Mohammed I University

Faculty of Letters and Human Sciences-Oujda

Department of English Studies

Semester 6

Research Methods Course

Course Instructor:

Dr. Isam Mrah

isam.mrah@ump.ac.ma

Academic Year: 2022-2023

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 Course Description

Research methods course introduces semester six students to methodologies needed to write
academic research papers in humanities and social sciences. It also acts as a preparatory
course for students undertaking research for their final year project. The course includes
methodological issues such as formulating research questions, the difference between
quantitative and qualitative methods, inductive and deductive methods, and ethical questions.
The course examines current research paradigms, principles of research design, instruments of
data collection, and commonly used research methods for small scale studies, processes
involved in the analysis of data, and modes of presenting research findings. By covering a
range of the theoretical and practical issues related to research in English language studies, the
course shall equip students with an understanding of concepts, tools and methods to conduct
future research in their field of interest. Undergraduate students will gain an informed
knowledge of how to put research general theoretical framework into practice, and how to
comply with the conventions and ethics of scholarly research articles. In addition, the course
will outline the methodological organization and technical steps involved in the writing of the
literary analysis essay.
By the end of this course, students will be hopefully, and not conclusively, able to:

 Understand research terminology;

 understand the importance of choosing a research topic that lends itself to a ’do-able’
 project;
 Identify the components of a literature review process;
 Identify primary and secondary sources;
 be able to formulate a valid research question (and hypothesis);
 Utilize the research tools (questionnaires, interviews, survey…) effectively and
adequately;
 Differentiate between the various types of research, their methods of analysis, designs,
intents, and methodological foundations;
 Distinguish between various aspects of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods
research in English studies;
 Get familiar with the required methodological guidelines of writing literary essay
analysis;
 Plan, outline and write their final research papers/monographs;
 Critically analyze published research
 Comprehend the significance of research ethics and conventions, and integrate them
into their research thinking process;

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Teaching Method
The course adopts an interactive approach to understanding concepts and topics related to
English language studies research. Classes will be conducted in Lecture and panel discussion
style. Students shall actively engage individually, in pairs, and in small groups in a variety of
classroom activities, and hands- on exercises. Students shall also have an opportunity to
reflect upon and give feedback on their own and peers’ work. Students will be expected to
engage in a variety of online learning modes including the university’s e learning platform for
accessing course materials, doing prior readings, participating in online forums and
submitting coursework assignments.

Required Readings

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Creswell W. J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches (4nd ed). SAGE Publications, Inc
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Griffin, G. (2005). Research methods for English studies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.

Recommended Readings

Lester,J.D. (2011). Principles of writing research papers. Boston: Longman.

ASSESSMENT

The two-hours written exam will consist of a variety of practical exercises similar to those
conducted in class.

The Research Process

Research is a process of enquiry and investigation; it is systematic, methodical and ethical;
research can help solve practical problems and increase knowledge. The research process is a
continuous cycle. Research does not follow a one-way linear progression, instead it is a
continuous process of checking and re-checking, evaluating and analyzing, and repeating the
entire process over and over again.

Understanding the assignment

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Resist the temptation to start researching immediately. Do not waste your time diving into
research until you know what the assignment requires:
 Is it a report?
 Is it an analytical paper?
 Is it an argumentative essay?

The type of assignment will determine what kind of research you need to do, and how you
need to organize and present that research in your paper. Even an "A" quality report can earn
an "F" if the assignment is to write an argumentative essay.

Assignment Terms in instructions

Report Describe, summarize

Analytical paper Explain, compare and contrast
Argumentative paper Argue, persuade, evaluate

Consider the differences in these assignments:

Basic Report
Pretty easy. You will simply have to find information on your topic and present it as it
appears.

Analytical Paper
A little harder. You will have to explore multiple aspects of your topic and present your
research findings objectively without attempting to persuade the reader to take a stand.

Argumentative Paper
You will have to take a "stand" on a particular issue in your topic and use your research to
support your argument

Examples of papers on tattooing:

Report: This paper will explore the history of tattooing in the United States.

Analytical paper: This paper will explain differences in attitudes toward tattooing in the
1960s and 1990s.

Argumentative paper: This paper will argue that tattoos present serious health risks to
adolescents

Tip: When writing up your research, one of my standard pieces of advice is, “make certain
you define your terms”

Topic selection
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The most important part of any writing assignment is choosing the topic, narrowing the topic,
and developing it into a research question if necessary. Often students want to research very
broad topics. Such broad topics involve more time and effort than most undergraduate
students can afford. However, topics that are too narrow should also be avoided as it is very
difficult to generalise such results. You must strike a balance; your topic should be narrow
enough to focus your project but not too narrow that the results have no generalisability. Also,
your topic should be broad enough to generalise but not to the extent that you cannot manage
the area and your project

Criteria for Choosing a topic:

1 Interest and curiosity
2 Worthwhile
3 Do-able
Narrowing a Topic

When you have an overall subject to pursue, your next task is to narrow and focus the topic.
You can focus your topic by using the following strategy:
Generate a list of more specific areas of interest (subtopics) related to your overall topic. For
example:
Subtopics related to education:

 Online education
 Traditional education model
 Common Core
You can develop your research question by using the following strategy:

Generate a list of questions that you’d like to explore related to your subtopics. For example:

o Questions related to education:

 What is the future of online education?
 Is the traditional education model the most effective?
 Does the Common Core result in better prepared students?
 What are the effects of moving toward STEM education?

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Types of Research Papers
Although research paper assignments may vary widely, there are essentially two basic types
of research papers. These are argumentative and analytical.

Argumentative

In an argumentative research paper, a student both states the topic they will be exploring and
immediately establishes the position they will argue regarding that topic in a thesis
statement. This type of paper hopes to persuade its reader to adopt the view presented.

 Example: a paper that argues the merits of early exposure to reading for children would be
an argumentative essay.

Analytical

An analytical research paper states the topic that the writer will be exploring, usually in the
form of a question, initially taking a neutral stance. The body of the paper will present
multifaceted information and, ultimately, the writer will state their conclusion, based on the
information that has unfolded throughout the course of the essay. This type of paper hopes to
offer a well-supported critical analysis without necessarily persuading the reader to any
particular way of thinking.

Example: a paper that explores the use of metaphor in one of Shakespeare's sonnets would be
an example of an analytical essay.

Types of research
Descriptive research (statistical research): The idea behind this type of research is to study
frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. The main goal of this type of research
is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied

Correlation research: This type of research measures the relationship between two or more
variables or gives an indication of how one variable may predict another

Exploratory Research

Exploratory research is usually conducted when the researcher is trying to gain a deeper
understanding of a particular phenomenon, situation, or problem. The primary purpose of
exploratory research is to explore and generate ideas, hypotheses, and theories about a topic
or issue that is not well understood. The researcher typically uses qualitative research
methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observational studies, to collect data.

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The data collected in exploratory research is usually descriptive and helps the researcher to
identify patterns and trends, generate hypotheses, and develop a deeper understanding of the
research problem.

Explanatory Research

Explanatory research, on the other hand, is conducted when the researcher is trying to explain
the relationship between variables or to test hypotheses that have been generated through
exploratory research. The primary purpose of explanatory research is to explain why and how
things happen. The researcher typically uses quantitative research methods, such as surveys or
experiments, to collect data. The data collected in explanatory research is usually analyzed
statistically to test hypotheses and to establish cause-and-effect relationships between
variables.

Basic research vs Applied research

The primary aim of Basic Research is to improve knowledge generally, without any particular
applied purpose in mind. It is basically founded on a question (e.g.: what is the relationship
between the number of sleep and academic achievement?). Applied research seeks to generate
and apply new knowledge in pursuit of a solution to a problem in your field. Students are
expected to engage with an applied research or problem solving research project.

Research Approaches
Most research assignments ask you to engage in one of two approaches:

1. Explore and evaluate (present an analysis)

2. Persuade (present an argument)

There are three objectives you may have when writing a research paper:

 To inform – When you write a research paper to inform, you’re not making an
argument, but you do want to stress the importance of your topic. You might
think about your purpose as educating your audience on a particular topic.
 To persuade – When you write a research paper to persuade, your purpose
should be to take a stance on your topic. You’ll want to develop a thesis statement
that makes a clear assertion about some aspect of your topic.
 To analyze – Although all research papers require some analysis, some research
papers make analysis a primary purpose. So, your focus wouldn’t be to inform or
persuade, but to analyze your topic. You’ll want to synthesize your research and,
ideally, reach new, thoughtful conclusions based on your research

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Research Disciplines

Discipline Research Methodology Primary Secondary and

Sources tertiary
sources
Humanities To understand and Qualitative Creative works, Books, journal
analyze the diaries, letters, articles,
meaning of interviews, textbooks,
individual events, news footage
people and
creative works
Social Sciences To solve social Qualitative, Census Data, Books, journal
problems and Quantitative statistics results articles,
understand group of experiments textbooks,
interactions of human
behavior

Scientific Method
At the core of social sciences lies a problem-solving approach called the scientific method.
The scientific method has five basic steps:

Research Outline in the Social Sciences

1. Choose a topic.
2. Review the literature (past research).
3. Formulate the problem (find the gap in past research).
4. Develop a research question.
5. Choose and organize the research design.
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6. Gather the data.
7. Analyze the data.
8. Interpret the data.
9. Communicate the findings.

