2 (aq) catalase
2H2O (l) + O2 (g) enzymes found in human bodies
work best at 37oC. This is called the
The gas produced relights a glowing optimum temperature.
splint as seen in procedure 5 and 6. No Optimum temperature
gas is produced in Test tube 1 and 2
Rate of reaction
which do not contain living tissue. Region at which

Enzymes are
denatured
6.2 Characteristics of
enzymes
Discussion corner
1. Discuss with a classmate the 20 30 40 50
Temperature (ºC)
characteristics of enzymes. Use
the following questions as your Fig. 6.2: Effect of temperature on enzyme
guidelines: activity
• What are enzymes made of? • Very low temperatures inactivate
• What factors affect enzyme enzymes. Therefore enzymes are
action? not able to catalyse reactions.
• Do enzymes act on all • High temperatures beyond the
substrates? optimum temperature denature
• Do enzymes change after a enzymes. The structure of the
reaction? protein molecule is destroyed by
2. Share your findings with other heat.
class members. 3. Enzymes work best at specific pH.
Different enzymes have a given
specific pH at which they act best.
86
This pH is called optimum pH. particular substrate. This is because
Some enzymes work best at low pH they have active sites which can
(acidic medium) while others work only fit to a particular substrate
best at high pH (alkaline medium). whose shape complements the active
Most enzymes in the human body site. For example, pepsin works on
for instance work best at neutral or proteins but not on fats or starch.
slightly alkaline pH. Examples are:
7. Enzymes work rapidly. Enzymes
lipases, peptidases and amylase. A
work ver y fast in converting
few enzymes like pepsin that digests substrates into products. The fastest
proteins in the stomach works best known enzyme is catalase, which
at an acidic pH of 2. is found in both animal and plant
most enzymes tissues.
pepsin
e.g. Amylase 8. Enzymes are efficient. This is best
described by the fact that:
Rate of reaction
• They are required in very

small amounts.
• They are not used up in a
reaction and can therefore be
used repeatedly.
2 4 6 8 Activity 6.2: To investigate the

pH effect of amylase on starch
Fig. 6.3: Effect of pH on enzyme activity
Requirements
4. Enzymes remain unchanged after
catalysing a reaction. Enzymes • 1% amylase solution
are catalysts and can therefore be • Starch solution
used over and over again in small • Distilled water
amounts without being changed. • Three boiling tubes
5. Enzymes catalyse re versible • Iodine solution
reactions. This means that they can
• Labels
change a substrate into products and
the products back to the original Procedure
substrate. 1. Put 2 cm3 of starch solution in
A + B C a test tube and add 5 cm3 of 1%
6. Enzymes are substrate-specific. amylase solution to it. Label it A.
This means that an enzyme can only
catalyse one reaction involving a
87
2. In the other test tube, put 2 cm3 Any change in the structure of an
of distilled water and add 5 cm3 enzyme interferes with its ability to
of 1% amylase solution. Label it catalyse a reaction. We therefore need to
B. investigate the factors that affect enzyme
3. Put the two test tubes in a water activity. They include: temperature,
bath at 35oC and leave the set up enzyme concentration, substrate
undisturbed for 20 minutes. concentration and presence of inhibitor.
4. Carry out a starch test on contents a) pH
of test tube A and B.
5. Record your observations in a Activity 6.3: To investigate the
table. effect of pH on action of salivary
6. Account for your observations. amylase on starch
7. Share your work with the rest of Requirements
the class. • 1% amylase solution
• Starch solution
• Iodine solution
Self-evaluation Test 6.1 • Benedict's solution
1. Distinguish between enzymes • 0.1M Hydrochloric acid (HCL)
and other catalysts. • Distilled water
2. Explain the meaning of the • 0.1% sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
following terms with reference
to enzymes: • Metal test tube rack
(a) Denaturation • Boiling tubes
(b) Inactivation • Labels
3. The reaction below illustrates an • Source of heat
enzyme catalysed reaction. • Water bath at 37o C
Enzyme X • Thermometer
A + B C
Enzyme X Procedure
State two characteristics of 1. Take a sample of starch solution
enzymes illustrated in the and test for the presence of starch,
reaction. and reducing sugars. Divide the
remaining solution into three test
4. Explain why enzymes are said to
tubes and label them as A, B and C.
be substrate specific.
2. To test tube A, add 1cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid and shake. Add
6.3 Factors that affect 1cm3 of the enzyme amylase and
enzyme activity shake.
As mentioned earlier, enzymes are
protein in nature and are very sensitive.
88
3. To test tube B, add 1cm3 of dilute sodium hydroxide solution then 1cm3 of the
enzyme amylase and shake.
4. To test tube C, add 1cm3 of distilled water into the test tube then add 1cm3 of
the enzyme amylase and shake.
5. Place the labelled test tubes into a water bath maintained at 37ºC for 20 minutes.
6. Test the contents of the test tubes for the presence of starch and reducing sugars.
7. Record your results and conclusions in a table like table 6.2.
Table 6.2: Results for testing for the effects of pH on enzyme action
Test tube Test for starch Test for reducing sugars
Observation Conclusion Observation Conclusion
A
B
C
8. Discuss your findings with a classmate.
9. Share your findings with the rest of the class.
10. Account for your results in the experiment above.
The facts
Different enzymes have different pH at which they work best. Most enzymes in the
human body however, work best at pH 7 (neutral pH). Some digestive enzymes have
different optimum pH though. For instance pepsin digests proteins in the stomach
at a pH of 2 while trypsin digests proteins in the duodenum at a pH of 9. Extreme
pH causes enzymes to denature and permanently lose their function.
optimum pH
Rate of reaction
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
pH
Fig. 6.4: Graph showing optimum pH (7) of an enzyme
89
b) Temperature
Activity 6.4: To investigate the Procedure
effect of temperature on action 1. Place 2 cm3 each of starch solution
of ptyalin
into three different test tubes
Requirements labelled A, B and C.
• 1% Amylase solution 2. To each test tube, add 1cm3 of
• Starch solution amylase enzyme.
• Iodine and Benedict’s solution 3. Immerse test tube A into a beaker
of cold water (preferably with ice-
• Metal rack
cubes).
• Source of heat
4. Put test tube B in a water bath
• Pair of tongs maintained at 37ºC.
• 3 boiling tubes 5. Boil the contents of test tube C.
• Water bath at 37o C 6. Test the contents of each test tube
• Labels for the presence of starch and
• 2 beakers reducing sugars.
• Ice cubes and cold water 7. Record your results in a table like
table 6.3.
Table 6.3: Results for testing the effects of temperature on enzyme amylase
Test tube Test for starch Test for reducing sugars
Observation Conclusion Observation Conclusion
A
B
C
The facts Higher temperatures than the optimum

temperature destroy enzymes. This
Enzyme activity is higher at high is because such temperatures alter or
temperature since molecules gain more change the structure of the enzyme.
kinetic energy. There is therefore a higher This destroys the binding site; enzymes
chance of substrates bumping into are therefore said to be denatured. A
enzyme’s active site. The temperature denatured enzyme cannot function.
at which enzymes work best is called Most enzymes begin to denature at
optimum temperature. Temperatures 40 oC. However, enzymes of bacteria
lower than the optimum cause enzymes found in hot springs may begin to
to be inactive. Therefore they work at a denature at temperatures higher than
slow rate. 80o C.
90
Optimum temperature
Rate of reaction
Region at which
enzymes are
denatured
20 30 40 50
Temperature (ºC)
Fig. 6.5 Effect of temperature on enzyme action
Note: Other factors of that affect enzyme activity are: substrate concentration, enzyme
concentration, presence of inhibitors and co-factors.-
Self-evaluation Test 6.2 4. An enzyme Z was extracted from

the alimentary canal of a certain
1. Which of the following has an
mammal. The effect of pH on
active site?
the activity of this enzyme was
A. Product investigated at 38o C. The results
B. Substrate are shown in the figure below.
C. Enzyme
D. Enzyme substrate complex
2. Name two factors that destroy
Rate of reaction
the shape of the active site of an

enzyme.
3. Enzyme pepsin is a protease that
digests proteins in the stomach.
(a) Suggest the optimum pH for
this enzyme.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
(b) Name the liquid in the pH
stomach with the optimum (a) Why was the investigation
pH for this enzyme. carried out at 38oC?
(c) S u g g e s t t h e o p t i m u m (b) D es cr ib e t he ef fe c t of
temperature for this enzyme. increasing pH on rate of
(d) Explain why the rate of an reaction of enzyme Z
enzyme-catalysed reaction (c) Explain what would happen
slows down as temperature to enzyme Z if the reaction
increases beyond optimum. was carried out at pH 2.
91
6.4 Mode of enzyme
action
Activity 6.5: To investigate the
fitting of substrate to enzyme
active site
Requirements
• A set of 15 keys
• 10 different padlocks Fig. 6.6: Key and lock mechanism
Procedure
Further Activity 6.6: To investigate
• Working in groups, each member the action of enzyme amylase
of the group should try to find the
right key for the two padlocks. Requirements
Study questions • 5 cm3 of three different amylase

solution concentrations. P 1
(a) Were you able to find out the right (1.0%), P2 (0.5%) and P3 (0.25%)
key?
• 3 separated small circles of filter
(b) What conclusion can you make paper measuring 10 mm in
from the activity? diameter
(c) What do the following correspond
• Blunt ended forceps
to with regard to enzymes and
substrates? • Pair of scissors
• Key • Padlock hole • Clock
• Three Petri-dishes
The facts • Teat pipette
Enzymes are very specific in nature. • 50 cm3 tap water in a beaker

This means that they can only catalyse • Plain piece of photocopy paper.
a specific reaction. The shape of the
substrate must complement the shape • Labels
of the enzyme’s active site. This enables • Iodine solution
fitting of the substrate into the enzyme
active site and enables the substrate to Procedure
be changed into products. The 'groove' 1. Label three different petri dishes
in an enzyme where the substrate fits as P1, P2 and P3
during the reaction is called active site.
When the substrate fits into the active 2. Put the different concentrations
site, an enzyme-substrate complex is of amylase in the three different
formed. This reaction complex can be Petri-dishes.
explained by a key and lock mechanism
as illustrated below.
92
3. Put a small disc of filter paper in Self-evaluation Test 6.3
each of the amylase solutions in
1. Amylase is a digestive enzyme
the petri-dishes.
found in the saliva. Which of the
3. Cut a circular piece from the plain following food substances does it
photocopy paper that can fit at the breakdown?
bottom of a petri-dish.
A. Glucose
4. Place the circular paper at the
B. Starch
bottom of an empty petri-dish and
irrigate it with iodine solution. C. Protein
5. Pour away excess iodine solution. D. Carbohydrate
6. Using the teat pipette, pour water 2. What does the key and lock
on the circular paper and rinse it. hypothesis refer to with regard
to enzyme action?
7. Using the blunt forceps, remove
the small discs of filter paper 3. Draw a graph that shows the
from the respective solutions and effects of increasing temperature
place them on the stained piece of in an enzyme catalysed reaction.
circular paper in the petri-dish.
8. Cover the petri-dish and leave the Unit summary
set up for 15 minutes. • An enzyme is a substance produced
9. Using the forceps, gently lift the by a living organism that acts as a
circular pieces of paper from the catalyst to bring about a specific
petri-dish one at a time taking biochemical reaction.
care not to tear the paper beneath. • A catalyst is a substance that
10. O bserve the circular portions increases the rate of a chemical
where you removed the pieces of reaction without itself undergoing
filter papers. any permanent chemical change.
11. Record your observations in a • Enzymes are characterized by their
table. specificity, sensitivity to temperature
Study questions and pH change, and working very
fast.
(a) Explain the observations you have • Factors affecting enzyme activity
recorded for the stained piece of include pH and temperature range.
paper where the small disc of filter
paper was placed. • The substrate must fit into the active
site of an enzyme for a reaction to
(b) Suggest three ways you could take place. This forms the key and
improve this investigation. lock mechanism.
93
 Test your competence 6 catalysed reaction is increased
by 10o C. How does this affect the
reaction?
1. Which of the following is not a true
5. The graph below shows the effects of
statement about enzymes?
temperature on the rate of enzyme
A. They are catalysts. catalysed reaction. Use it to answer
B. They are produced by ductless questions (a) and (b).
glands. X
C. They increase the rate of
chemical reactions.
D. They act on only one type of
Rate of reaction
reaction.
2. Enzymes are in nature.
A. Starch
B. Protein
C. Carbohydrate
D. Lipid Y Z
Temperature oC
3. The graph below shows how the
rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction (a) What is represented by X and
changes with change in pH. Y?
(b) What is happening at point Z?
6. Digestion of starch by enzyme
amylase begins in the mouth but
Rate of reaction
stops when the food arrives in the

stomach. Explain.
7. An investigation was carried out to
study the effect of pH on enzyme
catalase using pieces of fresh liver.
Catalase is an enzyme found in
pH
plant and animal cells and breaks
Which statement below is true?
down hydrogen peroxide to oxygen
A. The enzyme works best in and water as shown in the reaction
alkaline conditions. below.
B. The enzyme works best in catalase
2H2O2(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g)
acidic conditions.
The rate of reaction was investigated
C. The enzyme is denatured at pH by finding out how long it took for
2. 10 cm3 of oxygen to be collected.
D. The rate of reaction decreases a) Which other factor need
with decrease in pH. to be kept constant in this
4. The temperature of an enzyme investigation?
94
b) The table below shows the (i) Which is the optimum
results of the investigation. pH for catalase?
(ii) Account for the change
pH Time taken to in rate of reaction at pH
collect 10 cm3 of 6.
oxygen 8. Suggest a reason why an enzyme
3 22 catalyses only one specific reaction.
4 19 9. The following set-ups were prepared
5 13 to investigate the action of a digestive
6 9 enzyme. After 30 minutes, the test-
7 12.5 tubes content were tested for the
8 17.5 presence of starch.
Test tube A Test tube B Test tube C Test tube D

Starch Starch Starch Starch
Salivary Salivary amylase None Salivary amylase
amylase
Acid Neutral Alkali Alkali
37oC 37oC 37oC 50oC
(a) In which tube would starch be absent? Explain
(b) Why does each of the other tubes still contain some starch?
(c) Which properties of enzymes does this experiment test?
95
Unit
7 Photosynthesis
Key unit competency

To be able to explain the process of photosynthesis and how various environmental
factors affect the rate at which photosynthesis occurs.
Learning objectives
• Define and state the word equation for photosynthesis.
• Recall the location of plastids and chloroplasts in a plant cell.
• Identify the products of photosynthesis.
• Explain the importance of nitrates and magnesium in chlorophyll synthesis.
• Explain how the internal and external structures of a leaf are adapted for
photosynthesis.
• Describe the uses and dangers of fertilisers.
• Carry out experiments to test for starch in green leaves.
• Appreciate the process of photosynthesis.
Introduction
By now, you must have heard about photosynthesis. What does the word photosynthesis
mean? How does it occur? What does it require in order for it to take place?
Look at the plant leaves below. Which one do you think is best suited to carry out the
process of photosynthesis? Why?
A B
Fig 7.1 Types of leaves
Discuss the above questions with your friend. From your discussion, what do you
think you will learn in this unit?
96
Plants and certain types of bacteria are autotrophs. This means that they can
synthesise their own food. Plants use energy from the sun, carbon dioxide and water
as raw materials to make food in a process known as photosynthesis. They have
chlorophyll which traps light energy from the sun. In the process, oxygen is given
off as a by-product. The process of photosynthesis can be summarised as follows:
Water + Carbon dioxide chlorophyll glucose + oxygen
sunlight
The chlorophyll are found in beaker

chloroplasts. Chloroplast is an example leaf
boiling tube
of a plastid. It is the organelle in a plant
cell where photosynthesis takes place. water bath
Chloroplasts are found in the cytoplasm
of the cells found in either palisade cells
mesophyll, spongy mesophyll and guard Fig. 7.2: Testing for starch in leaves
cells in a leaf. Cells that have chloroplasts 4. Put a boiling tube half-filled with
are called photosynthetic cells. methylated spirit into the boiling
water (water bath).
To find out whether the leaf is the site for
Caution: Do not expose methylated
photosynthesis, we test for the presence
spirit to a naked flame.
of starch in the leaf.
5. Take the leaf and dip it into the
Activity 7.1: Testing for the boiling methylated spirit.
presence of starch in leaves 6. Leave it in the hot methylated
Requirements spirit until all the chlorophyll is
removed.
• Leaves
7. Take the leaf, which is now white
• Beaker with water
in colour, and dip it once again in
• Boiling tube the boiling water.
• Tripod stand and wire gauze 8. Take the leaf using a pair of forceps
• Methylated spirit or alcohol and spread it out carefully onto a
• Iodine solution white tile.
• Pair of forceps 9. Using a dropper, place a few drops
• Source of heat of iodine solution onto the leaf and
note the colour of iodine.
Procedure
Study questions
1. Half-fill a beaker with water.
2. Boil the water in the beaker. (a) Give reasons why the leaf was
boiled in water?
3. Dip a leaf into the boiling water
(b) What is the significance of boiling
for 2 to 3 minutes.
the leaf in ethanol using a water
bath rather than directly heating
with an open flame.
97
The facts 2. Detach a variegated leaf from the
plant and draw it.
Change in colour of iodine solution from 3. Label the green part and the white
brown to blue-black shows presence part.
of starch. This means that the part of 4. Test the leaf for starch. (Refer to
the leaf tested has starch and therefore activity 7.1)
photosynthesis must have taken place in
that part. 5. Draw the leaf after the test and
For photosynthesis to take place label the brown parts and the
certain conditions are necessary. These blue-black parts.
conditions include the presence of: Study questions
• Light energy
(a) In the test for starch, what is the
• Carbon dioxide colour of the part of the leaf that
• Water was:
• Chlorophyll (i) Green?
7.1 Necessity of (ii) Yellow?
chlorophyll, (b) Explain the results that you get
light energy and on testing the variegated leaf for
starch.
carbon dioxide for
(c) Which part of the leaf acts as a
photosynthesis control?
Activity 7.2:To investigate Health Check!
necessity of chlorophyll for
photosynthesis • Put on eye protection.
Requirements • Ethanol is highly flammable;
therefore remember to turn out
• Potted plant with variegated
the flame before putting the boiling
leaves
tube with the ethanol into the hot
• Ethanol or methylated spirit water.
• 2 beakers (250 ml)
• Iodine solution
• White tile The facts
• Source of heat A variegated leaf is one whose surface
• Water in a wash bottle shows two colours, for example, green
Procedure on some parts and white on others.
Non-green part of
1. Expose the variegated potted
the leaf
plant (that had previously been
put in darkness for 48 hours - a Green part of the
process called destarching) to leaf
sunlight for about 3 hours.
Fig. 7.3: A variegated leaf
98
The green part of the leaf has cells with
3. Expose the plant to sufficient light
chlorophyll. Therefore photosynthesis
for about 3 hours.
will take place and form starch. Starch
present in this part will turn iodine 4. Pick the leaf that had been covered
from brown to blue-black colour. The and one other uncovered leaf and
yellow part has cells that do not contain carry out a starch test on the leaves.
chlorophyll. These cells will not carry Aluminium foil
out photosynthesis; therefore no starch
will be formed. The starch test will be
negative. The green part of the leaf
acts as a control experiment because
it has all the conditions required for
photosynthesis. (a) (b)
Activity 7.3:To investigate Fig. 7. 4: (a) Before testing for starch
necessity of light in (b) After testing for starch
photosynthesis
Requirements 5. Record your results.
• A potted plant 6. Account for the observations.
• Aluminium foil 7. Discuss with a classmate your
• Paper clips findings.
• 250ml beakers Study questions
• Water bath
(a) What do you observe when you
• Water in a wash bottle
test the leaf for starch?
• Forceps
(b) Draw the different parts of the leaf
• White tile
as observed in the experiment.
• Iodine solution
(c) Which part of the leaf acts as a
• Ethanol
control?
Procedure
(d) Explain your answer in (c) above.
1. Cut out a star shape or circle in
the middle of an aluminium foil
or black carbon paper that is big The facts
enough to cover a big portion of a
leaf. The part of the plant not covered with
2. Use a paper clip to attach this paper the foil had all conditions needed for
securely round one of the green photosynthesis. Therefore, on testing
leaves of a potted plant as shown with iodine, it appeared blue-black. This
in figure 7.4. Cover the leaf with is because starch was present. This part
aluminium foil only leaving out a of the leaf acts as a control set-up.
star shaped space that exposes part When a test for starch was carried on
of the leaf. the part covered with aluminium foil,
99
the colour of iodine persisted. This polythene
shows that starch was absent. The foil sunlight bag
prevented sunlight from reaching this rays
potted
part of the leaf and hence photosynthesis plant
did not take place.
sodium
Activity 7.4: To investigate the hydroxide
necessity of carbon dioxide in
photosynthesis
Fig 7.5: Plant A
Requirements
Plant B
• Two potted plants growing in
small plastic containers kept in 3. Repeat the procedure but place
the dark for 24 hours. sodium hydrogen carbonate
(sodium bicarbonate) in the
• Transparent plastic bags
plastic container.
• Sodium hydroxide (soda lime)
sunlight
or potassium hydroxide (potash) rays
solution
• Rubber bands to fit around plastic
decomposing sodium
containers for the solutions hydrogen carbonate
• Methylated spirit
• Beaker with water
• Boiling tube Fig. 7.6: Plant B
• Sodium hydrogen carbonate
4. Leave the set-up in a well-lit part
(sodium bicabornate).
of the laboratory or in sunlight
Procedure for several hours or 1 to 2 days.
Set up the two potted plants as 5. Detach leaves from each setup
follows: and test for the presence of starch.
Plant A Study questions
1. Put some sodium hydroxide or
(a) What is the role of the sodium
potassium hydroxide into the
hydroxide (potassium hydroxide)
small plastic container. Place the
in set-up A?
container carefully on the soil
holding the plant. (b) What did you find out when you
tested for starch in leaves from
2. Take the transparent polythene
set-up A and B?
bag and cover the whole plant with
it. Secure the bottom by tying it (c) What conclusion can you make
with one or two elastic bands. from the results of set-up A and B?
(d) Between set-up A and B which one
acts as the control experiment?
(e) What is the role of sodium
bicarbonate in set-up B?
100
The facts
As mentioned earlier, photosynthesis involves synthesis of organic food substances

by plants. The overall photosynthesis equation is:
Light energy
Water + carbon dioxide glucose + oxygen
Chlorophyll
Light energy
6CO2(g)+ 6H2O(l) C6H12O6(S) + 6 O2 (g)
Chlorophyll
End products of photosynthesis

Glucose: This is the main product. It
is used in respiration to release energy.
Glass funnel
Excess glucose is stored as starch or oil.
Oxygen: Some of the oxygen is used beaker
Beaker
during respiration while the rest is Elodea

released to the atmosphere during Water
gaseous exchange.
A Wooden blocks to raise B
funnel
Activity 7.5:To show that
oxygen is produced during
Fig. 7.7: Experiment to show that oxygen
photosynthesis
is produced during photosynthesis
Requirements
Note:
• Two large beakers Set up A placed in a dark cupboard
• Two funnels (glass) Set up B placed in a bright sunshine
• Two test tubes 3. Observe the set-up in the dark
• Water with sodium hydrogen cupboard.
carbonate dissolved in it
• What did you notice?
• Splints
• Match box 4. Observe the set-up in the bright
sunshine.
• Water weed e.g. Elodea or
Spirogyra • What do you notice?
Procedure 5. Test any gas produced using a
glowing splint.
1. Prepare two set-ups of apparatus
as shown below. Study questions
(a) What is the role of the sodium
hydrogen carbonate (sodium
bicarbonate) dissolved in the
water?
101
(b) What happens to the glowing
splint when it is exposed to the
gas in the test tubes? x
• What is your conclusion from
the observation? M
(c) What was the role of the set- N
up that was placed in the dark
cupboard? (a) Account for the distribution
of starch in part of leaf M.
The facts (b) There was complete absence
In presence of sunlight, photosynthesis of starch in leaf N. Account
takes place producing oxygen as a for this.
by-product. Oxygen relights a glowing
splint. In darkness no photosynthesis 7.2 Limiting factors of
takes place. The set up in the dark photosynthesis
cupboard therefore does not produce A limiting factor is a variable which
any oxygen. limits the rate of photosynthesis.
Self-evaluation Test 7.1 The process of photosynthesis does not
always take place efficiently. Sometimes
1. Name the raw materials required there are some factors that hinder its
for photosynthesis to occur. progress. Photosynthesis may be limited
2. Below is an incomplete symbolic by a shortage in supply of one or more
equation of photosynthesis. raw materials or other factors necessary
sunlight for photosynthesis.
Water + X+
carbon dioxide Y
oxygen
Discussion corner
(a) What does Y represent?
1. Discuss with your classmates the
(b) What is product X? effects of the following on the
3. Plants convert glucose into process of photosynthesis under
_______ and store it in _______, the following conditions:
_________ and ________.
(i) Very low temperatures
4. The figure below shows an
experiment that was carried out (ii) Cloudy conditions
on two green leaves. The mid-rib (iii) Very high light intensity
of leaf M was severed at point x (iv) Low carbon dioxide
while still attached to the tree in 2. What does this tell you about the
an evening of a sunny day. The process of photosynthesis
mid-rib of leaf N was left intact.
The two leaves were detached from
the plant and tested for starch.
102
The facts even with increase in light intensity.
At this point, light is no longer a
Some of these factors are given below. limiting factor. Instead, other factors
limit the rate.
a. Light intensity
b. Carbon dioxide concentration
The intensity of sunlight varies with
time of the day, season and position The amount of carbon dioxide in
of the plants on the earth’s surface. the atmosphere is quite low (0.03%).
Light is a necessity for photosynthesis Therefore it can also be a limiting
to occur. In darkness, plants cannot factor to photosynthesis. Increase in
photosynthesise at all. In low light carbon dioxide increases the rate of
intensity, the rate of photosynthesis is photosynthesis. But this continues
low. But as light intensity increases, the only to a certain point where rate
rate of photosynthesis also increases. of photosynthesis does not increase
There reaches a point where the plant further with more carbon dioxide since
cannot photosynthesise any faster even other factors affecting photosynthesis
with further increase in light intensity. become limiting.
At this point, any other factor affecting
the rate of photosynthesis hinders the C
Rate of photosynthesis
rate of photosynthesis. B
C
B A
Concentration of carbon
A
dioxide
Fig. 7.9: Graph of effect of carbon dioxide
concentration on the rate of photosynthesis
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20
Light intensity AB: Increase in concentration of
Fig. 7.8: A graph showing effect of light carbon dioxide causes a rise in rate of
intensity on rate of photosynthesis photosynthesis.
BC: Limiting factors set in and a further
• Between points A and B; rate of rise in carbon dioxide concentration
photosynthesis is affected by the does not cause a corresponding increase
amount of sunlight. Increase in in rate of photosynthesis.
light intensity leads to an increase
in the rate of photosynthesis. Light c.Temperature
is therefore a limiting factor. Photosynthesis is an enzyme- catalysed
• Between B and C however, the plant reaction and is therefore affected by
cannot photosynthesise any faster temperature. If temperatures are low,
103
plants photosynthesise very slowly; but
as temperature increases, the rate of
photosynthesis also increases. Rate of 1. Which of the following is not a
photosynthesis is highest at optimum limiting factor in photosynthesis?
temperature. Further increase in A. Amount of oxygen
temperature above optimum results to a B. Concentration of chlorophyll
decrease in rate of photosynthesis since
C. Light intensity
enzymes are denatured.
D. Temperature
B
E. Carbon dioxide concentration
2. The graph below shows the effect

of increasing carbon dioxide on
the rate of photosynthesis.
A C
Temperature
Fig. 7.10: Effect of temperature on the rate of
photosynthesis
AB – Increase in temperature causes

a corresponding increase in the Concentration of carbon dioxide
rate of photosynthesis. The rate of
E x p l a i n w hy t h e r a t e o f
photosynthesis is highest at B.
photosynthesis does not continue
BC – Any further increase in temperature to increase with increase in
denatures the enzymes. Therefore the carbon dioxide concentration.
rate of photosynthesis declines. 3. Temperature is a factor that
d. Water limits the rate of photosynthesis.
E x p l a i n w hy t h e r a t e o f
Only about 1% of the water taken in by
photosynthesis starts to decrease
plants is used for photosynthesis. Water
as temperature increases beyond
shortage only indirectly affects the rate
40oC and eventually stops beyond
of photosynthesis, for instance, when
60oC.
water is in short supply, the stomata
close. This lowers the exchange of gases 4. The atmospheric air contains
between the leaf and the atmosphere. As 0.03% carbon dioxide. What
a result, less carbon dioxide diffuses via will happen to the rate of
the stomata into the leaf. This reduces photosynthesis if carbon dioxide
the rate of photosynthesis. level rises to 4%?
104
7.3 Internal structure of the leaf and its adaptaions to
photosynthesis
The leaf is the main organ for photosynthesis. However, other green parts of the
plant carry out photosynthesis as well. The structure of the leaf is well suited for
photosynthesis. Look at the diagram below. It shows the internal parts of the leaf.
air space
Fig 7.1: Internal structure of the leaf
The leaf has cuticle which covers

both upper and lower surfaces of the The facts
leaf. Immediately after the cuticle
The following are some of the adaptations
is the upper and lower epidermis
of the leaf to photosynthesis :
respectively. The palisade mesophyll
which contains palisade cells that carry • The leaf blade is broad and flat to
out photosynthesis is located below the provide a large surface area for
upper epidermis. Its is followed by the absorption of sunlight and carbon
spongy mesophyll layer which has cells dioxide.
with large air spaces between them. On • Most leaves are thin. This reduces the
the lower epidermis are tiny openings distance across which carbon dioxide
called stomata. They are surrounded by has to diffuse from the stomata to
special cells known as guard cells. reach the photosynthesising cells.
Research work • Leaves have vascular bundles that
contain structures (xylem and
1. Using text books and the internet phloem) which supply the cells with
research on the adaptations of the water and mineral salts. The vascular
leaf for photosynthesis. bundles also transport manufactured
2. Write down short notes regarding food to the other parts of the plant.
your findings. • The leaf cuticle and epidermis are
3. Discuss your findings with your transparent and thin to allow easy
class members penetration of light.
105
• Presence of stomata on the leaves gases to circulate freely thereby
allows easy diffusion of carbon enhancing gaseous exchange between
dioxide. the cells and the air surrounding
• The leaves are well arranged to avoid them.
overlapping and overshadowing. This • Palisade cells are closely packed.
ensures maximum exposure to light. Further, they are elongated and lie
• The spongy mesophyll layer has cells at right angles to each other. They
that are irregular in shape and are also contain many chloroplasts hence
loosely arranged hence have large absorb maximum sunlight required
air spaces between them. This allows for photosynthesis.

