Business Communication For Success

Business Communication for
Success
Business Communication for Success
Version 2.0
"[Author removed at request of original publisher]

UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA LIBRARIES PUBLISHING EDITION, 2016. THIS
EDITION ADAPTED FROM A WORK ORIGINALLY PRODUCED IN 2010 BY A
PUBLISHER WHO HAS REQUESTED THAT IT NOT RECEIVE ATTRIBUTION.
MINNEAPOLIS, MN"
Brief Contents
Chapter 1 Effective Business Communication

Chapter 2 Delivering Your Message
Chapter 3 Understanding Your Audience
Chapter 4 Effective Business Writing
Chapter 5 Writing Preparation
Chapter 6 Writing
Chapter 7 Revising and Presenting Your Writing
Chapter 8 Feedback in the Writing Process
Chapter 9 Business Writing in Action
Chapter 10 Developing Business Presentations
Chapter 11 Nonverbal Delivery
Chapter 12 Organization and Outlines
Chapter 13 Presentations to Inform
Chapter 14 Presentations to Persuade
Chapter 15 Business Presentations in Action
Chapter 16 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Business Communication
Chapter 17 Negative News and Crisis Communication
Chapter 18 Intercultural and International Business Communication
Chapter 19 Group Communication, Teamwork, and Leadership
Index
Contents
About the Author 1
Acknowledgments 3
Dedications 5
Preface 7
Effective Business Communication 9
Chapter 1
1.1 Getting Started 9
1.2 Why Is It Important to Communicate Well? 10
Communication Influences Your Thinking about Yourself and Others 11
Communication Influences How You Learn 12
Communication Represents You and Your Employer 12
Communication Skills Are Desired by Business and Industry 13
1.3 What Is Communication? 16
Defining Communication 17
Eight Essential Components of Communication 17
Two Models of Communication 21
1.4 Communication in Context 23
Intrapersonal Communication 23
Interpersonal Communication 25
Group Communication 25
Public Communication 26
Mass Communication 27
1.5 Your Responsibilities as a Communicator 29
Communicator Is Prepared 29
Communicator Is Ethical 31
1.6 Additional Resources 34
1.7 Endnotes 35
Delivering Your Message 37

Chapter 2
2.2 What Is Language? 38
2.3 Messages 43
Primary Message Is Not the Whole Message 44
Parts of a Message 45
2.4 Mobile Communication Messages 49
The Mobile Revolution 52
Smartphones as a Communication Platform 55
Impact of Mobile Communication on Businesses 56
Designing Messages for Mobile Devices 59
Visual Media for Mobile Devices 62
Conclusion 65
2.5 Principles of Verbal Communication 66
Language Has Rules 66
Our Reality Is Shaped by Our Language 67
Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic 68
Language Is Abstract 69
Language Organizes and Classifies Reality 70
2.6 Language Can be an Obstacle to Communication 72
Cliché 73
Jargon 73
Slang 74
Sexist and Racist Language 76
Euphemisms 77
Doublespeak 77
2.7 Emphasis Strategies 79
Visual Communication 79
Signposts 81
Internal Summaries and Foreshadowing 82
Repetition 82
2.8 Improving Verbal Communication 83
Define Your Terms 84
Choose Precise Words 84
Consider Your Audience 85
Take Control of Your Tone 85
Check for Understanding 86
Be Results Oriented 87
2.10 Endnotes 89
Chapter 3 Understanding Your Audience 91

3.2 Self-Understanding Is Fundamental to Communication 93
Self-Concept 94
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 98
3.3 Perception 101
Selection 103
Organization 106
Interpretation 111
3.4 Differences in Perception 113
Why Don’t We All See Eye to Eye? 113
Individual Differences in Perception 113
3.5 Getting to Know Your Audience 116
Demographic Traits 118
Improving Your Perceptions of Your Audience 119
Fairness in Communication 122
3.6 Listening and Reading for Understanding 124
Active Listening and Reading 125
When the Going Gets Tough 125
3.8 Endnotes 129
Chapter 4 Effective Business Writing 131

4.2 Oral versus Written Communication 132
4.3 How Is Writing Learned? 137
Reading 138
Writing 138
Constructive Criticism and Targeted Practice 139
Critical Thinking 140
4.4 Good Writing 141
More Qualities of Good Writing 143
Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies 144
4.5 Style in Written Communication 147
Colloquial 147
Casual 148
Formal 149
4.6 Principles of Written Communication 150
Words Are Inherently Abstract 151
Words Are Governed by Rules 151
Words Shape Our Reality 152
Words and Your Legal Responsibility 152
4.7 Overcoming Barriers to Effective Written Communication 154
Do Sweat the Small Stuff 154
Get the Target Meaning 155
Consider the Nonverbal Aspects of Your Message 156
Review, Reflect, and Revise 156
4.9 Endnotes 158
Chapter 5 Writing Preparation 159

5.2 Think, Then Write: Writing Preparation 160
Thinking Critically 161
Overcoming Fear of Writing 162
5.3 A Planning Checklist for Business Messages 164
Determining Your Purpose 165
Credibility, Timing, and Audience 167
Communication Channels 168
5.4 Research and Investigation: Getting Started 172
Narrowing Your Topic 173
Focus on Key Points 173
Planning Your Investigation for Information 174
Staying Organized 174
5.5 Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources 176
Business Ethics 176
Giving Credit to Your Sources 177
Challenges of Online Research 178
Evaluating Your Sources 179
5.6 Completing Your Research and Investigation 182
Managing Your Time 182
Compiling Your Information 182
5.7 Reading and Analyzing 185
5.9 Endnotes 189
Chapter 6 Writing 191

6.2 Organization 194
General Purpose and Thesis Statements 195
Organizing Principles 195
Outlines 200
Paragraphs 202
Effective Sentences 202
Transitions 204
6.3 Writing Style 208
Formal versus Informal 208
Introductions: Direct and Indirect 210
Adding Emphasis 210
Active versus Passive Voice 211
Commonly Confused Words 212
Making Errors at the Speed of Light 213
6.4 Making an Argument 215
Effective Argumentation Strategies: GASCAP/T 216
Evidence 218
Appealing to Emotions 218
Recognizing Fallacies 219
Ethical Considerations in Persuasion 220
6.5 Paraphrase and Summary versus Plagiarism 222
6.7 Endnotes 226
Chapter 7 Revising and Presenting Your Writing 227

7.2 General Revision Points to Consider 228
Evaluate Content 229
Evaluate Organization 229
Evaluate Style 229
Evaluate Readability 229
7.3 Specific Revision Points to Consider 231
Format 231
Facts 231
Names 232
Spelling 232
Punctuation 232
Grammar 235
7.4 Style Revisions 239
Break Up Long Sentences 240
Revise Big Words and Long Phrases 240
Evaluate Long Prepositional Phrases 241
Delete Repetitious Words 241
Eliminate Archaic Expressions or References 241
Avoid Fillers 242
Eliminate Slang 242
Evaluate Clichés 242
Emphasize Precise Words 242
Evaluate Parallel Construction 243
Obscured Verbs 243
The “Is It Professional?” Test 243
7.5 Evaluating the Work of Others 245
Five Steps in Evalution 245
Delivering the Evaluation 246
7.6 Proofreading and Design Evaluation 249
Proofreading 249
Design Evaluation 250
7.8 Endnotes 254
Chapter 8 Feedback in the Writing Process 255

8.2 Diverse Forms of Feedback 256
Indirect Feedback 258
Direct Feedback 258
Internal Feedback 258
External Feedback 260
Interviews 264
Surveys 264
Focus Groups 265
8.3 Qualitative and Quantitative Research 266
Obtaining Feedback with Qualitative Research 267
Obtaining Feedback with Quantitative Research 268
What Is Validity? 269
What Is Reliability? 270
What Is Statistically Significant? 271
8.4 Feedback as an Opportunity 272
Evaluative Feedback 273
Interpretive Feedback 274
Supportive Feedback 274
Probing Feedback 274
Understanding Feedback 275
8.6 Endnotes 277
Chapter 9 Business Writing in Action 279

9.2 Text, E-mail, and Netiquette 279
Texting 280
E-mail 281
Netiquette 283
9.3 Memorandums and Letters 285
Memos 285
Letters 288
9.4 Business Proposal 293
Common Proposal Elements 294
Two Types of Business Proposals 296
Sample Business Proposal 296
9.5 Business Report 297
What Is a Report? 298
Types of Reports 299
9.6 Cover Letter, Résumé, and Online Profiles 304
Main Parts of a Résumé 305
Maximize Scannable Résumé Content 308
9.7 Sales Message 312
Format for a Common Sales Message 313
Sales Message Strategies for Success 314
9.9 Endnotes 317
Chapter 10 Developing Business Presentations 319

10.2 Before You Choose a Topic 321
Determine the General and Specific Purpose 321
Can I Cover the Topic in Time? 322
Will My Topic Be Interesting to My Audience? 322
How Much Information about My Topic Is Readily Available? 323
Putting It All Together 323
10.3 Choosing a Topic 324
Know Yourself and Your Audience 325
Saving Time 326
Appeal, Appropriateness, and Ability 326
Use Your Self-Inventory 327
Writing Your Thesis Statement 328
10.4 Finding Resources 330
Narrow Your Topic and Focus on Key Points 331
Plan Your Search for Information 332
Ethics, Content Selection, and Avoiding Plagiarism 333
Staying Organized 333
Searching for Information on the Internet 334
Evaluating Your Sources 335
Compiling Your Information 337
10.5 Myths and Realities of Public Speaking 339
Speaking in Public Is Not Like Killing Lions 339
You Don’t Have to Be Perfect 340
Organization Is Key to Success 340
Speaking in Public Is Like Participating in a Conversation 340
10.6 Overcoming Obstacles in Your Presentation 342
Language 342
Nature of Perception 343
Ethnocentrism 345
10.8 Endnotes 347
Chapter 11 Nonverbal Delivery 349

11.2 Principles of Nonverbal Communication 350
Nonverbal Communication Is Fluid 350
Nonverbal Communication Is Fast 351
Nonverbal Communication Can Add to or Replace Verbal Communication 352
Nonverbal Communication Is Universal 353
Nonverbal Communication Is Confusing and Contextual 354
Nonverbal Communication Can Be Intentional or Unintentional 354
Nonverbal Messages Communicate Feelings and Attitudes 354
We Believe Nonverbal Communication More than Verbal 355
Nonverbal Communication Is Key in the Speaker/Audience Relationship 356
11.3 Types of Nonverbal Communication 357
Space 358
Time 359
Physical Characteristics 360
Body Movements 361
Touch 361
Paralanguage 362
Artifacts 362
Environment 363
11.4 Movement in Your Speech 364
Positions on the Stage 365
Gestures 365
Facial Gestures 366
11.5 Visual Aids 367
Purpose, Emphasis, Support, and Clarity 368
Methods and Materials 369
Preparing Visual Aids 371
Using Visual Aids 371
Using PowerPoint as a Visual Aid 371
Use of Color 373
Helpful Hints for Visual Aids 374
11.6 Nonverbal Strategies for Success with Your Audience 375
Watch Reactions 376
Enroll an Observer 377
Focus on a Specific Type of Nonverbal Communication 377
11.8 Endnotes 379
Chapter 12 Organization and Outlines 381

12.2 Rhetorical Situation 382
Context 383
Audience 383
Purpose 384
12.3 Strategies for Success 385
Tone 386
Emphasis 386
Engagement 387
Clarity 387
Conciseness 387
Arrangement 387
Credibility 388
Expectation 388
Reference 388
12.4 Building a Sample Speech 391
12.5 Sample Speech Outlines 394
12.6 Organizing Principles for Your Speech 396
12.7 Transitions 401
12.9 Endnotes 405
Chapter 13 Presentations to Inform 407

13.2 Functions of the Presentation to Inform 408
Share 408
Increase Understanding 409
Change Perceptions 409
Gain Skills 409
Exposition versus Interpretation 410
13.3 Types of Presentations to Inform 413
Explanation 413
Report 414
Description 414
Demonstration 414
13.4 Adapting Your Presentation to Teach 416
Motivating the Listener 417
Framing 420
Additional Tips 421
13.5 Diverse Types of Intelligence and Learning Styles 424
13.6 Preparing Your Speech to Inform 426
Start with What You Know 427
Consider Your Audience’s Prior Knowledge 427
Adapting Jargon and Technical Terms 428
Using Outside Information 428
Presenting Information Ethically 428
Sample Informative Presentation 431
13.7 Creating an Informative Presentation 433
Sample Speech Guidelines 434
13.9 Endnotes 437
Chapter 14 Presentations to Persuade 439