IMRAD Outlining

In many of your courses in the social sciences, you may be required to write a research paper
using the IMRAD format. IMRAD stands for Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion.
In this format, you present your research and discuss your methods for gathering research.
Each section of the IMRAD structure can take several paragraphs to develop.

IMRAD Outline

1. Introduction
 provide research question
 explain the significance of the study
 review of background or known information on your topic

2. Methods
 describe your methods for gathering information
 explain your sources of information, both primary and secondary

3. Results
 describe what you found out from your research.

4. Discussion
 explain the significance of your findings
 describe how they support your thesis
 discuss limitations of your research

Writing the Title

The title of your dissertation should be brief and informative. Formulate the title as a
statement, not a question. Do not use quotation marks in titles. The title should not contain
any abbreviation or brackets. Your title should be clear and unambiguous, reflecting what
your research is about. The title should indicate major variables; nature of research
(descriptive correlational experimental), and target population. Avoid words like:

 "A Study of........”

 "An Investigation of ........”
 "A Survey of ........”

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Instead use action verbs:

Investigating Moroccan University Students’ Perceptions regarding the Effectiveness of

Online Education in times of Covid 19

Uncovering the Motivations Behind the Use of Fake Identities On Facebook:

Moroccan Undergraduate Students As Case Study

Writing an Abstract

Abstract is a precise and concise summary of the contents of the research paper or research
article. The purpose of writing an abstract is to give the reader an idea about the research
paper in general. In simple terms, just like a restaurant’s menu that provides an overview of
all available dishes, an abstract gives the reader an idea of what the research paper has to
offer. It is written after the report is completed. In a dissertation or thesis, include the abstract
on a separate page, after the title page and acknowledgements but before the table of contents.

The abstract should, in the briefest terms possible, describe the topic, the scope, the principal
findings, and the conclusions. The abstract uses one well-developed paragraph that is coherent
and concise. The length of abstracts varies but seldom exceeds 200 words. A primary
objective of an abstract is to communicate to the reader the essence of the paper. The reader
will then be the judge of whether to read the full report or not.

Difference between abstract and introduction

An abstract is more concise and direct whereas, the introduction section of your paper is more
detailed. It states why you conducted your study, what you wanted to accomplish, and what is
your hypothesis while the abstract features a summary of the results and conclusions of your
study, the introduction does not

How to structure your abstract

1 Purpose and motivation: identify your purpose and motivation for doing this research
2 Problem: Explain the specific problem you are addressing
3 Approach: Discuss your approach; include methods and materials
4 Results: Summarize your results

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5 Conclusion: State your conclusion
6 Key terms: List all key terms from your research below the abstract

SAMPLE ABSTRACT IN MLA FORMAT:

Literary critics have long imagined that T. S. Eliot’s The Sacred Wood (1920) shaped the
canon and methods of countless twentieth-century classrooms. This essay turns instead to the
classroom that made The Sacred Wood: the Modern English Literature extension school
tutorial that Eliot taught to working-class adults between 1916 and 1919. Contextualizing
Eliot’s tutorial within the extension school movement shows how the ethos and practices of
the Workers’ Educational Association shaped his teaching. Over the course of three years,
Eliot and his students reimagined canonical literature as writing by working poets for working
people—a model of literary history that fully informed his canon reformation in The Sacred
Wood. This example demonstrates how attention to teaching changes the history of English
literary study. It further reveals how all kinds of institutions, not just elite universities, have
shaped the discipline’s methods and canons.

This abstract uses the first two sentences to establish the essay’s place in its field of study and
to suggest how it intervenes in existing scholarship. The syntax is direct and simple. The third
sentence begins to outline how the authors will support their argument. They aim to
demonstrate the relevance of Eliot’s teaching to his ideas about literature, and so they move
next to discuss some of the details of that teaching. Finally, the abstract concludes by telling
us about the consequences of this argument. The conclusion both points to new directions for
research and tells us why we should read the essay

Abstract
Among many great American writers, Hemingway is famous for his objective and terse prose
style. As all the novels Hemingway published in his life, The Old Man and the Sea typically
reflects his unique writing style. The language is simple and natural on the surface, but
actually deliberate and artificial. Hemingway’s style is related to his experience as a
journalist. The influence of his style is great all over the world. The Old Man and the Sea is
full of facts, most of which comes from Hemingway own experience. In the forepart of the
novel, they are used to show the quality of Santiago’s life, and are narrated simply and
naturally; while in the latter part of the novel, they are used from inside Santiago’s own
consciousness and form part of a whole scheme of the novel.
Keywords: Prose, Simplicity, Style, Novel
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Sample Abstract in APA Style
An APA abstract is a comprehensive summary of your paper in which you briefly address the
research problem, hypotheses, methods, results, and implications of your research.

Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted normal activities such as going to school, moving
education online. Based on data gathered through a survey (N = 784), this paper analyses
students’ perceptions regarding the effectiveness of online education in a period when this
type of education is the only available option. Although several studies suggest that online
education can be as effective as traditional education which requires attendance, few studies
have focused on learner satisfaction with online instruction, particularly in the transition to
online learning from traditional approaches. The results indicate that students react differently
to online education, and their reaction is based on their proficiency in using online tools, their
ability to technically access online courses, and the instructors’ manner in conducting learning
activities.

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic, online education, students’ satisfaction, higher

education
Abstract
This paper set out to explore online users' perceptions, attitudes, and practices towards
mis/disinformation on social networking sites and investigate how they engage with, identify,
and evaluate information disorder on social networking sites. The correlation study provides
empirical insights into the complex relationship between digital media literacy and online
information processing. To this end, a web-based survey was administered to gauge Moroccan
undergraduate students' digital media literacy skills, particularly in what regards their ability
to identify and evaluate the credibility of information online. The data obtained are consistent
with the hypothesis guiding this research that there is a significant relationship between
digital media literacy skills (DMLS) and students' ability to identify information disorder
online (IDO). Based on the empirical findings, important implications and strategies for
higher education institutions are addressed to help students become more digitally media
literate consumers of information.

Keywords: Social media, undergraduate students, mis/disinformation, digital media literacy

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 The abstract SHOULD NOT contain:

 Lengthy background or contextual information,

 Acronyms or abbreviations,
 References to other literature [say something like, "current research shows that..." or
"studies have indicated..."],
 Jargon or terms that may be confusing to the reader,
 abbreviations, direct quotes or citations
 Any sort of image, illustration, figure, or table, or references to them.
 Avoid writing in the first person (I). Rather than saying. "In this essay I discuss...",try a
more formal approach by starting your abstract with an opening similar to:
"This essay discusses the effects of...Specifically, this paper investigates (restate
research question)..."
"This essay examines how...It attempts to answer the question..."

Writing the Introduction

The introduction should include:

1- Statement of the Problem
2- The purpose statement
3- Research Questions and Hypothesis
4- Significance of the Study
5- Definition of terms

Statement of the Problem

The research question begins with a research problem, an issue someone would like to know
more about or a situation that needs to be changed or addressed, such as:

 Areas of concern
 Conditions that could be improved
 Difficulties that need to be eliminated
 Questions seeking answers

A research problem is the topic you would like to address, investigate, or study, whether
descriptively or experimentally. It is the focus or reason for engaging in your research. It is
typically a topic, phenomenon, or challenge that you are interested in and with which you are
at least somewhat familiar. The statement of the problem briefly addresses the question: What

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is the problem that the research will address. A problem is a gap in performance (actual versus
expected).

Effective problem statements answer the question “Why does this research need to be
conducted.” Begin this section with a problem statement—It is not known” OR “There is a
gap in the literature regarding” followed by “how . . . ” (qualitative) OR “to what extent . . . ”
(quantitative). This succinct statement must clearly define what is to be measured in the study:
the problem or need for education and/or society that you are interested in or that concern
you. The statement needs to be clear and express what the problem is. Indicate either what is
not known or what is wrong. What problem exists for education and/or society? What do we
not know? What is the need we are trying to address? Do we need more research? Do we need
to increase our understanding of the problem? Do we need to find ways to solve it? It is the
magnitude and importance of the problem that makes the study worth doing.