1. Use the diagram of the cross-section through the leaf to answer the questions
that follow.
(a) Indicate on the diagram the following: guard cells, spongy mesophyll
layer, palisade layer and vascular bundles.
(b) Which cell type absorbs most carbon dioxide during the day?
(c) State the role of the part labelled D in photosynthesis.
(d) Describe ways in which cell type B are suited for photosynthesis.
(e) Of what importance is the shape of cell type C in photosynthesis?.
2. Differentiate between the following.
(a) Epidermal cell and guard cell.
(b) Palisade layer and spongy layer.
3. Explain the role of vascular bundles in photosynthesis.
4. Describe how each of the following helps a leaf to photosynthesise.
(a) Chlorophyll molecules in the chloroplast.
(b) Lack of chloroplasts in the epidermal cells.
(c) Transparent cuticle.
106
7.4 Importance of part of carbon dioxide from the air is
incorporated into synthesised food.
photosynthesis
This way the carbon is made available to
Discussion corner living things.
1. Discuss with a friend the following d. Prevents accumulation of carbon
questions: dioxide in the air
(a) How would life be on earth Some of the carbon dioxide in the air
without photosynthesis? is used up during photosynthesis. This
(b) W h a t d o y o u t h i n k reduces the amount of carbon dioxide
is the importance of in the atmosphere. A reduced level
photosynthesis? of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
2. Share your findings with the class. prevents global warming. Global
warming is the increase in global
temperature caused by increasing levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
among other factors.
The facts
e. It is responsible for the energy
All life on earth depends on stored in coal and petroleum
photosynthesis directly or indirectly for Plants and animals that existed on earth
the following reasons. millions of years ago were converted
a. As a source of energy
into fossils. The energy they contained,
which they obtained as a result of
We are already aware that plants make photosynthesis is stored in their fossil.
their own food through photosynthesis. Their fossils contain energy inform of
Animals too depend directly or fuels such as petroleum and coal.
indirectly on plants for their food. Food
Class Activity: Debate
contains energy from the sun stored
as chemical energy. This energy is Organise a class debate with a
necessary for the normal life processes motion: Deforestation is the main
to take place. cause of global warming.
b. Provides oxygen in air

Oxygen is a by-product of photosynthesis. Self-evaluation Test 7.4
This oxygen replaces oxygen in air 1. Describe the role of plants in an
which is continuously used up by all ecosystem.
living things during respiration. 2. Suggest conservation methods
c. Makes carbon available to plants you can initiate in your village
and animals to pre vent env ironment a l
Carbon is a major and important degradation.
component of chemicals in cells.
During photosynthesis, the carbon
107
7.5 Mineral requirements Deficiency of magnesium ions affects
plant growth and development as
for plant growth
photosynthesis is directly affected.
Plants require essential mineral ions Leaves start to change colour from
such as magnesium and nitrate ions for green to yellow. The result of this is
proper growth. less photosynthesis occurs hence poor
Research work growth.
1. Using soilless cultures, devise (b) Nitrate ions

experiments to investigate the Nitrate ions are required by plants
effect of nitrate and magnesium for protein synthesis. Nitrogen is a
ion deficiency on plant growth. constituent of amino acids, proteins,
2. Tabulate your results using the coenzymes, and chlorophyll.
following guidelines: Deficiency of nitrate ions results to
• For magnesium ions, record poor synthesis of chlorophyll hence
number of leaves that are leaves become yellowish. This causes
green, green with yellow less photosynthesis to occur resulting to
patches and yellow. stunted growth.
• For nitrate ions, record Uses and dangers of nitrogen
the height of plant, stem fertilisers
diameter, size of leaves
and number of leaves with Research Activity
yellowish colour. 1. Using text books and internet,
3. Account for the observations you research on the following:
make. (a) The effects of increased soil
• What are the dangers of acidity due to high nitrate
applying excess fertilisers to content.
crops? (b) Meaning of term
4. Present your work to the rest of eutrophication and its
the class. effects.
2. Present your findings to the rest
The facts of the class.
a. Magnesium ions
The facts
Magnesium ions are required for the
synthesis of chlorophyll, the pigment Soils naturally contain many nutrients
required in photosynthesis. They are like nitrogen, phosphorous, calcium,
also needed for activation of many and potassium. These nutrients enable
enzymes involved in the energy transfer plants to grow healthy. When soil
processes. nutrients are missing or in short supply,
108
plants suffer from nutrient deficiency. (b) Excess nitrogen in the soil creates
Their growth and development is an imbalance of nutrients. This
affected hence the plant cannot function c aus e s a d e pl e t i on of ot he r
properly to produce food. important minerals such as calcium,
In nutrient deficient soils, fertilisers are phosphorus and magnesium.
applied. Fertilisers add plant nutrients
(c) High amounts of nitrates in the soil
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and
results to increased acidity. This
potassium that are lacking in the soil.
affects plants that require alkaline
Fertilisers are simply nutrients applied
conditions to grow.
to agricultural fields to supplement
required elements missing in the soil. (d) Nitrogen-polluted air, caused
Nitrogen, naturally comes from the by nitrates from automobiles
atmosphere, and enters the soil through and industrial plants, results in
rainfall and lightning. It can also be acidification of the soil when acid
found in beneficial microorganisms rain falls.
(some types of bacteria), which live in
the soil. (e) Surface run-offs containing high
It is the misuse and overuse of nitrogen amounts of nitrates enter into water
fertilisers that has severely affected the bodies resulting to eutrophication.
Earth’s natural ecosystem. It has also
When nitrogen levels in rivers and
depleted minerals from the soils.
streams increase, they aid in algae
Dangerous levels of nitrates in the overgrowth. As algae dies and
environment; due to overuse of nitrogen decompose, organic matter in water
fertiliser is linked to diseases such as increases. This process uses up the
diabetes, cancer, and Parkinson’s disease. available oxygen, causing levels to
Consumption of ground water drop. Without oxygen, fish, crabs
containing high amounts of nitrate and other aquatic organisms die.
may lead to health problems in young
children. (f) Nitrogen is a soluble substance.
It soaks deeply into the soil after
Harmful effects of nitrogen fertilisers to the a rainstorm or irrigation. It may
environment reach ground water and nearby wells
(a) Nitrogen fertilisers aid plants in hence contaminating them.
their growth. However, weeds and My environment, my life!
non-native plants tend to grow more
readily with additional nitrogen All of us have a role to play in ensuring
supplies. that the environment is conducive for
humans and other living organisms.
This preserves biodiversity for future
generations.
Fig 7.11 Nitrogen fertiser
109
1. Describe the symptoms shown by plants due to deficiency of:
(a) Magnesium ions
(b) Nitrate ions
2. A student carried out an investigation to show how magnesium affected the
growth of a water plant, Elodea. The student prepared five dishes containing
20 plants of the water plant with different concentration of magnesium salt.
After 30 days, the student counted the number of plants that had grown and
recorded their appearance. The results are shown in the following table.
Concentration of magnesium Number of plants Appearance of leaves
salt/mg per dm3 after 30 days
0.05 17 Yellow with green patches
0.10 44 Green with yellow patches
0.15 63 Green with yellow spots
0.20 98 Green
0.25 104 Green
(a) Describe the effect of decreasing the concentration of magnesium salt on the
growth of Elodea.
(b) How does magnesium deficiency affect the growth and appearance of Elodea?
Unit summary dioxide concentration, light intensity

• Photosynthesis is a process used and temperature.
by plants and other organisms to • Plant leaf is structurally modified
convert light energy, normally from to c ar r y out t he pro c e ss of
the sun, into chemical energy that photosynthesis efficiently.
can be later released to fuel the • Photosynthesis is important to
organisms’ activities. organisms as it helps to cycle
• Plants use sunlight energy, carbon oxygen and carbon dioxide in the
dioxide and water as raw materials to environment.
make glucose as product and oxygen • For plants to grow healthy they
as a by-product. require mineral salts.
• Chlorophyll is a green pigment, • Lack of mineral salts in the soil
present in all green plants and in especially nitrates and magnesium
cyanobacteria, responsible for the leads to poor plant growth.
absorption of light to provide energy • Mineral salts can be replaced in
for photosynthesis. Its molecule deficient soils through application
contains a magnesium atom. of fertilisers.
• The limiting factors of • Overuse of fertilisers have adverse
photosynthesis include carbon effects to organisms and the
environment.
110
sodium
1. Which of the following statements
hydroxide
is not true?
A. Plants respire all the time. A
B. At night plants give out carbon
dioxide.
C. During the day the rate of
photosynthesis exceeds that of glass beads
respiration.
D. Plants only respire. B
2. Study the equation given below. (a) Explain why the plants were
energy destarched before beginning
6CO2 + C6H12O6 +
pigments the experiment.
(a) Complete the equation. (b) Why is chlorophyll removed
(b) What is the source of energy from the leaves before carrying
for this reaction? out a starch test?
(c) Name the pigment needed for (c) What is the role of sodium
this reaction to occur. hydroxide in the experiment?
(d) What is the role of this pigment (d) State the expected results of the
in photosynthesis? starch test.
(e) State the mineral ion required (e) Account for the results stated in
for the synthesis of this (d).
pigment. (f) Why was plant B included in the
3. An experiment was carried out experiment?
to find out if carbon dioxide is 4. The growth and yields of crops
necessary for photosynthesis. Two grown in open fields are limited by
plants of the same species were environmental factors. Describe
destarched. The plants were then how these factors are controlled in
placed in sealed glass containers for commercial greenhouses for crops
24 hours as shown in figure below to produce high yields.
and exposed to sunlight. Sodium 5. Gahiji grew some wheat plants in
hydroxide pellets were placed in a culture solution that contained
glass container of plant A while all mineral ions except nitrate. The
glass beads were placed in the glass wheat did not grow as well as those
container of plant B. After 24 hours, that were given all mineral ions.
starch test was carried out on plant (a) What is the role of nitrate in
A and B. plant growth?
(b) What was the appearance of
111
the plants grown without any
nitrate.
(c) If pl ant s ge t ve r y l itt l e
magnesium ions, they have
poor growth. Explain.
6. Study the graphs below.
C Carbon dioxide level

B (b) According to the above graph, what
is the effect of increased carbon
dioxide levels to photosynthesis?
Explain your answer.
A
Light intensity
(a) (i) What happens to the rate
of photosynthesis as light
i nt e n s it y i s i n c re a s e d
between A and B?
(ii) What limiting factors are
involved on further increase
of light intensity from B Temperature
to C? Explain how these
(c) Explain the changes that occur
factors affect the rate of
in the above graph to the rate of
photosynthesis.
photosynthesis as the temperature
rises.
112
Unit Transport of water, minerals
8 and organic foods in plants
Key unit competency
To be able to explain the process of uptake and transport of mineral and organic
saps, transpiration and translocation, and their roles in plants.
Learning objectives
• Identify xylem and phloem tissues from transverse sections and state their
functions.
• Explain the mechanism by which water moves upwards in the xylem.
• Explain the adaptations of plant leaves to controlling water loss.
• Describe transpiration and its effects.
• Explain the adaptations of desert plants.
• Explain how translocation takes place.
• Use a potometer to measure the rate of water uptake in a given plant.
• Appreciate the importance of absorption and transport of water in plants.
Introduction Carbon dioxide Oxygen

Plants manufacture food in the
Light
leaves. They absorb water and
mineral salts which they use as Water
raw materials from the soil. How
then do these important pl ant Sugar
re qu i re me nt s re ach other parts
of the plant from their source?
Look at the tree alongside. What is
going on in the tree?
The tree is big and complex. How
will food manufactured in the leaves
reach its stem and roots? By what
process will water absorbed in the
soil reach the stem and leaves? What
does this tell you about what you will Water
learn in this unit? Minerals
Fig 8.1 Transport of materials in a plant
113
In unicellular organisms, diffusion • Organic substances manufactured
is enough to transport materials into mainly by photosynthesis taking
and out of the body of the organisms. place in leaves.
However, plants are complex multicellular
organisms. Diffusion alone is therefore,
Discussion corner
not enough to transport materials within
it. This is because they have a lower surface 1. Discuss the following questions
area to volume ratio. Their cells are far with a friend.
away from the outside environment where (a) Where are the photosynthetic
these materials are located. cells located in a plant?
This necessitates a transport system to (b) How does water and mineral
enable movement of materials in plants. salts reach the photosynthetic
cells?
8.1 Transport system in (c) Where do plants obtain water
and mineral salts from?
plants
(d) State how the products
All living organisms are made up of of photosynthesis are
cells. In order to stay alive, these cells distributed to other parts of
take up useful substances from their the plant.
environment. They also produce and
2. Share your work with the rest of
release waste substances.
the class.
Water and mineral salts are transported
from the soil through roots to the
leaves and other parts of the plant.
The facts
Manufactured food is also transported Phloem and xylem tissues are found in
from the leaves to other parts of the plant. the root, the stem and the leaves. Phloem
A transport system in living organisms tissues transport food substances such
is made up of specialised tissues and as glucose and amino acids from the
organ systems. In plants, the transport leaves to other plant tissues where they
system is made up of specialised tissues are used or stored. The xylem tissues
called vascular bundles. The vascular transport water and mineral salts
bundles contain two types of tissues: absorbed by the roots to different parts
xylem and phloem. of the plant.
Substances that need to be transported Water and mineral uptake
in plants are: Water and mineral salts are absorbed
• Water required in photosynthesis. from the soil through the root hair
• Mineral salts used in various plant cells found in the roots. In order to
processes. understand how this takes place, we will
first look at root hairs and the internal
structure of the root.
114
Activity 8.1: Observing (b) W h at i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n
permanent slides of distribution of tissues between the
dicotyledonous and dicot root and the monocot root?
monocotyledonous roots
Requirements The facts
• Microscopes
• Permanent slides of transverse The distribution of tissues in a
sections of: transverse section of the dicotyledonous
root is not the same as that in the
• Dicotyledonous roots monocotyledonous root. In both the
• Monocotyledonous roots monocot and dicot roots the vascular
Procedure bundle occupies a central position.
1. Place a prepared slide of a In the dicotyledonous root, the xylem
dicotyledon root under the occupies the centre where it forms a star
microscope. Observe under low shape. The phloem is found in between
power and high power objective the two rays of the star. The vascular
lenses. bundles are arranged in a ring.
2. Note the different tissues present In the monocotyledonous root, the
and their location. xylem and phloem are arranged to form
3. Draw a plan diagram to show the a ring in which xylem tissue alternates
position and layout of different with the phloem tissue.
root hair pith
layers of tissue. Do not draw any
cells or shade. xylem
4. Compare your diagram with cortex
that of the plan diagram of the
dicotyledonous root section in fig phloem
8.2 (a) and use it to identify the epidermis
tissues. pericycle pericycle
endodermis
5. Rep eat this pro cedure for (a) Dicot root (b)Monocot root
the monocotyledon root and Fig 8.2 Transverse section of dicot and
compare your drawing with that monocot roots
in fig 8.2 (b). The root hair
Study questions Discussion corner
(a) Describe the pattern in the You will be provide with a chart
arrangement of xylem in relation showing the structure of root hair.
to phloem in the Study it and do the following.
• Dicotyledonous root 1. Discuss the following questions
with a friend.
• Monocotyledonous root
(a) Describe the appearance of
the root hair cells.
115
(b) What do you think is the Absorption of water
function of the root hair cell? The soil particles are usually surrounded
(c) What is the significance of by a film of water except when there is
(i) The number of the root drought. Root hair cells absorb water
hair cells found on each from the soil by osmosis.
root? endodermis
(ii) The size of the root hair
cells?
(d) What do you think is the
importance of the structure
of the root hair?
2. Share your findings with other class
members.
water entering
root hair by Cortex
pericycle
osmosis
The facts
Fig. 8.4: Absorption of water and how it
Root hair cells are found growing from moves from the root hair cell to the root
the outer surface of the root towards the xylem
end but not at the tips. Their function is The cell sap in the vacuole of the root hair
to absorb water and mineral salts. cell has a high concentration of salts and
Adaptations of the root hair cells sugars. It is therefore hypertonic to the
water found between the soil particles.
(i) They are numerous so as to increase Due to this concentration gradient,
the surface area over which water molecules move by osmosis from
absorption of water and mineral the soil through the semi-permeable
salts occurs. membrane of root hair cells into the cell
(ii) They are thin and fine so that they sap. Root hair cells will take up water
can penetrate the spaces in between as long as their concentration of salts
the soil particles where water is is higher than that in the soil and the
found. cell wall pressure is not large enough to
nucleus prevent osmosis.
Within the roots, water moves from cell
to cell by the process of osmosis. This is
vacuole because adjacent cells contain different
water quantities.
Different theories have been put up to
try to explain the movement of water
Fig. 8.3: Internal structure of a root hair cell in plants. They include capillarity,
root pressure, transpiration pull and
cohesion tension theory.
116
a. Capillarity
In plants, xylem form narrow tubes water
through which water moves. Water rises oozing
in the xylem because of strong forces of tree
stump
attraction between the water molecules
and the cell walls of the tubes or xylem
vessels hence capillarity.
b. Root pressure Fig 8.5: Water oozing from a tree stump
Root pressure is responsible for the c. Transpiration pull and cohesion
rising of water up the stem. When water tension theory
finally finds its way into the xylem Transpiration pull is as a result of water
vessels of the stem, two other processes being lost at the leaves. Leaves contain
take over the transportation process. small pores called stomata. Stomata
Root pressure is demonstrated when a continuously lose water vapour. Since
tree trunk is cut and water oozes out as water molecules stick together, a pull is
shown in Fig 8.5 alongside. created known as transpiration pull. It
allows lost water to be compensated for.
Since the xylem vessels are dead and narrow, the adhesive forces between water
molecules and the walls of the xylem vessels allows water to climb up. Cohesive forces
allow a stream of water which is unbroken to ascend up the plant. The continuous
movement of water in columns in the root xylem, stem xylem and leaf xylem, to the
air spaces in the leaf is referred to as the transpiration stream.
movement of water out

of the leaves
movement of water
through the stem
movement of water
into roots
Fig 8.6: Transpiration stream
Once water and mineral salts are absorbed into the root hair cells, they need to reach
the xylem tissue which is located at the centre of the root. It is at the xylem where
117
water and mineral salts are distributed
Study questions
to other parts of the plant. Once in the
root xylem, water moves up into the (a) Which tissues are stained red
stem xylem and eventually reaches the by the dye?
leaf xylem. (b) Suggest a control for this
Activity 8.2: Demonstrating experiment.
movement of dyed water up
the xylem Active uptake of mineral salts
Soil water contains dissolved mineral
Requirements
ions such as potassium, magnesium,
• Boiling tube nitrates and phosphates. This means
• Dilute solution of red ink or dye that a root hair must take up these
• Cotton wool mineral ions against their concentration
• Microscope or hand lens gradient. Mineral salts are taken up by
plants in ion form, for example, calcium
• Oxalis latifolia
as Ca2+ and magnesium as Mg2+.
Procedure
Roots have higher concentrations of
1. Set up the apparatus as shown ions as compared to the soil, yet they
below. Colour the solution with continue taking in the mineral salts.
red ink or eosin stain. They do this through active transport
Seedling which requires the expenditure of
energy. The energy is obtained from the
process of respiration.
Mineral salts find their way into the
Cotton wool
xylem vessels, where they move together
Boiling tube with water in form of a solution up the
plant.
Transport of water takes place within
dilute solution of
the xylem vessels. Xylem is composed
red ink
of a system of interconnected tubes
Fig 8.7: Experiment to demonstrate which run all the way from the roots
movement of dyed water in a plant to leaves. In leaves they are in form
of veins. Xylems contain two types of
2. Leave the set up for three or four modified cells namely tracheids and
hours then remove the plant and vessel elements. Xylems are hollow
cut sections of the root, stem and tubes which act like pipes allowing
leaf. water and dissolved minerals to flow
3. Examine the sections under low through them. The cell walls in xylem
power of the microscope or with vessels contain a substance called
a hand lens. lignin. Lignin strengthens the cells and
• What do you observe in the gives them structural support.
cut section?
118
lumen 4. Compare your diagram with
(water that of the plan diagram of the
passes
dicotyledonous stem section in
through
here) a plant in Fig. 8.9 and use it to
thick
identify the tissues.
strong 5. Repeat this procedure for the
wall monocotyledonous stem and
compare your drawing with that
in Fig. 8.10
pit
Study questions
a) Is the distribution of tissues in
the cross (transverse) section of
a dicotyledonous stem the same
(a) (b) as that in a monocotyledonous
stem?
Fig 8.8: (a) Structure of element (b) Tracheid vessel b) Describe the pattern in the
arrangement of xylem and
Activity 8.3: Observing phloem.
permanent slides of
dicotyledonous and
monocotyledonous stems The facts
Requirements The distribution of tissues in a transverse
Permanent slides of dicotyledonous section of the dicotyledonous (dicot)
and monocotyledonous stems stem is not the same as that in the
monocotyledonous (monocot) stem. In
Procedure
the dicotyledonous stem the vascular
1. Place a prepared slide of a bundles which contain both xylem and
dicotyledonous stem on the phloem are arranged to form a ring as
stage of a microscope. Observe shown in Fig. 8.9. In the monocotyledon
under low power and high power stem the vascular bundles appear
objective lenses. scattered in the stem as shown in Fig.
2. Note the different tissues present 8.10
and their location.
3. Draw a plan diagram to show the phloem
position and layout of different xylem
layers of tissues. Do not draw any pith
cells.
cortex
epidermis
Fig. 8.9: Cross-section of a dicot stem
119
epidermis 3. Come up with a diagram to show
how mineral salts move from the
vascular
roots to the leaves.
bundles
8.2 Transpiration
Transpiration is the evaporation of
water from the plant surface mainly
Fig. 8.10: Cross-section of a monocot stem through the leaf. Much of the water that
plants take up through their roots is
Most of the tissues in the root and stem
lost to the atmosphere by evaporation.
are similar. This is because these tissues
Through transpiration, plants are able to
are continuous from the root into the
maintain a steady supply of water since
stem. The stem has additional tissue the lost water has to be compensated
known as pith. Pith is the central part of for. If plants lose a lot of water than they
the roots of monocots and dicots and the can gain, they wilt. If this continues for a
stem of dicots. It is lacking in the stem of long period of time, they may die. Thus
monocots. It is made up of parenchyma transpiration is always referred to as a
cells. necessary evil.
Leaves contain small pores called
Self-evaluation Test 8.1 stomata on their surfaces, which open
1. Why should plants have an and close. This allows the exchange of
elaborate transport system? respiratory gases as well as the loss of
2. Differentiate between water in form of vapour. This is known
monocotyledonous and as stomatal transpiration. Most water
in plants is lost through this way.
dicotyledonous roots.
cuticle
upper epidermis
palisade layer
xylem vessel in
vascular bundle
spongy mesophyl
phloem
lower epidermis
stoma opening
movement of water by osmosis
evaporation of water vapour
Fig 8.11 Leaf structure in relation to transpiration
120
Other than the stomata, there are other 2. Leave the two set-ups in a sunny
ways through which plants can lose
place.
water. They include;
3. Collect and test any liquid which
Lenticular transpiration: This is the collects in the plastic bag with
loss of water through the lenticels found anhydrous copper (II) sulphate or
in woody stems. Because of the limited
anhydrous cobalt chloride paper.
distribution of lenticels, this type of
transpiration accounts for less than 1% Study questions
of the total loss of water by a plant.
(a) What observation was made in
Cuticular transpiration: This is the set-ups A and B after several
loss of water through the cuticle in hours?
herbaceous stems. Leaf surfaces and
(b) What conclusion can be made
stems are normally covered with a waxy
from the above observations?
substance called cuticle. It accounts for
up to 10% of the total water loss by the (c) Which is the control experiment
plant. and why?
(d) What changes are observed on the
Activity 8.4: To demonstrate the anhydrous cobalt chloride paper?
process of transpiration
Requirements Factors that affect the rate of
transpiration
• Potted plants (one with leaves, the
A plant is always absorbing water from
other with its leaves removed)
the soil and losing it into the atmosphere
• Two polythene bags by the process of transpiration. If the
• Strings water is not replaced as fast as it is lost,
Procedure wilting of the plant takes place. If this
1. Set up the potted plants and cover situation continues for a long time then
each with a polythene bag. Tie the the plant can die due to environmental
polythene bag round the stem as or structural factors. The environmental
shown below. factors affecting transpiration are:
plant with leaves plant without leaves • Temperature
• Wind
• Humidity
• Light intensity
Temperature
This is the factor that affects transpiration
polythene bags the most. The temperature surrounding
Set up A Set up B a plant indicates the amount of heat
Fig. 8.12: Set-up of experiment to show present around the plant. On a hot
that water is given off by leaves during day, the temperature is high because
transpiration there is a lot of heat in the atmosphere.
121
This causes faster evaporation of water more. When the intensity of light is
from the leaf and therefore the rate of low, the rate of transpiration is reduced
transpiration is high. On cold days the because stomata opens less. Stomata
temperature is low because there is close in darkness, therefore at night
very little heat in the environment. As a very minimal amounts of water is lost.
result of this, little evaporation of water All these factors discussed above are
from the leaf occurs. This causes the rate called external factors since they affect
of transpiration to decrease. transpiration from the outside. Other
Humidity
factors affect the rate of transpiration
from within the plant. These are called
Humidity is the amount of water vapour internal factors that affect transpiration.
in the air. If this amount of water is a They include; stomatal distribution, leaf
lot then humidity is high. If it is little, surface area, presence of a cuticle and
then the humidity is described as low. the number of stomata on a leaf.
When humidity is very high, air around
the plant becomes saturated with Potometer
water vapour. Under these conditions Transpiration is measured using an
the water vapour gradient is low. This
instrument known as a potometer. This
means that transpiration reduces or
works on the principle that the amount
even stops. However, when the air is dry
of water lost is equal to the amount of
that is humidity is very low, there is a
water taken up by the plant.
high water vapour gradient between the
inside of the leaves and the surrounding scale
environment. Therefore the rate of
transpiration is high.
Wind indicator bubble
Wind is moving air. Wind carries thin capiliary tube

with it moisture that has evaporated
from the leaf surface creating room for water
more to occupy. This prevents the air Fig 8.13 Diagram showing a potometer
surrounding the stomata from becoming
saturated with water vapour from the Vaseline is applied around the rubber
leaf. The faster the air moves, the faster bungs to ensure an airtight seal, thus
the rate of transpiration. Plants will lose the only water loss from the apparatus
a lot of water during windy conditions as is via transpiration. The function of the
compared to calm conditions. reservoir is to allow the air bubble to
Light intensity travel back to the start of the measuring
scale on repeating the experiment. As
Light intensity affects transpiration water moves up through the plant the
because it has an effect on the opening air bubble moves along the scale giving a
and closing of the stomata. The rate of measure of water absorbed by the plant
transpiration is high when there is high over time and hence the transpiration
light intensity because the stomata open rate.
122
Activity 8.5: Measuring the rate 3. Attach the freshly cut end of the
of transpiration stem into the potometer still
Requirements under water.
• Leafy plant freshly uprooted or 4. Remove the plant and potometer
a freshly cut leafy branch e.g. a from the water and mount them
in a fixed position. The end of
tomato plant, bean or any other
the capillary tube should rest in
suitable plant
a beaker of water.
• Basin of water
5. Setting up the potometer as
• Scalpel shown below.
• Means of timing, for example,
stop watch or wristwatch
• Potometer
• Polythene bag
Procedure
1. Immerse the potometer in a
basin of water making sure it is Fig 8.15 Potometer
completely filled with water. 6. Carry out the following activities:
2. Put the plant into the water and
(a) (i) Place the potometer with
cut through the stem under water.
the shoot in a windy place
• Why do you think the leafy stem outside the classroom.
is cut under water?
(ii) Introduce an air bubble
into the capillary tube by
removing the beaker of water
at the end of the tube
• What happens to the bubble?
(iii) Me asu re t he d ist anc e s
moved by the bubble for
five minutes and record your
Fig 8.14: Cutting a leafy branch under
results in the table as shown
water
below.
Table 8.1 Results for measuring the rate of transpiration
Conditions Distance moved by bubbles(cm) Time (min)
Windy
Still air
Hot sun
Cool place
(iv) Calculate the rate of water uptake as follows:
Rate of water uptake = Distance moved by the bubble (cm)
Time taken in min
123
(b) Repeat the above procedure but to the replacement of this water by its
place the plant where air is still. uptake.
Record the distance covered by
the bubble. Calculate the rate of Self-evaluation Test 8.2
water uptake by the same shoot. 1. Explain why plants growing
(c) (i) Place the set-up outside in the in an enclosed environment
hot sun and again in a cool place. (greenhouse) have a lower rate of
(ii) Calculate the rate of water transpiration than plants growing
uptake in each case using the in the open field?
procedure described in (a) above. 2. Explain the following observation.
(d) (i) Put the plant in a humid A freshly cut stump of a tree will
environment. By covering the continue releasing water for some
leaves with a polythene bag and time.
leaving it without the polythene
bag to compare. 8.3 Adaptations of
(ii) Calculate the rate of water uptake plants to different
in each case. environmental
conditions
Study questions
Characteristics that enable a plant to
1. What does the potometer measure: survive in its specified habitat are called
(i) Directly adaptations.
(ii) Indirectly? Explain? Plants that grow in dry areas are called
2. What c onclusion c an you xerophytes, whereas others that grow in
draw from your results when or near water are called hydrophytes.
the following environmental Plants that grow in areas that are
conditions were investigated? neither too dry nor too wet are called
(i) Wind mesophytes, whereas plants that grow
(ii) Humidity in saline habitats, for example, sea or
ocean are called halophytes.
(iii) Temperature?
3. Evap orat ion a lone c annot Activity 8.6: To examine the
account for the movement of adaptive features of different
water through a plant? What plants
other forces might be involved? You will be provided with samples,
pictures and photographs of
The facts different plants.
Procedure
1. Study each of the plants provided
The potometer measures directly the
and note the following for each
rate of uptake of water. It also indirectly
plant.
measures the rate of transpiration.
Evaporation of water from the leaf leads
124
(a) Their leaves, stems and roots
(b) Where they are found
(c) Their sizes
2. Why do you think the plants have
the features above? Find out from
textbooks or the internet.
class members.
The facts Fig 8.16: Cactus