14.2 What Is Persuasion? 440
14.3 Principles of Persuasion 443
Principle of Reciprocity 444
Principle of Scarcity 444
Principle of Authority 444
Principle of Commitment and Consistency 444
Principle of Consensus 445
Principle of Liking 445
14.4 Functions of the Presentation to Persuade 446
Stimulate 447
Convince 447
Call to Action 448
Increase Consideration 449
Develop Tolerance of Alternate Perspectives 449
14.5 Meeting the Listener’s Basic Needs 450
Maslow’s Hierarchy 452
Social Penetration Theory 454
14.6 Making an Argument 456
Argumentation Strategies: GASCAP/T 458
Evidence 460
Appealing to Emotions 460
14.7 Speaking Ethically and Avoiding Fallacies 464
Eleven Points for Speaking Ethically 465
Avoiding Fallacies 466
14.8 Sample Persuasive Speech 469
Attention Statement 469
Introduction 469
Body 470
Conclusion 470
Residual Message 471
14.9 Elevator Speech 473
Creating an Elevator Speech 473
14.11 Endnotes 476
Chapter 15 Business Presentations in Action 477

15.2 Sound Bites and Quotables 478
Common Elements of Effective Sound Bites 478
15.3 Telephone/VoIP Communication 480
15.4 Meetings 483
Strategies for Effective Meetings 485
15.5 Celebrations: Toasts and Roasts 486
Proposing a Toast 487
Roasts 489
15.6 Media Interviews 490
15.7 Introducing a Speaker 493
15.8 Presenting or Accepting an Award 495
15.9 Serving as Master of Ceremonies 498
15.10 Viral Messages 500
Effective Viral Messages 501
15.12 Endnotes 503
Chapter 16 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Business Communication 505

16.2 Intrapersonal Communication 506
16.3 Self-Concept and Dimensions of Self 508
Self-Concept 509
Dimensions of Self 509
16.4 Interpersonal Needs 511
16.5 Social Penetration Theory 516
Principles of Self-Disclosure 518
Interpersonal Relationships 520
16.6 Rituals of Conversation and Interviews 522
Conversation as a Ritual 523
Employment Interviewing 525
16.7 Conflict in the Work Environment 530
Conflict Management Strategies 531
Evaluations and Criticism in the Workplace 533
16.9 Endnotes 537
Negative News and Crisis Communication 539

Chapter 17
17.2 Delivering a Negative News Message 540
Presenting Negative News in Person 545
Presenting Negative News in Writing 547
17.3 Eliciting Negative News 550
17.4 Crisis Communication Plan 554
Developing Your Crisis Communication Plan 555
17.5 Press Conferences 557
Holding a Press Conference 559
17.7 Endnotes 563
Chapter 18 Intercultural and International Business Communication 565

18.2 Intercultural Communication 567
18.3 How to Understand Intercultural Communication 570
18.4 Common Cultural Characteristics 573
Rites of Initiation 573
Common History and Traditions 574
Common Values and Principles 575
Common Purpose and Sense of Mission 575
Common Symbols, Boundaries, Status, Language, and Rituals 575
18.5 Divergent Cultural Characteristics 577
Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures 578
Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule Cultures 579
Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures 579
Time Orientation 580
Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation 580
Masculine versus Feminine Orientation 581
Direct versus Indirect 581
Materialism versus Relationships 581
Low-Power versus High-Power Distance 582
18.6 International Communication and the Global Marketplace 583
Political Systems 584
Legal Systems 585
Economic Systems 585
Ethical Systems 586
Global Village 586
588
18.7 International Business and Law Enforcement
Introduction 589
Diverse Laws Across Cultures 590
Law Enforcement and Punishment across Cultures 592

Tips and Bribery 593
Tips to Assist the Foreign Traveler 596
Conclusion 597
18.8 Styles of Management 597
Theory X 598
Theory Y 599
Theory Z 599
18.9 The International Assignment 600
Preparation 601
Acculturation Process 602
Living and Working Abroad 603
18.10 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 605

Introduction 605
Popular Culture in Context 606
What Is Popular Culture? 607
Popular Culture, Power, and Influence 608
Popular Culture, Stereotypes, Discrimination, and Indiscrimination 610
Conclusion 613
18.11 Virtual Communication Across Cultures 614
Introduction 615
What is Virtual Communication? 615
Characteristics of Virtual Communication 616
Social Media, Libel, and Slander 619
Conclusion 620
18.13 Endnotes 621
Chapter 19 Group Communication, Teamwork, and Leadership 625

19.2 What Is a Group? 626
Types of Groups in the Workplace 627
Primary and Secondary Groups 628
If Two’s Company and Three’s a Crowd, What Is a Group? 628
19.3 Organizational Cultures and Communication 630
Introduction 631
Organizational Cultures 631
Life Cycle of Member Roles 633
Diverse Group Member Roles 636
Conclusion 640
19.4 Group Problem Solving 641
Define the Problem 641

Analyze the Problem 642
Establish Criteria 643
Consider Possible Solutions to the Problem 643
Decide on a Solution 644
Implement the Solution 645
Follow Up on the Solution 645
19.5 Business and Professional Meetings 647
Preparation 647
Conducting the Meeting 649
Using Technology to Facilitate Meetings 650
Organizational Communication 652
19.6 Teamwork and Leadership 654
Teamwork 654
Leadership 656
19.7 Family Business 658
Introduction 659
Roles and Responsibilities 659
Compensation and Job Security 662
Succession 663
Conclusion 667
19.9 Endnotes 668
Index 669
About the Author
McLean serves an Associate Professor of Business Communication for the W. A. Franke College
of Business, Northern Arizona University – Yuma, on a combined campus partnership with the
University of Arizona and Arizona Western College. Scott McLean was the 2007-2011 Shadle-Edge-
Combe Endowed Faculty Chair at Arizona Western College.
Scott is the author of the Basics of Speech Communication, the Basics of Interpersonal Com-
munication, and the Basics of Communication Studies with Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education. He
is also the author of Business English for Success, Writing for Success, Intercultural Communication
and Group Communication with Flat World Knowledge. He has published in peer-review journals,
classic car magazines, and newspapers.
Beyond his classroom experience, Scott regularly serves as a communications advisor to indus-
try, business, and organizations. He has extensive experience and publications in the areas of health
communication, social marketing communication, strategic, organizational and crisis communi-
cation. He has served as an evaluator for the United States National Institutes of Health’s Small
Business and Innovative Research (SBIR) program since 1995. He served as an evaluator of educa-
tional programs for the Ministerio de Hacienda de Chile. He works with companies interested in
Chile and is active in international business communication. His development of the Tenio Nat-
ural Reserve in Southern Chile has brought together people from around the world to preserve and
restore indigenous flora and fauna on a collective effort will serve for generations to come.
Scott studied at Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile and at Washington State University’s
Edward R. Murrow School of Communication. He and his family divide their time between the
United States and Puerto Montt, Chile.
2 Business Communication for Success
Acknowledgments
I would like to say thank you to Chris Etesse, our CEO, and James Rianhard, our former President,
for taking Flat World Knowledge forward on the cutting edge of high quality, innovative educa-
tional content and increasing access for students. To say Flat World Knowledge’s model just makes
sense is an understatement. I am honored to be a part of it all.
Becky Knauer was an excellent project manager. Writing can be a solitary activity but she
made the journey positive and productive, with space when I needed it, technical assistance when
required, and a positive word of encouragement or two that made all the difference.
Scott Marinaro also deserves a call out—he led the charge to change textbooks as we know
them on the front lines of project development, author recruitment, and acquisition. I appreciate
your support of the Comm discipline and am confident the field will support, participate, collabo-
rate, and create new resources for our students.
Finally, thanks go to Vicki Brentnall, Digital Content Specialist, for everything she did to make
BCS2.0 become a reality.
To my reviewers in the field, I appreciate all the specific feedback that contributed to clear
improvements in the text.
• Brenda Jolivette Jones, San Jacinto College - Central Campus (brenda.jolivette@sjcd.edu)
• Christina McCale, Regis University (cmccale@regis.edu)
• Billie Miller, Ph.D., Cosumnes River College (millerb@crc.losrios.edu)
• Joyce Ezrow, Anne Arundel Community College (jezrow@aacc.edu)
• Sally Lederer, U of M Carlson School of Management (sally@melsa.org)
• Greg Larson, Salt Lake Community College (Greg.Larson@slcc.edu)
• Gayla Jurevich, Fresno City College (gayla.jurevich@fresnocitycollege.edu)
• Laura Newton, Florida State University (lpnewton@fsu.edu)
• Judy Grace, Arizona State University (judy.grace@asu.edu)
• Rita Rud, Purdue University (ritarud@purdue.edu)
• Edna Boroski, Trident Technical College (edna.boroski@tridenttech.edu)
Your words of encouragement and constructive criticism have made this effort worthwhile.
Finally, to Lisa, my life partner, you are amazing. You were a draft recruit on this project and
quickly learned the formatting requirements in short order. You are a valuable part of this team.
Your relentless editing serves as a clear example of Strunk’s axiom: “Omit needless words.” This text
is the better for it. Writing with you, like life, gets better with each year.
Scott McLean
Puerto Montt, Chile
Dedications
For Lisa and our children, Mackenzie, John, and Katherine

Preface
Business Communication for Success 2.0 (BCS) provides a comprehensive, integrated approach to
the study and application of written and oral business communication to serve both student and
professor. It provides a modern context with real world examples that are immediately relevant to
today's students.
This textbook features chapters with the following elements:
• Learning Objectives
• Introductory Exercises
• Clear expectations, relevant background, and important theories
• Practical, real-world examples
• Key Takeaways or quick internal summaries
• Key terms that are easily identified
• In-chapter assignments
• Post-chapter assessments linked to objectives and skills acquisition
• Visual reinforcement and relevant images
• Integrated, engaging video resources
• Samples and examples
Each chapter is self-contained, allowing for mix-and-match flexibility and custom or course-
specific design. Each chapter focuses on clear objectives and skill demonstrations that can be easily
linked to your syllabus and state or federal requirements. Supported by internal and external
assessments, each chapter features time-saving and learning-enhancement support for instructors
and students.
BCS 2.0 is designed to help students identify important information, reinforce for retention,
and demonstrate mastery with a clear outcome product.
The text has three content categories:
1. Foundations
2. Process and products
3. Contexts
The first three chapters form the core foundation for the study of oral and written business
communication. The next sequence of chapters focus on the process of writing, then oral perfor-
mance with an emphasis on results. The final sequence focuses on contexts from interpersonal to
intercultural, from groups to leadership, from intercultural to international, where business com-
munication occurs,.
In each of the process and product chapter sequences, the chapters follow a natural flow,
from prewriting to revision, from preparation for a presentation to performance. Each sequence
comes together in a concluding chapter that focuses on action—where we apply the skills and tech-
niques of written or oral communication in business, from writing a letter to presenting a sales
speech. These performances not only serve to reinforce real-world applications but also may serve
as course assessments.
All chapters are compartmentalized into sections so you can choose what you want to use and
eliminate the rest, and here the beauty of Flat World Knowledge rings true—you can adapt and
integrate content from other texts or your own work to truly make it fit your course and student
needs.
New for our 2.0 edition includes additional exercises, images, and videos throughout the text to
reinforce learning, connections to the latest research, and new sections on mobile communication,
family business communication, and intercultural communication.
Please consider adapting this text for your own use! While there are far more sections and
chapters than many courses will need in a 6, 8, 10, 12 or even 16 week class, the diversity and range of
those sections allows you to align the sections with your syllabus, your course calendar, your spe-
cific topic, audience, or need. I welcome adaptations, updates, and new versions of this text!
1
Effective Business
Communication
Communication leads to community, that is, to understanding, intimacy and mutual valuing.
— Rollo May
I know that you believe that you understood what you think I said, but I am not sure you realize
that what you heard is not what I meant.
— Robert J. McCloskey, former State Department spokesman
1.1 Getting Started
1. Write five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be a year from
now. Take those five words and write a paragraph that clearly articulates your responses to
both “what” and “where.”
2. Think of five words that express what you want to do and where you want to be five years
from now. Share your five words with your classmates and listen to their responses. What
patterns do you observe in the responses? Write a paragraph that addresses at least one
observation.
3.
4. Find a (poor/excellent) example of business communication and discuss how it impacts and
influences brand identity and customer relationships.
5. Find an example of a business, organization, or company's representation of themselves in
a social media network and discuss why you "like" it or not.
6. Selfie Exercise: Take a photo of yourself for your LinkedIn.com page, for example, that por-
trays a professional (or creative, or your choice of focus) image of yourself. Write a few
sentences on the nonverbal cures that communicate your message goal(s).
Communication is an activity, skill, and art that incorporates lessons learned across a wide
spectrum of human knowledge. It’s what we use to represent ourselves, our ideas, our hopes,
dreams, and experiences, and it is often how we are evaluated and judged. You may have heard the
expression, “You never get a second chance to make a first impression,” and it holds true, but let's
consider what comprises a first impression.
When someone checks out your LinkedIn.com profile, what do they see? A photo? Words?
Images and video? In each case what they see isn't you, but a representation of you that speaks for
you in your absence. Your choice of words and phrases impacts and influences that first impres-
sion.
When you go to a job interview what do they see? They may have reviewed your resume—a
written representation of you—and found you met the qualifications and offered something of
interest, but now they get to meet you. What will you say, and how will you say it? Will your com-
munication make a good first impression?
Effective communication is a learned skill. You learned what to say and when to say it by the
people who surrounded you from early on, from family and friends to the television and the Inter-
net. Words that became popular may have become your words, or not. Communication habits that
others expressed may have become your habits, or not. For example, you didn’t learn to text in a day
and didn’t learn all the codes—from LOL (laugh out loud) to BRB (be right back)—right away. In the
same way, learning to communicate well requires you to read and study how others have expressed
themselves, then adapt what you have learned to your present task—whether it is texting a brief
message to a friend, presenting your qualifications in a job interview, or writing a business report.
You come to this text with skills and an understanding that will provide a valuable foundation as
we explore the communication process.
Effective communication takes preparation, practice, and persistence. There are many ways to
learn communication skills; the school of experience, or “hard knocks,” is one of them. But in the
business environment, a “knock” (or lesson learned) may come at the expense of your credibility
through a blown presentation to a client. The classroom environment, with a compilation of infor-
mation and resources such as a text, can offer you a trial run where you get to try out new ideas
and skills before you have to use them to communicate effectively to make a sale or form a new
partnership. Listening to yourself, or perhaps the comments of others, may help you reflect on new
ways to present, or perceive, thoughts, ideas, and concepts. The net result is your growth; ultimately
your ability to communicate in business will improve, opening more doors than you might antici-
pate.
As you learn the material in this text, each part will contribute to the whole. The degree to
which you attend to each part will ultimately help give you the skills, confidence, and preparation
to use communication in furthering your career.
1.2 Why Is It Important to