The research problem is the issue being addressed. The problem helps in narrowing the topic
down to something that is reasonable for conducting a study. Continuing with our topic of
student satisfaction, we may look at student satisfaction of teaching methods at the university
level. The problem is that student satisfaction is often low at many universities and we want
to do a study to explain some reasons for this.
Narrowing or Clarifying Your Problem Focus
A problem statement such as “Students can’t read,” is not clear because many aspects of
reading, including discrete reading skills and strategies, may contribute to reading difficulties.
Alternatively, “Students cannot find the main ideas in reading passages,” is much clearer and
potentially much easier to measure and address, since one can define main idea and determine
student performance related to this behavior in a number of ways.

Without adequately defining the problem, researchers may find themselves going off on a
“goose chase” to tackle a vague phenomenon, trying to deal with symptoms rather than root
causes, and wasting time, becoming frustrated, or even making the actual problem worse.

Sources of research problem

An obvious source of research problems is the researcher’s personal experiences and the
review of relevant literature.
Descriptive research problem: What are the main factors affecting consumers’ purchase
decisions?

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Causal research problem: How does online education affect students’ learning abilities?

Tips: Begin with a clear declarative statement that begins with “It is not known how and to
what degree/extent…..” or "There is a gap in the literature regarding ....”
Purpose of the study

The purpose is the objective of the study. For our student satisfaction example, the purpose
could be to identify how various teaching methods influence student satisfaction at a
university. At this point, we are explaining what we are going to do. It is common for people
to confuse the research problem and the purpose. The problem simply identifies a problem.
The purpose explains how you will study the problem or what you are going to do. The
purpose looks at the problem and states what you are going to look at in order to generate data
about the problem that could be used one day to solve the problem.

If you are asked to write a proposal before you begin your actual research, the proposal will
contain a purpose statement that states in some detail what you want to learn about in your
research project; it looks something like this: “This study will examine the…” The purpose
statement should clearly indicate the research method to be used in the study. Try to
incorporate a sentence that begins with “The purpose of this study is . . .”

An effective purpose statement will relate back to the specific problem identified in the
problem statement. The problem explains what will be studied. For example: Ninth-grade
students are reading below grade level. It should be clear in the purpose statement the specific
population the researcher intends to study. The population reflects the individuals who are
affected by the problem to be studied, such as ninth-grade high school students who are
reading below grade level. Explain where the problem takes place by clearly identifying the
setting. The environment should be specific to the population being studied. For example: an
urban high school in southwestern Ohio.

The purpose statement should clearly indicate the research method to be used in the study.
The researcher should identify whether the method will be quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative research uses numerical data. Qualitative research uses descriptive or narrative
data. For example, a writer might state that, "The purpose of this qualitative grounded theory
study is to develop a theory regarding ninth-grade students who are reading below grade
level."

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Sample Purpose statement

The purpose of this study is to describe and compare the attitudes and performance of male
and female graduate students regarding required research course at IUP

Verbs (action): Describe & compare

Key words and phrases (variables )
Attitudes
Performance
Male and female graduate students
Required research courses

Research Questions

After you have narrowed down your topic or problem, searching and reviewing existing
literature may further clarify your research approach. Moreover, by identifying where the
conclusions of previous research are unclear or where gaps may exist in the literature, you
will be better prepared to write good research questions. After you select your topic the next
step is to develop a research question. This is a question that you will answer through your
research and in your project, presentation, or paper. Creating a research question can help to
focus your research. Now that you have a research question, you can begin exploring possible
answers to it. Your research question allows you to begin researching in a clear direction.

Research questions narrow the purpose down into questions that provide evidence for
addressing the research problem. For example, in our student satisfaction example, below are
two questions that could be used for the study
1. How does a lecture method approach to teaching affect student satisfaction?
2. How does a discussion method approach to teaching affect student satisfaction?
A research question is a way of expressing your interest in a problem or phenomenon. You
may have more than one research question for a study, depending on the complexity and
breadth of your proposed work. Each question should be clear and specific, refer to the
problem or phenomenon, reflect an intervention in experimental work, and note the target
population or participants. Identifying a research question will provide greater focus to your
research or clarify the direction of your investigation, whether the research is descriptive or
experimental. By looking at your research question(s), you should be able to determine

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whether you are looking at causal relationships (quantitative study) or exploring a
phenomenon (qualitative study). The wording and structure of quantitative and qualitative
research questions differ significantly. Start by asking yourself if your area of inquiry has a
qualitative or a quantitative purpose. Then, design your question accordingly.

Types of research questions

1 Descriptive research question (How much, what amount? What is? …)
How much time do teenagers spend on Facebook every day?
Variable : daily time spent on facebook
Group: teenagers
2 Comparative research questions:
The distinguishing features of a variable upon different groups: what is the difference
Q What is the difference in the amount of time spent by male and female teenagers on
Facebook?
Variable: daily time spend on social media
Group 1 : female teenagers
Group 2 male teenagers
3 Causal research questions
Focus on cause and effect relationship between variables
Q How much does the amount of time spend daily on facebook impact the university students’
exam scores?
Independent/cause variable: daily time spend on facebook
Dependent/effect variable: students’ exam scores
Group: university students

Go through the following steps to help formulate your research question:

Without a good question, you'll just be gathering data.  Fill in the blanks to focus your efforts
and build a research question of significance.
1. Topic: I am studying ______________
2. Question: because I want to find out what / why / how ____________
3. Significance: in order to better understand ______________

Here’s a good example of how to narrow your topic into a good research question:

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• Too broad — Rural America
• Narrowed topic — Role of women in rural America?
• Research question — What is the central role of women in today’s farming
communities?
A good thesis statement can often be converted into a research question. Consider these
examples:

Thesis statement : The rise in teenage obesity is directly related to the fast food industry.

Research question: What has the fast food industry done to contribute to the rise in teenage
obesity?
Notice that neither of these questions can be answered with a simple "Yes" or "No."

Formulating a research question

1. Start with a general topic such as Media Violence
2 Browse a few general books for ideas (children, adolescents, and media violence: a critical
look..
3 Narrow to a specific question: Are teens affected by violent media?
4 Narrow it further: Is there any evidence that violent video games increase violence in teens?
Further example:
Broad topic : Computer games →
Narrowed topic : Computer game violence →
Focused topic: Computer game violence and children →
Research Question: How does violence in computer games affect children?
Criteria for choosing Research Questions:

Clarity

Unclear: Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on social networking
sites like MySpace and Facebook?

Focused

Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming?

Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?

Simple vs. Complex

Too simple: How are teachers addressing speaking anxiety in the classroom? 

Appropriately complex: What are common traits of learners suffering from speaking anxiety
, and how can teachers assist them to overcome this issue in the classroom?
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Research question: "How can teachers adapt their lessons for effective remote learning?"
Research question; How are teachers addressing the challenges related to the learning and
achievement of their international students? 
Practice: Research question construction
Q: Does social media have any effects on people's performance?
Analysis:
Not specific: what type of social media?
Not clear: people's minds? Is it measurable?
Not feasible: Which people (too many people to study) What kind of effects?
Not complex: yes/no answer
Better version:
Q: What effect does one-hour a day use of Instagram have on the study grades of Moroccan
students aged 15-18?
Which of the following is the most researchable question? Be prepared to share.
Question A: Do children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more developed
skills?
Question B: Do children sent to day care or preschool start kindergarten with more highly
developed language skills?
Quantitative Research Questions:

1. Usually start with ‘ how,’ ‘what’ or ‘why’.

2. Contain an independent and a dependent variable.
3. Look at connections, relations or comparisons between variables.
Types of quantitative research

1. Descriptive questions are usually simple questions that ask about ‘how much’ or ‘how
often’ or look for a list of things/factors. These type of questions are useful for simple
studies, but would not be robust enough for a dissertation
Example: How often do students aged between 10-15 years use Instagram monthly?

2. Causal questions try to determine a relationship between two variables or they compare
two variables.
Example: How does stress at work relate to quality of life in people working night shifts?
(a relationship question)

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Example: How do machine translation engines compare to human translation?
(a comparison question)

3 Predictive questions try to forecast an outcome.

Example: Does a stressful work environment lead to higher turnover rates?