3. Xerophytes reduce water loss
Plants are structurally adapted to reduce through transpiration in many ways:
the rate of transpiration. This depends (a) They have a thick waxy cuticle
on the environment they live in. The which prevents excessive
following are some of the ways through water loss through the leaf by
which plants growing in different evaporation.
habitats reduce transpiration rate. (b) They have hairs that trap damp
air near the leaf surface causing
a. Xerophytes
saturation.
Xerophytes are plants that have
(c) In s ome xe rophy te s for
characteristics suited to areas with very
example Nerium oleander, the
little water and very high temperatures.
stomata are found sunken in
These plants grow in dry areas such as
pits. The rate of transpiration
the arid and semi-arid areas.
is reduced because there is
Adaptations of xerophytes to their a space containing moist air
habitat between the stomata and the
atmosphere.
1. They have a high ability to absorb
water from the soil. Their roots are (d) Many xerophytes have small
usually more developed and grow leaves to reduce surface area
deep into the soil and extend over for transpiration.
a wide area. (e) Some xerophytes have very
2. They have water storage tissues. few stomata which are located
Many xerophytes have swollen stems on the lower epidermis away
or leaves which contain special water from the direct heat of the sun.
storage tissues. Such plants are Others have reversed stomata
called succulent plants. Examples rhythm. Their stomata opens
of succulent plants are Bryophyllum, during the night and close
sisal, cactus, Euphorbia, and Aloe during the day unlike ordinary
vera. A baobab tree has a thick stem plants.
for water storage. 4. Some xerophytes have life cycles that
125
enable them to evade dry seasons, 7. They have thick transparent cuticles
for example, some shed their leaves to prevent water loss.
during the dry season. 8. They have a well developed root
b. Mesophytes system with long tap or fibrous roots.
Mesophytes are plants that grow under c. Hydrophytes
average conditions of water supply and Hydrophytes are plants that live in water
temperature. These plants grow very or in very wet places. Examples are
well on land and develop into forests Nymphaea and water hyacinth. There
and grasslands. are three types of water plants:
(i) Emergent plants – they have roots
and part of stem under water. While
their leaves are above water. They
have a problem of taking in excess
water, for example, reeds.
(ii) Floating plants – they float on the
water surface with roots in water.
Fig 8.17 A forest
Water lilies is an example.
Adaptations of mesophytes to their
habitats
1. They have thin leaves, which ensure
rapid diffusion of gasses from the
stomata to the photosynthetic cells.
2. They have broad and flat leaf blades
that provide a large surface area
for absorption of light and carbon
Fig 8.18: Water lilies
dioxide.
(iii) Submerged plants - these are found
3. Mosaic arrangement of leaves on
completely under water, for example,
the plant to make sure that each
spirogyra.
leaf receives maximum amount of
sunlight.
4. Presence of stomata on the upper
and lower leaf epidermis to allow for
efficient gaseous exchange and also
for transpiration.
5. Internal structures of their leaves Fig 8.19: Spirogyra
have air spaces that allow free Adaptations of hydrophytes
circulation of gases.
(a) Their cuticle is thin or lacking. This
6. Their leaves have cells with permits the plant to absorb water,
chlorophyll so that photosynthesis minerals and carbon dioxide over
takes place. its whole surface.
126
(b) Since some hydrophytes absorb
water over their whole body surface,
their roots are not well developed.
The roots may be used for anchorage,
for example, in water lily or used for
absorption of nutrients.
(c) The presence of many air spaces in
the stem and leaf tissue; a special
tissue called aerenchyma which Fig. 8.21: Submerged plants growing on the
makes the plants buoyant for support ocean floor
and for gaseous exchange. d. Halophytes
air spaces These are plants that grow in salty
places such as rocky shores, seas and
sand dunes which occur along coastal
regions. Some halophytes such as
Atriplex and mangroves grow near sea
water.
epidermis
vascular bundles
without cuticle
Fig. 8.20: Cross-section of a hydrophyte plant

showing aerenchyma tissue Fig 8.22: Mangrove plants
(d) They contain little xylem and Therefore they have a problem of taking
support tissue. They are supported up water from their salty surroundings.
by aerenchyma and the buoyancy of They have cells that absorb salt. As a
the water. result, they create a higher osmotic
pressure which enables the plant to
(e) Submerged leaves do not have stomata
absorb water. Because of taking much
and floating types have many on
salt, they excrete excess salts using salt
their upper surface.
glands.
127
The salt is washed from the plant surface depending on the plant’s stage of
by rain. Some halophytes absorb salt development and the season.
from their habitats and remove it by
• The movement of organic products
shedding leaves that have accumulated
of photosynthesis from leaves to
salt.
other parts of the plant is called
translocation.
• Sugars are produced in the
1. What is the significance of leaves (source) but other non-
modified leaves in xerophytes? photosynthetic parts of the plant
2. Halophytes are found in salty like roots and stems also need part
environments. How do they of this food. For this reason, organic
avoid having too much salt in food products are translocated form
their tissues? the source to the sink.
3. Mutuyimana found a plant that • Some important sinks are roots,
did not have stomata. Where do flowers, fruits, stems and developing
you think she got the plant from? leaves. Leaves are particularly
interesting in this regard because
Translocation they are sinks when they are young
and become sources later, when they
Discussion corner
Translocation of organic food are about half grown.
substances
1. Discuss with a classmate the • Organic products of photosynthesis
meaning of the following terms (photosynthates) are translocated
• Source through the phloem tissue.
• Sink cell wall
• Photosynthates
• Translocation sieve element
2. What structures are responsible
for translocation in a plant?.
sieve plate
The facts
sieve tube
• The products of photosynthesis are Fig 8.23: Phloem tissue
called photosynthates. They are • Photosynthates are directed primarily to
usually in the form of simple sugars, the roots during early development,
such as sucrose. Photosynthates to shoots and leaves during
are produced by sources and are vegetative growth, and to seeds
translocated to sinks. The points of and fruits during reproductive
sugar delivery, such as roots, young development. The products from
shoots, and developing seeds, are the source are usually translocated
called sinks. Seeds, tubers and bulbs to the nearest sink through the
can be either a source or a sink, phloem.
128
The high percentage of sugar in phloem
sap causes water to move from the xylem The facts
into the phloem. This increases water
pressure inside the phloem, causing the When the ring of bark is removed, the
sap to move from source to sink. phloem beneath it is also removed.
After several weeks, swelling above the
Activity 8.7: The ringing cut ring is noted.
experiment
Requirements
swollen part
• Tree or shrub with many branches
of the bark
• Sharp knife
Procedure
1. Remove completely a ring of
bark with its phloem from two Fig 8.25: Swollen tissue above the cut part
branches. The xylem tissue which after four weeks.
makes up the bulk of the stem is
left intact. The swelling is due to the accumulation
of food substances. They were being
bark intact transported from the leaves but could
not get across the debarked part of the
ring of bark removed stem. That is why there is no swelling on
bark intact the lower part of the ring.
My environment, my life!
Fig. 8.24: A ring of bark is removed This ringing procedure is sometimes
from a woody shoot leaving the xylem employed to kill some unwanted trees,
undamaged before they are cut down. Do not use
it on a tree that has economic value to
2. The setup is left undisturbed for your community.
four weeks.
Study question Self-evaluation Test 8.4
(a) What observations were made 1. Differentiate between a source
in the stem after four weeks? and a sink?
Explain these observations. 2. The movement of organic
(b) Discuss with your friends how products of photosynthesis
the bark of medicinal trees can from to other parts
be harvested without killing these of the plant is called .
important trees.
129
Unit summary others live in dry areas (xerophytes)
and others live in areas which
• Transpor t in plants involves are neither too wet nor too dry
movement of materials in and out (mesophytes). There are also some
of the cells. It also involves materials that live in salty places (halophytes).
being taken away from the cells to
outside of the organism. • Translocation is the movement of
materials from leaves to other tissues
• Transport is necessary because throughout the plant.
all cells in living organisms need
food substances and oxygen from
their surroundings. They produce
waste substances that need to be
eliminated from their bodies. 1. The removal of a ring of bark, from
• Plants have a transport system for the trunk of a tree kills the tree
the moving substances. They use two primarily. Why?
different types of transport tissue. A. Supply of food to the roots is
• Xylem transports water and solutes cut off.
from the roots to the leaves. B. Supply of carbon dioxide to the
• Phloem transports food from the leaves is cut off.
leaves to the rest of the plant. C. Supply of water to the leaves is
• Water and mineral salts move cut off.
through the xylem by the forces of D. Trunk loses the required
cohesion, adhesion, capillarity, root strength and protection
pressure and transpiration pull. 2. One of the following transports
• Transpiration is the process by which manufactured food away from the
a plant loses water in form of water leaves. Which one is it?
vapour. A. Xylem
• Transpiration is important because B. Phloem
it cools the plant on hot days. It also
assists the movement of water and C. Petiole
mineral salts up the plant. D. Epidermis
• E nv i r o n m e nt a l f a c t o r s t h at 3. Explain why in a unicellular
affect transpiration are humidity, organism, an elaborate transport
temperature, wind and light intensity. system is unnecessary.
• Structural factors that affect 4. What mechanism do plants use to
transpiration include size of leaf absorb nutrients?
and number of stomata. 5. What is the adaptation of the plant
• Organisms have different adaptations below to its habitat?
that enable them survive in their
habitats. Some plants live in or
around wet places (hydrophytes),
130
8. (a) Transpiration is a necessary
evil. Explain
(b) Identify three environmental
conditions that increase the
rate of transpiration?
9. The instrument shown below is used
to measure the rate of transpiration.
Explain how it works.
scale
6. Describe the differences between
xylem and phloem by filling the
following table.
indicator bubble
Xylem Phloem thin capiliary tube
bottle
water
10. Give an explanation as to why, when

a cut leafy shoot is placed in a beaker
of water containing red dye, its leaves
start to turn red thirty minutes later.
11. Amoeba uses simple diffusion for
all its requirements while plants and
animals use a complex transport
7. What is the purpose of companion
system. Suggest reasons for this
cells in the phloem tissue?
difference.
131
Unit Gaseous exchange in humans
9 and plants
Key unit competency
To be able to explain gaseous exchange in plants and human beings.
Learning objectives
• Explain the characteristics and adaptive features of gaseous exchange surface.
• Define gaseous exchange and why it is an important process.
• Describe gaseous exchange in the lungs and alveolus.
• Demonstrate the process of inspiration and expiration.
• Explain the process of gaseous exchange in plants.
• Identify common respiratory diseases and suggest their prevention and
treatment.
• Dissect mammalian lung and relate its features to gaseous exchange surfaces.
• Construct bell-jar model from locally available materials.
• Appreciate learning through using locally available materials.
Introduction
In senior one, you learnt about gaseous exchange in human beings. How did you
define gaseous exchange? What did you learn as the importance of gaseous exchange?
Look at the cycle below.
X
X
Y
Fig 9.1 Gaseous exchange cycle
132
What is the importance of the cycle exchange gases with include: air for
shown in the diagram? Can you identify some organisms and water for others.
gases X and Y? What is their importance Air is the main source of oxygen and
to each of the organisms represented in carbon dioxide. Organisms that live on
the cycle? Based on the diagram, predict land exchange these gases directly with
what you will learn in this unit. air. Oxygen and other gases from the
air diffuse into lakes, rivers and oceans.
9.1 The concept of The air dissolved in water is used for
respiration and gaseous exchange by organisms that live
in water.
respiratory surfaces
Discussion corner
Respiration is the process where food
taken in by organisms is burnt to 1. Find out the following with a
produce energy required for their body friend.
functions. During respiration, oxygen is (a) Respiratory surfaces.
used and carbon dioxide is removed. (b) The gaseous exchange surface
Cellular respiration takes place constantly in man.
in all living cells. It creates a constant (c) The difference between
demand for oxygen and a need to eliminate cellular respiration and
carbon dioxide gas. Gaseous exchange is gaseous exchange.
the biological process through which 2. Write down answers in your note
these gases are transported through the books.
body of an organism across a specialised 3. Discuss your findings with fellow
respiratory surface. Organisms such classmates.
as plants need to take in or release In large multicellular animals, the
oxygen and carbon dioxide at one surface area to volume ratio is small.
time or another during respiration and Many cells are deep inside the body
photosynthesis. Animals, on the other of the animal, away from the surface.
hand, always take in oxygen and release Diffusion of gases alone is not efficient
carbon dioxide during respiration. enough in moving gases to and from all
Gaseous exchange therefore is: the cells. Therefore, large multicellular
(i) Exchange of respiratory gases in animals have specialised structures or
animals. organs with special surfaces over which
(ii) Exchange of photosynthetic and gaseous exchange takes place. These
respiratory gases in plants. special surfaces are called respiratory
Therefore an efficient system for the surfaces. Examples of specialised
exchange of gases is extremely important structures for gaseous exchange in
in living organisms. Gaseous exchange animals include the following:
is necessary because organisms are • Cell membrane
able to obtain useful gases from their
• Tracheal system in insects
environment and get rid of waste gases
into the environment. • Buccal cavity in frogs
The environments that organisms • Skin in frogs
133
• Gills in fish ventilation which continuously brings
• Lungs in mammals, birds, reptiles water or air containing more oxygen to
and amphibians. the respiratory surface. It also removes
Gaseous exchange takes place over water or air containing a lot of carbon
the respiratory surfaces. A respiratory dioxide from it. Ventilation, therefore,
surface has a number of characteristics is important because it maintains a high
that make it efficient for gaseous diffusion gradient at the respiratory
exchange. Some of these characteristics surface. It also ensures a high rate of
include: gaseous exchange. Breathing is an
(i) Thin walls for faster diffusion of example of ventilation.
gases across it.
(ii) It is moist to dissolve gases as they
9.2 The mechanism of
diffuse across it. breathing in humans
(iii) It has a large surface area for In human beings, the process of
maximum gaseous exchange. breathing (ventilation) is the first part
(iv) In animals with a transport system, of the gaseous exchange processes.
the respiratory surface has a rich The second part is the exchange of
supply of blood capillaries (highly these gases between the lungs and
vascularized) to quickly transport blood. Breathing provides a continuous
gases to and from the cells. supply of fresh air to the gas exchange
surface. It also helps to maintain a large
Not all respiratory surfaces are in direct diffusion gradient across the gas exchange
contact with the medium through which surface. The volume of gases exchanged
gaseous exchange occurs, such as water during breathing, changes according to
or air around the organism. Therefore, physiological demands placed on the
there is need for a process that can body, for example, during an exercise.
ensure a continuous supply of fresh The breathing rate is controlled by the
water or air to and from the respiratory respiratory center of the brain.
surface. This is achieved by the process of
nostril
larynx
pleural membrane trachea (wind pipe)
ring of cartilage
supporting trachea
internal intercostal left lung
muscles
alveoli bronchi
ribs bronchioles
diaphragm
Fig 9.2. Human breathing system
134
Activity 9.1: To observe the • Rubber stopper with a hole
movement of the chest during
breathing • Y-Shaped glass tube
• Rubber sheet and rubber band
Working in pairs, carry out the
following exercise. • String
1. Ask your partner to breathe in Procedure
deeply then hold their breath. 1. Assemble the materials as shown
2. Describe what you see happening below.
to the chest as your partner glass tube
breathes in. balloon
• Does it remain in the same
position?
3. Let your partner now breathe out.
• What do you see happening rubber
sheet bell jar
to the chest?
string
4. Record the form of movements
noticed. A B C
Fig 9.3: Breathing model
The facts 2. Study the model and state what
the following parts represent in
The process that brings air into the
the human respiratory system
lungs and removes it again is known as
breathing. Breathing involves two phases • Bell jar
called inhalation and exhalation. Since • Balloon
the lungs contain no muscle tissue, • Rubber sheet
they are not capable of independent 3. Pull down the rubber sheet at the
movement. However, they are elastic, bottom of the bell jar.
and during breathing they are forced to • What happens to the
expand or contract as a result of pressure balloons?
changes around them. These pressure 4. Now push up the rubber sheet.
changes are caused by the movement
• What happens to the
of the muscular diaphragm, ribs and
balloons?
intercostal muscles (rib muscle), and by
the force of atmospheric pressure. Study questions
Activity 9.2: Construction and (a) Draw sketches to show the
use of a model to demonstrate appearance of the balloons in (2)
breathing mechanism
and (3) above.
Requirements (b) Explain your observation.
• Bell jar (c) Explain how the model is similar
• Two balloons to the working of the thorax in
humans beings during breathing.
135
a) Inhalation (breathing in)
Inhalation is also known as inspiration. This is the active phase of breathing which
draws air into the lungs. During inhalation, the diaphragm muscles contract causing
it to flatten, look at Fig. 9.4. In the ribs region, the external intercostal muscles
contract while the internal intercostal muscles relax. This causes the rib cage to move
upwards and outwards.
air in
ribs move upwards
and outwards
diaphragm contracts
and flattens lung inflates
Fig 9.4: Inspiration (Inhalation)

The contraction of the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases the
volume in the chest cavity. However, it causes a decrease in the pressure of air inside
compared to atmospheric air. Air rushes through the air passages into the lungs,
forcing them to expand.
b. Exhalation (breathing out)
Exhalation is also known as expiration. This is the phase of breathing, which expels
air out of the lungs. During exhalation, the diaphragm muscle relaxes making it to
move upward and regain its dome shape. The external intercostal muscles relax and
the internal intercostal muscles contract. This causes the rib cage to move downward
and inwards. The volume of the chest cavity decreases and the pressure increases
compared to the atmospheric air. Increased pressure forces air out of the lungs,
which become deflated.
air out
ribs moves inwards

and downwards
lung deflates
diaphragm relax and
regain its dome-shape
Fig 9.5: Expiration (Exhalation)
136
Table 9.1: Differences between inhalation and
exhalation
• Scissors
• Scalpels
Inhalation Exhalation • Cotton wool
1. External 1. External • Rat or rabbit (freshly killed)
intercostal intercostal • Forceps
muscles contract. muscles relax.
• String
Internal Internal
• Rubber pipette
intercostal intercostal
muscles relax. muscles contract. • Gloves
2. Rib cage moves 2. Rib cage moves Procedure
upwards and downwards and 1. Pin the animal onto the dissection
outwards. inwards. board with the ventral side up.
3. Diaphragm 3. Diaphragm
2. Open the thorax by cutting with
muscles contract muscles relax and
and diaphragm diaphragm forms scissors along the mid section
flattens. a dome shape. from the neck to the hind legs.
4. Volume of the 4. Volume of the
thoracic cavity thoracic cavity
increases. decreases.
5. Air pressure 5. Air pressure
in the lungs in the lungs
and thoracic and thoracic
cavity decreases cavity increases
compared compared
to external to external
Fig 9.6: Internal parts of a dissected mammal
atmospheric atmospheric
pressure. pressure. 3. Cut the skin further to expose the
6. External air 6. Air in the lungs is abdomen as shown in Figure 9.6
is driven into compressed and above. Note the following:
the lungs due forced out. • Muscles of the diaphragm.
to the pressure • Intercostal muscles between
difference the ribs.
between the • Lungs.
inside and the 4. Remove the lungs out and place
outside.
it on the board.
7. Lungs inflate 7. Lungs deflate • How does it feel to touch?
5. Cut through the lungs.
Activity 9.3: Dissection of a small
• What do you see?
mammal to display the structures
of the respiratory system 6. Identify the main airways.
7. Note your observations.
Requirements 8. Share your findings withother
• Dissection board class.
• Pins
137
Gas exchange in the alveoli • It is supplied with blood which
Air passes the nose or mouth as it carries the gases being exchanged.
moves down the trachea. The trachea is • It has a very thin wall across which
divided into the left and right bronchi. gases diffuse between it and the blood.
Each bronchus is divided into smaller • It is lined with a thin film of moisture
bronchioles and each bronchiole is in to dissolve the diffusing gases.
turn attached to numerous alveolar
• A ventilation process brings in and
sacs. The groupings of alveoli take the
takes away air containing the gases
same shape like a bunch of grapes.
being exchanged.
Air
bronchiole • It has a very large number of alveoli
to increase their surface area for
gaseous exchange.
blood alveolus Gas exchange between the air within the
vessels alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
occurs by diffusion. Oxygen in air, in the
alveolar space is at a higher concentration
deoxygenated oxygenated than that in the blood capillaries. It
blood blood therefore first dissolves in the water layer
in the alveolar lining then diffuses across
the alveolus and then the capillary walls
capillaries into the red blood cells. This becomes
Fig 9.7: Alveoli
oxygenated blood which is carried to the
heart by the pulmonary vein.
Gaseous exchange at the alveolus takes
place between the phases of inhalation Carbon dioxide in the blood diffuses
and exhalation. The alveolus is a suitable across the capillary and alveolus walls
point for gaseous exchange because: into the alveolar space and is eventually
expelled during exhalation.
ventilation (air
moves in and out)
oxygenated blood coming to

pulmonary vein deoxygenated blood coming
from pulmonary artery
thin wall of alveolus CO2 O2

out in
thin wall of capillary
film of moisture
red blood cell
Fig 9.8 Gaseous exchange in the alveolus
138
A diffusion gradient is essential for rapid blood. The pulmonary artery brings
gaseous exchange in the alveolus. The blood low in oxygen concentration
following factors contribute towards and hig h in c arb on dioxide
maintaining this diffusion gradient. concentration. The pulmonary vein
takes away blood high in oxygen
(a) Lung ventilation: Breathing concentration and low in carbon
movements transport respiratory dioxide concentration.
gases to and from the alveolus.
(c) Haemoglobin: It quickly combines
(b) Blood flow: This constantly replaces with oxygen and prevents its
oxygenated blood with deoxygenated accumulation in the alveolus.
Activity 9.4:To analyse the gas present in exhaled air

Requirements
• Conical flask • Couch • T-tube
• L-tube • Limewater • Delivery tube
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram below.
Fig 9.9 Setup for investigating a gas present during exhalation
2. Breath in and out through the mouth-piece.