Communicate Well?
1. Recognize the importance of communication in gaining a better understanding of yourself

and others.
2. Explain how communication skills help you solve problems, learn new things, and build your
career.
Communication is key to your success—in relationships, in the workplace, as a citizen of your coun-
try, and across your lifetime. Your ability to communicate comes from experience, and experience
can be an effective teacher, but this text and the related business communication course will offer
you a wealth of experiences gathered from professional speakers across their lifetimes. You can
learn from the lessons they’ve learned and be a more effective communicator right out of the gate.
Business communication can be thought of as a problem solving activity in which individuals
may address the following questions:
• What is the situation?
• Who is the target audience?
• What are some possible communication strategies?
Chapter 1 Effective Business Communication 11
• What is the best course of action?

• What is the best way to design the chosen message?
• What are the expectations of the audience?
• What is the best way to deliver the message?
• What is the best way to receive feedback from the audience?
• What is the best way to measure the impact of the message on the audience?
• What is the best way to revise the message to increase its effectiveness?
In this book, we will examine this problem solving process and help you learn to apply it in the
kinds of situations you are likely to encounter over the course of your career.
Communication Influences Your Thinking

about Yourself and Others
We all share a fundamental drive to communicate. We want to be understood and want to know
others, but drive and motivation are not simply not enough. We may know what we want to say,
but not how to say it. We may lack the words, the expressions, or the experiences to communicate
effectively. Our perception of our ability to communicate can influence how and when we commu-
nicate.
Communication can be defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning. [1] You
share meaning in what you say and how you say it, both in oral and written forms. Sometimes we
take it for granted. If you could not communicate, what would life be like? A series of never-ending
frustrations? Not being able to ask for what you need or understand the needs of others?
Being unable to communicate might even mean losing a part of yourself. You communicate
your self-concept—your sense of self and awareness of who you are—in many ways. Do you like
What we perceive
to write? Do you find it easy to make a phone call to a stranger or to speak to a room full of people? ourselves to be.
Perhaps someone told you that you don’t speak clearly or your grammar needs improvement. Does
that make you more or less likely to want to communicate? For some, it may be a positive challenge,
while for others it may be discouraging. In all cases, your ability to communicate is central to your
self-concept.
One important element of effective business communication is to recognize communication is
a learned skill. You learned from those around you, but you now have a new opportunity to learn
lessons from communication professionals that you can consider, adapt, and make your own. You
can improve your written performance, polish your public speaking skills, and make a positive dif-
ference on how others perceive you, as well as how you perceive yourself.
Take a look at your clothes, for example. What brands are you wearing? What do you think
they say about you? Do you feel that certain styles of shoes, jewelry, tattoos, music, or even auto-
mobiles express who you are? Do they fit into your business, work, or school setting? Part of
your self-concept may be that you express yourself through texting, or through writing longer
documents like essays and research papers, or through the way you speak. In each instance you
represent yourself, or aspects of yourself, to others, and how you represent yourself will be influ-
enced by the context and your target audience. Your clothes, like your choice of words or even tone
and timing, will communicate something about you.
Your communications skills help you to understand others—not just their words, but also their
tone of voice, nonverbal gestures, or format of their written documents provide you with clues
about who they are and what their values and priorities may be. Listeners and audiences have
expectations of the context, themselves, and about you. Understanding their cultural background
as well as the business context can provide you important clues on what to say and how to say it.
Active listening and reading are also part of being a successful business communicator.
Communication Influences How You Learn

When you were an infant, you learned to talk over a period of many months. When you got older,
you didn’t learn to ride a bike, drive a car, or even text a message on your cell phone in one brief
moment. You need to begin the process of improving your speaking and writing with the frame of
mind that it will require effort, persistence, and self-correction.
You learn to speak in public by first having conversations, then by answering questions and
expressing your opinions in class, and finally by preparing and delivering a “stand-up” speech. Sim-
ilarly, you learn to write by first learning to read, then by writing and learning to think critically.
Your speaking and writing are reflections of your thoughts, experience, and education. Part of that
combination is your level of experience listening to other speakers, reading documents and styles
of writing, and studying formats similar to what you aim to produce.
At your first job you learned what to do and what not to do. You learned who to talk to, who
not to talk to, how and when to ask questions, and to interpret new words and phrases that all held
meaning within the context of the business or company. At some point you may have made the
transition from someone who struggled to follow the conversation to someone who could lead it.
Communication involves learning the context and its expectations, and influences interactions and
their outcomes.
As you study business communication, you may receive suggestions for improvement and
clarification from speakers and writers more experienced than yourself. Take their suggestions as
challenges to improve; don’t give up when your first speech or first draft does not communicate the
message you intend. Stick with it until you get it right. Your success in communicating is a skill that
applies to almost every field of work, and it makes a difference in your relationships with others.
Remember, luck is simply a combination of preparation and timing. You want to be prepared
to communicate well when given the opportunity. Each time you do a good job, your success will
bring more success.
Communication Represents You and Your

Employer
You want to make a good first impression on your friends and family, instructors, and employer.
They all want you to convey a positive image, as it reflects on them. In your career, you will repre-
sent your business or company in spoken and written form. Your professionalism and attention to
detail will reflect positively on you and set you up for success.
Let's consider, for example, your online profile in a social network like LinkedIn.com, recog-
nized for its business emphasis and professional profiles. The image you post of yourself on that
site, along with information about your current and past positions, reflects not only on you as a
professional, but on the people with whom you associate, including your employer. Pictures and
photos that may be acceptable for Facebook, known for its family and friend focus, may not work
for your professional profile photo. In the same way, words that you use on LinkedIn.com may
include "achieved," "managed," "resolved," or "created," often with quantified results, as in a specific
percent increase in sales, for example, while words you use on Facebook may be less formal, less
professional, and more familiar to family and friends.
In both oral and written situations, you will benefit from having the ability to communicate
clearly. These are skills you will use for the rest of your life. Positive improvements in these skills
will have a positive impact on your relationships, your prospects for employment, and your ability
to make a difference in the world.
Communication Skills Are Desired by Business