Qualitative Research Questions:

1. Usually start with ‘what’ or ‘how’ (avoid beginning qualitative questions with ‘why’ as
this implies cause and effect).
2. Identify the central phenomenon you plan to explore (tell in your question what you
are going to describe, explore, generate, discover, understand).
3. Avoid the use of quantitative words such as relate, influence, effect, cause.
Examples of qualitative research questions:

1. What is it like growing up in a single-parent family in a rural environment?

2. What are the experiences of people working night shifts in health care?

The strength of qualitative research is its ability to provide complex textual descriptions of
how people experience a given research issue. It provides information about the “human” side
of an issue – that is, the often contradictory behaviors, beliefs, opinions, emotions, and
relationships of individuals.

Examples of effective and ineffective Research Questions

Example 1

Vague Research Question: How are children affected by exposure to social media?

Specific Research Question: What is the effect of Instagram Likes on the self-esteem of
young children under the age of 12?

The first research question is too vague in both its independent and dependent variables.
There is no specific information on what “exposure” means. Does this refer to comments,
likes, engagement, or just how much time is spent on the social media platform?
Second, there is no useful information on what exactly “affected” means. Does the subject’s
behavior change in some measurable way? Or does this term refer to another factor such as
the user’s emotions?
Example 2

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Overly Simplistic Research Question: Has there been an increase in bullying in the US over
the past 10 years?
Focused Research Question: What has been the effect of after-school and community
programs on student disciplinary actions among elementary students?
In this research question, the first example is too simple and not sufficiently complex, making
it difficult to assess whether the study answered the question. The author could really only
answer this question with a simple “yes” or “no.” Further, the presence of data would not help
answer this question more deeply, which is a sure sign of a poorly constructed research
topic.The second research question is specific, complex, and empirically verifiable. One can
measure program effectiveness based on metrics such as attendance or grades. Further,
“bullying” is made into an empirical, quantitative measurement in the form of recorded
disciplinary actions.

Sample Questions
1 What are the attitudes of graduate students regarding research courses?
2 What is the performance of graduate students in required research courses?
3 What are the attitudes of male graduate students regarding research courses?
4 3 What are the attitudes of female graduate students regarding research courses?
5 What is the performance of male graduate students in required research courses?
6 What is the performance of female graduate students in required research courses?
7 Are there differences between the attitudes of male and female graduate students regarding
required research courses?
8 7 Are there differences between the performance of male and female graduate students
regarding required research courses?

Significance of the Study

Indicate how your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the area under
investigation. Think about implications—how results of the study may affect scholarly
research, theory, practice, educational interventions, curricula, counseling, policy.

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Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis essentially is a declarative statement of how you expect the research to
turn out. In a way, it is a possible answer to your research question. It should be brief, note
your important variables, and suggest something you can test or descriptively investigate. It is
typically included in experimental research but is also found in descriptive research such as or
survey-based investigations. It is not typically included in qualitative research in which the
results are intended to be emergent. A well-thought out and focused research question leads
directly into one or more hypotheses. What predictions can the researcher anticipate will arise
as a consequence of answering the research question?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. It

is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. Throughout your
paper, the hypothesis will be supported or contradicted with the collection and analysis of
data. You will use evidence you’ve gathered in your research to confirm — or reject — your
hypothesis.
A research question is the question the research study sets out to answer. Hypothesis is the
statement the research study sets out to prove or disprove. The main difference between
hypothesis and research question is that hypothesis is predictive in nature whereas research

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question is inquisitive in nature. Not all studies have hypotheses. They are usually used in
experimental quantitative research studies. They are useful in testing a specific theory or
model.  A complete hypothesis always includes the variables, population and the predicted
relationship between the variables.

Many times in your research courses, you will be asked to write a hypothesis statement. These
are different from standard thesis statements in that they introduce a specific prediction to be
supported by the research you will conduct, and they propose an expected or predicted
relationship between two or more variables. Below is an example of a research question and
its corresponding hypothesis.

Example:
Research question:
How do self-paced, asynchronous courses affect the academic success of adult learners?
Hypothesis:
Adult learners will do better academically in asynchronous courses than they would in
courses with required face time and other time constraints.

For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between sleep deprivation and test
performance might have a hypothesis that states, "This study is designed to assess the
hypothesis that sleep-deprived people will perform worse on a test than individuals who are
not sleep-deprived."

Developing a hypothesis

1. Ask a question
Writing a hypothesis begins with a research question that you want to answer. The question
should be focused, specific, and researchable within the constraints of your project.

Do students who attend more lectures get better exam results?

2. Formulate your hypothesis

Now you should have some idea of what you expect to find. Write your initial answer to the
question in a clear, concise sentence.

Attending more lectures leads to better exam results.

3. Phrase your hypothesis in three ways

To identify the variables, you can write a simple prediction in if…then form. The first part of
the sentence states the independent variable and the second part states the dependent variable.
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If a first-year student starts attending more lectures, then their exam scores will improve.

In academic research, hypotheses are more commonly phrased in terms of correlations or

effects, where you directly state the predicted relationship between variables.

The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their exam
scores.

If you are comparing two groups, the hypothesis can state what difference you expect to find
between them.

First-year students who attended most lectures will have better exam scores than those who
attended few lectures

4. Write a null hypothesis

If your research involves statistical hypothesis testing, you will also have to write a null
hypothesis. The null hypothesis is the default position that there is no association between the
variables. The null hypothesis is written as H0, while the alternative hypothesis is H1 or Ha.

H0: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has no effect on their final exam
scores.
H1: The number of lectures attended by first-year students has a positive effect on their final
exam scores.

Research question Hypothesis Null hypothesis

How effective is high school Teenagers who received sex High school sex education
sex education at reducing education lessons throughout has no effect on teen
teen pregnancies? high school will have lower pregnancy rates.
rates of unplanned
pregnancy than teenagers
who did not receive any sex
education.

What effect does daily use of There is a negative There is no relationship

social media have on the correlation between time between social media use
attention span of under-16s spent on social media and and attention span in under-
attention span in under-16s 16s.

Thesis statement
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 Once you have a clear understanding of your research question and have developed some
answers or conclusions, you can create your thesis statement. Your paper or project will be an
extension of your thesis statement where you explain and support your focused topic very
specifically. Most importantly, a study’s thesis statement clearly makes an assertion and
communicates to the reader the position the author has taken on the topic

 You should avoid thesis statements that simply announce your purpose. For example,
in a research paper on health care reform, you should avoid a thesis statement like this:
 In this essay, I will write about health care in the United States.
 Instead, a good thesis statement on health care reform in the United States would be
more specific and make a point that will help establish a clear purpose and focus for
your essay. It might look something like this:
 Although health care reform is a controversial topic in the United States, the need for
strong reform is important, as too many Americans are living without access to health
care
 Of course, not all research papers are persuasive. As you learned in Types of Research
Papers, research papers can also be analytical. In developing a thesis for an analytical
essay, you won’t make an argument, but you’ll still want to provide a specific
statement about the purpose of your essay. A good analytical thesis statement might
look something like this:
 Analysis of high school dropout rates reveals that an emphasis on standardized testing
plays a role in higher dropout rates among American high school boys, resulting in
what some educational researchers call “the boy crisis.”

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 Let’s look at this example process to give you a better idea of how to get from your topic to
your statement. Note that this is the development of a thesis statement for an argumentative
essay.

1. Choose a specific topic: Covid-19 vaccines 

Narrow it down to a specific aspect: opposition to Covid-19 vaccines

2. Ask a question: Should vaccination against Covid-19 be mandatory?     

3. Answer the question for yourself, by sorting through the available evidence/arguments:
Yes: vaccination protects other, more vulnerable people; vaccination reduces the spread of the
disease; herd immunity will allow societies to go back to normal…
No: vaccines can have side-effects in some people; the vaccines have been developed too fast
and there might be unknown risks; the government should stay out of personal decisions on
people’s health…

4. Form your opinion and reword it into your thesis statement that represents a very short
summary of the key points you base your claim on:

While there is some hesitancy around vaccinations against Covid-19, most of the presented
arguments resolve around unfounded fears and the individual freedom to make one’s own
decisions. Since that freedom is offset by the benefits of mass vaccination, governments
should make vaccines mandatory to help societies return back to normal.

This is a good argumentative thesis statement, because it does not just present a fact that
everybody knows and agrees on, but a claim that is debatable and needs to be backed up by
data and arguments, which you will do in the rest of your essay.

Effective vs Ineffective Thesis Statements

Ineffective: Everyone should get vaccinated against Covid-19.

Problem: The statement does not specify why that might be relevant or why people might not
want to do it—this is too vague to spark anyone’s interest.