3. What do you notice in the lime water in:
• Flask A?
• Flask B?
4. Explain your observation in
• Flask A
• Flask B
139
The facts
Table 9. 2: Composition of inhaled and exhaled air
Component of air Inhaled air (%) Exhaled air (%)
Oxygen 21 15
Carbon dioxide 0.04 4
Nitrogen 79 79
Water vapour Variable Saturated
Task: From the table above, explain the difference in composition of gases in inhaled
and exhaled air.
The facts
The respiratory system is affected by
1. What role does the nasal passages
many diseases and disorders. Some of
and the diaphragm play in
these are caused by micro-organisms
gaseous exchange?
while others are genetic. The most
2. Describe the characteristics of a common respiratory diseases are:
respiratory surface.
• Tuberculosis
3. Describe the mechanism by
which carbon dioxide in the • Asthma
blood capillaries around the • Pneumonia
alveoli passes into the alveoli and • Bronchitis
finally is exhaled. • Whooping cough
• Common cold
9.3 Respiratory diseases • Influenza
and smoking
1. Asthma
Research Activity
This is a disease that comes about when
1. Using handouts, textbooks the air passages in the lungs suddenly
and internet, research on the narrow as a result of contraction of their
following: smooth muscles. It is also characterised
(a) Respiratory diseases by an inflow of mucus which clogs
the narrow passages even more. Some
(b) Causes of respiratory diseases
substances can trigger an asthma attack.
in man.
They are called allergens. They include
(c) Prevention and treatment of pollen grains, some type of proteins in
respiratory diseases. milk, pet hairs, dust and even flavours
2. Share your findings with the class. in food. It can also caused by stress and
anxiety. In some families the disease is
inherited.
140
Symptoms of asthma the air passage to the alveoli becomes
blocked with mucus. Severe coughing
• Difficulty in breathing. Breathing
occurs in an attempt to get rid of the
can feel so difficult or quick that the
excess mucus. Breathing also becomes
patient can faint.
difficult. Bronchitis may be acute or
• Wheezing sounds when breathing. chronic.
Prevention and treatment Acute bronchitis starts quickly and
Asthma is treated by two types of stops after a few days. The symptoms of
medication: long-term control and acute bronchitis are like those of a cold.
quick-relief medicines that help reduce Chronic bronchitis starts slowly and
airway inflammation and prevent asthma lasts for a long time. It is a more serious
symptoms. kind of infection. It is commonly caused
• Quick-relief medicines relieve asthma by smoking and air pollution.
symptoms that flare up.
Symptoms of bronchitis
• People with asthma should avoid an
• Secretion of excess mucus
environment that is likely to bring on
asthmatic attack. This is by avoiding • Coughing
contact with allergens. • Difficulties in breathing.
• Asthma patients are advised to carry Prevention and treatment
inhalers that contain a drug which • Acute bronchitis is treated by simple
pacifies the condition. measures that include: getting plenty
of rest, drinking lots of fluids and
taking a cough syrup.
• People with chronic bronchitis
should take antibiotics every time
they have a cold with a fever.
• A doctor should be consulted at the
early stages of bronchitis.
• Avoid smoking whether directly or
passively.
Fig 9.10 Asthma patient using an inhaler
• Avoid polluted air.
2. Bronchitis 3. Emphysema
This is an infection of the inner walls of This results from long untreated
the bronchi. It is caused by bacteria or bronchitis where the bronchioles in
air pollutants such as smoke in inhaled the lungs become blocked. This causes
air. The infection causes the mucous damage to delicate walls of the alveoli
membrane in the respiratory tract to due to high pressure when coughing.
produce excess mucus. This causes the This leads to reduced surface area for
cells lining the bronchi and bronchioles gaseous exchange. The lungs become
not to function properly. As a result, distended and inelastic that gases
141
cannot be exchanged efficiently. complications. It also depend on the
The patient becomes weak due to causative agent: bacterial, viral or
insufficient oxygen supply to tissues. fungal.
Running and walking can prove to be • Bacterial and fungal pneumonia
hard when one has this condition. are treated with drugs while viral
pneumonia clears by itself.
Prevention and treatment
5.Tuberculosis
Emphysema is treated according to the
severity of symptoms. Bronchodilators Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria
are normally given to help relieve called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The
coughing, shortness of breath and source of infection may be droplets
breathing problems. containing bacteria sprayed from the air
passages during breathing or sneezing.
Early treatment of bronchitis with
It can also be caused by infected dry
antibiotics to prevent secondary infection
sputum in particles of dust. Tuberculosis
can help to prevent emphysema.
bacteria may attack any part of the
4. Pneumonia body, but they usually invade the
lungs, causing pulmonary tuberculosis.
Pneumonia is an infection of the
Another source of infection is by
lungs. It is caused by bacteria called
drinking raw milk from a cow suffering
Pneumococcus that spreads through the
from bovine tuberculosis.
air. It can also be caused by a virus or
a fungi. Infection proceeds from the Signs and symptoms
mouth down into the lungs. As a result
• Tuberculosis of the lungs starts with
of the infection, a fluid is produced
a dry cough followed by the spitting
which collects in the alveoli. The lungs
of blood, fever and sweating at night
become solid and have no air. This
as the infection proceeds.
prevents exchange of gases in the lungs.
Signs and symptoms
• Sudden chills and high fever.
• R apid shallow breathing and
sometimes wheezing.
• Cough with yellow, greenish colour
or mucus with some blood.
• Chest pains. Fig 9.11 Severe coughing may be a sign of TB
Prevention and treatment • If there is no treatment, loss in
weight occurs and finally death of
• Overcrowded places should be the patient.
avoided and good ventilation in In addition to tuberculosis of the lungs,
living rooms should be provided. there are other forms of the disease in
• Treatment of pneumonia involves which bacteria attack the lymphatic
curing the infection and preventing glands, bones and other parts of the body.
142
Prevention and treatment vaccine against whooping cough
• The patient should consult a doctor is usually combined with those
for adequate treatment. Treatment against diphtheria, tetanus and
for TB will usually involve a long poliomyelitis.
course of antibiotics lasting 6-9
7. Common cold
months.
A common cold is an illness caused by
• Overcrowding increases the risk of
a virus infection located in the nose.
spread of tuberculosis.
Colds also involve the sinuses, ears and
• Avoid taking raw milk. Boil all milk bronchial tubes. Colds last on average
or drink pasteurised milk. for one week. Mild colds may last only 2
• Immunisation with B.C.G. vaccine or 3 days while severe colds may last for
in children. up to 2 weeks. A cold is a milder illness
• Isolating patients than influenza.
6. Whooping cough Nasal secretions containing cold viruses
contaminate the hands of people
Whooping cough is caused by bacteria
with colds as a result of nose blowing,
called Bordetella pertussis. The mode of
covering sneezes and touching the nose.
infection is from one person to another
Cold viruses may contaminate objects
through inhalation of infected droplets.
and surfaces in the environment of a
Signs and Symptoms patient.
• Whooping cough starts like a cold Note: Young children are prone to colds.
with fever, running nose and cough. Cold virus, which is expelled into the air
• Two weeks later, the whooping in coughs and sneezes, may land in the
begins. The patient coughs rapidly nose or eye of another person and cause
many times without taking a breath, infection. Hence transmission.
until one coughs up a mass of sticky
mucus, and the air rushes back into Signs and symptoms
the lungs with a loud whoop sound. • Sneezing
After the “whoop”, the patient may • Runny nose
vomit. Between coughing bouts the • Nasal obstruction
patient seems fairly healthy. • Sore or scratchy throat
Prevention and treatment • Cough
1. Patients should consult a doctor for • Hoarseness
adequate treatment. Treatment for • Mild general symptoms like
whooping cough involves taking headache, feverishness, chilliness,
antibiotics early before coughing fits and not feeling well in general.
begin. Prevention and treatment
2. Patients should be isolated from Cold is caused by a virus, therefore it
contact with other people. will clear after several days. Treatment is
3. Immunisation with vaccines against mainly to lessen the symptoms. If a cold
whooping cough. In infants, the persists seek medical advice.
143
To prevent catching a cold, limit contact • muscle and joint pain
with known cold patients, especially • tiredness or extreme exhaustion
during the first three days of their illness. • headache
Practice preventive measures which • sore throat
keep cold virus from entering the nose: • Stuffy nose
• Wash hands after contact with cold Prevention and treatment
sufferers and objects and surfaces
they may have contaminated. 1. Generally, uncomplicated flu is
• Keep fingers out of the eyes and managed by simply resting in
nose. bed, drinking plenty of fluids
• Avoid having cold patients cough (particularly water) and taking
and sneeze on you or in your over-the-counter medication to help
direction. relieve the symptoms.
2. Antiviral medications reduce the
8. Influenza length of time symptoms last and
Influenza or 'the flu' is a highly help people infected return to their
contagious disease caused by infection daily routines earlier.
from influenza type A or B (or rarely 3. Good hygiene is essential to protect
C) virus. These viruses infect the upper yourself and others
airways and lungs. The flu is highly
contagious. 4. You can reduce the risk of infection
Flu is not the same as a common cold, by getting vaccinated.
and can be a serious illness. For some Health Check!
people, such as the elderly and those
with underlying medical conditions, It is unhygienic to cough and spit
the flu can cause serious complications carelessly in public places. This can
which require hospitalisation. It can easily spread disease. It exposes other
sometimes lead to death. members of the public to infections.
Flu is usually spread through infected Besides it is also ugly.
people coughing and sneezing,
which temporarily contaminates the Effect of smoking on the
surrounding air and surfaces with respiratory system
infected droplets The respiratory system is not designed
Signs and Symptoms to cope with tobacco smoke. Tobacco
smoke paralyses the cilia in the
Symptoms usually appear 1–3 days after
respiratory tract and stops their
being infected. A person can spread flu
movement.
to others 1–2 days before they become
unwell and up to 5 days after symptoms In addition, tobacco smoke increases the
develop. The symptoms of influenza can production of mucus in the air passages.
include: A cough by a smoker is an attempt to
remove the excess mucus from the
• fever
respiratory system. Besides irritating
• dry cough
the trachea and bronchi, smoke particles
144
interfere with the uptake of oxygen in 9.4 Gaseous exchange in
the air sacs.
plants
When cigarette smoke is inhaled, The principal gaseous exchange surfaces
about one-third of the particles remain for plants are the leaves. Plant leaves
in the alveoli. Phagocytic cells called have stomatal pores on their surface
macrophages can slowly remove many where gaseous exchange occurs. Plants
of the particles. However, an excess of do not have a specialised respiratory
particles from smoking or from other system like animals. This is because
sources of air pollution breaks down they are metabolically less active than
the walls of the air sacs and causes the animals.
formation of inelastic tissue. This reduces
the functional area of the respiratory Activity 9. 5: To demonstrate the
surface and in severe cases may lead to presence of stomata in leaves
a disease called emphysema. In some Requirements
cases, lung cancer also develops. • Plant leaves (e.g. hisbiscus plant
leaves)
cancerous • A bottle of clear or colourless nail
lung
polish
healthy
lung • A clear cellophane tape (or clear
packing tape)
• Microscope slides
Fig 9.12: Normal lung and lung with cancer • Scissors
Health Check! • Microscope
Cigarette smoking is addictive. Once Procedure
you are an addict, it is hard to stop. 1. Paint a 1 cm 2 (or larger) square of
Cigarette smoke also pollutes the thick nail polish on the underside
environment in public places such as surface of the leaf being studied.
buses, shops and hotels. It also forces Allow the nail polish to dry fully.
nonsmokers to inhale the smoke and 2. Once the patch of nail polish
become passive smokers. is dry, tape a piece of clear
cellophane tape to the patch on
the leaf.
Self-evaluation Test 9.2 3. Carefully pull on a corner of
1. Suppose you are nursing a patient the tape and gently peel the nail
suffering from a respirator y polish off the leaf.
disease. How would you prevent The layer of cells that sticks on
contracting the disease? the nail polish is what you will
2. Is it proper to avoid friends who examine under the microscope.
smoke? 4. Tape the peeled nail polish and its
3. Why is it not advisable to take layer of cells to a clean microscope
antibiotics without prescription slide, using scissors to trim any
from a doctor? excess tape.
145
• The teacher will help you predict Stomata allow gaseous exchange to take
and explain the different types place in leaves. Let us examine the structure
of cells that you see and how to of stomata to understand how gaseous
find the stomata. exchange takes place through them.
5. Place the slide on the microscope
nucleus epidermal
stage. Using the low power
objective lens, focus the slide cell
chloroplast
until the stomata are visible. thin
outer
Each stoma is bordered by two wall stoma
sausage-shaped cells, called guard pore
cells, which are normally smaller thick
inner guard cell
than epidermal cells. Unlike other wall water leaving
cells in the epidermis, guard cells guard cells
contain chloroplasts. (a) Open stoma
6. Sketch what you observe under epidermal
the microscope, labelling the nucleus
cell
stoma, guard cells, epidermal thin
outer chloroplast
cells, and chloroplasts.
wall
7. Count the number of stomata in stoma water leaving
your field of view, then estimate pore guard cells
the number of stomata on the thick
sample being examined. inner guard cell
wall
The facts (b) Closed stoma

Fig 9.13: Open and closed stomata
Stomata are pores between guard cells.
They are found on the upper or lower The guard cells control the opening and
epidermis or both. Stomata allow: closing of each stoma.
• Entry of carbon dioxide into
Discussion corner
the leaf for photosynthesis.
1. Discuss the following questions
• Exit of oxygen.
with some of your classmates:
• Evaporation of water. a. How gas eous exchange
Stomata are the main structures for occurs in plants?
gaseous exchange in leaves of plants. b. Relate gaseous exchange in
They are tiny openings found in the plants and animals.
epidermis of leaves. With the exception 2. Share your findings with the rest
of submerged plants, stomata are of the class.
present in all the leaves of plants. Most
land plants have stomata on the lower
surface of the leaf.
146
The facts This means that the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the palisade cells
becomes lower than in the air spaces
Gas exchange in plants outside the cells. Therefore during
When the stomata open, gases come into photosynthesis carbon dioxide diffuses
the leaf while others come out. Oxygen into the palisade cell from the airspaces.
which is a product of photosynthesis On the other hand, photosynthesis
diffuse out of palisade cells to the air produces oxygen whose concentration
spaces. It eventually comes out through becomes higher inside the palisade cells
the stomata to the atmosphere. On than in the air spaces surrounding the
the other hand, carbon dioxide from cells. Oxygen therefore diffuses out of
the atmosphere enters into the leaf the palisade cells into the air spaces.
through the stomata into the airspaces. This is the process of gaseous exchange
It then diffuses from the air spaces into in leaves.
palisade cells where it is used during Gases first dissolve in the film of
photosynthesis. moisture surrounding the cell, before
When the stomata are open, air from they diffuse into or out of the cell.
the surrounding enters the leaf and Note that when air is entering or
occupies the air spaces. Oxygen and leaving the plant through stomata, the
carbon dioxide diffuse into or out of process is not gaseous exchange, but
the leaf cells along their concentration diffusion. Gaseous exchange refers to
gradient. the movement of gases between the cells
During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and their surroundings.
is used up by the palisade cells, and
oxygen is produced.
Fig. 9.14: Gaseous exchange in the leaf of a terrestrial plant
147
Stems of woody terrestrial trees and • The direction that a gas takes
shrubs have areas of loosely arranged during diffusion depends on the
cells with large air spaces between them. concentration of the gas on either
These cells together form a structure side of the respiratory surface.
called a lenticel. Lenticels are formed • In large multicellular organisms such
when the epidermis is replaced by the as human beings, most cells are deep
bark. Lenticels appear scattered on
inside the body. Diffusion alone is
the surface of the stem as small raised
not enough to move gases across the
openings. They allow gaseous exchange
large number of cells that lies inside.
of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the atmosphere and the internal tissues • Large multicellular organisms have
of the stem. special respiratory structures for
gaseous exchange. These include the
Self-evaluation Test 9.3 tracheal system in insects; the skin,
1. What are the structural differences buccal cavity and lungs in frogs; the
between guard cells and other gills in fish and the lungs in humans.
epidermal cells? • In humans beings, breathing is
2. Although the leaves are the main controlled by medulla oblongata in
organs of gaseous exchange in the brain which is sensitive to the
plants, the roots also absorb concentration of carbon dioxide.
oxygen in the soil. Why is this When this exceeds a certain level
necessary? the medulla oblongata stimulates
the ribs and diaphragm to contract
Unit summary more rapidly.
• Gaseous exchange is the process by • Plants also require carbon dioxide
which animals exchange respiratory for photosynthesis and produce
gases while plants exchange both oxygen as a waste product.
respiratory and photosynthetic gases. • In plants, gaseous exchange occurs
• Gaseous exchange between a living through stomata in leaves, lenticels
cell and its surrounding always takes in the stem and roots and through
place by diffusion across a moist cell the epidermis of the root.
membrane.
• Certain diseases of the respiratory
• The surface over which gaseous
system such as asthma, bronchitis,
exchange takes place is called a
pulmonary tuberculosis, pneumonia
and whooping cough interfere with
• All respiratory surfaces have a large
moist surface, basically a mechanism the functioning of the respiratory
of transporting gases to and from the structures.
148
 Test your competence 9 8. Explain how you would help a
person who has just had an asthma
1. One of the following is not a attack.
respiratory surface. Which one is it? 9. How does exercise affect the
A. Skin breathing rate?
B. Nostrils 10. Two leaves were immersed in a
C. Gills beaker containing warm water.
D. Mouth cavity Bubbles of a gas were observed
to form and escape from the leaf
2. Terrestrial animals obtain respiratory surfaces. In leaf A, bubbles formed
gases from on both surfaces but more on the
A. The surrounding water lower surface than on the upper
B. The atmosphere surface. In leaf B, very many bubbles
C. A and B formed on the upper surface but
D. None of the above none on the lower surface.
3. Suggest why organisms develop (a) What does the production of
gaseous exchange systems. bubbles depict about the types
of plants?
4. Briefly explain a series of events that
take place during breathing. (b) What does the production
of bubbles indicate about the
5. Do you think the government of internal structure of the leaf?
Rwanda should ban the sale of
cigarettes? (c) Suggest the possible habitats of
the leaves A and B.
6. Give two properties of leaves that
support gaseous exchange. 11. The atmospheric air contains 79%
nitrogen and 20% oxygen as shown
7. (a) Name the parts labelled on the below.
internal structure of the leaf below. Oxygen
W
V Carbon
dioxide
U
Inert gases
X
(b) What is the importance of parts Nitrogen
W and X?
Explain why we breathe in oxygen
and not nitrogen which is more
abundant.
149
Unit
10 Excretion in humans
Key unit competency

To be able to describe the structure and function of the excretory organs and suggest
good practices for healthy kidneys.
Learning objectives
• Define and explain the need for excretion.
• Describe the role of the liver in excretion.
• Name excretory organs and excretory products.
• Outline the structure of kidney and describe a nephron.
• Describe the process of urine formation.
• Use a dissected mammal to identify parts of the urinary system.
• Develop good habits to maintain healthy urinary system.
Introduction
We use fuel, for example, diesel and petrol to run machines such as engines of vehicles.
Are there waste products produced by a running engine? Look at the picture below.
Fig 10.1 Vehicles producing smoke
What is happening in the picture? What are the components of the smoke? What do
you think would happen to the engine of the vehicle if the products being removed
were left to accumulate? From your answers above what do you think you will learn
in this unit?
150
10.1 Need for excretion
The facts
Just as vehicles remove substances
that can damage their engine if left to
Excretion is one of the main
accumulate, human beings also remove
characteristics of living things. Every
toxic waste products from their bodies.
living cell carries out life processes which
This happens through a process called
involve chemical reactions. In some of
excretion. Therefore, we can define
these reactions, complex materials are
excretion as the process by which
chemically broken down and in others
organisms remove waste products of
simple materials are used to make new
metabolism from the body. Through
compounds. All these reactions are
excretion, organisms control osmotic
collectively referred to as metabolism.
pressure. It also enables them to promote
During metabolism, waste products are
homeostasis; that is, the balance of the
formed. If waste products accumulate
organism’s internal body environment.
in the cell or even in its surrounding,
they can reach very high concentrations
Discussion corner which affect the normal cell function
1. Discuss the following with a and could even kill the cell, for example:
classmate. 1. Carbon dioxide is a by-product of
(a) The importance of excretion. respiration. If it accumulates in the
(b) The health implications of cell it changes the pH of the cell. It
not emptying the bladder then interferes with the functioning
and bowels promptly. of certain enzymes. If this situation
2. Research on human excretory is not corrected, the affected cells
organs. Use your answers to fill eventually die.
the table below. 2. The body has no mechanism of
Table 10.1: Excretory organs and their storing excess amino acids from the
excretory products and incidental loses digestion of proteins. Excess amino
Excretory Main Incidental acids are therefore taken to the liver
organ excretory loses where they are broken down in a
products process called deamination to urea
and glycogen. Small amounts of
uric acids are also formed from the
breakdown of proteins. Urea and
3. Compare your findings with that uric acids comprise the nitrogenous
of your classmates. waste products which are excreted
from the body through urine.
the class. Many other reactions in cells also
produce by-products that could be
151
toxic. Therefore it is necessary that these • Animals do not put most of their
waste products be eliminated from the waste products to other uses like it
cells. The waste products if not removed happens in plants.
can accumulate to toxic levels resulting • Animals take in certain substances
to ill health and eventually death. in their food in excess of their needs.
Unlike plants, animals have difficulty These extra substances, for example
getting rid of waste substances for proteins, are broken down with the
several reasons: formation of toxic substances such
• Animals are more active than plants. as ammonia.
Therefore their metabolic processes For these reasons, animals have a
take place at a higher rate, producing more complex excretory system than
larger quantities of waste products. plants.
10.2 The role of the liver in excretion

The table below summarises the excretory organs and their waste products in human
beings.
Table 10.2: Excretory organs and their waste products
Excretory organ Excretory product

Skin Urea, lactic acid, excess salts and excess water in form of
sweat.
Kidney Excess salts, excess water and nitrogenous wastes in form of
urine.
Lungs Carbon dioxide and excess water in form of water vapour
Liver Bile pigments
Nitrogenous compounds such as ammonia, urea, uric acid

and trimethylamine oxide.
Discussion corner (c) Why is ammonia produced in

the liver not excreted in that
form but is first converted to
with a classmate.
urea?
(a) What are the functions of the
liver in excretion?
the class.
(b) What are the homeostatic
functions of the liver.
152
The facts liver has many functions including
maintenance of a constant internal
The liver is the second largest organ environment (homeostasis) and
in the body after the skin. It plays a excretion. The excretory functions of
very important role in the body. It is the liver are described below.
described as the metabolic centre. The
liver
gall bladder
pancreas
ileum
Fig 10.2 Location of liver in the body
(a) Deamination (b) Detoxification

The body cannot store proteins or amino The liver removes harmful substances
acids. This is because their breakdown such as drugs and hormones from the
forms toxic substances in the body. blood. Within the liver, these substances
Amino acids are the end products are converted into inactive or less
of protein digestion. Surplus amino dangerous forms, for instance, hydrogen
acids are broken down in the liver in a peroxide, a highly toxic by-product of
process called deamination. From each certain metabolic process is rapidly
amino acid, the amino group (NH2)) is split into water and oxygen by enzyme
converted to ammonia (NH3). Ammonia catalase in the liver.
should not be allowed to accumulate in Hydrogen catalase
the body because it is highly toxic. The water + oxygen
peroxide
remainder of the amino acid molecule
2H2O2 (aq) 2H2O (l) + O2(g)
is changed to glycogen or fat for storage.
Thus, the liver purifies or detoxifies
The ammonia produced from the amino
blood. The inactive substances formed in
group is quickly converted to a less
the liver are returned to the bloodstream
toxic substance called urea. During this
and are finally excreted from the body
conversion, ammonia is first combined
by the kidneys.
with carbon dioxide through a series
of enzyme-catalysed reactions. The (c) Elimination of Haemoglobin
resulting urea is taken to the kidney in
Haemoglobin from old worn out red
blood and is eliminated from the body
blood cells is broken down by the liver
in urine.
153
cells into pigments. These pigments are
further broken down and eliminated in Excess amino acids
the bile, giving urine its characteristic
yellow colour.
Non-nitrogen Nitrogen compound (Z)
compound (W)
(d) Elimination of sex
hormones and cholesterol
After sex hormones have performed
their functions, some are modified
chemically by the liver cells. Others are respiration
sent to the kidney for renal excretion (i) Name the process illustrated
while others are expelled in bile. in the diagram.
Excess cholesterol is also excreted in (ii) In which organ does the
bile. If there is a considerable excess process you have named in
amount of cholesterol in the blood, (i) above occur?
some may be deposited in the walls of (iii) Name compound Z.
blood arteries obstructing flow.
(iv) Compound W is used as
Self-evaluation Test 10.1 source of energy, name
compound W.
1. Undigested and indigestible waste 4. Other than urea, name two other
products are not considered as waste products excreted by the
excretory wastes, explain. liver.
2. Copy and fill the blank spaces in 5. Describe how urea is transported
the passage that follows. in blood to the kidneys.
Excretion involves the removal
of products from
the body. Urea is produced by 10.3 Structure of the
the during while human urinary system
carbon dioxide is a waste product
of . Nitrogenous Activity 10.1: Identifying parts of
waste products are excreted by the human urinary system
the while Requirements
carbon dioxide is excreted by
• Manila papers and marker pens
the .
• Charts, blackboard diagrams
3. Proteins are very important in our
and photographs of the human
bodies. However, excess amino
urinary system.
acids from protein digestion
cannot be stored. Study the • A drawing of the internal structure
diagram below and answer the of the mammalian kidney
questions that follow.
154
Procedure The facts
1. Study the chart provided and use
them to draw the human urinary The human urinary system is made up
system on the Manila paper and of two kidneys, urinary bladder, two
label the kidneys, ureters, bladder ureters and a single urethra. Kidneys
and urethra. are involved in filtering blood and
2. Draw a labelled diagram of separating waste metabolic substances
the internal structure of the from it. The main purpose of the
mammalian kidney. urinary system is to remove urine from
3. In your groups, discuss the the body. The draining of urine from the
positions of the cortex, medulla, bladder, through the urethra and out of
pyramid and pelvis. the body is known as urination.
class.
aorta diaphragm
venacava
left renal vein

right venal vein
left kidney
right kidney
left renal artery
left ureter
right renal artery
right ureter urinary bladder
sphincter muscles urethra
Fig 10.3 Human urinary system
Function of parts of the urinary The kidneys

system
There are a pair of kidneys that are
The urinary system keeps everything in red-brown and are located below the
balance by removing waste, such as urea, ribs in the middle of the back. Their
extra salt, extra water and other things function is to:
the body does not need. Urea is produced • Remove waste from the blood in the
when protein, found in meats, is broken form of urine.
down in the body.
155
• Keep substances stable in the blood. The kidneys
• Make erythropoietin, a hormone
Activity 10.2: To examine the
which helps make red blood cells.
external and internal structure
• Make vitamin D active. of a mammalian kidney
• Regulate blood pressure.
Requirements
Ureter • Fresh kidney of sheep, goat or
Each kidney has a narrow tube called cow
a ureter, which carries urine from the • Sharp razor, knife or scalpel
kidney to the bladder. Muscles in the • Small dissecting board
ureter walls tighten and relax forcing • Hand lens or compound
urine down this tube, away from the microscope
kidneys.
Procedure
Bladder 1. Examine the whole kidney. Note
The bladder is a triangle-shaped, hollow the various tubes attached to it.
organ located in the lower abdomen. It • What is the outer colour of the
is held in place by ligaments attached kidney?
to the pelvic bones. The bladder's walls 2. Draw and label the external
relax and expand to store urine, and structure of the kidney.
contract and flatten to empty urine 3. Place the kidney on the dissecting
through the urethra. board.
4. Use the scalpel, razor or knife to
Sphincter muscle
cut the kidney along its length at
Circular muscles that help keep urine the middle.
from leaking by closing tightly like a 5. Use a hand lens to identify the
rubber band around the opening of the following parts: cortex, medulla,
bladder. pelvis, renal artery, renal vein and
urethra.
Urethra
6. Draw and label the internal
Urethra is the tube that allows urine to
structure of the kidney.
pass outside the body. The brain signals
the bladder muscles to tighten, which Study questions
squeezes urine out of the bladder. At 1. What are nephrons?
the same time, the brain signals the 2. How are nephrons structured?
sphincter muscles to relax to let urine
3. What is the function of the
exit the bladder through the urethra.
nephrons?
When all the signals occur in the correct
order, normal urination occurs.
156
cortex
The facts renal artery
medulla
renal vein
Kidneys are bean-shaped and are red- pelvis
brown in colour. They lie near the back
of the abdominal cavity about the level
ureter
of the waistline. Each kidney weighs
approximately 142.5 g. It is about the
size of a clenched fist. The right kidney Fig. 10.4: Cross-section of kidney
is slightly lower than the left. The kidney 1. Cortex
is surrounded by a layer of fat which This is the outer part which is dark in
helps to cushion it from mechanical or colour. It contains a dense network
physical injury. of blood capillaries that form the
The kidney is supplied with blood from glomeruli of nephrons. Nephron is the
the general circulatory system via the functional unit of the kidney.
renal artery which branches off from
2. Medulla
the aorta. Blood from the kidney goes
back to the general circulation through This part is pale red in colour and lies
the renal vein which joins the vena between the cortex and the pelvis. It
cava. A tube called the ureter connects contains several cone-like extensions
each kidney to the bladder located in called pyramids.
the lower abdomen. 3. Pelvis
The bladder is stretchy to hold large This part is white in colour. It narrows
quantities of urine. It stores urine to form the ureter. Pelvis is a collecting
temporarily. From the bladder, another space leading to the ureter, which takes
tube called the urethra opens to the urine to the bladder.
exterior of the organism. Two rings of The nephron
sphincter muscles encircle the urethra.
The most important function of the
They control the emptying of the
kidney as an excretory organ is to filter
bladder.
wastes from the blood. This takes place
Internal structure of the in tiny units called nephrons or renal
kidney tubules. A nephron is therefore referred
to as the functional unit of the kidney.
A frontal section through the kidney
Each kidney has about 1.25 million
reveals three main regions. The outer
nephrons. One part of the nephron is
part called cortex, inner part called
in the cortex and the other part in the
medulla and the pelvis.
medulla.
157
Afferent arteriole Efferent arteriole
Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted
tubule
Bowman's capsule
Capillary network
Distal convoluted tubule
Collecting duct
Loop of Henle
Fig 10.5 Structure of the nephron