and Industry
Oral and written communication proficiencies are consistently ranked in the top ten desirable skills by
employer surveys year after year. In fact, high-powered business executives sometimes hire consultants
to coach them in sharpening their communication skills. According to the National Association of
Colleges and Employers (NACE),[2] the following are the top five personal qualities or skills potential
employers seek:
1. Communication skills (verbal and written)
2. Strong work ethic
3. Teamwork skills (works well with others, group communication)
4. Initiative
5. Analytical skills
When we look at the latest version of the annual NACE survey, we again observe that commu-
nication skills hold the top spot.
FIGURE 1.1 NACE 2013 Job Outlook: The Candidate Skills/Qualities Employers Want
Communication skills rank no. 1.
NACE, 2013: https://www.naceweb.org/s10022013/job-outlook-skills-quality.aspx
Knowing this, you can see that one way for you to be successful and increase your promotion
potential is to increase your abilities to speak and write effectively.
In September 2004, the National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and
FIGURE 1.2
Effective communication Colleges published a study on 120 human resource directors titled Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a
skills are assets that will get Ticket Out, A Survey of Business Leaders.[3] The study found that “writing is both a ‘marker’ of high-
you there. skill, high-wage, professional work, and a ‘gatekeeper’ with clear equity implications,” said Bob
Kerrey, president of New School University in New York and chair of the commission. “People
unable to express themselves clearly in writing limit their opportunities for professional, salaried
employment.”[4]
Thomas Friedman's 2104 article "How to Get a Job at Google" (available at http://www.nytimes.
com/2014/02/23/opinion/sunday/friedman-how-to-get-a-job-at-google.html?ref=opinion&_r=1) dis-
cussed Adam Bryant of The New York Times interview with Laszlo Bock, Senior Vice President of
People Operations for Google, on what it takes to get hired (find it at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/
06/20/business/in-head-hunting-big-data-may-not-be-such-a-big-deal.html). The article went viral
and sparked discussions on what core skills matter, and Bock identified these skills: learning ability,
emergent leadership, humility, ownership, and expertise. Bock's comments on each one are insight-
ful, and they each point to communication skills. We learn from each other. We listen. We reflect.
© 2010 Jupiterimages We learn from our mistakes. We own those mistakes and take personal responsibility. We commu-
Corporation
nicate that responsibility with our words and actions. We inspire others. Our communication skills
influence and impact our career.
John Gantz, Senior Vice President of International Data Corporation (IDC), at the request
of Microsoft, authored a 2013 white paper titled, "Skill Requirements for Tomorrow's Best Jobs:
Helping Educators Provide Students with Skills and Tools They Need" that underscores the impor-
tance of communication (available at https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/download/presskits/
education/docs/idc_101513.pdf). Gantz discusses the fast-changing employment landscape, with
social, economic, and technological factors that contribute to a fluid, dynamic, and diverse range of
employment contexts that motivate employers to look for applicants that can learn, adapt, evolve,
change, and perform, quite similar to Bock's core skill list. He also identifies several trends that will
drive employers needs, including:
• An increasingly diverse customer base
• An employer’s relationship with employees, including remote or telecommuters, outsourced
partners or subcontractors, or specialized providers and subject matter experts
• The increased complexity of business structures and organizations through mergers, partner-
ships, and globalization, cycling from boom to bust to boom again
• Expanding mobile customers and increased electronic communication, contributing to
changes in relationships, interactions, and new opportunities
• Increased economic importance of digital commerce and digital content, influencing how we
interact and transact
• IT in the workplace becoming a part of almost everyone's job, role, or responsibility
Each trend identifies an important area of business growth and development that is closely tied
to communication skills. An increasingly diverse customer base involves intercultural com-
munication. Relationships with customers involve interpersonal communication. Partnerships and
globalization involve strategic communication, internal communication, external communication,
and organizational communication. Mobile customers may involve both mass communication and
interpersonal communication, and global virtual teams underscore the importance of effective
group communication. Ernie Sampias, the Chief Financial Officer for McData, highlights the impor-
tance of communication in business and organizations in this brief video:
Once again, like NACE's survey and countless others, Sampias demonstrates that oral and writ-
ten communication skills are key to success, reinforcing why good communication skills are the
highest ranked among the skills potential employers look for in jobseekers.[5]
On the other end of the spectrum, it is estimated that over forty million Americans are illit-
erate, or unable to functionally read or write. If you are reading this book, you may not be part of
an at-risk group in need of basic skill development, but you still may need additional training and
practice as you raise your skill level.
An individual with excellent communication skills is an asset to every organization. No matter
what career you plan to pursue, learning to express yourself professionally in speech and in writing
will help you get there.
Key Takeaway
Communication forms a part of your self-concept, and it helps you understand yourself and oth-
ers, solve problems and learn new things, and build your career.
1.
with a new restaurant that has just opened in your neighborhood. Write a script for the phone
call. Ask a classmate to co-present as you deliver the script orally in class, as if you were
making a phone call to the classmate. Discuss your experience with the rest of the class.
2. Imagine you have been assigned the task of creating a job description. Identify a job, locate
at least two sample job descriptions, and create one. Please present the job description to
the class and note to what degree communication skills play a role in the tasks or duties you
have included.
3. Interview a business professional in your area of interest and use this class or this exercise
as a lead-in to ask them how communication skills play a role in their work environment.
4. Research your career area of interest and identify key communication skills you will need to
master. Create a list, and include a column that features how, where, and when you will learn
more about each skill.
5. Selfie Exercise: Take several photos of yourself that portray the professional you and subject
them to peer review, perhaps in class. Compare and contrast, and receive feedback on which
photo communicates the best you and why.
6. Profile Exercise: Browse LinkedIn.com and find a profile that works well for the person, com-
municating a professional image with their words, photo, and examples. Write a brief review
of the profile. Share and compare with classmates.
7. Resume Exercise 1: Create your resume, focusing on a specific career goal or profession,
using just one page. Carefully select words, examples, and evidence that demonstrate your
skills and expertise. Communicate the professional you in words and images that represent
you effectively. Share and compare in class.
8. Resume Exercise 2: How will you make your resume stand out from the rest? Here is
one creative example, at https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/download/presskits/
education/docs/idc_101513.pdf. Consider a creative way to represent your skills and abili-
ties in your chosen professional or career field and share with the class.
9. KPI Exercise (Key Performance Indicator): Business use key performance indicators to measure
success. Communication skills are key to professional success. Create one KPI for your choice
of career or professional field and explain why it would serve well as a key performance
indicator. Share and compare in class.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: An ePortfolio (electronic or digital portfolio) represents your accomplish-
ments with clear examples, and starts with an objective or statement about you, normally
brief, clear, and concise. Write your object, purpose, or mission statement for your ePortfo-
lio. Share and compare with classmates.
1.3 What Is Communication?
1.
2.
3. Identify and describe two models of communication.
While many theories have been proposed to describe, predict, explain and offer an understanding
of the behaviors and phenomena of communication, business is concerned with results. Compa-
nies, organizations, non-profit groups, and businesses want to be successful, to communicate their
message, make the sale, launch the new product or service, increase their market share or even
grow the market. Results are often the outcome of a clear, well-informed plan of action based on a
solid understanding of the context, including communication. Businesses want a return on their
investment. In order to produce those results it is valuable to understand what communication
is and how it works. Once you have a better understanding of the process of communication, its
essential components, and the models we use to represent it, you'll be better able to anticipate, pre-
dict, and plan effective ways to produce those results.
Defining Communication
The root of the word “communication” in Latin is communicare, which means to share, or to make
common.[6] Communication is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning.[7]
The process of
At the center of our study of communication is the relationship that involves interaction
between participants. This definition serves us well with its emphasis on the process, which we’ll meaning.
examine in depth across this text, of coming to understand and share another’s point of view effec-
tively.
The first key word in this definition is process. A process is a dynamic activity that is hard to
describe because it changes.[8] Imagine you are alone in your kitchen thinking. Someone you know
A dynamic activity that is
(say, your mother) enters the kitchen and you talk briefly. What has changed? Now, imagine that hard to describe because
your mother is joined by someone else, someone you haven’t met before—and this stranger listens it changes.
intently as you speak, almost as if you were giving a speech. What has changed? Your perspective
might change, and you might watch your words more closely. The feedback or response from your
mother and the stranger (who are, in essence, your audience) may cause you to reevaluate what you
are saying. When we interact, all these factors—and many more—influence the process of commu-
nication.
The second key word is understanding: “To understand is to perceive, to interpret, and to relate
our perception and interpretation to what we already know.”[9] If a friend tells you a story about
falling off a bike, what image comes to mind? Now your friend points out the window and you see To perceive, to interpret,
and to relate our
a motorcycle lying on the ground. Understanding the words and the concepts or objects they refer perception and
to is an important part of the communication process. interpretation to what we
already know.
Next comes the word sharing. Sharing means doing something together with one or more peo-
ple. You may share a joint activity, as when you share in compiling a report; or you may benefit
jointly from a resource, as when you and several coworkers share a pizza. In communication, shar-
ing occurs when you convey thoughts, feelings, ideas, or insights to others. You can also share with with one or more other
yourself (a process called intrapersonal communication) when you bring ideas to consciousness, people.
ponder how you feel about something, or figure out the solution to a problem and have a classic
“Aha!” moment when something becomes clear.
Finally, meaning is what we share through communication. The word “bike” represents both a
bicycle and a short name for a motorcycle. By looking at the context in which the word is used and
What we share through
asking questions, we can discover the shared meaning of the word and understand the message. To
communication.
learn more, consider listening to a brief lecture by Laura Davis, of the Harrisburg Area Community
College Department of English, entitled “Defining Human Communication” (iTunes at http://itunes.
apple.com/us/itunes-u/spch-101-blended-effective/id424633853).
Eight Essential Components of

Communication
In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down into a series of
eight essential components:
1. Source
2. Message
3. Channel
4. Receiver
5. Feedback
6. Environment
7. Context
8. Interference
Each of these eight components serves an integral function in the overall process. Let’s explore
them one by one.
Source
The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking situation, the source is
the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the message by sharing new information with the
Person who imagines, audience. The speaker also conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body language, and
creates, and sends the
message. choice of clothing. The speaker begins by first determining the message—what to say and how to
say it. The second step involves encoding the message by choosing just the right order or the per-
fect words to convey the intended meaning. The third step is to present or send the information to
the listener, receiver, or audience. Finally, by watching for the listener’s reaction, the source per-
ceives how well they received the message and responds with clarification or supporting
information.
Message
“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the receiver or audience.”[10]
message
When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your message may seem to be only the words you
produced by the source
choose that will convey your meaning. But that is just the beginning. The words are brought
for the receiver or together with grammar, organization, format and style. You may choose to save your most impor-
audience. tant point for last. You may choose to communicate central concepts and relationships with charts,
graphs, or pictures. The message also consists of the way you say it—in a speech, with your tone of
voice, your body language, and your appearance—and in a report, with your writing style, punctu-
ation, and the headings, formatting, or images you choose. In addition, part of the message may be
the environment or context you present it in and the noise that might make your message hard to
hear or see.
Imagine, for example, that you are addressing a large audience of sales reps (representatives)
and are aware there is a World Series game tonight. Your audience might have a hard time settling
down, but you may choose to open with, “I understand there is an important game tonight.” In this
way, by expressing verbally something that most people in your audience are aware of and inter-
ested in, you might grasp and focus their attention.
Channel
“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between source and receiver.”[11] For
example, think of your television, computer, tablet, or smartphone. How many channels do you
The way in which a have access to? Each channel takes up some space, even in a digital world, in the cable or in the sig-
message or messages
travel between source and nal that brings the message of each channel to your home. Video often combines an audio signal
receiver. you hear with a visual signal you see. Together they convey the message to the receiver or audience.
Turn off the volume on your device. Can you still understand what is happening? Many times you
can, because the body language conveys part of the message of the show. Now turn up the volume
but turn around so that you cannot see the television. You can still hear the dialogue and follow the
story line.
Similarly, when you speak or write, you are using a channel to convey your message. Spoken
channels include face-to-face conversations, speeches, telephone conversations and voice mail mes-
sages, radio, public address systems, and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP). Written channels
include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and magazine articles, blogs,
e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
Receiver
“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting the message in
ways both intended and unintended by the source.”[12] To better understand this component, think
of a receiver on a football team. The quarterback throws the football (message) to a receiver, who Receives the message
must see and interpret where to catch the ball. The quarterback may intend for the receiver to and interpreting the
“catch” his message in one way, but the receiver may see things differently and miss the football (the message in ways both
intended meaning) altogether. intended and unintended
by the source.
As a receiver you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message. Your audience “sizes
you up,” much as you might check them out long before you take the stage or open your mouth.
The nonverbal responses of your listeners can serve as clues on how to adjust your opening. By
imagining yourself in their place, you anticipate what you would look for if you were them. Just as
a quarterback plans where the receiver will be in order to place the ball correctly, you too can rec-
ognize the interaction between source and receiver in a business communication context. All of
this happens at the same time, illustrating why and how communication is always changing.
Feedback
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving feedback.
Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the source. Verbal or nonverbal, all
these feedback signals allow the source to see how well, how accurately (or how poorly and inaccu- The verbal and/or
nonverbal response to a
rately) the message was received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or message.
audience to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could make the
message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the accuracy of communication
also increases.[13]
For example, suppose you are a sales manager participating in a conference call with four sales
reps. As the source, you want to tell the reps to take advantage of the fact that it is World Series
season to close sales on baseball-related sports gear. You state your message, but you hear no replies
from your listeners. You might assume that this means they understood and agreed with you, but
later in the month you might be disappointed to find that very few sales were made. If you followed
up your message with a request for feedback (“Does this make sense? Do any of you have any ques-
tions?”) you might have an opportunity to clarify your message, and to find out whether any of the
sales reps believed your suggestion would not work with their customers.
Environment
“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send and receive mes-
sages.”[14] The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting, and sound equipment that are in
the room. The room itself is an example of the environment. The environment can also include fac- psychological aspects of
tors like formal dress, that may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more the communication
professional and formal. People may be more likely to have an intimate conversation when they are context.
physically close to each other, and less likely when they can only see each other from across the
room. In that case, they may text each other, itself an intimate form of communication. The choice
to text is influenced by the environment. As a speaker, your environment will impact and play a
role in your speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before the day
of the actual presentation.
Context
“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and expectations of the
individuals involved.”[15] A professional communication context may involve business suits (environ-
and expectations of the
mental cues) that directly or indirectly influence expectations of language and behavior among the
individuals involved. participants.
A presentation or discussion does not take place as an isolated event. When you came to class,
you came from somewhere. So did the person seated next to you, as did the instructor. The degree
to which the environment is formal or informal depends on the contextual expectations for com-
munication held by the participants. The person sitting next to you may be used to informal
communication with instructors, but this particular instructor may be used to verbal and nonver-
bal displays of respect in the academic environment. You may be used to formal interactions with
instructors as well, and find your classmate’s question of “Hey Teacher, do we have homework
today?” as rude and inconsiderate when they see it as normal. The nonverbal response from the
instructor will certainly give you a clue about how they perceive the interaction, both the word
choices and how they were said.
Context is all about what people expect from each other, and we often create those expecta-
tions out of environmental cues. Traditional gatherings like weddings or quinceañeras are often
formal events. There is a time for quiet social greetings, a time for silence as the bride walks down
the aisle, or the father may have the first dance with his daughter as she is transformed from a
girl to womanhood in the eyes of her community. In either celebration there may come a time for
rambunctious celebration and dancing. You may be called upon to give a toast, and the wedding or
quinceañera context will influence your presentation, timing, and effectiveness.
In a business meeting, who speaks first? That probably has some relation to
FIGURE 1.3
Context is all about what people expect from the position and role each person has outside the meeting. Context plays a very
each other. important role in communication, particularly across cultures.
Interference
Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is any-
thing that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.”[16]
For example, if you drove a car to work or school, chances are you were sur-
rounded by noise. Car horns, billboards, or perhaps the radio in your car
interrupted your thoughts, or your conversation with a passenger.
Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your atten-
tion while you are hearing, or reading, a message. Imagine that it is 4:45 p.m. and
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation your boss, who is at a meeting in another city, e-mails you asking for last month’s
sales figures, an analysis of current sales projections, and the sales figures from
the same month for the past five years. You may open the e-mail, start to read, and think, “Great—
Anything that blocks or no problem—I have those figures and that analysis right here in my computer.” You fire off a reply
changes the source’s with last month’s sales figures and the current projections attached. Then, at five o’clock, you turn
intended meaning of the off your computer and go home. The next morning, your boss calls on the phone to tell you he was
message.
inconvenienced because you neglected to include the sales figures from the previous years. What
was the problem? Interference: by thinking about how you wanted to respond to your boss’s
message, you prevented yourself from reading attentively enough to understand the whole message.
Interference can come from other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your attention to
your current situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office is hot and stuffy. If
you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech, how could this impact your
ability to listen and participate?
Noise interferes with normal encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel
between source and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the communication
process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise to you, but it may interrupt
the communication process in class and bother your classmates.
Two Models of Communication