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Effective: Since the risks of the currently available Covid-19 vaccines are minimal and
societal interests outweigh individual freedom, governments should make Covid-19
vaccination mandatory.
Ineffective: Learning an instrument can develop a child’s cognitive abilities.
Problem: This is a very weak statement—”can” develop doesn’t tell us whether that is what
happens in every child, what kind of effects of music education on cognition we can expect,
and whether that has or should have any practical implications. 
Acceptable: Music education has many surprising benefits on children’s overall
development, including effects on language acquisition, coordination, problem solving, and
even social skills.
You could now present all the evidence on the specific effects of music education on
children’s specific abilities in the rest of your (expository) essay. You could also turn this into
an argumentative essay, by adding your own opinion to your statement:
Effective: Considering the many surprising benefits that music education has on children’s
overall development, every child should be given the opportunity to learn an instrument as
part of their public school education.

Avoiding Poor Thesis Statements:

 Example: Man has had a major impact on the environment.

WHY UNSUITABLE?
 Way too vague and broad.
 What constitues "major impact?"
 What aspects of the environment are we talking about?
 What century are we talking about?

What is the difference between a thesis & a hypothesis?

Both the hypothesis statement and the thesis statement answer the research question of the
study. When the statement is one that can be proved or disproved, it is an hypothesis
statement. If, instead, the statement specifically shows the intentions/objectives/position of
the researcher, it is a thesis statement.

A hypothesis is a statement that can be proved or disproved. It is typically used in

quantitative research and predicts the relationship between variables. A thesis statement is a
short, direct sentence that summarizes the main point or claim of an essay or research paper. It

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is seen in quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. A thesis statement is
developed, supported, and explained in the body of the essay or research report by means of
examples and evidence.

Summary:

Research question, thesis statement and Problem statement

 A research question aims to guide your paper’s research in a specific direction. You

may have one or several research questions, but they’re all centred around your research
problem.
 A thesis statement is the answer to your research question. It’s what arises from the
research and work that you’ve put into your paper, and serves as the ultimate argument
you’ll make in your thesis.
 A problem statement is your research problem put into words, including how you plan
to get from your research question to your thesis statement

Review of the Literature: Relevant Studies

A literature review gives readers background on how your topic has to date been studied and
understood. It provides the background and context for the research problem. It should
establish the need for the research and indicate that the writer is knowledgeable about the area
(Wiersma, 1995). A thorough search of literature is an important component of the research
process. The review involves the collection and summary of prior studies that are relevant to
the hypothesis or research question. This process assesses what is already known about the
problem and refines research questions. The important focus should be the determination of
what this study will add to what is already known.

Literature Review model: From General to specific (Funnel)

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A literature review shows your readers that you have an in-depth grasp of your subject; and
that you understand where your own research fits into and adds to an existing body of agreed
knowledge. A literature review is a search and evaluation of the available literature in your
given subject or chosen topic area. A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the
material; this is why it is called a literature review rather than a literature report. As stated by
Ridley (2012, p.2), the literature review is the part of the paper were there is extensive
reference to related research in your field; it is where connections are made between the
source texts that you draw on, and where your position yourself and your own work amongst
these sources.”

At the very basic level, synthesis refers to combining multiple sources and ideas. As a writer,
you will use information from several sources to create new ideas based on your analysis of
what you have read. It is important that your writing is much more than a list of all the pieces
of information you have found. You need to show that you have interpreted, understood and
made connections between all these pieces of information. An important part of writing a
literature review is to construct your identity as a novice researcher. In other words, when
writing your literature review, you need to develop a voice of authority. You need to write
critically and authoritatively.

Literature review should be an evaluative piece of writing, rather than just a description. This
means that you need to weigh up arguments and critique ideas, rather than just providing a list
of what different writers have said.

It provides an opportunity to:

 identify a gap in previous research: e.g: “While there has been much research on X,
few researchers have taken Y into consideration”

29
  outline the main arguments in your field
 show that you are familiar with the literature on your topic
 indicate who the main writers are in a particular area
 Emphasize the timeliness of the topic: e.g: “many recent studies have focused on the
problem of x”
 evaluate previous studies
 position your work in relation to other writers
 identify areas of controversy
 support your own work by citing other authors
 see what previous methodologies have been used and to avoid making the same
mistakes as previous researchers
 avoid plagiarism and demonstrate your referencing skills

Length

The length of the literature review should be proportionate to the length of your entire paper.
For example, if your total paper is expected to be 15 pages long, 2-3 pages will likely suffice
for the literature review. Remember that your task is to “build an argument, not a library."
(Rudestam& Newton, 1992)

Steps for writing a literature review:

Step 1 Search for relevant literature on your topic

Step 2: Evaluate and select sources

 Read the abstract to see if the article is relevant or not
 Scan the bibliography to find out relevant resources

Step 3: Identify themes, debates and gaps

Things to look for : trends and patterns; Theme; Debates or contradictions
Step 4: Structure your literature review
 Chronological : From older to more recent publications
 Thematic: organized around several key themes
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  Methodological : compare the different research methods being used acorss studies
 Theoretical: use this to discuss opposing theories or models

Make sure your literature review has:

 an introduction
 main body ( summarize & synthesize the sources)
 and conclusion

Tips:
1 Summarize and synthesize
2. Analyze and interpet
3. Critically evaluate
Explain yourself: Use clear descriptions to explain what you are doing. For example, your
introduction may state: “The aim of this literature review / chapter is to define……………..
Cite others: To prevent your literature review from reading like a shopping list, vary the way
you report data. That is, try to avoid a single pattern of writing, such as “Smith claims that… /
Harrison claims that…” etc. You can use for example:
“The theory of … is confirmed in Albon’s study… (Albon, 2012)”
Tenses:When writing about others’ research, getting the tense right helps to demonstrate your
understanding. Be sure to use past tense for completed work, and present tense for work that
is considered to still be ‘current’, even if it has been published in the past.
Things to avoid:
Avoid typing out the whole title of a study, for example:
Original: According to Sally Jones, author of “The effect of strong family support on
recidivism rates”, family support is essential to the emotional health of inmates.
Revised 1: Family support is essential to the emotional health of inmates (Jones, 2016).
Revised 2: According to Sally Jones (2016), family support is essential to the emotional
health of inmates.
When two sources make the same point, cite them both parenthetically. For example:
Family support is essential to the emotional health of inmates (Jones, 2016 & Smith, 2017).
Avoid relying too much on long block quotations. It is much better, both stylistically and for
your grade, if you properly summarize/paraphrase and cite the information rather than use a
long quote.

Research Methods

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Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your
research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods,
there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need
to answer your research question:

 Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers?

 Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself (e.g. tests scores,
classroom observations, questionnaires, interviews ) , or will you use data that has
already been collected by someone else? (e.g library research (term paper)literature
review in a given topic)
 Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is, or
will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data.

 For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships
between variables.
 For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret
patterns and meanings in the data

Research methods are split broadly into quantitative and qualitative methods. The type of
design selected for your study depends on your underlying philosophy of research, research
question(s), hypothesis(es), or problem. Methods are the techniques used to obtain data while
metholdogy is the theory of how research should be undertaken.

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Research Design

Research can be approached in the following ways:

 Quantitative/Qualitative
 Applied/Basic

 Deductive/Inductive

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data. The
type of design selected for your study depends on your research question(s), hypothesis(es),
or problem. You’ll use evidence you’ve gathered in your research to confirm — or reject —
your hypothesis. Once the researcher identifies the research method, the research design
should be identified next. Qualitative research designs include: case study, phenomenological,
grounded theory and ethnographic. Quantitative research designs include: experimental,
correlational and historical. For example, a writer might state that, "The purpose of this
qualitative grounded theory study is to develop a theory regarding ninth-grade students who
are reading below grade level."

Qualitative and Quantitative Research Design

Qualitative research aims to produce rich and detailed descriptions of the phenomenon being
studied, and to uncover new insights and meanings. Generally qualitative research focuses on
the subjective experience and perception of the research subjects. In qualitative research, the
researcher is the key instrument of data collection. Tools used include open ended interviews,
33
field notes, ‘conversations’ with participants or journal diaries. The focus of qualitative
research is not only to describe but also to analyse: it seeks to look at the why of events not
just the what (Tuckman, 1988). The focus here is to highlight participants’ voices and
experiences. Qualitative research uses open-ended questions and probing, which gives
participants the opportunity to respond in their own words, rather than forcing them to choose
from fixed responses, as quantitative methods do.