The nephron has three distinct coiled Thus, on one end of the nephron is blood
parts: supply from the artery, and on the other
• The proximal convoluted tubule end is blood supply to the vena cava.
• A U-shaped loop of Henle
Urine formation
• A distal convoluted tubule
Excretion in the nephron is carried
Both the proximal convoluted tubule out in two stages: ultrafiltration and
and the distal convoluted tubule are selective reabsorption. Blood coming
located in the cortex. The loop of into the kidney from the artery contains
Henle is in the medulla. One end of both waste substances and useful
the nephron is modified to form a cup substances. Both substances must enter
shaped structure called the Bowman’s the nephron, where separation takes
capsule. place by ultrafiltration. The body must
The nephron is supplied with an not lose the useful substances. Therefore
extensive network of blood capillaries. useful substances must be taken back
In the Bowman’s capsule, the capillaries into the blood so that they are not
form a knot called the glomerulus lost. This process is known as selective
(plural glomeruli) which branches from reabsorption.
an afferent arteriole that originates
(a) Ultrafiltration
from the renal artery. The glomeruli
capillaries reunite to form an efferent Ultrafiltration takes place in the
arteriole which channels blood away glomerulus.
from the glomerulus.
158
Note: The afferent arteriole that takes distal convoluted tubules. However,
blood to the glomerular capillaries has a most of the water is reabsorbed in
wider lumen than the efferent arteriole the region of the collecting duct.
that takes blood away from it. • No urea is reabsorbed into the
Due to the difference in afferent and blood.
efferent arteriole size, a high pressure of By the time the filtrate from the
blood is created in the glomerulus. This glomerulus completes its movement
pressure forces water, mineral ions and down the nephron, it has a high
small molecules like glucose, amino concentration of urea, some salts and
acids and urea out of the glomerulus. water. The liquid is now called urine.
These pass through the tiny pores in Several nephrons empty into one
the walls of the glomerular capillaries collecting duct, and all the collecting
into the Bowman’s capsule. The liquid ducts of a kidney empty into the
collected in the Bowman’s capsule is ureter. The process of urine formation
called glomerular filtrate. is a continuous one, and the ureter
The larger molecules in the blood, like continuously receives small amounts of
blood proteins, white blood cells, urine. The bladder stores the urine until
red blood cells and platelets cannot it is full, then one begins to experience an
pass through the capillary walls of the un-comfortable feeling. The sphincter
glomerulus. These remain in the blood muscles must then be relaxed in order
and continue to flow to the efferent to empty the bladder.
arteriole. The glomerular filtrate flows Research project
down the nephron where re-absorption Using reference materials and
will take place as it flows along. internet, find out why an individual
(b) Selective reabsorption may pass much dilute urine or less
but concentrated urine.
As the glomerular filtrate passes along
the nephron, some substances that are Factors that affect urine production
useful to the body are selectively taken The volume, colour, odour of urine and
back or reabsorbed into the blood frequency of urination is affected by
capillaries network surrounding the many factors. They include:
nephron.
1. Amount of fluids taken
• All amino acids and glucose are
reabsorbed by active transport in the Large intake of fluids lowers the osmotic
proximal convoluted tubule. pressure of blood. This leads to reduced
reabsorption of water in the kidney
• Some salts and water are reabsorbed tubules resulting in the production of
depending on how much of them the large amounts of dilute urine.
body still needs. Water is absorbed by
osmosis and salts by active transport. 2. Amount of salt taken
Salts are absorbed mainly in the Intake of a salty meal raises the osmotic
distal convoluted tubule. Water is pressure of blood. This leads to increased
reabsorbed in both the proximal and reabsorption of water in the kidney
159
tubules resulting in the production of 2. Given the following parts of the
coloured, little and smelly urine. nephron:
3. Weather (i) Bowmans capsule
In hot and dry weather conditions, (ii) Loop of Henle
the body tends to lose a lot of water (iii) Distal convoluted tubule
through sweating thereby raising the (iv) Collecting duct
osmotic potential of blood. In this case
(v) Proximal convoluted tubule
a lot of water is reabsorbed resulting in
coloured, little and smelly urine. Arrange the parts in order
beginning with the region of the
During cold weather the frequency of nephron from where the filtrate
urination increases because sweating is begins to flow.
so minimal.
3. A sea salmon swims up a river.
4. Physical activity Explain how this would affect the
During an exercise like running, quantity and concentration of its
jumping and playing, we sweat a lot. The urine.
kidney reabsorbs more water resulting
in little, coloured and smelly urine. 10.4 Practices that
maintain healthy
5. Diseases
urinary system
Certain diseases that affect the secretion
of hormones that control reabsorption Discussion corner
of water in the kidney tubules can
either lead to production of large or 1. Discuss with a classmate, the
small amounts of urine. An example is good habits that enhance healthy
diabetes insipidus. urinary system.
2. Present your work to the rest of
Self-evaluation Test 10.2 the class.
1. The diagram below shows the
mammalian urinary system. The facts
On it, indicate the renal artery,
urethra, ureter and left kidney. The best way to prevent urinary tract
infection is to keep the kidneys and
the entire urinary system healthy. This
can be done through proper diet and
nutrition. Some methods that keep the
urinary system and kidneys functioning
normally include:
(i) Drinking a lot of water, at least 10
glasses of water a day to flush out
toxins in the body.
160
(ii) Exercising regularly to keep fit.
Maintain a healthy weight according Self-evaluation Test 10.3
to your age to avoid putting excess 1. Suggest reasons why people who
strain on all bodily systems. take alcohol tend to urinate a lot.
2. Why is it important to take only
prescribed medicine from a
qualified doctor?
3. Drinking a lot of water is healthy.
Explain.
Unit summary
• Excretion is the process by which
Fig. 10.6 Exercising through running waste substances from cells, tissues
(iii) Avoid taking too many drugs or blood of organisms are removed
especially pain killers. Stick to from the body. Egestion is getting rid
prescriptive drugs from a qualified of undigested or unabsorbed wastes
medical officer. from an organism.
(iv) Visit a doctor (urologist) regularly • Excretion is important as it enables
to check the health of the urinary the elimination of urea and carbon
system. dioxide.
• The excretory substances in animals
(v) Eat healthy by avoiding junk food.
include ammonia, urea, uric acid,
Eat more fresh fruits and green
carbon dioxide and mineral salts.
vegetables. Choose foods low in
sodium, sugar and fats but high in • If waste substances accumulate in
fiber content. the cell or even in its surroundings,
they kill the cell. Therefore they
(vi) Be informed about the causes
should be excreted.
and prevention methods of kidney
• In multicellular organisms such as
diseases and urinal track infection
human beings, excretion occurs
causes.
through excretory organs such as
(vii) Avoid smoking and alcohol intake. skin, lungs, liver and kidneys.
Health Check! • The major component of the kidney
is the cortex, medulla, pelvis and
It is good practice to empty your bladder
ureter.
in toilets, latrines or urinals. Urinating
in public places like bus stops, by the • The nephron consists of Bowman’s
roadside, in water bodies or on walls capsule, proximal convoluted tubule,
is extremely unhygienic. In addition to Loop of Henle, distal convoluted
polluting the environment, the urine tubule and the collecting duct.
may also contain disease-causing • Urine is produced by the processes
micro-organisms that can contaminate of ultrafiltration and selective
drinking water and vegetables. reabsorption.
161
• Urine is transported through the (i) Calculate the total volume
ureters to the bladder where it of blood filtered in 24 hours.
is stored temporarily before it is Show your workings.
removed from the body through the (ii) If 1.7 dm3 of urine is produced
urethra. in 24 hours, calculate the
• The volume and concentration of percentage volume of filtered
urine is affected by water intake, blood excreted as urine in 24
temperature and exercise. hours.
6. Differentiate between excretion and
egestion.
 Test your competence 10 7. Explain why the concentration
1. In which organ are excess amino of urea in the urine increases by
acids broken down? the time the filtrate reaches the
collecting duct.
A. Lungs
8. The figure below represents a
B. Heart
mammalian nephron.
C. Kidneys M Q
D. Liver
2. The active uptake of substances into
the blood from the nephron is called
A. Tubular secretion
B. Selective re-absorption
C. Ultra filtration N
D. Micro nutrition
3. The kidney function is achieved by
A. Ultra filtration
(a) State and give the importance
B. Secretion
of the structural difference
C. Selective re-absorption between parts labelled M and
D. Both A and B Q.
E. All of the above. (b) Name the process that occurs
4. Iradukunda eats a full bag of salty at the part labelled N.
chips. What effect does this have (c) In a healthy p erson, all
on the quantity of urine and the glucose and amino acids are
concentration? completely reabsorbed from
5. Given that the volume of blood the filtrate. Some water is
filtered by the kidneys is 1.18 also reabsorbed. Name the
dm3min-1; physiological processes by
which these substances are
reabsorbed.
162
9. Two filtrates were obtained from (ii) Account for the absence of
different parts of the nephron. proteins and blood cells in
Fitrate A contained glucose, amino either of the filtrate.
acids, water and urea while fitrate B 10. To avoid losing too much water,
contained water and urea. a desert kangaroo excretes very
(i) From which part of the nephron concentrated urine. Explain how its
was filtrate A and B extracted? nephron is adapted to enable this.
Give reasons for your answer.
163
Unit
11 Joints and movement
Key unit competency

To be able to describe types of joints and relate the structure of joints to their
functions.
Learning objectives
• Differentiate between hinge joint and ball and, socket joint.
• Outline the function of bones, ligaments, tendons, cartilage, nerves and
synovial fluid in the joint.
• Analyse the structure of immovable and movable joints.
• Demonstrate how antagonistic muscles bring about movement at the hinge
joint.
• Appreciate the link between skeletal muscles and bones in movement.
• Develop good habits that maintain safety of the body joints.
Introduction
In senior one, you learnt about skeletal systems of organisms. What did we say is
the importance of the skeleton in our body? Can you give examples of movable and
fixed joints?
Look at the pictures below.
A
B
Fig 11.1 Some ways of exercising

What is the role played by joints in pictures A and B above? We are able to move
different parts of our body because of joints that occur between different bones.
164
However, there are joints that are not Study question
movable at all. In this unit, you shall
Look for the meaning of the
learn the different types of joints, their
following terms: bone, ligament,
functions and how to keep our joints
muscle, cartilage and tendon.
healthy.
11.1 Types of joints The facts

A joint is a point where a bone meets
Bone – is a hard, tough connective
another bone or bones. Except for
tissue composed of mineral salts such as
pelvic, sacral, skull and sternal bones,
calcium and phosphate. It is abundant
joints allow movement and provide
in all animal skeletons.
mechanical support. Muscles pull on
bones to make joints move. Therefore, Cartilage – this is a skeletal connective
without joints, movement would not be tissue which is softer than a bone. It
possible. Most joints only allow slight supports the trachea, nose, oesophagus
movement while other joints allow no and pinna of the ear.
movement at all. Ligament-this is a fibrous tissue which
Joints develop between adjacent bones. join one bone to another. They are
However, movement is important elastic to allow movement at a joint.
in determining the type of joint that Tendon –a tough connective tissue
develops. Restricted movement even in which attaches a muscle to a bone. They
a freely movable joint can transform it are inelastic.
to an immovable joint. Muscle- this is a contractile tissue
Activity 11.1: Identifying the specialised for contraction and relaxation.
location of the movable and They cover the skeleton. Muscles are
immovable joints in the body responsible for locomotion and other type
of movement in animals.
What to do
Joints are classified structurally depending
1. Try to locate the position of the on how the bones articulate or functionally
movable and immovable joints in depending on the degree of movement
your body and note them down. between the articulating bones.
2. Write down the examples of each
of the following categories of i. Structural classification
joints; (a) Cartilaginous joint- the bones are
(a) Immovable joints connected by cartilage.
(b) Slightly movable joints (b) Fibrous- the bones are connected by
(c) Freely movable joints dense fibrous tissue rich in collagen.
3. Try to demonstrate while your (c) Synovial- there is a space between
p ar t n e r w at c h e s t h e 3 6 0 o the bones called synovial cavity
movement of the shoulder joint. that is filled with a fluid known as
synovial fluid.
165
ii. Functional classification (a) Gliding joints
(a) Movable joints- allow some These joints consist of two opposing
degree of movement. There are two flat surfaces that allow slight amount of
categories; gliding motion. They occur between the
• Those which allow slight vertebrae. They have no fluid between
mobility. them but instead have a larger cartilage
• Those which are freely movable. between them known as intervertebral
disc which reduces friction during
(b) Immovable joints-permit very little movement. They are also found in the
or no mobility. wrist and ankle.
Fixed or immovable joints
These are joints that do not allow any
movement, for example, joints in the
cranium commonly known as sutures.
Tarsals
These joints have seams between the
bones of the skull. They are not smooth phalanges
but rather have interlocking finger-
like processes that increase stability.
Between the bones are dense fibrous
tissues. metatarsals
satures Fig. 11.3 Gliding joint
(b) Synovial joints
These joints are classified depending
on the shape of the adjoining articular
surface. They include:
(i) Saddle joints - comprises of two
saddle-shaped articulating surfaces
that are oriented at right angles to
each other. Example is the joint of
the thumb.
Fig 11.2 The skull
Fixed joints are also found in the pelvic
girdle. carpal bones
(attached
to ulna and
Movable joints radius)
These are joints that allow movement of metacarpal
body parts to take place. Some movable bones
joints allow only a small degree of
phalanges
movement while others allow a wide
range of movement. There are several Fig 11.4: Saddle joint
movable joints which include:
166
(ii) Hinge joints femur
muscles
patella
Activity 11.2: Determining the
position of hinge joint capsule
1. When you open and close a door, synovial
capsule articular
how does it move? synovial cartilage
2. Ask a friend to open and close a fluid
door as you watch. tibia
• What do you notice?
Fig 11.5 Hinge joint of the knee
You may have realised that the
door can move only towards (iii) Pivot joints
you or away from you. Notice It consists of a cylindrical like bony
too that the door is held in process of one bone that rotates within
place by hinges which allow this a ring partially composed of bone and
movement. cartilage. Examples include articulation
3. Is there any other possible way the of the axis with the atlas and the
door can move? Try it and find articulation between the head of radius
out. and the proximal end of the ulna.
The movement of the door can (iv) Ball and socket joint
be described as a back and forth
movement only. When something Move your arm at the elbow. Then move
held at a point, moves in such a your arm at the shoulder in as many
way, it is said to move along one ways as possible. What was the difference
plane only. in the type of movements at the elbow
4. Now, try and move different parts joint and at the shoulder joint?
of your arm or leg. At which joints These types of joints allow the greatest
do you think there is movement flexibility of movement of all joints.
in one plane only? It consists of a ball-shaped head end
5. Name the position of these joints. of one bone that fits into the cavity
6. You can use an arm model with (socket) of an adjacent bone. This type
a rubber band to demonstrate of joint allows wide range of movement
movement of joints. in almost any direction. The shoulder
joint is an example of a ball and socket
joint. The other is the hip joint. Bones at
The facts hinge joint and ball and-socket joint are
Hinge joints allow movement in one held in place by ligaments which join
plane. The joints at the elbow, knee them together.
and finger joints show this back and
forth movement as the only type of
movement.
167
head of femur
synovial
membrane 1. Assume that a sharp object
ligaments
penetrated a synovial joint. From
the list of structures write the
synovial fluid order in which they would most
likely be penetrated.
1 Muscle or tendon
synovial 2 Ligament
femur capsule 3 Articular cartilage
Fig 11.6: Ball and socket joint at the hip 4 Fibrous capsule
Structure of a synovial joint 5 Skin
The articular surfaces of bones at 6 Synovial membrane
synovial joint are covered with articular A. 5,1,2,4,3,6
cartilage that provides a smooth surface B. 5,1,2,4,6,3
where the bones meet. The adjoining C. 5,1,2,6,4,3
bones are enclosed within a synovial
D. 5,2,1,4,3,6
cavity that is surrounded by a fibrous
capsule that holds the bones together. 2. Which two joints move in the
Some portions of the capsule may same way?
thicken to form ligaments. A. Knee joint and shoulder joint
A synovial membrane lines the B. Knee joint and elbow joint
synovial cavity. The membrane produces C. Neck joint and knee joint
synovial fluid that is a complex mixture D. Neck joint and ankle joint
of cells and nutrients such as proteins,
3. Which of the following is used to
polysaccharides and fats. The synovial
classify joints in the body?
fluid covers the surfaces of the joint and
provides a lubricating film. Examples A. The number of bones that
include: hip joint, shoulder joint and articulate.
knee joint. B. The embr yonic tissues
formed at the joint.
compact bone C. The connective tissues that
bind the bones together.
articular cartilage
D. The degree of movement at
joint cavity with the joint.
synovial fluid
E. Both C and D.
Fig 11.7: A synovial joint
168
11.2 Action of antagonistic muscles in the movement
of a hinge joint
Roll up your sleeves. Make a fist with Basically the movement of the arm is
your hand tightly. Bend your arm at purely brought about by the opposing
the elbow. Observe the inner part of the actions of the biceps and triceps.
upper arm. You may have noted that the
inner muscles of your upper arm bulge.
What do you think causes the bulge? biceps
relaxed
The biceps and triceps are referred to as triceps
contracted
antagonistic muscles. They are found
on the upper part of the forearm. To
lift the arm, the biceps contracts while
the triceps relaxes. Joints provide a
fulcrum point for muscles to act. The
joint action in the upward movement
of the arm is flexion resulting to the
decreasing of the joint angle. Biceps
muscles are therefore called flexor
muscles. To straighten the arm, triceps (a)
muscles contract while biceps relaxes;
the joint action is extension that results
triceps
to increase in the joint angle. relax
biceps
Antagonistic muscles occur in pairs and contract
oppose a specific movement such that
when one muscle contracts, the other
relaxes. This means that they never
contract or relax at the same time.
When the lower arm is straightened (b)
at the elbow, we say that the arm is Fig 11.8: (a) Extended arm and (b) bent
extended. When the arm is bent at the arm at the elbow
elbow, we say the arm is flexed. When
the arm is extended, the triceps muscles
are in a contracted state and so, they
are tight and short in length. The bicep 1. Suppose the biceps muscles are
muscles on the other hand are relaxed paralysed, which arm movement
and therefore stretched. will not be possible?
2. Why must muscles work in
antagonistic pairs at joints?
169
11.3 Practices that promote healthy bones and joints
Discussion corner • Low-fat dairy products
such as milk.
Discuss the following with a classmate. • Green leafy vegetables,
1. What practices can cause bone such as Dodo or cabbages.
fractures? • Foods fortified with
2. To maintain healthy bones and calcium, such as cereals
enhance quick recovery from and bread.
fractures we should take food (b) Eating foods that contain
rich in calcium, zinc ions and Vitamin D. Foods that contain
magnesium, ions. vitamin D include: egg yolk
3. Sunlight enhance strong bones. and beef liver.
4. Elderly people develop a bent Vitamin D is also sythesised
back. when our skin get exposed to
the sun.
5. Present your work to the rest of
the class. (c) Getting enough of Vitamin C,
which is necessary in repairing
The facts tissues, including the cartilage
in joints. Foods that are rich
in vitamin C include: fruits,
Keeping bones and joints healthy such as oranges, lemons,
becomes more important as we age. watermelon, sweet potatoes
Serious conditions such as osteoporosis and tomatoes.
and arthritis can make it hard to move 2. Avoiding alcohol consumption.
around. They may lead to even more Taking alcohol interferes with the
medical problems. There are simple body’s ability to absorb vitamins
things that you can do to reduce and minerals. It also results in an
your likelihood of developing these increase in hormones that deplete
conditions or at least prevent them from bone density.
becoming worse.
3. Weight bearing exercises which
Simple lifestyle changes can help to helps the body to build more bone
protect bones and joints. They include: mass and maintain the bone density.
1. Eating healthy food appropriate for Some examples of weight bearing
bone health, for example: exercises include:
(a) Incorporating more calcium • Walking
rich foods into the diet. Getting • Running
enough calcium is essential in • Dancing
keeping the bones healthy and
• Playing soccer
strong. Calcium rich foods
include: • Playing basketball
• Playing tennis
170
4. Avoiding smoking. Smoking has • Fibrous joints allow little or no
been shown to cause bone mass movement; cartilaginous joints are
depletion. Smoking also causes many slightly movable while synovial
other serious health problems as joints allow considerable movement.
well. • The shoulder joint is a ball and
socket joint between the head of
humerus and the glenoid cavity of
scapula. This joint allows a wide
range of movement.
• Synovial joints include: hinge joints,
ball and socket joints and pivot.
Fig 11.9 No smoking symbol • The elbow joint is a compound hinge
5. Maintaining a healthy body weight joint between the humerus, sigmoid
and posture. It is important to notch of ulna and radius. Movement
maintain a healthy body weight to at this joint is limited to flexion and
keep your bones and joints healthy. extension.
If you are underweight, you are at a • Antagonistic muscles include the
higher risk of bone loss. If you are biceps which is the flexor muscle
overweight, you may be causing while triceps is the extensor muscle.
extra stress on your joints. This • Good health habits, for example,
may put you at risk of developing eating a balanced diet rich in
osteoarthritis. calcium and vitamin D, and plenty
of physical activity is important in
Self-evaluation Test 11.3 keeping bones healthy.
1. Explain why it is important to
maintain a healthy body weight.
2. Give reasons why we should
avoid alcohol and smoking. 1. The strong tissues that hold bones
3. Give the benefits of putting on the together at a joint and protect them
right size of shoes or non-fitting from dislocation are .
clothes. A. Cartilages
B. Ligaments
Unit summary C. Tendons
D. Muscles
• A joint is a point where two bones
meet (articulate). 2. Flexing of the forearm is brought
about by___________.
• Joints can be classified according to
function, type of connective tissue A. Relaxation of the biceps and
that binds them or presence or contraction of the triceps.
absence of fluid. B. Relaxation of both biceps and
triceps.
171
C. Contraction of both biceps and (c) Of what benefit is the joint(s)
triceps. to the body?
D. Contraction of the biceps and 5. Sketch a synovial joint and describe
relaxation of the biceps. its functionality.
3. Bones are held together by ______ 6. Explain why we should always eat a
A. Ligaments balanced diet in relation to health of
B. Cartilages bones and joints.
C. Tendons 7. Animals move from one place to
another while plants do not move.
D. Muscles
Do you think it is wastage of time
4. The skull below shows a type of and energy for animals to move
joint. around?
8. Ngaboyisonga is growing old.
Propose a meal suitable for his
bones.
9. Which two joints move the same way
in our skeleton?
A. Knee joints and neck joints
A. Knee joints and elbow joints
C. Shoulder joints and elbow joints
D Ankle joints and neck joints
(a) What special name is given to 10. What tasks would be difficult if your
this type of joint. knee joints did not work?
(b) Classify the joint as movable,
slightly movable or immovable.
172
Unit
12 Infectious diseases
Key unit competency

To be able to identify symptoms of common infectious diseases and their prevention
and treatment.
Learning objectives
• Define pathogen, transmissible disease and host.
• Explain how the body’s defence mechanism can be enhanced by vaccination.
• Explain the symptoms, prevention and control of malaria, Ebola and HIV
and AIDS.
• Apply practices of hygiene and sanitation to control the spread of diseases.
• Organise community campaigns on prevention and treatment of diseases.
Introduction
Infectious diseases are also known as communicable diseases. They are diseases
that are transmitted from one person to another. These diseases are usually caused
by harmful micro-organisms. Examples of micro-organisms include viruses, fungi,
protozoa and bacteria.
Look at the picture below. Can you tell what will happen to the other person who is
not coughing?
Fig 12.1 Coughing without covering your mouth can lead to spread of infectious diseases
173
Can the action by the person in the Host: This is an organism that harbours
picture lead to transfer of disease or a disease-causing micro-organism,
not? If so, can all diseases that we know for example, water snails are hosts to
be transmitted in such a manner? schistosomes that causes bilharzia.
Why? What does this tell you about the Vector: This is a living organism
diseases that you will learn about in this that can transmit infectious diseases
unit? between human beings or from animals
to human beings. Female anopheles
12.1 Transmission of mosquito is a vector to the plasmodium
infectious diseases parasite malaria.
Infectious diseases are capable Carrier: This is a person who has
of spreading from one person to been infected but develops no signs or
another either directly or indirectly. symptoms. This person is capable of
transmitting the disease to other people.
Research Activity Signs: These are visible expressions
1. Using text books, handouts brought about by a disease, for example,
and internet, research on the red spots on the body.
following terminologies: Symptoms: A physical or mental feature
• Pathogen that is regarded as indicating a condition
of disease, particularly such a feature
• Epidemic
that is felt by the patient, for example,
• Pandemic nausea, dizziness and headache.
• Host Epidemiology: The study of all factors
• Infectious disease that contribute to the appearance of a
• Vector particular disease.
2. How does the body defend itself
Activity 12.1 Visit to a health
against diseases. centre
3. Write your findings in your
notebook. 1. Prepare a questionnaire by
formulating a series of questions
to ask a health worker about
The facts transmission of infec tious
diseases.
Pathogen: This is any disease-causing
microorganism. Bacteria, protozoa and You may include the following
viruses that cause disease are called questions.
pathogens. Pathogens are also known as • How is Ebola spread from one
germs. person to another?
Transmissible disease: These are • Who are the most vulnerable
diseases capable of spreading from people to be infected with
one person to another, for example, malaria?
common cold.
174
• Why is tuberculosis a very
dangerous disease?
• Is s m o k i n g r e l at e d t o
tuberculosis?
• What has the government
done to control HIV and
A I D S i n t h e Rw an d an
population?
• What is the role of pathogens Fig 12.2 Contaminated blood used during
in spreading diseases? blood transfusion can lead to transmission
2. Hand over in your research to the of diseases
teacher for assessment. 4. Physical contact with an infected
person can transmit a disease.
These infectious diseases are
termed as contagious. They include
The facts ringworms, scabies and Ebola.
5. Communicable diseases are also
Infections can be spread in several
spread by vectors. They are therefore
different ways. Some of them are listed
known as vector-borne diseases, for
below:
example, sleeping sickness is spread
1. Diseases that are transmitted through by tsetse flies, malaria is spread by
the air are referred to as air-borne female anopheles mosquito. Yellow
diseases. Tuberculosis and common fever on the other hand is spread
cold are examples. by black fly and some species of
2. Some diseases are transmitted mosquitoes.
t hroug h t he consumpt ion of 6. Some infections can also spread
contaminated water and food. They t h rou g h u nprot e c t e d s e x u a l
are referred to as waterborne or intercourse with an infected person.
foodborne diseases respectively. These diseases are known as sexual
Examples are cholera and typhoid transmitted infections (STIs), for
fever. example, HIV and AIDS.
3. Through blood transfusion or 7. Germs can also spread from a
contact with contaminated blood. mother to her unborn child, usually
Examples of diseases that can be through blood or other body fluids.
spread through contaminated blood They can also pass through contact
are HIV and AIDS and malaria. with skin or mucous membranes
during delivery.
175
The body has many ways of defending
Self-evaluation Test 12.1 itself from invasion by harmful micro-
1. Which one of the following is a organisms. In most cases the body’s
vector for sleeping sickness? defense mechanism prevents this from
A. Tsetse fly happening. Some of these defense
mechanisms are made in a way to block
B. Mosquito
pathogens from entering into the body.
C. Black fly
Other mechanisms eliminate pathogens
D. Trypanosome that are already in the body. There are
2. If you came into contact with a also defence mechanisms that attack
person who was coughing, which micro-organisms when they persist
diseases are you likely to catch? inside the body. The ability of the body
3. Name two diseases transmitted to prevent itself from diseases using its
through transfusion of lines of defense is called resistance.
contaminated blood. Body defence mechanisms can either
be first line or second line.
12.2 Defense against (a) Body’s first line of defence
infection This line of defence prevents harmful
Research Activity micro-organisms from entering the
body. It is the external defence system of
1. Using text books and internet
the body. It includes both physical and
research on the ways by which
chemical defence lines. The body does
the body defends itself from
this using various barriers that intercept
infections.
micro-organisms hence prevent them
2. Share your findings with other from entering the body.
class members.
Immunity is the ability of the body to

resist disease infection. This means
a person can be exposed to factors
that can cause a disease, yet they do
not become sick. The body’s defense
mechanism protects an organism from
infections.
If pathogens do not encounter
resistance from the body’s defense
mechanism, almost all diseases would
be fatal. Organisms must find a way of
defending themselves against harmful
micro-organisms like viruses, bacteria
and fungi. Fig 12.3 The body's first line of defence
mechanisms
176
Example of the body defence mechanism substances. Therefore, harmful micro-
include: organisms cannot enter the body
through the opening of the eye.
(i) The skin creates a physical barrier
that protects the cells inside the body (v) Clotting of blood occurs when an
against the entrance of pathogens. open cut or wound exposes blood
A healthy skin is rarely penetrated to air. Such a cut causes a break
by pathogens. Certain chemical in the skin exposing the body to
secretions produced by the skin harmful micro-organisms. When a
helps to stop the growth of bacteria clot forms, it seals the opening and
and fungi. enables the wound to heal.
(ii) The nose and passages leading to (b) Body’s second line of
the lungs are lined with cells that defence
produce sticky fluid called mucus When pathogens are able to get past the
that traps invading microbes and first line of defence, for example, through
dust. Tiny hairs called cilia lines the a cut in the skin, a disease develops. This
trachea. They can move back and prompts the second line of defence to
forth in a wave-like motion. Cilia become active. This happens through
trap microbes and dust particles a sequence of steps called the immune
and prevent them from entering the response. The immune system attacks
lungs. These particles then combine the pathogens. The body has a range
with mucus and are either coughed, of defence mechanisms that operate to
sneezed out or swallowed and then prevent or destroy pathogens. These
passed out of the body in faeces. responses only react to the presence of
Flow of mucus carrying any pathogen or foreign material.
Cilia trapped dirt and germs
White blood cells known as phagocytes
are adapted to fight these disease causing
micro-organisms in the following ways:
(i) They move by amoeboid action.
They send out cell extensions called
pseudopodia which allow them to
ciliated mucus-producing
ephithelial cell goblet cell surround invading microbes and
Fig 12.4 Cilia lining the nasal passage
engulf them.
(iii) The stomach produces hydrochloric (ii) Phago c ytes rele as e digestive
acid which destroys many of the enzymes which break down the
microbes that enter the body in food trapped microbes before they can
and drinks we take. do any harm. This process is called
phagocytosis.
(iv) Tears act as a barrier to pathogens.
Tears are a watery secretion produced (iii) They also have the ability to change
by tear glands located in the outer eye. their shape. This enables them fit in
They contain a powerful enzyme that the narrow capillaries hence reach
can digest and breakdown harmless the pathogens
177
Fig 12.5 Phagocytosis in white blood cells
Immunity disease. The organism makes its
This is the ability of an organism to own antibodies as a result of contact
resist a particular infection or toxin by with antigen from disease-causing
the action of specific antibodies or some pathogen. Once the organism
white blood cells. recovers from the disease, it can
produce antibodies very quickly
An antibody is a protein produced
should the pathogens invade again.
by the body’s immune system when
This makes the organism immune
it detects harmful substances, called
to the invading micro-organism. If
antigens. Examples of antigens include
someone gets a measles attack and
micro-organisms such as bacteria,
gets healed, chances of the disease
fungi, parasites, viruses, and chemicals.
recurring is minimal.
Each type of antibody is unique and
defends the body against one specific (ii) Passive natural immunity is
type of antigen. immunity acquired by the foetus
from the mother through the
Antibodies detect and neutralises the placenta and also through breast
antigen by binding to it. This signals the milk. This type of immunity is
production of other cells of the immune short-lived.
system to get rid of the invading microbes (b) Artificial immunity is obtained
before it spreads or attacks the body. by introducing antigens into the
(a) Natural immunity body of an organism to protect
the organism from a disease. It is
Table 12.1: Types of immunity
divided into two: active and passive
Immunity
artificial immunity.
Active Passive
Natural Artificial Natural Artificial (i) Active artificial immunity is
induced by introducing antigens into
Infection Vaccination Maternal Monoclonal
the body of an organism through the
antibodies antibodies
use of a vaccine. A vaccine contains
Natural and artificial immunity antigens composed of living, dead or
weakened pathogens. They are used
Natural immunity comes from the
to stimulate the body to recognise
body itself. It is divided into two:
certain disease antigens and respond
active and passive natural immunity.
to them. Vaccines usually do not
(i) Active natural immunity may cause the disease.
develop after recovering from a
178
(ii) Passive natural immunity is the transfer of immunity in the form of ready-made
antibodies. This is immunity that comes from using antibodies produced in one
organism to protect another organism from a specific disease. These antibodies
are usually extracted from the serum (plasma without soluble proteins) of an
animal that has recovered from the disease. Such immunity does not last long.