Researchers have observed that when communication takes place, the source and the receiver may
send messages at the same time, often overlapping. You, as the speaker, will often play both roles,
as source and receiver. You’ll focus on the communication and the reception of your messages to
the audience. The audience will respond in the form of feedback that will give you important clues.
While there are many models of communication, here we will focus on two that offer perspectives
and lessons for business communicators.
Rather than looking at the source sending a message and someone receiving it as two distinct
acts, researchers often view communication as a transactional process (Figure 1.4), with actions Model of communication in
often happening at the same time. The distinction between source and receiver is blurred in con- which actions happen at
versational turn-taking, for example, where both participants play both roles simultaneously. the same time.
FIGURE 1.4 Transactional Model of Communication
Researchers have also examined the idea that we all construct our own interpretations of the
message. As the State Department quote at the beginning of this chapter indicates, what I said and what
you heard may be different. In the constructivist model (Figure 1.5), we focus on the negotiated Model of communication
focusing on the negotiated
meaning, or common ground, when trying to describe communication.[17],[18] meaning, or common
Imagine that you are visiting Atlanta, Georgia, and go to a restaurant for dinner. When asked if ground, when trying to
describe communication.
you want a “Coke,” you may reply, “sure.” The waiter may then ask you again, “what kind?” and you
may reply, “Coke is fine.” The waiter then may ask a third time, “what kind of soft drink would you
like?” The misunderstanding in this example is that in Atlanta, the home of the Coca-Cola Com-
pany, most soft drinks are generically referred to as “Coke.” When you order a soft drink, you need
to specify what type, even if you wish to order a beverage that is not a cola or not even made by the
Coca-Cola Company. To someone from other regions of the United States, the words “pop,” “soda
pop,” or “soda” may be the familiar way to refer to a soft drink; not necessarily the brand “Coke.” In
this example, both you and the waiter understand the word “Coke,” but you each understand it to
mean something different. In order to communicate, you must each realize what the term means to
the other person, and establish common ground, in order to fully understand the request and provide
an answer.
FIGURE 1.5 Constructivist Model of Communication
Because we carry the multiple meanings of words, gestures, and ideas within us, we can use a
dictionary to guide us, but we will still need to negotiate meaning.
Key Takeaway
The communication process involves understanding, sharing, and meaning, and it consists of
eight essential elements: source, message, channel, receiver, feedback, environment, context,
and interference. Among the models of communication are the transactional process, in which
actions happen simultaneously, and the constructivist model, which focuses on shared mean-
ing.
1. Draw what you think communication looks like. Share your drawing with your classmates.
2. List three environmental cues and indicate how they influence your expectations for commu-
nication. Please share your results with your classmates.
3.
grew up with, and the role these play in communication styles.
4.
you include to set the mood? Please share your results with your classmates.
5. Observe two people talking. Describe their communication. See if you can find all eight com-
ponents and provide an example for each one.
6. Find an example of a model of communication in your workplace or classroom, and provide
an example for all eight components.
7. Consider what you observe in terms of the informal rules on the use of your smartphone.
What restrictions are there on its use imposed by others and how can you tell its use is sanc-
tioned or discouraged? What informal rules are there on when it is acceptable to use? Share
and compare with classmates.
8. Consider the difference between a telephone interview, a Skype video interview, and a face-
to-face interview. How might you prepare for each communication context? Share and
compare with classmates.
9. What types of interference are present in your work, home, or school environment? Create a
brief list. Share and compare with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Your ePortfolio will contain many areas of information about you, but a
few to consider include: Interpersonal, Group, or Leadership Skills, Real-world Experience,
Appreciation for Diversity, Technical Skills, Collaborative Nature, Initiative Skills, and Results-
Orientation. Select one and develop a message with an example or evidence, and share the
channels you will use/how you will represent your message.
1.4 Communication in Context
1. Identify and describe five types of communication contexts.
Now that we have examined the eight components of communication, let’s examine them in
context. Is a quiet dinner conversation with someone you care about the same experience as a
discussion in class or a job interview? Is sending a text message to a friend the same experience as
writing a professional project proposal or purchase order? Each context influences the com-
munication process. Contexts can overlap, creating an even more dynamic process. You have been
communicating in many of these contexts across your lifetime, and you’ll be able to apply what
you’ve learned through experience in each context to business communication.
Intrapersonal Communication
Have you ever listened to a speech or lecture and gotten caught up in your thoughts so that, while
the speaker continued, you were no longer listening? During a phone conversation, have you ever
been thinking about what you are going to say, or what question you might ask, instead of listening
to the other person? Finally, have you ever told yourself how you did after you wrote a document
or completed a job interview? As you “talk with yourself” you are engaged in intrapersonal commu-
nication.
FIGURE 1.6
Thinking is a form of intrapersonal communication.
Klearchos Kapoutsis, Thinking, Flikr CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/klearchos/3824371065
Intrapersonal communication involves one person; it is often called “self-talk.”[19] Donna

Vocate’s [20] book on intrapersonal communication explains how, as we use language to reflect on our
own experiences, we talk ourselves through situations. For example, the voice within you that tells you,
yourself. “Keep on Going! I can DO IT!” when you are putting your all into completing a five-mile race; or that
says, “This report I’ve written is pretty good.” Your intrapersonal communication can be positive or
negative, and directly influences how you perceive and react to situations and communication
with others.
What you perceive in communication with others is also influenced by your culture, native
language, and your world view. As the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas said, “Every process
of reaching understanding takes place against the background of a culturally ingrained preunder-
standing.”[21]
For example, you may have certain expectations of time and punctuality. You weren’t born with
them, so where did you learn them? From those around you as you grew up. What was normal for
them became normal for you, but not everyone’s idea of normal is the same.
When your supervisor invites you to a meeting and says it will start at 7 p.m., does that mean
7:00 sharp, 7-ish, or even 7:30? In the business context, when a meeting is supposed to start at 9 a.m.,
is it promptly a 9 a.m.? Variations in time expectations depend on regional and national culture as
well as individual corporate cultures. In some companies, everyone may be expected to arrive ten
to fifteen minutes before the announced start time to take their seats and be ready to commence
business at 9:00 sharp. In other companies, “meeting and greeting” from about 9 to 9:05 or even 9:10
is the norm. When you are unfamiliar with the expectations for a business event, it is always wise
to err on the side of being punctual, regardless of what your internal assumptions about time and
punctuality may be.
Interpersonal Communication
The second major context within the field of communication is interpersonal communication.
Interpersonal communication normally involves two people, and can range from intimate and
very personal to formal and impersonal. You may carry on a conversation with a loved one, sharing
a serious concern. Later, at work, you may have a brief conversation about plans for the weekend two people.
with the security guard on your way home. What’s the difference? Both scenarios involve interper-
sonal communication, but are different in levels of intimacy. The first example implies a trusting
relationship established over time between two caring individuals. The second example level
implies some previous familiarity, and is really more about acknowledging each other than any
actual exchange of information, much like saying hello or goodbye.
FIGURE 1.7
Conversations are a form of interpersonal communication.
Pedro Ribeiro Simõe, Talking, Flikr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/pedrosimoes7/8578279742
Group Communication
Have you ever noticed how a small group of people in class sit near each other? Perhaps they are
members of the same sports program, or just friends, but no doubt they often engage in group
communication. The same pattern often plays out at work. Workers with similar roles are located
in close proximity, from cubicles to the assembly line. Since they are grouped by common tasks,
responsibilities, and location, interaction often naturally occurs.
“Group communication is a dynamic process where a small number of people engage in a con-
versation.”[22] Group communication is generally defined as involving three to eight people. The
larger the group, the more likely it is to break down into smaller groups.
The exchange of
information with those who
are culturally, linguistically, FIGURE 1.8
and/or geographically Group communication can be complex.
alike.
Jayel Aheram, Group Shot, Flikr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/aheram/525764042
To take a page from marketing, does your audience have segments or any points of conver-
gence/divergence? We could consider factors like age, education, sex, and location to learn more
about groups and their general preferences as well as dislikes. You may find several groups within
the larger audience, such as specific areas of education, and use this knowledge to increase your
effectiveness as a business communicator.
Public Communication
In public communication, one person speaks to a group of people; the same is true of public writ-
ten communication, where one person writes a message to be read by a small or large group. The
speaker or writer may ask questions, and engage the audience in a discussion (in writing, examples
Communication in which
one person speaks or are an e-mail discussion or a point-counter-point series of letters to the editor), but the dynamics of
writes a message to a the conversation are distinct from group communication, where different rules apply. In a public
group of people. speaking situation, the group normally defers to the speaker. For example, the boss speaks to every-
one, and the sales team quietly listens without interruption.
This generalization is changing as norms and expectations change, and many cultures have a
tradition of “call outs” or interjections that are not to be interpreted as interruptions or competition
for the floor, but instead as affirmations. The boss may say, as part of a charged-up motivational
speech, “Do you hear me?” and the sales team is expected to call back “Yes Sir!” The boss, as a
public speaker, recognizes that intrapersonal communication (thoughts of the individual mem-
bers) or interpersonal communication (communication between team members) may interfere
with this classic public speaking dynamic of all to one, or the audience devoting all its attention
to the speaker, and incorporate attention getting and engagement strategies to keep the sales team
focused on the message.
Expert Julian Treasure demonstrates the how-to's of powerful speaking, from some handy vocal
exercises to tips on how to speak with empathy.
Mass Communication
How do you tell everyone on campus where and when all the classes are held? Would a speech
from the front steps work? Perhaps it might meet the need if your school is a very small one. A
written schedule that lists all classes would be a better alternative. How do you let everyone know
there is a sale on in your store, or that your new product will meet their needs, or that your posi-
tion on a political issue is the same as your constituents? You send a message to as many people
as you can through mass communication. Does everyone receive mass communication the same
way the might receive a personal phone call? Not likely. Some people who receive mass mailings
assume that they are “junk mail” (i.e., that they do not meet the recipients’ needs) and throw them
away unopened. People may tune out a television advertisement with a click of the mute button,
delete tweets or ignore friend requests on Facebook by the hundreds, or send all unsolicited e-mail
straight to the spam folder unread.
Mass media is a powerful force in modern society and our daily lives, and is adapting rapidly to
new technologies. Mass communication involves sending a single message to a group. It allows us
to communicate our message to a large number of people, but we are limited in our ability to tailor message to a group.
our message to specific audiences, groups, or individuals. As a business communicator, you can use
multimedia as a visual aid or reference common programs, films, or other images that your audi-
ence finds familiar yet engaging. You can tweet a picture that is worth far more than 140 characters,
and you are just as likely to elicit a significant response. By choosing messages or references that
many audience members will recognize or can identify with, you can develop common ground and
increase the appeal of your message.
Business, organizational, and institutional communication combines all of

FIGURE 1.9 these contexts. If you are tasked with sending a tweet for your company
Mass media is a powerful force in modern
announcing a twelve-hour sale on a popular product or service, you may think to
society.
yourself first how best to capture the message in 140 characters or less. You may
discuss it with a colleague in an interpersonal setting, or with your team in a
group setting. Finally, you may share it with a larger group in a public context
before sending the tweet, itself an example of a mass media message in a mass
communication context. Learning the advantages and disadvantages of each
context can help you become a more effective business communicator.
Jason Howie, Social Media apps, Flickr, CC-BY,

retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
jasonahowie/8583949219
Key Takeaway
Communication contexts include intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass com-
munication. Each context has its advantages and disadvantages, and its appropriate and
inappropriate uses.
Exercises
1. Please recall a time when you gave a speech in front of a group. How did you feel? What
was your experience? What did you learn from your experience?
2. If you were asked to get the attention of your peers, what image or word would you choose
and why?
3. If you were asked to get the attention of someone like yourself, what image or word would
you choose and why?
4. Make a list of mass communication messages you observe for a one hour period of time.
Share your list with classmates.
5. Consider how your intrapersonal communication plays a role in your profession or career.
Does your job require concentration, and are interruptions frequent? Does your role involve
customer service, where emotional labor and empathy have to factor into your thoughts and
actions? Brief write a few sentence on how intrapersonal communication plays a role in your
work.
6. LinkedIn.com uses the tag line "Healthy business relationships start with healthy relation-
ships" to encourage members to send messages of congratulations on a new job or happy
birthday. How does this prompt and resulting action involve interpersonal communication
and contribute to relationships? Share and compare your responses with the class.
7. Increasingly we work together on virtual teams across timezones, languages, and cultures.
How does the development of technologies impact the context of group communication?
Consider both advantages and disadvantages? Share and compare your responses with
classmates.
8. The fear of public speaking is well known, but what about the context of public communica-
tion contributes to this fear? Can you identify elements of the public communication context
that you can influence or control, and does that help address some of your fears? Share and
compare you responses with classmates.
9. Mass media messages are all around us, and in the online environment those messages are
increasingly tailored to our "likes," what we read, and what we comment on, and what we
buy. How does this customization of the mass media message in a mass communication
context influence us? Is it more effective that a generic message? Why or why not? Share
and compare your responses with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: How will you demonstrate your communication skills in each of the con-
texts we consider? Select one and develop your message and an example or evidence for
your own ePortfolio. Share and compare with classmates.
1.5 Your Responsibilities as a