In contrast, Quantitative approach analyses numerical data; it concentrates on measuring the

scale, range, frequency etc. of phenomena. The focus of quantitative research is objective
measures rather than subjective experience. Data is collected in some objective and replicable
manner; this methodology provides greater distance between the data and researcher than in
qualitative studies. In addition, data is usually analysed statistically in this type of research.
The tools of quantitative research include test performance scores and survey responses.
Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive, with variables and
hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

Qualitative research is used to explore and understand people’s beliefs, experiences, attitudes,
behavior and interactions. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature than Quantitative
research and involves examining and reflecting on the less tangible aspects of a research
subject, e.g. values, attitudes, perceptions. It often focuses on understanding particular
examples in depth or over time. For example, while quantitative research has found a strong
link between young people being bullied at school and being unhappy, qualitative research

34
can explore why this is the case through examining different young people’s experiences of
bullying.

The main difference between quantitative and qualitative research is the type of data they
collect and analyze. Quantitative research collects numerical data and analyzes it using
statistical methods. The aim is to produce objective, empirical data that can be measured and
expressed in numerical terms. Quantitative research is often used to test hypotheses, identify
patterns, and make predictions. Qualitative research, on the other hand, collects non-
numerical data such as words, images, and sounds. The focus is on exploring subjective
experiences, opinions, and attitudes, often through observation and interviews.

Quantitative research seeks to quantify a phenomenon. It’s more structured, objective, and

helps reduce researcher biases. Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It
is used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of research can be used to
establish generalizable facts about a topic. Common quantitative methods
include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and surveys with closed-ended
questions.

Qualitative research is expressed in words. It is used to understand concepts, thoughts or

experiences. This type of research enables you to gather in-depth insights on topics that are
not well understood. Common qualitative methods include interviews with open-ended
questions, observations described in words, and literature reviews that explore concepts and
theories. Qualitative research focuses on the human perspective, and usually answers the
question “why?” If you want to learn how people perceive their environment, why they hold
certain beliefs, or how they understand their problems, you’ll conduct qualitative research.

Often, qualitative research is conducted with a small sample size and includes many open-

ended questions. The goal is to understand “Why?” and the thinking behind the decisions. The
best way to facilitate this type of research is through one-on-one interviews, focus groups, and
sometimes surveys. A major benefit of the interview and focus group formats is the ability to
ask follow-up questions and dig deeper on answers that are particularly insightful.
Conversely, quantitative research is designed for larger sample sizes, which can garner
perspectives across a wide spectrum of respondents

35
Qualitative research is all about context. When you’re researching a group, you want to study
them in their natural environment. This gives you insights into their behavior, beliefs,
opinions, and so on. When you engage with people in these ways, you’re giving the
opportunity to give more in-depth, elaborate responses. They’re not just responding “yes” or
“no” – they’re telling you what they think. In Quantitative research instead of talking to
people and getting their opinions, you’re asking them yes or no questions. Instead of asking
someone why they do something, you’re finding out what they do, or how many people do
that thing, or how often – and so on.

When to use qualitative vs. quantitative research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

 Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or

hypothesis)
 Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts,
experiences)

Remember:
 Quantitiave research : inferential research/Deductive approach
 Qualititative rsearch : interpretive research/Inductive approach

Quantitative data collection methods

 Surveys: List of closed or multiple choice questions that is distributed to

a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).
 Experiments: Situation in which variables are controlled and manipulated to establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
 Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be
controlled.

Qualitative data collection methods

 Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.

 Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions
that can be used for further research.
 Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of
time to closely observe culture and behavior.
 Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

Sample questions
Qualitative Quantitative
What three things do you like most about What three things do you like the most

36
 this product? about this product?
1………….. A) Ease of use
2…………… B) Design
3…………. C) Price/quality rapport

You can use both close and open ended questions:

Do you have access to internet?
 Yes
 No
 If no, why?
 If yes, specify
 other:

This question is both quantitative and qualitative (both close ended and open ended questions
have been used)

Sample Research Question:

"How satisfied are students with their university studies?"
Quantitative:
Surveying 300 students at university and ask them qs such as!
"On a scale from 1 to 5, how satisfied are with your professors in terms of course quality? "
Statistical analysis:
On average, students rate their professors 4.4 out of 5
What can you conclusion to draw?
Qualitative:
I can conduct interviews with 15 students and ask them open ended questions such as :
"How satisfied are you with your studies?"
"What can be done to improve the study program?"
I transcribe the interview and then find patterns or recurrent themes:
Interviewee 1: more 1 on 1 guidance from the professors would be helpful
Interviewee 2: I do like my program but one small thing to improve would be to have more
personal help from my professors
Interviewee 3: I think there is a hierarchy between professors and students, if we can break
that and have more guidance that would be a big improvement

37
Interviewee 4: Not much to criticize about this program except that there ‘s not enough
engagement between professors and students. I would love to connect more with my
professors
In a nutshell, qualitative research generates “textual data” (non-numerical). Quantitative
research, on the contrary, produces “numerical data” or information that can be converted into
numbers.

Mixed methods approach

Mixed methods is a research approach whereby researchers collect and analyze both
quantitative and qualitative data within the same study. It’s also possible to start with a survey
to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to better understand the reasons behind
the trends. You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies.
Through open-ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new
insights. Later, you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.

Mixed method research example

It’s also possible to use a mixed-methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches.
By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of
the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions. If you want to
generate new ideas for online teaching strategies, a qualitative approach would make the most
sense. You can use this type of research to explore exactly what teachers and students struggle
with in remote classes.

Example:

What struggles did you face while studying online?

38
If you want to test the effectiveness of an online teaching method, a quantitative approach is
most suitable. You can use this type of research to measure learning outcomes like grades and
test scores.

What is your attitudes towards online learning?

 Extremely Effective
 Effective
 Less effective
 Not effective

Qualitative: First conduct interviews with students. You gain new insights and then you
come up with a hypothesis. For example, you learn through interviews that :
Hypothesis: Students prefer individual assignments over group projects.
Then, you test if this applies to a larger scale of students through a survey research
(quantitative)

Let’s say you held a conference and wanted feedback from your attendees. You can probably

already measure several things with quantitative research, such as attendance rate, overall

satisfaction, quality of speakers, value of information given, etc. All these questions can be

given in a closed-ended and measurable way. But you also may want to provide a few open-

ended, qualitative research questions to find out what you may have overlooked. You could

use questions like:

 What did you enjoy most about the conference?

 How could we improve your experience?
 Is there any feedback on the conference you think we should be aware of?

If you discover any common themes through these qualitative questions, you can decide to

research them more in depth, make changes to your next event, and make sure to add

quantitative questions about these topics after the next conference.

For example, let’s say several attendees said that their least favorite thing about the conference

was the difficult-to-reach location. Next time, your survey might ask quantitative questions like

how satisfied people were with the location, or let respondents choose from a list of potential

sites they would prefer.

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To avoid confusing your respondents, you may want to eschew questions like, “What do you

think about our internet service?” Instead you could ask a closed-ended, quantitative question

like in the following example:

The internet service is reliable:

 Always
 Most of the time
 About half the time
 Once in a while
 Never

You can also ask qualitative follow-up question such as:

 Do you have any other comments, questions, or concerns?

Data Analysis

Methods for analyzing data

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare
it for analysis. Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For
example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of
responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to
interpret data that was collected:

 - From open-ended survey and interview questions, literature reviews, case studies,
and other sources that use text rather than numbers.

 - Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so
you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions.

For qualitative data, you will end up with data that will be highly textual in nature. You’ll
be reading through the data and looking for key themes that emerge over and over. This

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type of research is also great at producing quotes that can be used in presentations or
reports. Quotes are a powerful tool for conveying sentiment and making a poignant point.

Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images
or videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

 Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of

words or phrases
 Thematic analysis: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and
patterns
 Discourse analysis: Studying how communication works in social context

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages

and correlations  (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

 During an experiment.

 Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of
quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.
For quantitative data, you will end up with a data set that can be analyzed, often with
statistical software such as Excel, R, or SPSS. You can ask many different types of questions
that produce this quantitative data, including rating/ranking questions, single-select,
multiselect, and matrix table questions. These question types will produce data that can be
analyzed to find averages, ranges, growth rates, percentage changes, minimums/maximums,
and even time-series data for longer-term trend analysis

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is

used to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs
and tables. Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

 Average scores
 The number of times a particular answer was given
 The correlation or causation between two or more variables
 The reliability and validity of the results

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Examples of data analysis methods

Research methods for analyzing data

Qualitative
or
Research method quantitative? When to use

Statistical analysis Quantitative To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner

(e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).

Meta-analysis Quantitative To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies.

Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.

Thematic analysis Qualitative To analyze data collected from interviews, focus groups or textual sources.

To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.

Content analysis Either To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys,
literature reviews, or other sources.

Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words)

Referencing Cite it as you write

Academic writing requires that you read and cite the work of others. Any material that is not
your own must be sourced to the original author. Every book, article, thesis and all electronic
material that has been consulted and cited should be included in the bibliography. There are
specific guidelines that you must follow for referencing in the text and in the References
section.