1. Fill the following table.
Terms Definition
Immunity
Defence
Harmful microrganisms.
An animal or plant on or in which a parasite lives.
2. Differentiate between the first and second line of defence system in the human body.
12.3 Symptoms, prevention, control and treatment of

common infectious diseases
Activity 12.2: Visit to health centre to find out about infectious diseases
Find out about these diseases during your field visit to a health centre. Fill the
worksheet.
Table 12.2 Common infectious diseases
Infectious disease Causes Symptoms Prevention and control
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The facts They include P. falciparum and P. vivax.

Malaria poses the greatest threat to
a) Malaria human health.
Malaria is a protozoan disease caused Malaria affects some groups in the
by a parasite called Plasmodium. The population more than it does to others.
parasites are spread through the bites of These groups are prone to developing a
infected female Anopheles mosquitoes, severe form of the disease, than others.
which are the malaria vectors. There are They include infants, children under
several species of plasmodium parasite 5 years of age, pregnant women and
that cause malaria in human beings. patients suffering from HIV and AIDS.
179
Symptoms of malaria
(i) High fever and periodic chills that
may be accompanied with sweating.
(ii) Frontal headache.
(iii) Pain in the joints.
(iv) General body weakness.
(v) Lack of appetite and nausea that may Fig 12.6: Sleeping under a mosquito net
be accompanied by vomiting. (vii) R emov ing old t ins, broken
If malaria is not treated within 24 hours pots, polythene bags and other
it can progress to severe illness, often things that can hold water from
leading to death. Children with severe the compound. This prevents
malaria frequently develop severe mosquitoes from breeding.
anaemia and cerebral malaria. In adults, (viii) Patients can be isolated during
it may involve several malfunctioning of the infection period to prevent
organs. transmission to others.
Prevention and treatment of malaria (ix) Fish-eating mosquitoes can be
Mosquito control is the main way introduced into ponds and pools to
to prevent and reduce malaria feed on mosquito larvae and pupae.
transmission. The following are some of (x) Preventative medicines can be taken
the ways mosquitos can be controlled. regularly but upon prescription
from a qualified medical doctor.
(i) Clearing bushes around homes.
(ii) Draining marshes, pools and stagnant b) Cholera
water around homes. This destroys Cholera is an acute diarrhoeal infection
breeding places for mosquitos. caused by ingestion of food or water
(iii) Spraying light used oil on stagnant contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio
water that cannot be drained. Oil cholerae. It has a short incubation
sprayed on stagnant water kills period of 2 hours to 5 days, a factor that
mosquito larvae by suffocating them. triggers its pattern of outbreaks. Cholera
is endemic in poor countries and strikes
(iv) Spraying the inside walls of our
areas with poor sanitary conditions and
houses with insecticides.
where drinking water is not well treated.
(v) C l o s i ng d o ors and w i nd ow s Cholera affects both children and adults
during the evening time to prevent and can cause death within hours.
mosquitoes from entering. Windows
can also be screened with window Most people infected with cholera do not
proof wire mesh. develop any symptoms. The bacterium
is present in their faeces for 1-10 days
(vi) Sleeping under a treated mosquito
after infection and is shed back into the
net.
environment, endangering the health of
other people.
180
Most people who develop symptoms, c) HIV and AIDS
have mild or moderate symptoms, while
The Human Immunodeficiency Virus
others develop acute watery diarrhoea
(HIV) attacks the immune system. This
with severe dehydration (lack of water
weakens a person’s defence mechanism
in the body). This can lead to death if
against infections and some types of
left untreated.
cancer. As the virus destroys and impairs
Symptoms of cholera the function of immune cells, infected
individuals gradually become immune-
(i) Severe watery diarrhoea (rice water deficient. Immune function is typically
stool) and vomiting. measured by number of white blood
(ii) General body weakness. cells in the body (CD4 cell count).
(iii) Low blood pressure. Immunodeficiency results in
(iv) The patient loses weight rapidly. increased susceptibility to a wide range
(v) The patient develops wrinkled of infections. These infections
skin and sunken eyes because of (opportunistic infections) are diseases
dehydration. that people with healthy immune
systems can fight off. At this stage, the
Control and treatment of cholera
patient is said to be suffering from AIDS
(i) Drinking water should be treated or HIV and AIDS is transmitted from
boiled and stored properly. one person to another through
(ii) Proper disposal of human wastes. various ways. They include:
A well-managed sewage disposal
(i) By birth, from an infected mother to
system in towns and use of latrines.
her unborn baby.
in the rural areas.
(ii) B y having unprotected sexual
(iii) Washing hands before and after
intercourse with an infected person.
eating and after visiting the toilet.
(iii) By transfusion of infected blood.
(iv) By sharing of unsterilised surgical
and skin piercing instruments with
infected people.
Symptoms of HIV and AIDS
The symptoms depend on the stage
of infection. People living with HIV
Fig. 12.7: Washing hands and AIDS tend to be most infectious
(iv) Covering cooked food to avoid in the first few months. The first few
contamination by house flies. weeks after initial infection, individuals
(v) Vaccination during epidemics or may experience no symptoms or an
when one is visiting an infested area. influenza-like illness including fever,
(vi) Cholera is treated using antibiotics. headache, rash or sore throat.
Prevention of dehydration also helps As the infection progresses, the immune
in the cure. system weakens. An individual can
181
develop other signs and symptoms, such TB coughs, sneezes or spits, they spread
as swollen lymph nodes, weight loss, germs into the air. If a healthy person
fever, diarrhoea and cough. Without nearby inhales these germs they can
treatment, they could also develop become infected.
severe illnesses such as tuberculosis, People with low immune systems, such
meningitis, and cancers such as as people living with HIV and AIDS,
lymphomas and Kaposi’s sarcoma, malnutrition, diabetes, or people who
among others. smoke, have a much higher risk of being
Prevention and control infected.
The most effective way to prevent the Symptoms of pulmonary TB
spread of AIDS is through health and Common symptoms of active
sex education. Everyone has to be pulmonary TB are:
enlightened on the risks of acquiring
the virus through careless lifestyles. (i) Cough with sputum and blood at
times
Patients of HIV and AIDS should take
anti-retroviral drugs (ARVs) which (ii) Chest pains
prolong their life span. To prevent (iii) General weakness
AIDS one also needs to avoid the ways (iv) Weight loss
through which it is transmitted. The (v) Fever
following are the ways through which
(vi) Night sweats
a person can prevent himself or herself
When a person develops active
from contracting the disease.
tuberculosis, the symptoms; cough,
i. Abstaining from sex till marriage. fever, night sweats and weight loss may
ii. Being faithful to one partner. be mild for many months. This can
iii. Using condoms during sex. lead to delays in seeking medical care,
resulting in transmission of the bacteria
iv. Mothers should give birth in to other people.
hospitals and go for regular medical
checkup. Prevention and treatment of tuberculosis
v. Blood should be screened before (i) Is o l a t e p a t i e n t s t o p r e v e n t
transfusion. transmission of the disease to other
vi. Avoid sharing piercing and cutting people.
instruments like razorblades and (ii) Immunise children with tuberculosis
safety pins. vaccine known as BCG. This may
d.) Tuberculosis prevent the spread of tuberculosis.
But the vaccine does not necessarily
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by bacteria
protect against pulmonar y
called Mycobacterium tuberculosis
tuberculosis.
that most often affects the lungs. TB is
spread from person to person through (iii) Avoiding overcrowded places.
the air. When a person with pulmonary Opening windows in overcrowded
rooms to allow free circulation of air.
182
(iv) Drinking boiled milk. Some types bats, monkeys, forest antelope and
of tuberculosis is transmitted from porcupines found ill or dead in the
bovine. forest.
(v) Once infected, tuberculosis is treated Ebola then spreads through human-
with antibiotics. Standard anti-TB to-human transmission via direct
drugs have been used for some time, contact (through broken skin or
and resistance to the medicines is mucous membranes) with the blood,
widespread. secretions, organs or other bodily fluids
of infected people and with surfaces and
e) Ebola materials such as bedding and clothing
Activity 12.3: Watching a film contaminated with these fluids.
about ebola Medical workers too, become infected
You will observe videos showing while caring for patients suffering from
doctors treating ebola patients. ebola. Burial ceremonies in which
Observe the protective gear worn mourners have direct contact with the
by the doctors. body of the dead patient can also play a
role in the transmission of Ebola. People
Study questions remain infectious as long as their blood
contains the virus.
(a) What causes Ebola?
(b) How is Ebola transmitted to the
human population?
(c) What are some of the signs and
symptoms of the Ebola virus
disease?
(d) What can you do, to prevent
contracting the Ebola disease?
(e) From the video you have watched, Fig. 12.8: We should wear protective gear
why are doctors in protective gear when handling ebola patients
while handling the patients? Symptoms of Ebola virus disease
(f) Why do you think the ebola The incubation period; the time interval
patients are in isolated wards? from infection with the virus to onset
of symptoms is 2 to 21 days. Human
The facts beings are not infectious until they
develop symptoms.
The Ebola virus causes an acute, serious (i) First symptoms are the sudden
illness which usually leads to death if onset of fever, fatigue, muscle pain,
untreated. Ebola virus is introduced headache and sore throat.
into the human body through contact
with body fluids of infected animals (ii) This is followed by vomiting,
such as chimpanzees, gorillas, fruit diarrhoea, rash, symptoms of
impaired kidney and liver function.
183
(iii) Internal and external bleeding with lasts for between 4 to 7 days. Most people
blood oozing from the gums, ears recover without treatment. In some
and eyes. cases, the diarrhea may be so severe
Prevention of Ebola that the patient becomes dangerously
dehydrated and must be hospitalised.
(i) Avoid direct contact with wild
animals like bats and chimpanzees. Symptoms of salmonellosis
(ii) Avoid direct contact with people Most people infected with salmonella
showing signs of Ebola virus. experience diarrhoea, chills with fever,
(iii) Use gloves and other protective nausea with or without vomiting,
clothing when handling Ebola headache, blood in the stool and
patients. abdominal cramps 12 to 72 hours.
(iv) Wash your hands regularly with soap Prevention and treatment of salmonellosis
and water.
(i) People with salmonella infection
(v) Couples who have just recovered should not be allowed to handle food
from the virus should abstain from or take care of children.
sexual intercourse or use condoms.
(ii) Food should be well cooked.
(vi) Burial of the dead patients should be
(iii) Do not purchase dirty or cracked
done by health workers.
eggs.
f) Salmonellosis (iv) Boil milk thoroughly before drinking.
This is an infection caused by Salmonella (v) Always wash your hands with soap
bacteria. The elderly, infants, and those and clean water.
with impaired immune systems are (vi) Wash fruits (including melons) and
more likely to develop severe form of vegetables before eating.
illness.
(vii) S w i m m i n g p o o l s s h o u l d b e
Salmonella infection usually results disinfected regularly.
from ingestion of the bacteria from
(viii) Recovery from Salmonella infection
contaminated food or water. Eggs, milk,
usually occurs within a week and
meat or poultry are particularly high
antibiotic treatment is not normally
risk foods. Fruit and vegetables may also
required.
be contaminated, especially if manure
has been used as fertiliser. People may g) Typhoid
become infected if they transfer animal Typhoid fever is a bacterial infection. It is
faeces containing Salmonella bacteria caused by a bacterium called Salmonella
from their hands to their mouths, for typhi, which only lives in human. It
example, eating after touching animals is related to the bacteria that cause
and failing to wash hands. salmonella food poisoning. It can spread
Person-to-person spread may occur throughout the body, affecting many
when hands, objects or food become organs. Without prompt treatment, it
contaminated. In most cases, the illness can cause serious complications and can
be fatal.
184
Typhoid fever is highly contagious. A Prevention and treatment of typhoid
small number of people (carriers) (i) Isolation of the patients to avoid
recover from typhoid fever but continue spread of the disease by contact and
to have the bacteria. Both ill people sterilising clothes used by patients.
and carriers shed the bacteria in their
(ii) Food handlers in institutions, like
faeces and urine. The bacteria is spread
hospitals, schools and restaurants
by eating food or drinking water
should go for regular medical check-
contaminated with faeces or urine of
ups and treatment if found infected.
patients and carriers.
(iii) Proper disposal of faeces in toilet
Typhoid is common in areas where
and in pit latrines.
hygiene standards are poor and water is
likely to be contaminated with sewage (iv) Water treatment and purification to
waste. kill the bacteria.
(v) Boiling drinking water and cooking
of food properly to kill the bacteria.
(vi) Practice good hygienic methods like
washing hands properly after visiting
the toilet.
(vii) Washing fruits and vegetables with
clean water before eating.
Fig. 12.9: Water contaminated with sewage
(viii) Vaccinations in the case of outbreaks
waste
of the disease in epidemics.
Symptoms of typhoid (ix) S e ek prop er t re at ment f rom
(i) Sustained high fever qualified medical doctor in case of
(ii) Continuous headache an infection. Antibiotic treatment
helps reduce the time a person is
(iii) Malaise (feeling of being unwell)
infectious.
(iv) Decreased appetite
(v) Enlarged spleen which may cause Self-evaluation Test 12.3
abdominal discomfort 1. Which disease among the following
(vi) Dry cough in the early stage of the is the most highly contagious?
illness A. Malaria
(vii) A flat rose-coloured rash which may B. Ebola
be visible on the trunk C. HIV and AIDS
(vii) C onstipation or diarrhoea – D. Typhoid
constipation occurs more often than 2. What is the simplest thing you
diarrhoea in adults can do to protect yourself from
(viii) Illness varies from mild with low- contracting a disease?
grade fever, to severe with multiple 3. State ways you can use to sensitize
complications your community about infectious
diseases?
185
Unit summary • Ebola is an infectious and generally
fatal disease marked by fever and
• Pathogen is a bacterium, virus, or severe internal bleeding, spread
other micro-organism that can cause through contact with infected body
disease. fluids.
• Infectious diseases are transmitted • Ac qu i re d i m mu n e d e f i c i e n c y
through: air, contact, blood or other syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the
body fluids, for example, urine, human immunodeficiency virus
saliva, breastmilk, semen and vaginal (HIV). It damages the immune system
secretions. and interferes with the body’s ability
• First line of defence is a combination to fight the organisms that cause
of physical and chemical barriers that disease. HIV is a sexually transmitted
prevent all types of foreign agents infection.
from penetrating the outer layer of
the body. It includes the skin, mucous
membranes, hair and cilia, gastric  Test your competence 12
juices, tears, sweat and saliva.
• The second line of defence is a group 1. Explain the effects of malaria to a
of cells, tissues and organs that work developing country.
together to protect the body. This is 2. What causes multi-drug resistance
the immune system. in the treatment of TB.
• Immunity is the ability of an organism 3. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest
to resist a particular infection or toxin incidences of HIV and AIDS. Suggest
by the action of specific antibodies or why the rate is so high.
sensitised white blood cells. 4. Explain why HIV virus has a
• Vaccination is the injection of a devastating effect on our body’s
killed or muted microbe in order to ability to fight diseases.
stimulate the immune system against 5. Mukantagara was involved in an
the microbe, thereby preventing accident and lost a lot of blood. His
disease. family and friends offered to donate
• Some unhygienic human activities, blood. As a doctor, what factors
such as improper disposal of sewage should you consider before blood
and other wastes, cause diseases. These transfusion is done?
diseases include cholera, typhoid and 6. Dukuzumuremyi’s parents rear
salmonella. fish which is the family’s source
• Malaria is caused by a protozoan of income. Her younger brother
parasite that invades the red blood recently complained of headaches,
cells. The parasite is transmitted by chills and fever, general body
mosquitoes in many tropical and weakness and pain in the joints.
subtropical regions. (i) Dukuzumuremyi’s brother is
to be suffering from ______.
186
(ii) Dukuzumuremyi’s parents are 7. Saliva, mucus and tears are all first
away on vacation. What should line defence mechanisms in the
she do? body. Explain
A. Give her brother herbal 8. Write a letter to your District Mayor
medicine. advising him/her on how to prevent
B. Go to the local chemistry infectious diseases in your district.
and buy drugs. 9. Do you think your family or society
C. Wait for their parents to can live without infectious diseases?
come back. 10. People are aware of the dangers of
D. Take her brother to the malaria and yet it has persisted. Why
hospital. do you think this is so?
(iii) What should she do to prevent
the same in future?
187
Unit
Immunity and vaccination
13
Key unit competency
To be able to describe natural and artificial methods that fight against infection.
Learning objectives
• Explain how each pathogen has its own antigens.
• Define active immunity, pathogen and antibody production in the body.
• Demonstrate the importance of passive immunity for breastfed infants.
• Use a diagram to illustrate antibody-antigen reaction sites.
• Observe and differentiate the immune responses.
• Advocate for vaccination and breastfeeding as a sustainable disease prevention
method.
Introduction
When pathogens find their way into the body, they can cause diseases. However, the
body has its own mechanisms of dealing with such foreign materials. The Ability
of the body to defend itself against foreign bodies and disease-causing micro-
organisms is known as immunity. The system that is responsible for defending the
body against diseases is known as the immune system. Look at the picture below.
What is happening in the picture?
Fig 13.1: A child being immunised

Talk to your friend about the importance of this.
188
13.1 Antibodies and
antigens
Activity 13.1: Investigating
antibodies and antigens
i) A chart showing an antigen and
antibody will be displayed on the
light chain
wall.
disulphide bonds
ii) Observe the diagrams on the
heavy chain
chart carefully and identify the
following:
• Shape of the antigen and Fig 13.2: Structure of antibody and antigens
that of the antigen-binding
site on the antibody. Antigen
• The reaction centers of This is any substance that is capable
antibodies. of stimulating an immune response,
specifically activating the body to
Study questions
produce antibodies. In general, two main
a) Why are antibodies specific to only divisions of antigens are recognised:
one type of antigen? foreign antigens and self-antigens.
b) Draw an antibody. • Foreign antigens come f rom
c) Describe the antibody-antigen outside the body. All pathogens
complex. are examples of foreign antigens.
Viruses and micro-organisms
such as bacteria and protozoa, and
The facts certain proteins in foods all lie under
this group.
An antibody also known as • Self-antigens, on the other hand, come
a n i m mu n o g l obu l i n i s a l a r g e from within the body. Normally, the
Y-shaped protein. It is produced body is able to distinguish self from
mainly by plasma cells. It is used by non-self. However, in individuals
the immune system to identify and with autoimmune disorders,
neutralise pathogens such as bacteria normal body substances provoke
and viruses. The antibody recognises a an immune response, leading to the
unique molecule of the harmful agent, generation of auto-antibodies.
called an antigen. The antibody then
Antigen–antibody reaction
binds to this antigen. Antibodies are
specific to their antigens. An antigen and antibody reaction
works like a lock and key mechanism.
Antibodies themselves do not destroy
antigens. They inactivate and tag
antigens for destruction by phagocytes.
189
All antibodies form an antigen-antibody cause an infection like diphtheria or
(immune) complex When they combine tetanus, the binding process of the
with antigens. antibody will neutalise the antigen's
Antibody toxin.
ii) Agglutination – antibodies bind
the same determinant on more than
one antigen. An example is when an
antibody surrounds a virus, such as
one that causes influenza, it prevents
Antigen-antibody it from entering other body cells.
Antigen complex iii) Precipitation – soluble molecules
Fig. 13.3: Formation of an antigen-antibody are cross-linked into large insoluble
complex complex. After which they fall out of
Each antigen stimulates the production solution, and are phagocytised.
of a specific antibody. All antibodies iv) Plasma complement system- The
are Y-shaped. They however, differ at antibodies coat infectious bacteria
the antigen binding site. Each antibody and then white blood cells will
has a site complementary to a certain complete the job by engulfing the
antigen. This means that each antibody bacteria, destroying them, and then
can only bind to a specific antigen. removing them from the body.
In response to the antigen, the antibody
wraps its two sites like a ‘lock’ around Self-evaluation Test 13.1
the ‘key’ of the antigen sites to destroy 1. Draw a key and lock and relate it
it. An antibody's mode of action varies to antibody- antigen reaction.
with different types of antigens. With 2. How does the body defend itself
its two-armed Y-shaped structure, the from infections?
antibody can attack two antigens at the
same time with each arm.
Defensive mechanisms used by
13.2 Immune response
antibodies are neutralisation, Activity 13.2: Observing immune
agglutination, precipitation and plasma response
complement system.
You will be provided with computer
i) Neutralisation – antibodies bind to aided simulations of the immune
and block specific sites on antigens; response of organisms.
viruses and bacteria. This prevents
1. Observe the simulations carefully.
antigens from binding to sites called
receptors on tissue cells. They are 2. Differentiate immune responses of
later destroyed by phagocytes, for organisms.
instance, if the antigen is a toxin 3. Share your findings with the class.
produced by pathogenic bacteria that
190
Innate immunity includes the
The facts
components of the body’s first line of
Immune response refers to the process defence. These are enzymes in tears and
by which the body recognises and skin oils, mucus, skin and acid in the
defends itself against bacteria, viruses stomach.If an antigen gets past these
and substances that appear foreign barriers, it is attacked and destroyed by
and harmful. The immune system other parts of the immune system.
is a collection of cells, tissues and
b) Adaptive immunity
molecules that protect the body from
numerous pathogens and toxins in our Adaptive immune system also known
environment. as acquired immunity is immunity
that develops after exposure to various
Immunity
Innate antigens. The immune system builds a
Ac q u i r e d
(inborn)
(Adaptive) defense against that specific antigen. It
is called into action against pathogens
Active Passive that are able to evade or overcome innate
Fig 13.4: The immune system immune defenses. Components of the
This defense against microbes has adaptive immune system are normally
been divided into two general types of silent; however, when activated, these
reactions: components “adapt” to the presence of
infectious agents by creating mechanisms
• Reactions of innate immunity for neutralising or eliminating the
• Reactions of adaptive immunity. microbes.
a) Innate immunity The immune system includes certain
Innate immunity also called nonspecific types of white blood cells, for example,
immunity is the body defense system lymphocytes. There are B and T type
that one is born with. It protects against lymphocytes.
all antigens. Innate immunity involves • B lymphoc ytes are cells that
barriers that keep harmful materials produce antibodies. Antibodies
from entering your body. It consists of attach to a specific antigen and
cells and proteins that are always present present it to other immune cells for
and ready to fight microbes at the site of destruction.
infection. • T lymphocytes are cells that attack
The main components of the innate antigens directly and help control
immune system are: the immune response.
i. Physical epithelial barriers During growth and development of
ii. Phagocytic leukocytes white blood cells, they always learn to
differentiate between individuals own
iii.
Dendritic cells
body tissues and foreign substances.
iv. A special type of white blood cells Once B cells and T cells are formed,
called a natural killer (NK) cell a few of those cells will multiply and
v. Circulating plasma proteins provide "memory" for the immune
191
system. This allows the immune system the maternal body into the foetal
to respond faster and more efficiently bloodstream.
the next time an individual is exposed Passive immunity for breast–fed
to the same antigen. In many cases it infants
will prevent you from getting sick, for
Discussion corner
example, a person who has had measles
or has been immunised against measles 1. Discuss with a classmate the
is immune from getting it again. following:
i. Importance of vaccination
Active immunity and its application.
This is the immunity that results from ii. The importance of
the production of antibodies by the breastfeeding newborns.
immune system in response to the iii. Why we should participate in
presence of an antigen. Active immunity a vaccination campaign.
is either natural or artificial. 2. Share your findings with the class.
• Naturally acquired active immunity
occurs when a person is exposed The facts
to a live pathogen. The individual
develops the disease, and becomes Infants have passive immunity because
immune as a result of the primary they are born with antibodies that are
immune response. transferred through the placenta from
their mothers. They also get some
• Artificially acquired active immunity
antibodies from the mother’s breast milk.
can be induced by a vaccine, a
These antibodies disappear between ages
substance that contains alternated
6 and 12 months. Passive immunisation
form of the antigen. A vaccine
may also be due to injection of antiserum,
stimulates a primary response
which contains antibodies that are
against the antigen without causing
formed by another person or animal. It
symptoms of the disease.
provides immediate protection against
Passive immunity an antigen, but does not provide long-
This is a short-term immunity that results lasting protection. BCG given to a
from the introduction of antibodies child at birth to protect it from TB is an
from another person or animal. Passive example of passive immunisation.
immunity is either artificial or natural.
• Artificially acquired passive
immunity is a short-term
immunisation. It is achieved by
the injection of antibodies that are
not produced by the recipient's cells.
• Naturally acquired passive immunity
occurs during pregnancy, in which
certain antibodies are passed from 13.5: Breastfeeding a baby provides the
immunity it requires
192
13.3 Immunisation and The facts
autoimmunity
Immunisation is the process by which Autoimmunity is a condition whereby
an immune response is triggered by the the immune system attacks and kills
administration of a vaccine towards an own cell. Any disease that results from
infectious disease. Small amounts of an such an immune response is termed an
antigen, such as dead viruses, are given autoimmune disease.
to activate immune system "memory". An efficient immune response protects
Memory allows your body to react against many diseases and disorders.
quickly and efficiently to future exposure. Wrong immune response causes immune
Such small doses of antigens are referred system disorders. An overactive immune
to as vaccines. response can lead to the development
Immunisation is an important method of autoimmune diseases, in which
of disease prevention. By receiving a antibodies form against the body's own
vaccination, usually in the form of an tissues.
injection, a person can be 'immunised' Complications from altered immune
against a disease, and reduce their responses include:
likelihood of developing the illness. i. Allergy or hypersensitivity
Immunisation can also reduce the spread ii. Autoimmune disorders
of the disease in the population. iii. Immunodeficiency disorders
iv. Serum sickness
v. Transplant rejection
1. Differentiate between active and
Type 1 diabetes and the immune
passive immunity.
system
2. What is immune system made up
of? Type 1 diabetes was initially known as
juvenile diabetes or insulin-dependent
3. Out line t he imp or t ance of
diabetes mellitus. It is a chronic condition
breastfeeding.
in which the pancreas produces little or
no insulin. Insulin is a hormone needed
Discussion corner to enable sugar (glucose) to enter cells
to produce energy.
1. Discuss with a classmate how a
person’s own immune system can The pancreas is the organ responsible
bring about Type 1 diabetes. for controlling the amount of sugar
(glucose) in the body. Specific cells in
2. Share your findings with the class.
the pancreas known as the beta cells are
responsible for manufacturing insulin.
Insulin released into blood regulates the
amount of sugar in the body keeping it
at normal levels.
193
1. What can make antibodies turn
against oneself?
2. Compare type 1 diabetes and type
liver
2 diabetes.
gall
bladder
Unit summary
• An antibody is a protein produced
by the body's immune system when
ileum
pancreas it detects harmful substances, called
antigens. Examples of antigens
Fig. 13.6: Location of pancreas in the body include micro-organisms (bacteria,
fungi, parasites, and viruses) and
When a virus attacks the body, T- cells chemicals.
start producing antibodies to fight against • An antigen is any substance that
this virus. However, the virus can have triggers the immune system to
same antigens like those of the beta cells produce antibodies that fight and
in the pancreas. In this case, the T-cells destroy the antigen.
mistakenly recognise beta cells as foreign
• Each pathogen has its own antigens
to the body. They attack these cells hence
that have specific binding sites
destroying them. Once the beta cells of
that are only recognised by certain
the body are destroyed, no insulin is
antibodies.
produced. This leads to an increase in
blood sugar level and therefore increases • Antibodies lock on to antigens,
the possibility of having diabetes. thereby marking them for
destruction by phagocytes.
Not every virus can trigger the T cells to
turn against the beta cells. The virus must • Immune response is the body’s
have antigens that are similar enough mechanism of defending itself
to the antigens in beta cells, and those against bacteria, viruses, and
viruses include: substances that appear foreign and
harmful.
• German measles • Naturally acquired active immunity
• Mumps occurs when the person is exposed
• Rotavirus (which generally causes to a live pathogen, develops the
diarrhoea) disease, and becomes immune as
a result of the primary immune
Note: Type 2 Diabetes mellitus occurs response. Artificially acquired active
when the body cells becomes resistant to immunity can be induced by a
insulin or when less insulin is produced vaccine, a substance that contains
by the body. the antigen.
194
• Passive immunity is a short-term 5. Write true or false for each of the
immunity that results from the following:
introduction of antibodies from (a) Another name for antibody is
another person or animal. antigen.
• Immunisation is the process (b) Antigens are protein in nature.
whereby a person is made immune (c) Diabetes Type I is an example of
or resistant to an infectious disease, an autoimmune disease.
typically by the administration of a
(d) Immunisation is an example of
vaccine.
artificial passive immunity.
• Autoimmunity is a condition in
6. The following are methods used
which the immune system invades
by antibodies in fighting antigens.
and kills own cells and tissues. Any
Which one is not?
disease that results from such a
response is termed an autoimmune A. Precipitation
disease. B. Agglutination
C. Autoimmunity
D. Neutralisation
 Test your competence 13 7. Fill in the blank spaces
a) Antigens bind at the site
1. How is breast milk a form of forming complexes.
immunity for the baby? b) immunity is a
2. Explain the key and lock mechanism type of immunity that children
in antibody-antigen reaction? acquire before they are born.
3. a) Explain why you were vaccinated c) cells in the
when you were young. pancrease are responsible for
b) What would have happened if the production of a hormone
you were not vaccinated? called
4. All the following statements are that regulates blood glucose.
true. Which one is not? 8. Mukantagara has refused to take his
a) An antibody is protein that is baby for vaccination against polio.
produced by the body as a result His friend Hakizimana told him that
of presence of an antigen in the polio vaccines are laced with a virus
body. to control population.
b) Immunisation involves the a. Were his concerns true?
introduction of alternated b. What would you advise him to
antigens into the body do?
c) An antibody cannot destroy own c. Have you heard such rumours in
cells. your village? What was it about?
d) Breastfeeding is a source of
immunity to a new-born baby.
195
Unit
Sexual behaviour and sexual
14 response
Key unit competency
To be able to explain safe sex, sexuality and sexual behaviours and argue for
control of sex violations.
Learning objectives
After studying this unit I should be able to:
• Describe male and female responses to sexual stimulation.
• Explain different ways couples can show love and affection.
• Outline responses to sexual attraction and stimulation at puberty by boys
and girls.
• Share experience and emotional attraction to sexuality.
• Recognise that sexual relationships require emotional and physical maturity.
• Be sensitive to others feelings, beliefs and attitudes towards sex.
• Develop self-confidence and control towards sexual thoughts and feelings.
Introduction
You may have read about adolescence in primary school science. What does the
word mean? What are some of the risks which we encounter during adolescence?
What should we do to avoid them? Now look at the picture below. What is going in
the picture? Is it good or bad?
Fig 14.1 A boy talking to a school girl with bad intentions
Suggest activities the two could engage in that are more constructive other than what
is happening.
196
14.1 Male and female 2. Plateau phase
sexual responses This is a phase that prepares both man and
woman for orgasm. It is characterised by
Discussion corner
increased heartbeat, muscle tension and
1. Discuss with your classmates blood pressure.
about the following:
• Sexual responses in males 3. Orgasmic phase
and females. The orgasm is the climax of the sexual
• Sexual stimulation for response cycle. It is the shortest of the
physical response. phases and generally lasts only a few
seconds. General characteristics of this
2. Note down your findings. phase include: Blood pressure, heart
3. Share your findings with the rest rate and breathing which are at their
of the class members. highest rates, accompanied by a rapid
intake of oxygen.
This phase is accompanied with sexual
The facts pleasure and satisfaction with release of
sexual tension.
The human sexual response is a series 4. Resolution phase