Communicator
1. Discuss and provide several examples of each of the two main responsibilities of a business
communicator.
Whenever you speak or write in a business environment, you have certain responsibilities to your
audience, your employer, your customers, and your profession. Your audience comes to you with
an inherent set of expectations that you will fulfill these responsibilities. The specific expectations
of customers, clients, or management may change given the context or environment, but your
responsibilities to be prepared and ethical as an effective business communicator are constant and
universal.
Communicator Is Prepared
As the business communicator’s first responsibility, preparation includes several facets which we
will examine: organization, clarity, and being concise and punctual.
Being prepared means that you have selected a topic appropriate to your audience, gathered
enough information to cover the topic well, put your information into a logical sequence, and con-
sidered how best to present it. If your communication is a written one, you have written an outline
and at least one rough draft, read it over to improve your writing and correct errors, and sought
feedback where appropriate. If your communication is oral, you have practiced several times before
your actual performance.
The Prepared Communicator Is Organized

Part of being prepared is being organized. Aristotle called this logos, or logic, and it involves the
steps or points that lead your communication to a conclusion. Once you’ve invested time in
researching your topic, you will want to narrow your focus to a few key points and consider how
you’ll present them. On any given topic there is a wealth of information; your job is to narrow that
content down to a manageable level, serving the role of gatekeeper by selecting some information
and “de-selecting,” or choosing to not include other points or ideas. For example, if a customer wants
you to compare two cellphones and their features, you might focus on specific features based on
their indication of their wants, needs, or your understanding of their interests.
You also need to consider how to link your main points together for your
FIGURE 1.10 audience. Use transitions to provide signposts or cues for your audience to follow
Organization involves focusing on specific
points when making a comparison. along. “Now that we’ve examined X, let’s consider Y” is a transitional statement
that provides a cue that you are moving from topic to topic. Your listeners or
readers will appreciate your being well organized so that they can follow your
message from point to point, increasing your effectiveness and perhaps leading
to a sale, a measurement of success.
The Prepared Communicator Is Clear

You have probably had the unhappy experience of reading or listening to a com-
munication that was vague and wandering. Part of being prepared is being clear.
Kārlis Dambrāns, HTC One mini 2, Flickr, CC-BY,
If your message is unclear, the audience will lose interest and tune you out, bring-
retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/janitors/
ing an end to effective communication.
14380499695
Interestingly, clarity begins with intrapersonal communication: you need to
have a clear idea in your mind of what you want to say before you can say it clearly to someone
else. At the interpersonal level, clarity involves considering your audience, as you will want to
choose words and phrases they understand and avoid jargon or slang that may be unfamiliar to
them.
Clarity also involves presentation. A brilliant message scrawled in illegible handwriting, or in
pale gray type on gray paper, will not be clear. When it comes to oral communication, if you mumble
your words, speak too quickly or use a monotonous tone of voice, or stumble over certain words or
phrases, the clarity of your presentation will suffer. Articulation and pronunciation are important
parts of speaking clearly.
Technology also plays a part; if you are using a microphone or conducting a teleconference,
FIGURE 1.11
clarity will depend on this equipment functioning properly—which brings us back to the impor-
tance of preparation. In this case, in addition to preparing your speech, you need to prepare by
testing the equipment ahead of time.
The Prepared Communicator Is Concise and Punctual

https://www.flickr.com/photos/
strelka/12633339825/
Concise means brief and to the point. In many business interactions you are expected to “get down
to business” right away. Being prepared includes being able to state your points clearly and support
them with clear evidence in a relatively straightforward, step-by-step way.
It may be tempting to show how much you know by incorporating additional information into
your document or speech, but in so doing you run the risk of boring, confusing, or overloading your
audience. Talking in circles or indulging in tangents, where you get off topic or go too deep, can hin-
der an audience’s ability to grasp your message. Be to the point and concise in your choice of words,
organization, and even visual aids.
Being concise also involves being sensitive to time constraints. How many times have you lis-
tened to a speaker say “in conclusion” only to continue speaking for what seems like forever? How
many meetings and conference calls have you attended that got started late or ran beyond the
planned ending time? The solution, of course, is to be prepared to be punctual. If you are asked to
give a five-minute presentation at a meeting, your coworkers will not appreciate your taking fifteen
minutes, any more than your supervisor would appreciate your submitting a fifteen-page report
when you were asked to write five pages. For oral presentations, time yourself when you rehearse
and make sure you can deliver your message within the allotted number of minutes.
There is one exception to this principle of the bottom line. Many non-West-
ern cultures prefer a less direct approach, where business communication often FIGURE 1.12
Good business communication does not waste
begins with social, family or general interest comments that a U.S. business audi-
words or time.
ence might consider unnecessary. Some cultures also have a less strict
interpretation of time schedules and punctuality. While it is important to recog-
nize that different cultures have different expectations, the general rule holds true
that good business communication does not waste words or time.
Communicator Is Ethical
The business communicator’s second fundamental responsibility is to be ethical. © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
Ethics refers to a set of principles or rules for correct conduct. It echoes what
Aristotle called ethos, the communicator’s good character and reputation for doing what is right.
Communicating ethically involves being egalitarian, respectful, and trustworthy—overall, practic-
Refers to a set of
ing the “golden rule” of treating your audience the way you would want to be treated. principles or rules for
Communication can move communities, influence cultures, and change history. It can moti- correct conduct.
vate people to take stand, consider an argument, or purchase a product. The degree to which you
consider both the common good and fundamental principles you hold to be true when crafting
your message directly relates to how your message will affect others.
The Ethical Communicator Is Egalitarian

The word “egalitarian” comes from the root “equal.” To be egalitarian is to believe in basic equality:
that all people should share equally in the benefits and burdens of a society. It means that every-
one, from customers to co-workers, is entitled to the same respect, expectations, access to
information, and rewards of participation in a group according to their roles and responsibilities.
To communicate in an egalitarian manner, speak and write in a way that is comprehensible
and relevant to all your listeners or readers, not just those who are “like you” in terms of age, gender,
race or ethnicity, or other characteristics.
In business, you may communicate with people with certain professional qualifications. For
example, you may draft a memo addressed to all the nurses in a certain hospital, or give a speech to
all the adjusters in a certain branch of an insurance company. Being egalitarian does not mean you
have to avoid professional terminology that is understood by nurses or insurance adjusters. But it
does mean that your hospital letter should be worded for all the hospital’s nurses—not just female
nurses, not just nurses working directly with patients, not just nurses under age fifty-five. An egali-
tarian communicator seeks to unify the audience by using ideas and language that are appropriate
for all the message’s readers or listeners.
The Ethical Communicator Is Respectful

People are influenced by emotions as well as logic. Aristotle named pathos, or passion, enthusiasm
and energy, as the third of his three important parts of communicating after logos and ethos.
Most of us have probably seen an audience manipulated by a “cult of personality,” believing
whatever the speaker said simply because of how dramatically he or she delivered a speech; by
being manipulative, the speaker fails to respect the audience. We may have also seen people hurt
by sarcasm, insults, and other disrespectful forms of communication.
This does not mean that passion and enthusiasm are out of place in business communication.
Indeed, they are very important. You can hardly expect your audience to care about your message
if you don’t show that you care about it yourself. If your topic is worth writing or speaking about,
make an effort to show your audience why it is worthwhile by speaking enthusiastically or using a
dynamic writing style. Doing so, in fact, shows respect for their time and their intelligence.
However, the ethical communicator will be passionate and enthusiastic without being dis-
respectful. Losing one’s temper and being abusive are generally regarded as showing a lack of
professionalism (and could even involve legal consequences for you or your employer). When you
disagree strongly with a coworker, feel deeply annoyed with a difficult customer, or find serious
fault with a competitor’s product, it is important to express such sentiments respectfully. For
example, instead of telling a customer, “I’ve had it with your complaints!” a respectful business com-
municator might say, “I’m having trouble seeing how I can fix this situation. Would you explain to
me what you want to see happen?”
The Ethical Communicator Is Trustworthy

Trust is a key component in communication, and this is especially true in business. As a consumer,
would you choose to buy merchandise from a company you did not trust? If you were an employer,
would you hire someone you did not trust?
Your goal as a communicator is to build a healthy relationship with your audience or cus-
tomers, and to do that you must show them why they can trust you and why the information you
are about to give them is believable. One way to do this is to begin your message by providing some
information about your qualifications and background, your interest in the topic, or your reasons
for communicating at this particular time.
Your audience will expect that what you say is the truth as you understand it. This means that
you have not intentionally omitted, deleted, or taken information out of context simply to prove
your points. They will listen to what you say and how you say it, but also to what you don’t say or
do. You may consider more than one perspective on your topic, and then select the perspective you
perceive to be correct, giving concrete reasons why you came to this conclusion. People in the audi-
ence may have considered or believe in some of the perspectives you consider, and your attention
to them will indicate you have done your homework.
Being worthy of trust is something you earn with an audience. Many wise people have
observed that trust is hard to build but easy to lose. A communicator may not know something and
still be trustworthy, but it’s a violation of trust to pretend you know something when you don’t.
Communicate what you know, and if you don’t know something, research it before you speak or
write. If you are asked a question to which you don’t know the answer, say “I don’t know the answer
but I will research it and get back to you” (and then make sure you follow through later). This will
go over much better with the audience than trying to cover by stumbling through an answer or
portraying yourself as knowledgeable on an issue that you are not.
The “Golden Rule”

When in doubt, remember the “golden rule,” which says to treat others the way you would like to be
treated. In all its many forms, the golden rule incorporates human kindness, cooperation, and reci-
procity across cultures, languages, backgrounds and interests. Regardless of where you travel, who
you communicate with, or what your audience is like, remember how you would feel if you were on
the receiving end of your communication, and act accordingly.
Key Takeaway
As a communicator, you are responsible for being prepared and being ethical. Being prepared
includes being organized, clear, concise, and punctual. Being ethical includes being egalitarian,
respectful, and trustworthy and overall, practicing the “golden rule.”
1. Recall one time you felt offended or insulted in a conversation. What contributed to your per-
ception? Please share your comments with classmates.
2. When someone lost your trust, were they able earn it back? Please share your comments
with classmates.
3. Does the communicator have a responsibility to the audience? Does the audience have a
responsibility to the speaker? Why or why not? Please share your comments with class-
mates.
4. Let's consider the context of a job interview and the role of preparation in your professional
success. Identify at least one way you can prepare for a job interview in your field or career
area and share it with the class.
5. Organization comes in many forms with diverse variables. How do you organize your time?
Your work space? Your work itself? How do you prioritize what you focus on now and what
you set aside to complete later? Select one question and answer it with a brief response.
Share and compare with classmates.
6. the
wrong word or phrase to communicate their thoughts and ideas. Identify the word or phrase
as part of your response. What happened and were they able to correct themselves? Why is
important to choose the correct words to be clear and concise the first time? Share your
example with the class.
7. Time orientations vary across cultures, but punctuality and appropriate timing is prized in
business communication. Consider your chosen profession or career and the regard for
punctuality. Write a brief description of time and punctuality in your profession and share
with the class.
8. In your chosen profession or career area, identify a company or business and find its mission
statement or code of conduct. Identify words and phrases that reflect the company's ethical
values. Share and compare with classmates.
9. We display respect in many ways across cultures. How do you display respect in your
culture? How do you know when someone respects you? Share and compare with class-
mates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Consider the characteristics of an effective communicator discussed in
this section and identify one to feature in your ePortfolio. Provide an example or evidence of
that characteristic from your past performance or accomplishments.
1.6 Additional Resources