APA & MLA Writing Styles

In any academic paper, writers must show how their work relates to and builds on existing
research. Writing style helps you properly document your research sources and avoid
plagiarism. APA and MLA are two of the most commonly used citation styles. The APA

42
manual (published by the American Psychological Association) is mostly used in social
science and education fields. The MLA Handbook (published by the Modern Language
Association) is mostly used in humanities fields. Different classes will use different types of
formatting. For example, English classes typically use MLA format (see our handout on MLA for
more information). However, psychology classes, and other scientific disciplines, often use APA
format. APA stands for The American Psychological Association . In both styles, a source citation
consists of:

 A brief parenthetical citation in the text

 A full reference at the end of the paper

APA Format Rules

APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association (APA) and is
commonly used to cite sources in psychology, education, and most of the social sciences. 

Major Sections of an APA Paper:

 Title Page
The title page tells the reader what your paper is about and who wrote it. Your APA
title page should contain a title, author name, and school affiliation. If writing for a
class assignment, list the course number and name, the name of your instructor, and
the due date of your work.
 Abstract
The abstract is a summary of your paper and immediately follows the title page. In
APA format, the abstract should not exceed 200 words. Of course, this can vary
depending upon the academic journal or other specific requirements.

 Main Body
The main body includes all the content in your paper except for the title page, abstract,
references, and figures. If you are writing a lab report or reporting a study, your main
body should be broken up into four sections: introduction, methods/materials, results,
and discussion.

References

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 The References section lists all cited sources in your paper. If you cite any literature or
other external information in your text, it should be included here. References in APA
style are listed in alphabetical order by authors’ last names. They are also listed on a
separate page from the main body of the text.
Spacing
Your paper should be double spaced. There should be no extra spacing between paragraphs.
This does not include the title page within tables and figures, footnotes or equations.

Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are now formatted the same in APA 7th. The heading “Figure 1” or “Table
1” is now bold and placed above the figure/table. Figures/tables require a title, written in
italics, with title case, and on a second line. Finally, figure/table captions are now “notes”.
These are placed under the figure/table and begin with “Note.” in italics.

In-text citations in APA and MLA

Both MLA and APA use parenthetical citations to cite sources in the text. However, they
include slightly different information. Citations look slightly different in each style, with
different rules for things like title capitalization, author names, and placement of the date

APA In-text Citations

When referencing other studies or works in your paper, use in-text citations to identify where
you found the information. All APA in-text citations require the same basic information:
o Author’s last name (no first names or initials)
o Year of publication (or “n.d.” if there is “no date”)
o Page number (only required for direct quotes)

There are two main ways to format an in-text citation: Parenthetical citation or Narrative
citation.

Sample Intext and narrative citation:

Reference entry
Smith, T. (2020). The citation manual for students: A quick guide (2nd ed.). Wiley.

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In-text citation
Parenthetical:  (Smith, 2020)

Narrative: Smith (2020)

Parenthetical: (Author’s Last Name, Year of publication)

Narrative:  Author’s Last Name (Year of publication)

Narrative citation

 According to Smith (1998), APA style is an easy citation format for first-time
learners.
 Parker (2019) found a positive correlation between social media usage and anxiety
symptoms in teenagers.

Paratheatrical citation

 APA style is an easy citation format for first-time learners (Smith, 1998).
 There is a positive correlation between social media usage and anxiety symptoms in
teenagers (Parker, 2019).

KEY CHANGES BETWEEN APA 6th and APA 7th EDITIONS

 Three or more authors: list the first author’s surname followed by ‘et al.’ from the
first in-text citation of the text
 Location of publisher: no longer required
 URLS: ‘Retrieved from’ no longer required unless a retrieval date is required
 DOI: ‘DOI’ descriptor not required. Use DOI hyperlink for URL

Reference List

The References section is placed at the end of the research paper. Complete information about
each source cited in the text is supplied in the “References” list. Typically, reference list
entries include four basic elements: the authors’ names, the publication date, the title, and the
publication information. All references in your list must be double-spaced, both between
references and within references, with a hanging indent of ½ inch (or 1.27 cm; this is the
automatic default in Microsoft Word) for references with more than one line. There should be
no extra spacing between reference list entries.

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Authors’ Names

The names of authors should be inverted (i.e., the surname first):

One Author: Smith, J. J.

Two Authors: Xiao, X., & Song, B.
Three to Seven Authors: Rogers, A. B., Jones, K. D., & Johnson, E. C.

APA Citation and Reference Example

Citation: (Brown, 2013)

Reference: Brown, E. (2013). Comedy and the feminine middlebrow novel. Pickering &
Chatto.

Citation: (Smith, 1998, p. 203)

Reference: Smith, P. (1998). Learning to cite using APA Style. Journal of College Writing, 6,
60513.

By Two or More Authors

DiFonzo, N., & Bordia, P. (2007). Rumor psychology: Social and organizational approaches.
American Psychological Association.

E-book:

Gillam, T. (2018). Creativity, wellbeing and mental health practice. Wiley Blackwell.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74884-9

Newspaper Article

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47
Sample APA List of reference

Citation and Plagiarism

48
Why Cite?
Citation serves two purposes: It gives credit to the sources whose work you used, and it helps
the reader find additional information by locating the original source. By citing effectively,
you demonstrate to our audience that you understand the ongoing conversation on your
subject.
What Counts as Plagiarism?
Plagiarism occurs when another’s work is used without giving credit to the author.
Quoting versus Paraphrasing
Direct quotations are best when the original wording is particularly eloquent, when you want
the reader to know exactly what your source had to say on a subject, or when it is impossible
to rephrase the quotation without losing its essential meaning. Otherwise, you can paraphrase
by putting the material in your own words.

Do not simply change a few words here and there—a paraphrase should present the author’s
ideas in a new form, with a different sentence and paragraph structure. Remember that even
when paraphrasing, you must always credit your source.

PARAPHRASES
• Paraphrases state the ideas of another in the author’s own words.
• APA prioritizes paraphrasing over quoting
• Published authors primarily paraphrase, and students should learn to emulate this style
• Use the author-date citation system to attribute paraphrased ideas

Direct Quote:
Quote sparingly. Reserve quotes for vivid, impactful language. Place direct quotations within
quotation marks and reproduce the original material exactly. Always provide the author,
publication date, and page number(s).

Narrative: According to the APA (2020), “a direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from
another work” (p. 270).
Parenthetical: “A direct quotation reproduces words verbatim from another work” (APA,
2020, p. 270).

Long Quotations

49
Use block format for direct quotations that are 40 words or more. Start the quotation on a
new line idnented.5 in from the left margin. Block quotations should be double-spaced
without quotation marks. Also note that the period goes before the parenthetical citation in a
block quotation.

Example 1:
Metcalfe makes the following remarks regarding plagiarism:

Plagiarism is the act of stealing the writings or ideas of another and using them as your

own. It can involve taking word-for-word passages from news articles, Internet

sources, or verbal lectures or conversation and failing to give proper credit and/or

quotations as to the source of the information. (Metcalfe, 2007, p. 122)

Example 2:

Researchers have studied how people talk to themselves:

Inner speech is a paradoxical phenomenon. It is an experience that is central to many
people's everyday lives, and yet it presents considerable challenges to any effort to
study it scientifically. Nevertheless, a wide range of methodologies and approaches
have combined to shed light on the subjective experience of inner speech and its
cognitive and neural underpinnings. (Alderson-Day & Fernyhough, 2015, p. 957)

Multiple Works in the same parenthetical reference

If you need to cite multiple works, simply separate them with a semicolon. List them in
alphabetical order.

Example: Multiple studies (Dowler, 2004; James & Graham, 2010 ; Runyan & Ogilvie,
2003) found...

Multiple Works with the Same Author and Date

When citing multiple works by the same author and with the same publication date, attach the
suffixes “a,” “b,” “c,” and so on. These suffixes should also appear in the reference list,
where the works will be listed alphabetically by title.

50
In-text: Several studies (Newton, 2005a, 2005b; Bryan, 2007a, 2007b) found...

Reference List: Newton, S. (2005a).