of changes that take place in the body During resolution, the body slowly
in response to sexual stimulation. These returns to its normal level of functioning.
changes take a different form in men and This phase is marked by a general sense
women. The stages are in four phases as of well-being, enhanced intimacy and,
below. often, fatigue.
i. Excitement phase Sexual stimulation
ii. Plateau phase
This is any stimulus whether physical
iii. Orgasmic phase or mental that leads to sexual arousal.
iv. Resolution phase These stimulations may lead to orgasm
if they are sufficient. The term sexual
1. Excitement phase
stimulation often implies stimulation
This is the initial stage of stimulation of the genitals, but may also include
that gets the body ready for sex. The stimulation of other areas of the body,
stimulation may be due to kissing, seeing stimulation of the senses (such as sight
an attractive person or soft touches. This or hearing) and mental stimulation (from
stage is accompanied by a rise in heart reading or fantasising).
rate, breathing rate and blood pressure.
Sexual arousal may arise without physical
The phase can last for a few minutes to
stimulation but achieving orgasm usually
several hours.
requires physical sexual stimulation.
197
Puberty in boys and girls leader. Late onset of puberty can lead to
low self-esteem in males and such may
Activity 14.1: Investigating also face problems of anxiety and fear.
puberty Sexual desire is at its peak. Boys start
1. In groups share experiences you dating girls at this stage.
have on the emotional attraction This is a critical time where boys need
to sexuality. guidance and counseling because most
2. You will watch a film about physical of them face problems; associated with
and emotional changes during increased body activity and sexual
puberty. desire. The problems faced at this stage
3. Role play boy-girl relationship. include:
4. Share your experience with the rest • Abuse of drugs and alcohol
of the class. • Lack of respect for authority
• Fighting among peer groups
The facts • Parental hatred
• Poor hygiene and general body
Puberty is a period during which
cleanliness.
adolescents reach sexual maturity
and become capable of reproduction. Puberty in girls
Numerous changes take place On average, girls begin puberty at an
both in males and females at this early age of about 10-11years. Puberty
stage. Puberty comes as a result of in girls occurs fast as compared to boys.
hormones that originate from the Menstruation in girls is a characteristic
gonads: testicles in men and ovaries that shows the onset of puberty. This
in females. is brought about by the growth and
Teenagers normally face challenges development of the ovaries.
during this period of growth and Early onset of puberty in girls is
development. The greatest challenge is detrimental, causing low self-esteem and
increase in sexual desire in both females stress. This is due to breast enlargement
and males. These challenges include and a lot of fat deposition on the body that
unwanted pregnancies and sexually causes different body shapes between the
transmitted diseases. Normally there girl and her peers. Early onset is caused
is no big physical difference between by a number of factors which include diet
males and females before puberty apart and environmental exposure.
from the sexual organs.
Puberty in girls is more challenging
Puberty in boys to parents. Girls tend to become more
Puberty in males takes place between private and sensitive emotionally. Parents
the ages of 11 and 13 on average. When should therefore be more careful. Social
a boy reaches puberty at an early stage, behaviours of girls also tend to change.
he may have benefits. The benefits Girls become more attracted to males
include popularity with his fellow peers than females. The main challenge that
because of being tall and therefore a girls face during puberty is unwanted
pregnancies. Other challenges include
198
rejection from peers, clothes to wear and 14.2 People and sexual
physical appearance.
relationships
Discussion corner
with your classmates.
• What is the meaning of
love?
• What are some of the things
we do to show love?
• Does love go hand in hand
with sex?
Fig. 14.2: Peer pressure may lead to bad • How can one show love to a
behaviour like this neighbour?
Sexuality education • What is sexuality and life
skills education?
• Girls should be aware of the • Why do we need this
biological importance of growth education now?
and development. They should be
2. Note down your findings.
reminded of the sexual dangers that
exist at this stage of development; 3. Share your findings with the rest
the risk of contracting STDs and of the class members.
unwanted pregnancies. It should
also be a point to these girls to The facts
maintain general cleanliness and
hygiene especially for a healthy People develop different types of
life. relationships ranging from acquaintances
to friendships to romantic relationships.
• Both girls and boys should be
Most people form romantic relationships.
reminded that sex is not the only
This involves falling in love and making
way to express love. They should
a commitment. Intimate relationships
abstain from sex until marriage.
bring a sense of stability and security.
Partners in a healthy relationship should
Self-evaluation Test 14.1 have the following characteristics; they
should:
1. Describe emotional changes that
occur in boys and girls during • Treat each other with love and
puberty. respect.
2. Draw a step diagram to show • Be honest to each other.
sexual response in males and • Spend time with each other.
females. • Take special interest in activities that
3. Is there a way to avoid unnecessary each likes.
sexual stimulation?
199
c) Polygamy: This is a long term
sexual relationship of having more
than one wife or husband at the
same time. An example is a man
having more than one wife or a
woman with more than one man.
The Rwandese government is not
in support of polygamous sexual
relationships. These relationships
are a source of sexually transmitted
Fig 14.3 Teenagers engaging in fun activities
diseases and also contribute to
• Respect each other’s emotional, poor family planning that hinders
physical and sexual limits. development in families.
• Speak honestly about their feelings. d) Casual relationships: This is an act
It is important to note that sexual of having sex with someone you do
relationships between close members not have an attachment to. This is
of a family like father and daughter is the case when one engages with a
unacceptable. It is considered a taboo sex worker. Casual relationships are
in the society and is also punishable by dangerous since they can be sources
law. This form of sexual relationship is of sexually transmitted diseases
called incest. If it happens, children born including HIV and AIDS and other
normally suffer from genetic disorders forms of sexual and physical abuse.
and lack of vigor. The following are forms e) Dating relationships: This is when
of sexual relationships: two people (a boy and a girl) go out
a) Exogamy- since incest is a taboo in together. It leads to engagement
the Rwandan society, individuals and later marriage. Dating should
are advised to find their mates be done carefully. You should
outside their family circles. This avoid sexual intercourse until at
is known as exogamy. Endogamy appropriate time e.g. after marriage.
is the opposite of exogamy where Sexual intercourse can lead to
individuals are allowed to marry unexpected pregnancies or sexually
their distant cousins. transmitted diseases such as HIV
b) Monogamy: This is a longterm and AIDS.
relationship between a man and
a woman in which none has other
sexual partners. In the Rwandan
society, monogamy is the legal
form of sexual relationship.
Fig 14.4 A teenage girl refusing advances

from a boy
200
Sexual problems and sexuality and sexual activity in different
disappointment ways. Human sexuality is part of social life.
A sexual problem or sexual dysfunction, The society dictates the norm; what is
refers to a problem experienced during considered acceptable or unacceptable.
any phase of the sexual response cycle. Sexual behaviors are based on the morals
Such a problem prevents the individual and values of the particular society.
or couple from experiencing satisfaction The following sexual behaviors are
from the sexual activity. The following unacceptable in the Rwandan culture:
are some of the sexual disappointments. i) Incest: This is the act of having sex
In males
with a close relative.
ii) Homosexuality: This is where people
a) Premature ejaculation: This is a of the same sex are engaged in a
condition whereby a man cannot sexual relationship.
delay ejaculation long enough to iii) Masturbation: The act of self-
satisfy the woman. stimulation that leads to sexual
b) Impotence: This is the inability to satisfaction.
produce or maintain an erection. iv) Anal sexual intercourse: This is a
Impotence occurs as a result of fear, type of sexual activity in which the
anxiety, disease such as diabetes and penis is inserted into the anus.
drug abuse. v) Rape: The act of forcing some one
c) Inflammation: Blockage of the into sexual intercourse without
urethra occurs as a result of an consent.
infection or due to swelling of the vi) Adulter y : Having sex outside
prostrate gland. wedlock.
In females vii) Fornication: Engaging in sex before
marriage.
a) Vaginal discharges: This is any
abnormal discharge from the vagina. viii) Sex slavery: The act of taking
It can be a white discharge with advantage of vulnerable individuals
irritating smell especially after in a forced commercial sex.
sexual intercourse. ix) Prostitution: Engaging in sexual
relationships for financial gains.
b) Functional disorders: This is the
inability of a woman to experience Ageing is process of growing old. The
sexual pleasure and satisfaction. This ageing process does not reduce the
results from emotional problems, need or desire for sex. For many older
feeling of guilt and trauma. adults, the concept of sexuality includes
practices such as kissing, hugging and
Sexuality, age and culture fondling. Such activity may replace
Sexuality refers to anything to do with actual intercourse and becomes
being male or female. Human beings increasingly important for those who
have engaged in sexual relationships for no longer desire or are in capable of
long. Each society, however, interprets sexual intercourse.
201
Fig. 14.6: Child abuse is not allowed in the
Fig 14.5: An old couple seated in a park
modern society
talking about their past
Ageing in men Human right is a right that is believed

In an ageing male, the most common to belong justifiably to every person.
sexual dysfunction is erectile dysfunction. This right is supposed to be enjoyed
This can be due to hormonal changes by each and every one irrespective of
as part of normal ageing or due to their position in the society. Violation
underlying conditions such as diseases. of human rights includes: sexual
Testosterone hormones in men decline harassment or abuse, coercion and
with age. This hormone is produced by human trafficking.
the testis in man. It increases sexual urge
and libido. Child sexual exploitation
Child sexual exploitation is a type of
Ageing in women sexual abuse in which children are
The most common sexual dysfunction sexually exploited for money, power or
in women, is lack of desire and arousal. status.
This is due to decrease in hormones, Children or young people are tricked
which begins at menopause and into sexual relationships by being
continue as women age. This decrease offered money. They might be invited
in hormones may also produce reduced to parties and given drugs and alcohol.
muscles, loss of bone mass and declining They may also be recruited online.
energy. Sexually, it may result in vaginal
Some children and young people are
dryness, decreased libido, and decreased
illegally taken into foreign countries for
ability to achieve orgasm.
the purpose of sexual exploitation. This
Violation of human rights is part of human trafficking.
Look at the picture below. What is Sexual assault
happening? In your opinion, should
Sexual assault is any forced or coerced
children be treated this way? Suggest
sexual contact or behavior that happens
better methods of discipline.
without consent. Sexual assault
202
includes rape and attempted rape, child • Human rights are the rights a person
molestation, and sexual harassment or has simply because he or she is a
use of threats. human being. Human rights are held
by all persons equally, universally,
Self-evaluation Test 14.2 and forever.
1. What are the effects of sex outside • Violation of human rights include:
marriage? sexual harassment, coercion and
2. Suggest factors that propagate human trafficking.
sexual abuse of children.
3. How does culture affect sexuality?  Test your competence 14
1. How can couples show love and
affection?
Unit summary
2. Teenagers are at a higher risk of
• Sexual response in both male and contracting STIs. Explain
female has four phases: excitement, 3. What do you understand by the term
plateau, orgasm and resolution. sexual maturity? How does it help in
• Sexual stimulation is any stimulus making decisions?
including bodily contact that leads 4. How can you assist in preventing
to, enhances and maintains sexual violation of human rights in your
arousal, and may lead to orgasm. community?
• Puberty is the period during 5. What are the implications of reckless
which adolescents reach sexual sexual behavior?
maturity and become capable of
6. Sebahive and Sentwali recently
reproduction.
celebrated 40 years in marriage.
• Affection is a physical expression of Suggest reasons why their
feelings. It is usually associated with relationship is still strong.
love and long-term relationships.
7. During adolescence, teenagers are
• S e x u a l p r o b l e m s a n d exposed to challenges.
disappointments are difficulties a) What are these challenges?
experienced by an individual or a b) How can teenagers overcome
couple during any stage of a normal these challengers?
sexual activity, including physical
8. Is sexual orientation a choice?
pleasure, desire, preference, arousal
or orgasm. 9. In your opinion, how would you deal
with sexual assault?
• Sexuality is a person's sexual
orientation or preference. 10. Suggest ways of dealing with
indiscipline in children.
203
Unit Pregnancy prevention
15
Key unit competency
To be able to apply the knowledge of pregnancy prevention in sexual and
reproductive decisions.
Learning objectives
After studying this unit I should be able to:
• Identify effective ways of preventing unintended pregnancy.
• Outline forms of contraceptive methods and their working mechanisms.
• Demonstrate confidence in discussing different contraceptive methods.
• Design and illustrate a model that shows efficient use of male and female
condoms.
• Appreciate the importance of making informed choices about reproduction
and family size.
• Recognise the benefits of child spacing.
Introduction
From what you learnt in Unit 14 can you list some of the things that entail good
sexual behaviour? Assuming that you have a friend who engages in bad sexual
activities, which are some of the risks that face them? How can they avoid such risks?
Look at the pictures below. What are the things in the picture used for? Are they
good or bad?
A B D
Fig 15.1 Contraceptives
15.1 Contraceptives
Pregnancy can occur when it is not planned for or expected. This is always the case,
for example, during rape.
204
Research Activity Importance of using
contraceptives
1. Using textbooks and the internet
research on the following: Family planning involves using birth
a. What contraceptive is control methods to decide how many
a. Contraceptive methods children to have and when to have
b. Common myths about them. It allows couples to have their
contraceptives desired number of children, and control
c. Importance of use of the spacing and timing of their births.
contraceptives Maternal health refers to the health of
2. Share your findings with the rest women during pregnancy, childbirth
of the class. and after delivery. A woman's ability
to space and limit her pregnancies
has a direct impact on her health and
The facts well-being, as well as on the outcome of
each pregnancy. By reducing unintended
Contraceptives are the things that are used pregnancies and abortions, and facilitating
to prevent occurrence of pregnancies. family planning or spacing of births,
effective contraception provides both
Common myths about
health and social benefits to mother and
contraceptives
her children
i. Birth control pills make women gain
Discussion corner
weight and can cause cancer.
ii. The birth control pill has to be taken 1. Discuss the following with your
at the same time every day. classmates.
iii. Mothers who breast feed do not need a) Different forms of
to be on birth control pill. contraception.
iv. Being on the pill for a long time b) Advantages and
makes it harder to get pregnant later. disadvantages of using each
v. Newer forms of birth control contraceptive method.
methods are not as safe as the older c) Effective ways of preventing
ones. unintended pregnancy.
d) The working mechanisms
vi. Intra uterine device (IUD) should
of contraceptives in the
be used by women who already have
body.
children.
vii. It is unhealthy to use birth control to 2. Write your findings in your
skip your period. notebook.
viii. A girl cannot get pregnant when she 3. Share your findings with the rest
has sex for the first time. of the class.
205
15.2 Natural d) Requires discipline and commitment
to chart fertility signs and follow the
contraceptives
rules to avoid pregnancy.
Natural family planning methods relies
e) Times of abstinence from intercourse
on knowledge of the menstrual cycle
may be a challenge for some couples.
of the woman. This knowledge enables
couples to avoid having sex when the Types of natural contraception
woman is fertile. Natural birth control
methods teach women to determine a) Abstinence
the fertile phase of their menstrual Sexual abstinence is the avoidance
cycle. To avoid pregnancy, women avoid of vaginal intercourse. It is very
intercourse on their fertile days. In order effective for preventing unwanted
to effectively use the method, a woman pregnancy and sexualy transmitted
needs to accept responsibility for diseases. It allows couples to engage
charting and interpreting her fertility on in other forms of sexual expression.
a day-to-day basis.
Advantages of natural
contraception
a) Effective method of birth control.
b) Have no negative health side effects.
c) An alternative for women who cannot
or do not want to use hormonal Fig 15.2 A poster advocating for abstinence
methods. Advantages of abstinence
d) Promotes positive body awareness. a) Minimal risk of misuse.
e) Consistent with many religious b) Prevents transmission of STIs
beliefs and lifestyles. including HIV and AIDS.
f) Alerts women to reproductive health c) No physical side effects.
and fertility concerns. d) No need to visit a health care
provider.
g) Fosters communication between
e) No cost involved .
partners and encourages male
involvement. There are no disadvantages of
abstinence so long as a couple is able
Disadvantages of natural to maintain a fulfilling relationship
contraception without the need for penetrative sex.
a) Provides no protection from sexually b) Lactation Amenorrhea Method
transmitted infections. (LAM)
b) Often difficult to find trained Lactation Amenorrhea Method
instructors. (LAM) is used by a mother who has
c) Requires time to learn (usually 3 to just given birth and is exclusively
6 cycles). breastfeeding. This method is highly
effective for the first six months
206
after childbirth. The mother has to f) The Billings Ovulation Method
breastfeed the baby at least every
This is a natural method of fertility
four hours during the day and every
management. It enables a woman to
six hours through the night. She also
recognise her body's natural signal
has to be aware of her menstrual
of fertility through production
period. After six months fertility
of cervical mucus. The cervix
may return at any time.
produces different types of mucus
c) Temperature method in response to changing hormone
Temperature method is also known as levels. Once a woman is familiar
the basal body temperature method. with these changes they are able to
It is a type of natural family planning identify their patterns of fertility and
where a woman measures her basal infertility in their cycle.
body temperature: temperature
when fully at rest especially after
waking up. It is believed that
ovulation may cause a slight increase
in basal body temperature. Elevated
waking temperature for three days in
a row is considered confirmation of
the post-ovulatory less fertile phase. Fig 15.4 Billing chart
d) Calendar method Advantages
Calendar method is also known as It allows a woman to understand her
Rhythm method or cycle beads. It fertile and infertile days and helps to
is a much less effective natural birth safeguard the woman’s reproductive
control method. It predicts a woman’s health.
fertile days using calculations based Disadvantages
on the length of past cycles and not
daily observations of fertility signs. It is not an effective method since
the body system can fail.

1. _________ is the avoidance of
vaginal intercourse. It is the
most effective _________ family
planning method.
2. List down the misconceptions you
have heard about birth control
methods.
Fig 15.3: Calender chart
207
15.3 Artificial Barrier methods
contraceptives a) The male condom
Activity 15.1: Observing artificial This is a thin rubber sheath worn by
contraceptives a man over an erect penis. It collects
1. You will be given models of semen at its tip so that they are not
artificial contraceptives. released into the vagina. Condoms are
usually made of latex. It is the most used
2. Observe the models.
contraceptive.
• Can you identify the
models?
• How are the models used
in relation to real life
situation?
of the class.
Fig 15.5 (a): Male condom
The facts
Artificial birth control is any product,

procedure or practice that uses
artificial or unnatural means to prevent
pregnancy. Barrier methods such as
condoms and diaphragms, hormonal
methods such as the pill and IUDs, and
surgical sterilisation procedures such
as vasectomy or hysterectomy are all Fig 15.5 (b): How to put on a male condom
artificial birth control methods. Most Advantages
types of artificial contraceptives work (i) It is easy to use.
by:
(ii) Affordable
• Preventing an egg from being (iii) It offers the protection against
released every month (hormones). sexually transmitted infections.
• Preventing sperms from reaching
(iv) It can be bought over the counter
the egg (barrier and some IUD
without prescription from a doctor.
methods).
• Blocking the reproductive function Disadvantages
in men or women (sterilisation). (i) A new condom is required every
• Preventing a fertilised egg from time one engages in sex.
implanting in the uterus (hormones). (ii) If used improperly it can bust, this
could lead to unwanted pregnancy
or transmission of STIs.
208
b) The female condom
This is a loose rubber fitting with two flexible plastic rings on either ends. It is inserted
into the vagina before sexual intercourse.
Fig 15.6 (a): Female condom (b): How to put on a female condom
It offers 95% effective protection against pregnancy, as well as some protection