The International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) is a global network of com-
munication professionals committed to improving organizational effectiveness through strategic
communication. http://www.iabc.com
Explore the Web site of the National Communication Association, the largest U.S. organization
dedicated to communication. http://www.natcom.org
Read The National Commission on Writing’s findings about the importance of communication
skills in business. http://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
The National Association of Colleges and Employers offers news about employment prospects
for college graduates. http://www.naceweb.org
Dale Carnegie, author of the classic How to Win Friends and Influence People, may have been
one of the greatest communicators of the twentieth-century business world. The Dale Carnegie
Institute focuses on giving people in business the opportunity to sharpen their skills and improve
their performance in order to build positive, steady, and profitable results. http://www.dalecarnegie.
com
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) provides a wealth of resources for writing pro-
jects. http://owl.english.purdue.edu
To communicate ethically, check your facts. FactCheck is a nonpartisan project of the Annen-
berg Center for Public Policy at the University of Pennsylvania. http://www.factcheck.org
To communicate ethically, check your facts. PolitiFact is a nonpartisan project of the St. Peters-
burg Times; it won a Pulitzer Prize in 2009. http://www.politifact.com
The Baldrige Program (http://www.nist.gov/baldrige/index.cfm) focuses on excellence in busi-
ness, including values and ethics. Learn more at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology, at http://www.nist.gov/.
From Amazon to Zappos, Santa Clara University offers insightful case studies on business
ethics here (http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/cases.cfm?fam=BUSI).
The Illinois Institute of Technology offers a range of resources including case studies on business
ethics here (http://guides.library.iit.edu/content.php?pid=106063&sid=2070344).
Business Ethics Communication and Feedback, here (http://ita.doc.gov/goodgovernance/
adobe/bem_section_3/chapter_7.pdf).
Business Ethics and Leadership from the Josephson Institute at http://josephsoninstitute.org/
med-online-learning/med-2sixpillars/.
International Association of Business Communicators Code of Ethics at https://www.iabc.com/
about-us/leaders-and-staff/code-of-ethics/.
Communication at Work, Ethical Communication at http://communication.atwork-network.

com/2007/08/08/ethical-communication/.
Joey Papa, eHow, on Ethical Issues in Business Communication, at http://www.ehow.com/list_
6082868_ethical-issues-business-communication.html.
Institute of Company Secretaries India, Business Ethics, at http://www.icsi.in/Study Material
Foundation/BMEC.pdf.
Communication Ethics, Communication in the Workplace New Zealand, by Frank Sligo and
Ralph Bathurst, at http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/Fountaine.pdf.
Excellent resources and case studies at the Center for Ethics, Vanderbilt University at https://
cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/case-studies/.
Learn more about excellence in business programs at The Association to Advance Collegiate
Schools of Business (AACSB), The Association of MBAs (AMBA), European Quality Improvement
System (EQUIS), and/or the International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education (IACBE).
(Available at http://www.aacsb.edu/, http://www.mbaworld.com/, http://www.efmd.org/
accreditation-main/equis, and http://iacbe.org/.)
Learn more about Six Sigma and how it relates to communication, business, and excellence
(available at http://www.isixsigma.com/new-to-six-sigma/getting-started/what-six-sigma/).
How to create an effective LinkedIn.com profile at http://talent.linkedin.com/blog/index.php/
2013/07/how-to-create-an-effective-linkedin-profile.
US News and World Reports and MoneyCNN on Seven Steps for an Effective LinkedIn.com
Profile at http://money.usnews.com/money/blogs/outside-voices-careers/2013/04/23/7-steps-to-
creating-the-best-linkedin-profile.
What is an ePortfolio (http://www.qmu.ac.uk/eportfolio/)as well as resources, tools, and related
information from Clemson University, Boston University, Queen Margaret University (UK),
Stonybrook University, and Unisa (Australia).(Available at http://www.clemson.edu/academics/
programs/eportfolio/, http://www.bu.edu/eportfolio/, http://www.qmu.ac.uk/eportfolio/, http://you.
stonybrook.edu/eportfoliosinpractice/wiki/resources/, and http://resource.unisa.edu.au/mod/
resource/view.php?id=46287.)
ePortfolios from Google Apps! (https://sites.google.com/site/eportfolioapps/overview)
ePortfolios from Merlot! (http://eportfolio.merlot.org/)
Endnotes
1. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: understanding and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
2. National Association of Colleges and Employers. (2009). Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from http://www.naceweb.org/Press/Fre-
quently_Asked_Questions.aspx?referal=
3. National Commission on Writing for America’s Families, Schools, and Colleges. (2004, September). Writing: A Ticket to Work…Or a Ticket Out, A Survey of
Business Leaders. Retrieved from http://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
4. The College Board. (2004, September). Writing skills necessary for employment, says big business: Writing can be a ticket to professional jobs, says blue-rib-
bon group. Retrieved from http://www.writingcommission.org/pr/writing_for_employ.html
5. Source: IDC, based on WANTED Analytics and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Data, October 2013, retrieved on 06/02/2014 from:
https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/news/download/presskits/education/docs/idc_101513.pdf
6. Weekley, E. (1967). An etymological dictionary of modern English (Vol. 1, p. 338). New York, NY: Dover Publications.
7. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing (p. 6). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
8. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
9. McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
10. McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p. 10). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
13. Leavitt, H., & Mueller, R. (1951). Some effects of feedback on communication. Human Relations, 4, 401–410.
15. McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p.11). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
17. Pearce, W. B., & Cronen, V. (1980). Communication, action, and meaning: The creating of social realities. New York, NY: Praeger.
18. Cronen, V., & Pearce, W. B. (1982). The coordinated management of meaning: A theory of communication. In F. E. Dance (Ed.), Human communication the-
ory (pp. 61–89). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
19. Wood, J. (1997). Communication in our lives (p. 22). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.
20. Vocate, D. (Ed.). (1994). Intrapersonal communication: Different voices, different minds. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
21. Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action (Vol. 1, p. 100). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
2
Delivering Your Message
Good communication is as stimulating as black coffee and just as hard to sleep after.
— Anne Morrow Lindbergh
The meanings of words are not in the words; they are in us.
— S. I. Hayakawa
2.1 Getting Started
1. Can you match the words to their meaning?
1. phat A. Weird, strange, unfair, or not acceptable

2. dis B. Something stupid or thoughtless, deserving correction
3. wack C. Excellent, together, cool
4. smack D. Old car, generally in poor but serviceable condition
5. down E. Insult, put down, to dishonor, to display disrespect

6. hooptie F. Get out or leave quickly
7. my bad G. Cool, very interesting, fantastic or amazing
8. player H. To be in agreement
9. tight I. Personal mistake
10. jet J. Person dating with multiple partners, often unaware of each other
2. Do people use the same language in all settings and contexts? Your first answer might be
“sure,” but try this test. For a couple of hours, or even a day, pay attention to how you speak,
and how others speak: the words you say, how you say them, the pacing and timing used in
each context. For example, at home in the morning, in the coffee shop before work or class,
during a break at work with peers or a break between classes with classmates all count as
contexts. Observe how and what language is used in each context and to what degree they
are the same or different.
Answers
1. 1-C, 2-E, 3-A, 4-B, 5-H, 6-D, 7-I, 8-J, 9-G, 10-F
Successful business communication is often associated with writing and speaking well, being
articulate or proficient with words. Yet, in the quote above, the famous linguist S. I. Hayakawa
wisely observes that meaning lies within us, not in the words we use. Indeed, communication in
this text is defined as the process of understanding and sharing meaning.[1] When you communicate
you are sharing meaning with one or more other people—this may include members of your fam-
ily, your community, your work community, your school, or any group that considers itself a group.
How do you communicate? How do you think? We use language as a system to create and
exchange meaning with one another, and the types of words we use influence both our perceptions
and others interpretation of our meanings. What kinds of words would you use to describe your
thoughts and feelings, your preferences in music, cars, food, or other things that matter to you?
Imagine that you are using written or spoken language to create a bridge over which you hope
to transport meaning, much like a gift or package, to your receiver. You hope that your meaning
arrives relatively intact, so that your receiver receives something like what you sent. Will the pack-
age look the same to them on the receiving end? Will they interpret the package, its wrapping and
colors, the way you intended? That depends.
What is certain is that they will interpret it based on their framework of experience. The pack-
age represents your words arranged in a pattern that both the source (you) and the receiver (your
audience) can interpret. The words as a package try to contain the meaning and deliver it intact,
but they themselves are not the meaning. That lies within us.
So is the package empty? Are the words we use empty? Without us to give them life and mean-
ing, the answer is yes. Knowing what words will correspond to meanings that your audience holds
within themselves will help you communicate more effectively. Knowing what meanings lie within
you is your door to understanding yourself and others. Learning to listen to what customers say,
and more important, what they mean, can help you be more effective.
This chapter discusses the importance of delivering your message in words. It examines how
the characteristics of language interact in ways that can both improve and diminish effective busi-
ness communication. We will examine how language plays a significant role in how you perceive
and interact with the world, and how culture, language, education, gender, race, and ethnicity all
influence this dynamic process. We will look at ways to avoid miscommunication and focus on con-
structive ways to get your message delivered to your receiver with the meaning you intended.
2.2 What Is Language?
1.
2.
Are you reading this sentence? Does it make sense to you? When you read the words I wrote, what
do you hear? A voice in your head? Words across the internal screen of your mind? If it makes
sense, then you may very well hear the voice of the author as you read along, finding meaning in
these arbitrary symbols packaged in discrete units called words. The words themselves have no
meaning except that which you give them.
For example, I’ll write the word “home,” placing it in quotation marks to denote its separation
from the rest of this sentence. When you read that word, what comes to mind for you? A specific
place? Perhaps a building that could also be called a house? Images of people or another time?
“Home,” like “love” and many other words, is quite individual and open to interpretation.
Chapter 2 Delivering Your Message 39
Still, even though your mental image of home may be quite distinct from
mine, we can communicate effectively. You understand that each sentence has a FIGURE 2.1
What does home mean to you?
subject and verb, and a certain pattern of word order, even though you might not
be consciously aware of that knowledge. You weren’t born speaking or writing,
but you mastered—or, more accurately, are still mastering, as we all are—these
important skills of self-expression. The family, group, or community wherein you
were raised taught you the code. The code came in many forms, verbal and non-
verbal, words and gestures. When do you say “please” or “thank you,” and when
do you remain silent? When is it appropriate to communicate? If it is appropriate,
what are the expectations and how do you accomplish it? You know because you
understand the code.
We often call this code “language”: a system of symbols, words, and/or ges-
tures used to communicate meaning. Does everyone on earth speak the same
language? Obviously, no. People are raised in different cultures, with different https://www.flickr.com/photos/_fabio/104792456, by
values, beliefs, customs, and different languages to express those cultural attrib- Fabio Bruna, The Office (at home). CC-BY
utes. Even people who speak the same language, like speakers of English in
London, New Delhi, or Cleveland, speak and interact using their own words that are community- A system of symbols,
defined, self-defined, and have room for interpretation. Within the United States, depending on the words, and/or gestures
used to communicate
context and environment, you may hear colorful sayings that are quite regional, and may notice an
meaning.
accent, pace, or tone of communication that is distinct from your own. This variation in our use of
language is a creative way to form relationships and communities, but can also lead to miscommu-
nication.
Words themselves, then, actually hold no meaning. It takes you and me to use them to give
them life and purpose. Even if we say that the dictionary is the repository of meaning, the reposi-
tory itself has no meaning without you or me to read, interpret, and use its contents. Words change
meaning over time. “Nice” once meant overly particular or fastidious; today it means pleasant or
agreeable. “Gay” once meant happy or carefree, and the rainbow a symbol of renewal after a fresh
rain; today both often refer to homosexuality. "Sick" might refer to your state of health, or if some-
thing is hip, cool, or desirable. The dictionary entry for the meaning of a word changes because we
change how, when, and why we use the word, not the other way around. Do you know every word
in the dictionary? Does anyone? Even if someone did, there are many possible meanings of the
words we exchange, and these multiple meanings can lead to miscommunication.
FIGURE 2.2
Words and symbols change meaning over time.
Purple Sherbet Photography's Bright, Bold and Colorful Rainbow Love LGBT Mosaic retrieved at: Purple Sherbet Photography's Bright,
Bold and Colorful Rainbow Love LGBT Mosaic retrieved at: www.flickr.com/photos/purplesherbet/10947066745 CC-BY
Business communication veterans often tell the story of a company that received an order of
machine parts from a new vendor. When they opened the shipment, they found that it contained a
small plastic bag into which the vendor had put several of the parts. When asked what the bag was
for, the vendor explained, “Your contract stated a thousand units, with maximum 2 percent defec-
tive. We produced the defective units and put them in the bag for you.” If you were the one reading
that contract, what would “defective” mean to you? We may use a word intending to communicate
one idea only to have a coworker miss our meaning entirely.
Sometimes we want our meaning to be crystal clear, and at other times, less so. We may even
want to present an idea from a specific perspective, one that shows our company or business in a
positive light. This may reflect our intentional manipulation of language to influence meaning, as
in choosing to describe a car as “preowned” or an investment as a “unique value proposition.” We
may also influence other’s understanding of our words in unintentional ways, from failing to antic-
ipate their response, to ignoring the possible impact of our word choice.
Languages are living exchange systems of meaning, and are bound by context. If you are
assigned to a team that coordinates with suppliers from Shanghai, China, and a sales staff in
Dubuque, Iowa, you may encounter terms from both groups that influence your team.
As long as there have been languages and interactions between the people who speak them,
languages have borrowed words (or, more accurately, adopted—for they seldom give them back).
Think of the words “boomerang,” “limousine,” or “pajama”; do you know which languages they come
from? Did you know that “algebra” comes from the Arabic word “al-jabr,” meaning “restoration”?
Does the word “moco” make sense to you? It may not, but perhaps you recognize it as the name
chosen by Nissan for one of its cars. “Moco” makes sense to both Japanese and Spanish speakers,
Three-part model in which
a symbol refers to a but with quite different meanings. The letters come together to form an arbitrary word that refers
thought, which in turn to the thought or idea of the thing in the semantic triangle (see Figure 2.3).
refers to the thing it
symbolizes.
FIGURE 2.3 Semantic Triangle
Adapted from Ogden and Richards.Odgen, C., & Richards, I. (1932). The meaning of meaning: A study of the influence of language upon
thought and of the science of symbolism. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace & World.
This triangle illustrates how the word (which is really nothing more than a combination of four
letters) refers to the thought, which then refers to the thing itself. Who decides what “moco” means?
To the Japanese, it may mean “cool design,” or even “best friend,” and may be an apt name for a
small, cute car, but to a Spanish speaker, it means “booger” or “snot”—not a very appealing name for
a car.
Each letter stands for a sound, and when they come together in a specific way, the sounds
they represent when spoken express the “word” that symbolizes the event.[2] For our discussion,
the key word we need to address is “symbolizes.” The word stands in for the actual event, but is
not the thing itself. The meaning we associate with it may not be what we intended. For example,
when Honda was contemplating the introduction of the Honda Fit, another small car, they consid-
ered the name “Fitta” for use in Europe. As the story goes, the Swedish Division Office of Honda
explained that “fitta” in Swedish is a derogatory term for female reproductive organ. The name was
promptly changed to “Jazz.”
The meaning, according to Hayakawa,[3] is within us, and the word serves as a link to meaning.
What will your words represent to the listener? Will your use of a professional term enhance your
credibility and be more precise with a knowledgeable audience, or will you confuse them?
Anne Curzan: What Makes a Word "Real"?
Key Takeaway
Language is a system of words used as symbols to convey ideas, and it has rules of syntax,
semantics, and context. Words have meaning only when interpreted by the receiver of the mes-
sage.
1.
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, or the New Oxford American Dictionary, find at
least ten English words borrowed from other languages. Share your findings with your class-
mates.
2. Visit several English-language Web sites from different countries—for example, Australia,
Canada, and the United States. What differences in spelling and word usage do you find?
Discuss your results with your classmates.
3. From your viewpoint, how do you think thought influences the use of language? Write a one-
to two-page explanation.
4. What is meant by conditioned in this statement: “people in Western cultures do not realize
the extent to which their racial attitudes have been conditioned since early childhood by the
power of words to ennoble or condemn, augment or detract, glorify or demean?”[4] Discuss
your thoughts with a classmate.
5. Translations gone wrong can teach us much about words and meaning. Can you think of a
word or phrase that just doesn’t sound right when it was translated from English into another
language, or vice versa? Share it with the class and discuss what a better translation would
be.
6. Symbols change meaning over time, and are open to interpretation. Choose a sports team
logo that has been the subject of controversy, as in the Washington Redskins, the Confeder-
"tree." Investigate the controversial symbol and share with the class.
7. Pretend you are ready to go home from college for a holiday (Thanksgiving or Christmas, for
example) and your instructor was going to join you and your family for a meal. Imagine the
conversation around the table and what words or phrases the instructor would not under-
stand. Chose one, write a brief description of its use and meaning, and share with the class.
8. Selfie Exercise: From tree selfies to vacation selfies, the images we take of ourselves to share
say something about us. Choose a type of selfie and briefly describe it and what it means.
Share your results with the class.
9. Words we use today. Choose one word you use today with a group (work, family, or friends
for example) what people outside of the group wouldn't understand. Briefly describe it and
share its use and meaning with the class.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Words and symbols represent us, often in our absence. What words and
symbols will you feature or highlight in your ePortfolio and why? Share and compare with
classmates.
2.3 Messages
1.
2.
Before we explore the principles of language, it will be helpful to stop for a moment and examine
some characteristics of the messages we send when we communicate. When you write or say some-
thing, you not only share the meaning(s) associated with the words you choose, but you also say
something about yourself and your relationship to the intended recipient. In addition, you say
something about what the relationship means to you as well as your assumed familiarity as you
choose formal or informal ways of expressing yourself. Your message may also carry unintended
meanings that you cannot completely anticipate. Some words are loaded with meaning for some
people, so that by using such words you can “push their buttons” without even realizing what
you’ve done. Messages carry far more than the literal meaning of each word, and in this section we
explore that complexity.
FIGURE 2.4
Messages are often more complex than they first appear!
Roberto Zingales, Message error 404, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/filicudi/2891898817 CC-BY
Primary Message Is Not the Whole Message