Newton, S. (2005b).
For books, you may include page numbers, for videos a timestamp

In text -citation
(kersten, 1997, 00:37)
No publication year
(Johnson, n.d). Nd stands for no date
Groups/Organisations
 World Health Organization

First Use in text:

World Health Organization (WHO, 2020) / (World Health Organization [WHO],2020)
WHO (2020)
Subsequent uses:
(WHO, 2020)/ WHO (2020) …..
Use singular “they” a s a gender-neutral pronoun
A researcher’s career depends on how often they are cited (not he or she)
Use exact age ranges
Over 65 (broad category)
65 to 75 years old (specific)

MLA Format Style

MLA is the style recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA) for preparing
academic manuscripts and course research papers. It is the most frequently used style format
in arts and humanities disciplines including English Studies, Foreign Languages and
Literature, Literary Criticism, and Cultural Studies. These examples reflect the MLA
Handbook (8th ed.).
General MLA Formatting Guidelines

 Double-space the text of your paper using a legible 12pt. Font.

51
  Leave only one space after periods or other punctuation marks.

 Margins should be set to 1 inch on all sides.

 Indent the first line of each paragraph to one half-inch from the left margin. (Hint: Use
the “tab” key instead of pushing the space bar five times.)

 Create a header numbering all pages consecutively in the upper right-hand corner.

 List endnotes and Works Cited information on separate pages.

Formatting the First Page of Your Paper

 Do not include a separate title page unless specifically requested.

 Include your name, instructor’s name, the course, and the date in the upper left-hand
corner of the first page. Double-space this text.

 Center the title—do not underline, italicize, or place your title in quotation marks.

 Use quotation marks and/or italics when referring to other works in your title.

 Double space between the title and the first line of text.

MLA In-text Citations

In-text citations are brief references within your text to the source(s) listed in your reference
list. If you quote or paraphrase someone else's work, you must include in-text citations. The
MLA in-text citation format follows the author-page method, consisting of the author's last
name and page number(s). The author's name may appear in the text of your sentence, but the
page number(s) should always appear in the parentheses.

Check that every in-text citation leads to a reference in your paper. For example, an in-text
citation within your paper like:

 She stated, “Adding a reference listing for in-text citations can be hard” (Smith 5).

Should also have a citation in your Works Cited in MLA like:

 Smith, Darla. Understanding MLA Style. Oxford UP, 2019.

MLA Intext-citation
author’s name & page number: (Moore 37)

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Parenthetical vs narrative citation:
Parenthetical citation:
MLA is less dominant than APA in the US (Smith and Morrison 17-19)
Narrative citation:
According to Smith and Morrison, MLA is less dominant than APA in the US (17-19).
Combining citations
Separate the two sources with semi colon:
Exhaust fumes is one of the biggest global contributors to climate change (Garcia 64; Davies
14).
Citing multiple authors
1 author (Moore 37)
2 authors (Moore and Patel 48-50)
3 authors (Moore et al. 59)
No author
In text citation : (Amnesty International Report 187)
Multiple sources by the same author
(A. Butler 19)

( J.Butler 27)
Use first name initials to differentiate between two authors with the same last name

Type Solution Example

One author Include the author’s last name. (Desmond 13–15)

Two authors Include the last names of both authors. (Desmond and Theigg 13-15)

Three or more Name the first author followed by “et al.” (Desmond et al. 13-15)
authors

Organization Use the organization name as author. (U.N. Refugee Program 33)

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 From a book
Last name, First name, and First name Last name. Title of Book. Publisher, Year of
Publication.
Example

Baker, Nancy L., and Nancy Huling. A Research Guide for Undergraduate Students: English
and American Literature. 6th ed., MLA, 2006.
Zelizer, Barbie, and Stuart Allan, editors.  Journalism after September 11. Routledge, 2002.

From an eBook
Last name, First name. Title of Book. edition, Publisher, Year. Source/supplier of eBook, DOI
or URL.
Example
 Cave, Nick. The Death of Bunny Munro. Kindle ed., Text Publishing, 2009.

 Zelizer, Barbie, and Stuart Allan, editors. Journalism after September 11. 2nd ed.,
Routledge, 2011. ProQuest Ebook Central,
ebookcentral.proquest.com.elibrary .jcu.edu.au/lib/jcu/detail.action?docID=684083.

From a print journal article

Last name, First name. "Title of Article." Title of Journal, Volume, Issue, Year, pages.
Example
Martin, Greg. “Subculture, Style, Chavs and Consumer Capitalism: Towards a Critical
Cultural Criminology of Youth.” Crime, Media, Culture, vol. 5, no. 2, 2009, pp. 123-145.
From an electronic journal article
Last name, First name. “Title of Article.” Title of Journal, Volume, Issue, Year,
pages. Source/supplier of article, DOI or URL.
Example
  Morreale, Joanne. “The Spectacle of the Prisoner.” Television & New Media, vol. 7, no. 2,
2006, pp. 216-226. Sage Journals, doi:10.1177/1527476404270610.

Rabkin, Eric S. "The Medical Lessons of Science Fiction." Literature and Medicine, vol. 20,
no. 1, 2001., pp. 13-25. ProQuest, search.proquest.com.elibrary.
jcu.edu.au/docview/745601597?accountid=16285

From a print newspaper

54
Reporter Last name, Reporter First name. "Title of article."  Title of Newspaper, Day Month
Year, pages.
Example
Lawlor, Anne. "Phoenician 'find' makes textbooks ancient history." The Courier Mail, 20 July
2000, p. 3.
From a newspaper website
Reporter Last name, Reporter First name. "Title of Article." Title of Newspaper, Day Month
Year, URL.
Example
Nicholson, Brendan. "Row over 'biblical' weapons in Afghanistan." The Australian, 22 Jan.
2010, www.theaustralian.com.au/news/row-over-biblical-weapons-in-afghanistan/story-
e6frg6n6-1225822373759.

Film (title in italics)

(Alien 00:24:13–18)
Film Format
Film title in italics. Directed by Director, Film studio/distributor, Date.
Example
Alien. Directed by Ridley Scott, 20th Century Fox, 1979.

Changes in MLA 8th Edition

The MLA was updated to 8th Edition in April 2016. This resource presents a list of the key
differences between the 7th and 8th editions.

 City of Publication: This is usually omitted in MLA 8.

 Medium of Publication: Omitted in MLA 8.
 Date Accessed: Optional in MLA 8.
 URLs: These are recommended in MLA 8 because there is a growing availability of
DOIs or permalinks that can help a reader find the source cited.
 Spelling out Terms: Contributor roles that were abbreviated in MLA 7 are spelled out
in full in MLA 8.
 Simplified Punctuation: Colons and parentheses are no longer used to set apart some
elements in MLA 8.

MLA Works Cited

55
 MLA vs APA formatting
An APA in-text citation includes the author’s last name and the publication year. If
you’re quoting or paraphrasing a specific passage, you also add a page number.

An MLA in-text citation includes the author’s last name and a page number.

When there are two authors, APA Style separates their names with an ampersand (&), while
MLA uses “and.” For three or more authors, list the first author followed by “et al.” in both
styles.

APA MLA

1 author (Taylor, 2018, p. 23) (Taylor 23)

2 authors (Taylor & Kotler, 2018, p. 23) (Taylor and Kotler 23)

3+ authors (Taylor et al., 2018, p. 23) (Taylor et al. 23)

The general formatting guidelines for APA and MLA are similar. Both styles recommend:

56
  12 pt Times New Roman font
 Double spacing
 1-inch margins

Title Capitalization

Title capitalization is important to style. MLA goes for header capitalization where every

major word in the title is capitalized. Also called title case, this looks like:

Gleason, Jeff. Chaos: A Look at the Stars. RedRiver, 2010.

APA takes its own road. In APA, book titles and such will only capitalize the first word. This
is sometimes called sentence case:

Gleason, J. (2010). Chaos:A look at the stars. RedRiver

In MLA, the reference page is called “Works Cited”. In APA, the page is called “References”

Evaluating your information

Everything that is written has at least some bias or point-of-view. You need to evaluate how
much that bias affects the content of the article or website.
– Who is the author?
• Did the author have any authority in what they wrote? What credentials
do they have?
– Why was the article written?
• Many articles and websites were written to present specific arguments
or theories. Make sure you know if the information you are using was
written for a specific purpose.
– Where was it published?
• Was it published in a peer-reviewed, scholarly, or otherwise
authoritative journal? Or, merely on someone’s personal website?
– When was it published?
Obvious, yes. But, make sure that the website you use is not outdated.

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References

American Psychological Association. (2010). Publication manual of the American

Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Creswell W. J. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches (4nd ed). SAGE Publications, Inc
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative, and

mixed methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Denscombes, M. (2010). The Good Research Guide: For small-scale social research projects.

Maiden-Read: Open University Press.

Griffin, G. (2005). Research methods for English studies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University

Press.

Lester,J.D. (2011). Principles of writing research papers. Boston: Longman.

Copyright notice

No student may record any lecture, class discussion or meeting with the instructor without her
prior express written permission. Exceptions are made for students who have made prior
arrangements with the lecturer

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