against STIs. Female condoms are generally more expensive than the male ones but
they are less likely to burst. They can be inserted up to eight hours before sex.
c) Spermicide
Spermicide is a birth control method that contains chemicals that stop sperms from
fertilising the ova. Spermicides are available in different forms, including creams,
film, foams and gels. Spermicide can be used alone, or it can be used with other birth
control methods such as diaphragm, to make them more effective.
Spermicide does not always offer the best protection against pregnancy. It has very
few associated side-effects, but it does not protect against STIs.
d) The Diaphragm
Fig 15.7 (a): Diaphragms (b) How to put on a diaphragm
209
This is a rubber cap inserted into the
vagina to cover the cervix. It prevents
sperms from entering the uterus.
Diaphragm should be used together with
spermicides which kill the sperms. It is
inserted at least six hours before sex and
it needs to be removed after 24 hours for
cleaning. Depending on the material and
type of the diaphragm, it can be reused
Fig 15.8: The pill
many times.
The diaphragm does not protect against b) Contraceptive Injections
STIs and a doctor is needed to direct on This is an injection that contains
how it should be used. artificial progesterone (progestin). One
shot of hormones lasts in the body for
Hormonal based 8 to 12 weeks (3 months) and has the
contraceptives same effect as the pill.
This is the use of a mixture of artificial Injections are about 99% effective. It
hormones resembling oestrogen and fails if the user forgets to renew the
progesterone. They are administered in contraceptive shot in time. However,
three ways: once the shot is given, it cannot be
• Orally (oral contraceptives) reversed. One becomes effectively
infertile for the next three months. Just
• Through injections
like the pill, contraceptive injections do
• Administration of implants not protect against STIs.
a) The Pill
c) The contraceptive implant
It is the most popular form of female
The implant offers long term protection.
contraception. It is taken orally in form
It lasts for about three years on average.
of a tablet, every day at almost the same
The contraceptive implant contains
time.
progestin (progesterone), the same
The contraceptive pill will prevent hormone as the contraceptive pill. The
pregnancy 95%. It comes close to hormone is released into the body at
providing 99% protection if one pill is a steady, slow pace for three years,
taken every day as prescribed. producing the same effects as the pill.
The pill does not provide any protection The implant is inserted in the arm by a
against STIs and a doctor's prescription doctor and must be removed after three
is required to buy it. years. Since the risk of human mistake
is ruled out, the implant has a much
higher effectiveness rate than the pill
around 99.99%. The implant does not
protect against STIs.
210
d) The vaginal ring f) Emergency contraception
The vaginal contraceptive ring is a small, Emergency contraception assists to
transparent plastic ring that is inserted stop pregnancy in cases of eventualities
in the vagina and kept for three weeks. such as rape or unprotected sex. This
It is removed during monthly periods method is for one-off occasions and is
and replaced with a new one after that. not recommended for daily use. After
The ring contains the same hormones 72 hours (3 days) the effectiveness drops
as the contraceptive pill (progesterone to below 50%.
and oestrogen), therefore providing
Non – hormonal based
the same kind of effective protection. A
doctor's prescription is required and just contraception methods
like other hormonal contraception, the a) The Intrauterine Device (IUD)
vaginal ring does not protect from STIs. An intrauterine device (IUD or coil) is
e) The contraceptive patch a small contraceptive device, often 'T'-
shaped. It often contains either copper
The contraceptive patch is exactly the
or hormones. It is inserted into the
same thing as the contraceptive pill
uterus. It offers long-acting reversible
but in the form of a patch. It provides
contraception. Therefore it is the most
the same effective protection against
effective type of reversible birth control.
pregnancy. It does not protect from
It is kept inside the vagina for up to five
STIs. There is however a risk of skin
or ten years.
irritation, and a (rare) chance that the
patch accidentally comes off.
Fig 15.9 (a): IUD (b) Properly inserted IUD
The effectiveness rate for IUDs is above 99%. However, it provides no protection
against STIs. It requires a doctor to properly insert it and to make periodic follow ups.
b) Permanent contraception methods
Sterilisation
Sterilisation is a procedure that closes or blocks fallopian tubes in women and sperm
duct in men. This prevents movement of the ova and sperm respectively. Sterilisation
is an option available to both men and women.
211
i) Vasectomy and reconnect. However the method
This involves tying off and cutting the offers no protection against STIs.
tubes that carry sperms; the vas deferens. Discussion corner
It provides no protection against STIs
and the effects are permanent. In very 1. Discuss with your classmates
rare cases (less than 1%), the tubes can about abortion and menopause in
grow back, making pregnancy a risk. relation to pregnancy conception.
of the class.
Abortion
Abortion is the deliberate process of
prematurely terminating a pregnancy
usually before the embryo or foetus is
Fig 15.10: Vasectomy capable of independent life. Depending
ii) Tubal ligation on the number of weeks it has, a
pregnancy can be terminated either by
• Surgical sterilisation: This involves
taking medication or through a surgical
cutting and tying the fallopian tubes
procedure.
so that they cannot link the ovaries
with the uterus any more. The effects The following are some of the reasons
are permanent. why a woman might decide to have an
abortion:
• Personal circumstances including
risk to the wellbeing of existing
children.
• Health risk to the mother.
• A high chance that the baby will have
a serious abnormality either genetic
Fig 15.11: Tubal ligation
or physical.
• Non-surgical sterilisation: This
involves placing a coil in each Menopause
fallopian tube through the vagina and This is a term used to describe that state
uterus. Scars appear and eventually when a woman stops having monthly
block each tube completely. The periods and is no longer able to get
scars may take up to 3 months to pregnant naturally. Monthly periods
completely block the tubes, so you become less frequent over a few months
need to use another method of or years before they stop altogether. In
contraception in the meantime. some women they stop abruptly.
Both options also offer more than 99% Most women will experience menopausal
of protection against pregnancy. In rare symptoms. Some of these can be quite
cases the blocked tubes can grow back severe and have a significant impact on a
212
woman’s everyday activities. Common • There are a number of birth control
symptoms include: methods that are highly effective in
preventing pregnancy. There is also
a. Hot flushes
a lot of misinformation about how
b. Night sweats to use birth control, as well as some
c. Vaginal dryness and discomfort methods that simply do not work.
during sex • Natural family planning methods
d. Difficulty in sleeping work by observing and recording
e. Low mood or anxiety the body’s different natural signs or
f. Reduced sex drive (libido). fertility indicators on each day of the
menstrual cycle.
g. Probl e ms w it h me mor y and
concentration • Natural family planning methods
include: calendar methods, lactation
Menopausal symptoms can begin months
amenorrhea, billings and withdrawal
or even years before the periods stop.
method.
They can last around four years after
the last period, although some women • Artificial birth control methods
experience them for much longer. include barrier methods, hormonal
based, non-hormonal and
Self-evaluation Test 15.2 permanent contraceptive methods.
1. Should abortion be allowed • Ab o r t i o n i s t h e d e l i b e r a t e
for unwanted pregnancies in termination of pregnancy, most
teenagers? often performed during the first 28
weeks of pregnancy.
2. Why are spermicides not good for
preventing pregnancy? • Menopause is the cessation of
menstruation. It is the period in
3. The following are artificial
a woman's life (typically between
contraceptives.
45 and 50 years of age) when this
Male and female condoms, occurs.
diaphragm, implants, the pill and
spermicides
Identify the ones that require a  Test your competence 15
doctor’s prescription. 1. The male sterilisation operation
known as vasectomy is carried out by
Unit summary A. Blocking the ureter
B. Removing the testis
• Contraceptive is a device or drug C. Cutting the scrotum
that serves to prevent pregnancy. D. Tying the vas deferens
• Sexual abstinence is a choice not to 2. Which hormones are present in
participate in any sexual contact. The implants?
choice is usually made for a specific A. Testosterone
moral, religious, legal or health B. progesterone
reason.
213
C. FHS 6. Do you think some of the common
D. LH myths about contraceptives are true?
3. Do you agree with the saying that 7. Musabyimana has been using
circumcision reduces HIV infection? contraceptives to prevent unwanted
4. a) Family planning should be pregnancy. She was shocked recently
compulsory. Discuss to discover she was pregnant. What
b) In your opinion which family could have gone wrong?
planning method could you 8. Describe the general limitations of
use? natural contraceptive methods.
5. Compare natural methods of family 9. Why do you think procuring an
planning and artificial methods. abortion is dangerous?
10. a) What factors contribute to
Natural Artificial
increase in teen pregnancy?
methods method
of family of family b) What options do you think are
planning planning available to young girls who face
an unwanted pregnancy?
c) What should be the responsibility
of a p a r t n e r du r i n g t e e n
pregnancy?
214
Unit Reducing risk of STIs and
16 HIV and AIDS
Key unit competency
To be able to apply the knowledge of STI and HIV transmission, prevention and
treatment in sexual decision.
Learning objectives
• Explain how STIs and HIV are transmitted, treated and prevented.
• State that abstinence is the most effective protection against HIV and other
STIs.
• Explain that sexual health services can help people access personal risks and
perceived vulnerability about safer sexual practices.
• State that culture, gender and peer norms can influence decision making about
sexual behaviour.
• Recognise symptoms and complications of STIs and HIV.
• Demonstrate communication skills in negotiating safer sex and refusing unsafe
sexual practices.
• Explain how culture and gender affect personal decision making regarding
sexual relationship.
• Appreciate behaviours that reduce the risk of STIs and HIV transmission.
Introduction
You may have fallen sick and was taken to
a health facility. Did you like being there?
What could you have done to prevent
such a situation?
Now, look at the picture alongside.
What massage is being relayed in the
picture? Which other ways can we use to
reduce HIV and AIDS? How about other
Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI's)?
Fig 16.1: HIV and AIDS awareness poster
215
16.1 Transmission of STIs Examples of these diseases are chlamdia,
Safe sex practices can help us prevent gonorrhoea, syphillis and, HIV and AIDS.
contracting sexually transmitted diseases. They are discussed below:
On the other hand, irresponsible sexual
1. Chlamydia
behaviour increases chances of individuals
contracting sexually transmitted Chlamydia is caused by the bacterium
infections. Chlamydia trachomatis. The disease is
spread by oral, vaginal or anal sex, and
Most sexually transmitted diseases can
also through touch, for example, touching
be treated and cured. This becomes
the eyes with a contaminated hand, may
easy when diagnosis is done early and
lead to conjunctivitis. Chlamydia can
treatments starts during the early stages
also be passed to the infant during birth.
of the disease. It is therefore important
for sexually active persons to visit It causes inflammation of the cervix in
health centres regularly for check ups. women, urethra and rectum in both men
Though there is still no cure for HIV, and women. Occasionally, other parts
early detection of the disease makes its of the body like eyelids and throat may
management easy. This enable patients be affected. Other complications like
to live a normal life. pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or
infertility may occur from this infection.
Activity 16.1: Transmission of Any sexually active person is at risk of
chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis
contracting the disease. However, it is
and HIV infection
more common in young people. The
What to do disease is known as a ‘silent’ infection
1. Work in groups. because it is mainly asymptomatic, thus
2. Each group will discuss only the symptoms can be mild or be confused
one disease under the following with gonorrhea.
headings; Signs and symptoms of chlamydia
• Causative agent (include
scientific name) In males
• Incubation period • Pain when passing out urine.
• Mode of transmission
• White discharge from the penis.
3. Write your findings in a Manila
• The testicles may be painful or
paper.
swollen.
4. Present your work to the rest of the
• Swelling of skin around the anus.
class.
In females
The facts • Painful and frequent urination.
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are • Smelly yellowish and abnormal
transmitted by infected persons to healthy vaginal discharge.
persons during sexual intercourse. • Pain in the lower abdomen.
216
• Swollen skin in the vagina or around • Painful or burning sensation
the anus. when urinating.
Treatment • Increased vaginal discharge.
• Vaginal bleeding between
Chlamydia is easily treated using periods.
antibiotics.
Treatment
2. Gonorrhoea Gonorrhea can be treated using
Gonorrhoea is transmitted through antibiotics like penicillin.
sexual contact with the penis, vagina,
mouth or anus of an infected partner. 3. Syphilis
Gonorrhoea can also be spread from Syphilis is transmitted from person to
mother to baby during childbirth. person by direct contact with a syphilitic
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium sore, known as a chancre. Chancres
called Neisseria gonorrhoeae. The occur mainly on the external genitals,
bacteria attaches on the epithelial cells vagina, anus or in the rectum. Chancres
of the vagina or male urethra. This also can occur on the lips and in the
results in inflammation and discharge mouth. Transmission of syphilis occurs
of pus. If left untreated, the infection during vaginal, anal or oral sex.
spreads to the other reproductive parts Syphilis is caused by a bacteria called
and may eventually block the passages Treponema pallidum. The bacterial
resulting to infertility. infection progresses through several
stages.
Signs and symptoms of gonorrhoea
• In the primary stage, small hard
Some men with gonorrhea may have no painless sores develop at the site of
symptoms at all. However, men who do infection usually the penis and the
have symptoms may have: vagina.
• A burning sensation when urinating. • The disease enters secondary stage
several weeks later characterised by
• A white, yellow, or green discharge
rashes on the skin and mild fever.
from the penis.
These symptoms subside after a
• Painful or swollen testicles (although few weeks followed by a latent
this is less common). asymptomatic period.
Most women with gonorrhea do not have • In the tertiary stage, lesions develop
any symptoms. Even when a woman has and cause extensive tissue damage
symptoms, they are often mild and can that may lead to paralysis, insanity,
be mistaken for a bladder or vaginal blindness and eventually death.
infection. Women with gonorrhea are at Treatment
risk of developing serious complications Antibiotics like penicillin, erythromycin
from the infection, even if they do not or tetracycline are used to treat syphilis
have any symptoms. Symptoms in although some strains can be resistant
women can include: to certain antibiotics.
217
Activity 16.2: Interactive talk
1. Your teacher will organise for a
medical personnel to talk to you
about transmission of HIV.
2. Prepare questionnaires you will
use. Fig 16.2: Sharing syringes such as this could
3. Engage the medical officer during lead to transmission of diseases
the talk. Less commonly, HIV may be spread
4. Write short notes during the through:
presentation. d) Mother to child during pregnancy,
5. Share your finding with the rest of birth or breastfeeding. Although the
the class. risk can be high if a mother is living
with HIV and not taking medicine.
Transmission of HIV (Human
immunodeficiency virus)
infection
HIV is the virus that causes AIDS
(Acquired immune deficiency syndrome).
It is mainly transmitted through:
a) Certain body fluids: blood, semen,
pre-seminal fluid, rectal fluids, vaginal
fluids and breast milk from a person
who has HIV. These fluids must come
in contact with a mucous membrane
or damaged tissue or be directly
injected into the bloodstream (from a
needle or syringe) for transmission to
occur. Mucous membranes are found
inside the rectum, vagina, penis and
mouth. Fig 16.3: Pregnant mother can transfer HIV
b) Having anal or vaginal sex with to unborn child
someone who has HIV without e) B e i n g s t u c k w i t h a n H I V-
using a condom or taking medicines contaminated needle or other sharp
to prevent or treat HIV. Anal sex object. This is a risk mainly for
is the highest-risk sexual behavior. health care workers.
Vaginal sex is the second-highest- Note: In some rare cases, HIV has been
risk sexual behavior. transmitted through:
c) Sharing needles or syringes or other
a) Receiving blood transfusions, blood
equipment used to prepare drugs
products, organ or tissue transplants
for injection with someone who has
that are contaminated with HIV.
HIV.
218
b) Eating food that has been pre- 16.2 Ways of reducing STIs
chewed by an HIV-infected person.
and HIV infection
The only known cases are among
infants. Discussion corner
c) Being bitten by a person with HIV. 1. Discuss the following:
There is no risk of transmission if the • Ways of reducing STIs and
skin is not broken. HIV infection.
• Ways of prevention and
d) Contact between broken skin, treatment of STIs and HIV
wounds or mucous membranes infection.
and HIV-infected blood or blood- • Role of artificial
contaminated body fluids. contraceptives (barrier
e) Deep, open-mouth kissing if both method- male and female
partners have sores or bleeding condoms) and their correct
gums. HIV is not spread through use.
saliva. 2. Present your work to the rest of the
f) Oral sex. class
Sexual education
The facts
• Be aware of sugar mummies and
sugar daddies. They lure young
The following are ways of reducing STIs
people with money and promise
and HIV infection:
good life in exchange for sexual
favours. Such acts could lead to a) Abstinence is the only sure way to
transmission of STIs and, HIV and prevent STIs.
AIDS. b) Being faithful to one trusted partner.
• Abstinence is the most effective c) Using condoms every time when
protection against STIs and, HIV engaging in sexual intercourse.
and AIDS. Condoms are not 100% effective at
preventing disease or pregnancy.
However, they are extremely effective
Self-evaluation Test 16.1 if used properly.
1. Which is the most effective d. Reduce the number of sexual
protection against HIV and other partners.
STIs? e. A v o i d s h a r i n g t o w e l s o r
2. Give n t h e fol l ow i ng ST Is : underclothing.
Gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia f. Get a vaccination for hepatitis B.
and HIV. Choose the ones that can g. Get tested for HIV.
be prevented?
h. Avoiding alcohol consumption and
3. What is the common transmission abuse of drugs. Individuals who are
mode for all the STIs? drunk or on drugs often fail to have
safe sex.
219
Activity 16.3: Role play Treatment of STIs and HIV
is based on their causative
1. Discuss with your classmates the
agents.
following:
• Refusal skills that can be 1. Bacterial STIs can be cured using
employed regarding sex. antibiotics if treatment begins
• Harmful effects of early enough. Antibiotics, often
consuming alcohol and in a single dose, can cure many
drugs. sexually transmitted bacterial and
• The importance of parasitic infections, including
voluntary counselling and gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia
testing (VCT) centres. and trichomonasis. Treatment of
• How culture, gender and gonorrhoea and chlamydia is always
peer norms can influence done at the same time because the
decision making about two infections often appear together.
sexual behaviour. 2. Viral STIs cannot be cured, but the
2. Prepare a skit to dramatise your symptoms can be managed with
content and present it to the rest medications. For instance there is
of the class. a vaccine against hepatitis B, but it
will not help if you already have the
Treatment of STIs and HIV disease.
Activity 16.4:Visit to a health
3. HIV cannot be cured but can be
centre managed. A person may choose to
visit a voluntary counselling and
1. Your teacher will organise for a testing (VCT) centre to undergo
visit to a health centre. HIV and AIDS counselling. After
2. Prepare a questionnaire to use conselling he or she can make an
during the visit. informed decision about whether to
3. Engage the officer in charge with be tested for HIV or not.
the following guiding questions
• Does the centre offer sexual
health services?
• Do they have a VCT centre
that offers pre- and post –
test counselling?
• How do they handle People
living with HIV and AIDS
(PLWHA)?
4. Write a report and present your
work in class. Fig 16.4: People waiting to enter a VCT
centre
220
At the VCT centre pre-test and post- Health Check!
test counselling is offered to assist
people to learn more about their status. • Do not try to treat a sexually
Counselling involves getting information transmitted disease on your own.
and learning how to live positively with These diseases are contagious and
the virus. This means learning to accept serious. You must see a doctor.
the fact that one is HIV-infected, seeking • Antibiotics that are used to treat
emotional support, eating a healthy diet, STIs should never be shared.
learning how to control the amount of It is also important to take the
stress in our life, making sure there is no entire drug prescribed, even if the
re-infection and planning for the future. symptoms go away.
• Never, take someone else's medication
Sex education to treat your infection; it may make
Post-Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) or it more difficult to treat.
short-term anti-retroviral therapy • If someone is pregnant and have an
(ART) can reduce the likelihood STI, prompt treatment can prevent
of HIV infection after potential or reduce the risk of infection of your
exposure. baby.
Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is the use Self-evaluation Test 16.2

of HIV medicines to treat HIV infection.
1. What happens in a VCT centre?
People on ART take a combination of
HIV and AIDS drugs every day. People 2. What do you understand by the term
infected with HIV and AIDS should start ART?
ART as soon as possible. ART cannot
cure HIV and AIDS, but helps people Unit summary
infected to live longer and healthier
• Sexually transmitted infections are
lives. ART also reduces the risk of HIV
also known as sexually transmitted
and AIDS transmission.
diseases (STDs) or venereal diseases
Potential risks of ART include unwanted (VD) and are commonly spread
side effects from HIV and AIDS drug through sexual contact.
interactions. This includes not taking • Bacterial STIs include: Chlamydia,
drugs every day as required. It could gonorrhoea, syphilis among others.
lead to drug resistance and treatment • Viral STIs include genital herpes,
failure. genital warts and HIV among others.
221
• Abstinence is the most effective way • Bacterial infections can be easily cured
of preventing STIs; some vaccines using antibiotics but viral infections
are however, used to reduce the like HIV, genital warts and HPV are
risk of infections such as hepatitis controlled but cannot be cured.
B and some strains of HPV (human • Post –exposure prophylaxis can reduce
papiloma virus) the likelihood of HIV infection.

1. Sexually transmitted infections are diseases that arise due to ____________.
2. For each of the named infections on table below. Name the causative agent and
prevention measures.
Name of the disease Causative agent Preventive
Gonorrhoea
Syphilis
Chlamydia
3. Which is the surest and the best 9. Discuss briefly the following
method of preventing contracting (a) Does having another STI
of STIs. place a person at greater
A. Using a condom properly. risk of infection if they are
B. Having two faithful partners exposed to HIV?
C. Visiting a VCT centre. (b) Does using a condom only
D. Abstinence some of the time offer
4. If left untreated, which STI leads to any protection from STIs,
deafness and death in later stages? including HIV?
A. Syphilis (c) Will washing the penis or
vagina after sex lower the risk
B. Chlamydia of becoming infected with an
C. Gonorrhoea STI?
D. Yeast infection (d) How well do condoms
5. What are the social economic effects help protect against HIV
of HIV and AIDS? infection?
6. HIV and AIDS cannot be cured but (e) Is there any truth to rumors
can be managed. Explain that condoms are coated with
7. What takes place in a VCT centre? HIV?
8. Why are the youths vulnerable to 10. Why do you think guiding and
STIs? counselling amongst the youth is
important?
222
Glossary
A
Abiotic - physical factors in the Antagonistic muscles - a muscle that
environment that affect living organisms. opposes the action of another, for
They include; wind, humidity, sunlight, example, the biceps and triceps.
soil and atmospheric pressure among
Antibody - proteins found in plasma
others.
that are responsible for mediation of
Ab or ti on - d e l i b e r at e phy s i c a l immunity in body fluids.
or chemical termination of human
Antibiotic - a drug derived from bacteria
pregnancy.
or fungus and is used to treat bacterial
Aboral - relating to or denoting the side infections.
or end that is furthest from the mouth,
Anti-retroviral (ARV) - drugs to
especially in animals that lack clear upper
maximally suppress the HIV virus and
and lower sides, such as echinoderms.
stop the progression of HIV disease.
Abstinence - act of restraining oneself
Antigen - any substance that stimulates
from indulging or doing something;
response of a specific immune system.
for example, restraining oneself from
having sex. Articulate - meet at a point to form a
joint.
Active transport - movement of particles
against a concentration gradient. Arthritis – a condition that causes pain
and inflammation in a joint.
Active site- a region on an enzyme that
binds to a protein or other substance Autoimmune - a condition arising from
during a reaction. an abnormal immune response to a
normal body part.
Aerencyma tissue - A spongy tissue with
large intercellular air spaces that is found B
in aquatic plants. It provides buoyancy Biotic - activities of living organisms that
and allows the circulation of gases. affect an ecosystem.
Aerosol - a substance enclosed under Bilateral symmetry - symmetrical
pressure and able to be released as a fine arrangement of an organism or part of
spray. an organism along a central axis.
Agglutination - the clumping together Bilirubin - a yellow pigment produced
in suspension of antigen-bearing cells, from the breakdown of heme in the worn
micro-organisms or particles in the out red blood cell.
presence of specific antibodies. Biodiversity - variety and variability of
Amenorrhea - absence of menstruation life forms on earth.
for at least three months Biome - large ecological areas on the
Appendage - a structure that attaches to earth's surface, with fauna and flora
another part of the body. (animals and plants) adapting to their
environment.
223
Biuret test- a test that uses a reagent (a modified to form poison glands or
solution of copper sulfate (CuSO4) and mouthparts.
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)) used to Chitin - a tough, semitransparent
determine the presence of peptide bonds substance that is the main component of
in protein. the exoskeletons of arthropods.
Bowman’s capsule - the filtration unit Concentration gradient - the gradual
of the glomerulus and has tiny slits in difference in concentration of a dissolved
which filtrate may pass through into the substance in a solution between a region
nephron. of high density and one of lower density.
Bone – a rigid body tissue consisting of Contraceptives - a device or drug that
cells compressed into hard intercellular prevents pregnancy.
material. Cortex - the outermost (or superficial)
C layer of an organ.
Capillarity - the ability of a narrow tube Crustaceans - animals that usually have
to draw a liquid upwards against the force a hard covering, or exoskeleton, and two
of gravity. pairs of antennas, for example, crabs and
Carrier protein - a protein that lobsters.
transports specific substance across D
the cell membrane. Denature - change the original or natural
Cartilage - tough elastic tissue. structure.
Catalyst - a substance that causes a Destarch - process of eliminating starch
chemical reaction to occur but is not from leaves by allowing the plant to use
itself involved in the reaction. up the starch previously synthesized.
Cephalothorax – a term referring to the Deamination - the removal of an amino
fused head and thorax occurring in many group from an amino acid or other
arthropods, particularly crustaceans and compound.
arachnids. Detrivours - an organism (as an
Chaetae - bristles made of chitin that are earthworm or a fungus) that feeds on
found on bodies of annelids. dead and decomposing organic matter.
Cholesterol - a fatty substance made Detoxification - the metabolic process by
in the body and found in certain foods. which toxins are changed into less toxic
Some cholesterol are harmful others are or more readily excretable substances.
useful to the body. Diffusion - the movement of molecules
Carapace - hard structure made of chitin from areas of higher concentration to
that covers the dorsal part of an animal areas of lower concentration.
and protects internal organs. DCPIP – (Dichlorophenolindophenol) a
CD4 cell - white blood cells that play an reagent used to measure the amount of
important role in the immune system. ascorbic acid (vitamin C) in fruits and
Cheliserae - a pair of appendages plant material.
224
E H
Edaphic - Relating to soil, especially as Haemocoel - a body cavity (as in
it affects living organisms. arthropods or some molluscs) that
Endocytosis - the transport of solid contains blood or hemolymph and
matter or liquid into a cell by means of a functions as part of the circulatory
vacuole or vesicle. system.
Endoskeleton - internal support Halophytes - A plant that can tolerate
structure made of bone or cartilage. a high concentration of salt in the soil.
E n z y m e – s u b s t r at e c o m p l e x - Homeotherm - an organism that
intermediate formed when maintains its body temperature at a
a substrate molecule interacts with the constant level, usually above that of the
active site of an enzyme. environment, by its metabolic activity.
Epidermis - protective outermost Host - an organism that harbours a
portion of the skin. parasitic.
Epidemiology - the study of how often Hydrophytes – aquatic plants.
diseases occur in different groups of Hypotonic - solution that has a lower
people and why. osmotic pressure than another solution.
Exoskeleton - external support structure Hypertonic – a solution where the
that protects the internal organs. concentration of solutes is greater outside
Exocytosis - is a process by which a cell the cell than inside it.
transports secretory products through I
the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. Immunisation - the process whereby
Eukaryotic – containing nucleus bound a person is made immune or resistant
by a nuclear membrane. to an infectious disease, typically by the
Exhalation - the act of breathing out air. administration of a vaccine.
F Immune response - any reaction by the
Flaccid - soft, flabby and weak. immune system.
Food testing - a process used to check Inhalation - the action of breathing in.
that a food is safe and that it does not Insulin - a hormone made by the
contain harmful contaminants. pancreas that allows the body to regulate
Flexion - the action of bending, especially glucose.
the bending of a limb or joint. Isotonic - two solutions having the same
G osmotic pressure across a semipermeable
membrane.
Glomerula filtrate - the renal fluid in
the blood filtered across the capillaries J
of the glomerulus. Joint - A point of articulation between
two or more bones.
225
K N
Key and lock mechanism -the hypothesis Nephrone - the basic structural and
that helps explain some of the ways that functional unit of the kidney.
enzymes work. Notochord - a flexible rod-like structure
L that exists in bodies of vertebrates at
Lateral line - a visible line along the side some point in their lives.
of a fish consisting of a series of sense Non-reducing sugars –sugars such as
organs that detect pressure and vibration. sucrose that cannot be oxidized.
Lesion - injured or diseased structure or O
part of tissue or organ. Oral - relating to the mouth.
Lignin - an organic substance in plants Omnivorous - an animal that eats food
binding the cells, fibres and vessels which from both plants and animals.
forms wood. Osmosis - the movement of water from
Ligament - a short, flexible, fibrous a less concentrated solution to a more
connective tissue that connects two concentrated solution through a partially
bones or cartilages or holds together a permeable membrane.
joint. Osteoporosis - condition that weakens
M bones, making them fragile and more
Menopause – a period when a woman likely to break.
stops having periods and is no longer P
able to get pregnant naturally. Passive - allowing what happens, without
Mesophyte - a plant growing under active response or resistance.
conditions of well-balanced moisture Pathogen - a parasite that causes disease.
supply.
Pedipals - segmented appendages
Metabolism - all chemical reactions attached to the cephalothorax of
involved in maintaining the living state arachnids.
of the cells and the organism.
Pinocytosis - the ingestion of liquid into
Moulting - periodic shedding of the a cell by the budding of small vesicles
cuticle in arthropods or the outer skin from the cell membrane.
in reptiles.
Pith - the soft, spongy tissue in the centre
Millon’s test – a chemical test that detect of the stems of most flowering plants,
the presence of proteins in a food sample. gymnosperms and ferns.
Multicellular - an organism that is made Potometer - a device used for measuring
up of many cells. the rate of water uptake of a leafy plant
Muscle - a tissue composed of cells or shoot.
fibers, the contraction of which produces Phagocytosis - the process by which a
movement in the body. cell engulfs material.
226
Plastids – are organelles that are the Sexual response - is the arousal of sexual
main site of photosynthesis in eukaryotic desire, during or in anticipation of sexual
cells. activity.
Pseudopodia - temporary or semi- Sexuality - the whole way a person goes
permanent extension of the cytoplasm, about expressing himself or herself as a
used in locomotion and feeding in some sexual being.
protozoa. Source – the sites in a plant where net
Pooter - a device used to pick up small fixation of carbon dioxide occurs.
invertebrates without harming them. Sign - evidence of disease as seen by the
Poikilotherm - an organism that cannot examining physician.
regulate its body temperature. Sink-the sites in a plant where assimilates
Plasmolysis - the contraction of the are stored or used.
protoplasm of cells within plants due to Spermicide – This comprise of creams,
the loss of water through osmosis. gels, foams and other suppositories that
Phloem - part of a vascular bundle that prevent sperm from moving.
conducts sugars and other metabolic Substrate - the substance on which an
products downward from the leaves. enzyme acts.
R Sutures - a seam like immovable junction
Receptor - a protein molecule that between two bones, such as those of the
receives chemical signals from outside skull.
a cell. Synovial - a lubricating fluid secreted by
Reducing sugars - any sugar such certain membranes, for example, in joints.
as glucose which is capable of being Symptoms - evidence of disease perceived
oxidised. by the patient.
Respiratory surfaces - a special area T
that is developed in order to satisfy the Tentacles - a slender, flexible limb or
requirements for gaseous exchange in appendage in an animal.
larger organisms.
Tendon - A band of tough, fibrous,
S inelastic tissue that connects a muscle
Septa - walls that divide internal body to a bone.
cavities or chambers. Transpirational pull - a mechanism by
Sessile – an organism, fixed in one place which trees draw water through their
(immobile). roots.
Selective reabsorption - The absorption Translocation - the movement of
of some of the components of the materials from leaves to other tissues
glomerular filtrate back into the blood throughout the plant.
as the filtrate flows through the nephrons Tracheid - a type of water-conducting
of the kidney. cell in the xylem that lacks perforations
in the cell wall.
227
Turgor pressure - the pressure of water plant to another.
against the inside wall of a plant cell. Verigated – having different colours.
U Ventilation - the movement of air
Ultrafiltration – a process in the kidney between the environment and the lungs
in which urea, salt, water and glucose are via inhalation and exhalation.
taken out of the blood. Vessel element - An elongated, water-
Urologist - a physician who specialises conducting cell in xylem.
in diseases of the urinary tract and the W
male reproductive system. Wall pressure - pressure exerted by the
V flow of water through a semipermeable
Vaccine - preparation of weakened form membrane separating two solutions with
of a pathogen such as killed microbe, different concentrations of solute.
altered microbes or derivative form of Wilting - loss of turgidity and rigidity
pathogens. that occurs when the rate of water loss
Vasectomy - a permanent method of is greater than the rate of water uptake.
birth control where sperm ducts are cut X
and the ends are sealed to prevent sperm Xylem – a vessel in plants that transport
from entering the ejaculate. water from roots to shoot and leaves, it
Vascular bundles - Xylem and phloem also transports some nutrients.
tissues. Xerophytes – plants that grow in areas
Vector – an organism that transmits a with very little water.
disease or parasite from one animal or
228
References
• J. Akatsa, H mwaura (2008); Longhorn secondary Biology, Longhorn Publishers;
Nairobi, Kenya
• J.Mwaniki , G Geoffrey (2013); Fundamentals of Biology, Longhorn Publishers:
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
• D. Nserebo et al (2015); Excel & Succeed Biology, Longhorn Publishers: Malawi
• D.G. Mackean (2012); GCSE Biology (Third edition); CGP Books
• Michael Roberts (1986); Biology - A Functional Approach (Fourth Edition); Oxford
publishers
• Rod Seeley, Stephens Tate; (2002) Anatomy and physiology; McGraw-Hill Global
Education Holdings
• www.plannedparenthood.org
• www.merrian-webster.com
• www.mayoclinic.org
• www.phschoo.com
• www.calacademy.org/explore-science
• www.reference.com/pets-animals/species-birds
229

Biology S2 SB

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology S2 SB

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology S2 SB

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Biology

Longhorn Publishers (Rwanda) Ltd

Longhorn Publishers (Kenya) Ltd.

Longhorn Publishers (Uganda) Ltd

Longhorn Publishers (Tanzania) Ltd.

© Text: Godfrey Wasswa, Benson Mugarura, Selah Ndiwa, 2017

The moral rights of the authors have been asserted.

First published, 2017

ISBN 978 9997 74 740 2

Printed by Printing Services Ltd., Factory Street off Commercial Street,

Topic area 1: Biodiversity and classification

Topic area 2: Ecology and conservation

Unit 4 : Active transport..............................................................................63

Unit 5: Identification of food components.................................................71

Unit 7: Photosynthesis ................................................................................96

Sub-topic area 3: Transport in plants

Sub-topic area 3: Homeostasis

Sub-topic area 3: Support and locomotion

Topic area: Health and disease

Unit 12: Infectious diseases ......................................................................173

Sub-topic area 2: Infectious and non-infectious disease

Unit 15 Pregnancy prevention..................................................................204

Unit 16 Reducing risk of STI and HIV and AIDS ...................................215

Fig. 1.1: Animal diversity

Fig 1:6 Parts of a lizard

Class Aves (birds) Activity 1.5: To examine external

B. Activity 1.7: Identify the adaption

5. Birds have different types of feet

the animal kingdom. The animals in

Table 1.4: Features of Arthropods

6. Share your findings with the rest of the class.

My environment, my life! (a) Spider (b) Tick

Do not kill the insects. It is important to

(c) Scorpion (d) Mite

Main characteristics of organisms in Activity 1.11: To examine the

1. They have three distinctive body Requirements

Main characteristics of organisms in Activity 1.14: To investigate the

Self-evaluation Test 1.2

Nematoda • Rounded unsegmented body with Round worms,

3. The largest phylum of Kingdom  Test your competence 1

Fig. 2.1: Lions preying on a buffalo

Biotic and abiotic factors

(b) Freshwater ecosystems 1. Talk to a classmate about the

C ommunities and their physical

Producers First trophic level • Green plants

Fourth trophic level Large carnivores such as lions, leopards,

Fifth trophic level Carnivorous that eat tertiary consumers.

Secondary praying mantis spider frog

Fig 2.8: A food web

Activity 2.4: Investigating trophic levels occupied by organisms

How energy flows in an Ecosystem

RESPIRATION, EXCRETION & MOVEMENT

SUN Producers 1st Consumer 2nd Consumer 3rd Consumer

Fig. 2.9: Energy flow in an ecosystem

Fig. 2.10: Egyptian pyramids Eagle (1 kg square

Fig 2.13: Inverted pyramid of numbers Producers 500

Secondary consumer Unit summary

8. During an ecological tour of Lake in this lake was found to

Key unit competency