When considering how to communicate, keep in mind there are three distinct types of messages
you will be communicating: primary, secondary, and auxiliary.[5]
Primary messages refer to the intentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. These are the
Refer to the intentional words or ways you choose to express yourself and communicate your message. For example, if you
content in a message, are sitting at your desk and a coworker stops by to ask you a question, you may say, “Here, have a
both verbal and nonverbal. seat.” These words are your primary message.
Even such a short, seemingly simple and direct message could be misunderstood. It may seem
obvious that you are not literally offering to “give” a “seat” to your visitor, but to someone who
knows only formal English and is unfamiliar with colloquial expressions, it may be puzzling. “Have
a seat” may be much more difficult to understand than “please sit down.”
Secondary messages refer to the unintentional content, both verbal and nonverbal. Your audi-
ence will form impressions of your intentional messages, both negative and positive, over which
Refer to the unintentional
content in a message, you have no control. Perceptions of physical attractiveness, age, gender, or ethnicity or even simple
both verbal and nonverbal. mannerisms and patterns of speech may unintentionally influence the message.
Perhaps, out of courtesy, you stand up while offering your visitor a seat; or perhaps your visitor
has an expectation that you ought to do so. Perhaps a photograph of your family on your desk
makes an impression on your visitor. Perhaps a cartoon on your bulletin board sends a message.
Auxiliary messages refer to the intentional and unintentional ways a primary message is com-
municated. This may include vocal inflection, gestures and posture, or rate of speech that influence
Refer to the intentional and
unintentional ways a the interpretation or perception of your message.
primary message is When you say, “Here, have a seat,” do you smile and wave your hand to indicate the empty chair
communicated.
on the other side of your desk? Or do you look flustered and quickly lift a pile of file folders out of the
way? Are your eyes on your computer as you finish sending an e-mail before turning your attention to
your visitor? Your auxiliary message might be, “I’m glad you came by, I always enjoy
exchanging ideas with you” or “I always learn something new when someone asks me a question.” On
the other hand, it might be, “I’ll answer your question, but I’m too busy for a long discussion,” or maybe
even, “I wish you’d do your work and not bother me with your dumb questions!”
Parts of a Message
When you create a message, it is often helpful to think of it as having five parts:
1. Attention statement
2. Introduction
3. Body
4. Conclusion
5. Residual message
Each of these parts has its own function. They may not always be clear, and sometimes we skip
parts of them or they may be missing, but through an understanding of each part and its function
we can begin to focus on improving our message and its delivery, reception, and effectiveness.
The attention statement, as you may guess, is used to capture the attention of your audience.
While it may be used anywhere in your message, it is especially useful at the outset. There are many
The way you focus the
ways to attract attention from readers or listeners, but one of the most effective is the “what’s in it audience’s attention on
for me” strategy: telling them how your message can benefit them. An attention statement like, “I’m you and your speech.
going to explain how you can save up to $500 a year on car insurance” is quite likely to hold an audi-
ence’s attention.
Once you have your audience’s attention, it is time to move on to the introduction. In your
introduction you will make a clear statement your topic; this is also the time to establish a rela-
Part of a speech that
tionship with your audience. One way to do this is to create common ground with the audience,
drawing on familiar or shared experiences, or by referring to the person who introduced you. You with your audience and
may also explain why you chose to convey this message at this time, why the topic is important to clearly states your topic.
you, what kind of expertise you have, or how your personal experience has led you to share this
message.
After the introduction comes the body of your message. Here you will present your message
in detail, using any of a variety of organizational structures. Regardless of the type of organization
Main content area of a
you choose for your document or speech, it is important to make your main points clear, provide
speech.
support for each point, and use transitions to guide your readers or listeners from one point to the
next.
At the end of the message, your conclusion should provide the audience with a sense of clo-
sure by summarizing your main points and relating them to the overall topic. In one sense, it is
important to focus on your organizational structure again and incorporate the main elements into provides the audience with
your summary, reminding the audience of what you have covered. In another sense, it is important a sense of closure by
not to merely state your list of main points again, but to convey a sense that you have accomplished summarizing the main
what you stated you would do in your introduction, allowing the audience to have psychological points and relating the
points to the overall topic.
closure.
The residual message, a message or thought that stays with your audience well after the com-
munication is finished, is an important part of your message. Ask yourself of the following:
Idea or thought that stays
with your audience well
after the speech.
• What do I want my listeners or readers to remember?

FIGURE 2.5
The channel you use impacts the message! • What information do I want to have the audience retain or act upon?
• What do I want the audience to do?
Messages are complex, but that complexity provides a wide range of options.
From marketing to public relations to sales, the ability to tailor a message to the
customer, group, audience, or community can enhance its effectiveness. Mes-
sages can involve verbal and nonverbal aspects, from words to images and video,
and can be delivered across a range of channels, from e-mail to tweets, television
and Internet, print, radio, and even in person. Each channel has its advantages
and disadvantages to consider.
Which is the best channel? That depends on several factors, but let's consider
Kārlis Dambrān, Nokia Lumia 930, retrieved from: richness, or the "bandwidth" of a given channel, the message complexity, as well
https://www.flickr.com/photos/janitors/14711724451 as feedback and urgency. For example, if we have a complex story with many
CC-BY graphs, charts, maps, and YouTube interviews to compile into a message, a tweet,
limited to 140 characters, would not be our best choice. That tweet might be a
message with a URL link to your blog that contains all of those information elements, and that
might be a wise use of the social media tool, but the tweet itself has a limited ability to transmit
information. "Bandwidth" refers to the ability of a channel to transmit information, or literally the
width of the band, so in saying a tweet has "limited bandwidth" we underscore it limits in terms of
conveying complex information. While 140 characters might sound limited, its speed is a key advan-
tage. Rather than looking to a tweet for message complexity, if we value speed or urgency above
feedback or complexity, then a tweet may rank higher than a blog, for example, depending on con-
text and use.
Let's also consider other variables. Perhaps the information you want to convey is visual or
emotional, or communicates feelings that aren't easily captured in words, graphs, or pie charts. Per-
haps the information you want convey doesn't need words at all. A hug, a smile, or an embrace
can communicate significant information without words. Finally, let's consider the possibility that
you need to deliver information that communicates both facts and emotions, requires words and
images, and is quite important. In each case we can see how some channels, like an e-mail or a
tweet, just won't work as well as an in-person message delivered in words, with gestures, in real
time. Perhaps you need to communicate your condolences to a friend whose parent has just died.
While a card might serve at a distance, if you are nearby and have a relationship you value, you
might want to communicate your sympathy in person.
Finally, let's examine several types of channels used to convey or transmit messages. In-person
conversations provide verbal and nonverbal cues as well as immediate feedback right away. E-mails
are more limited in their ability to share information and receive feedback. Radio can be a great way
to transmit information across a distance, sharing one message with a large audience, but doesn't
allow for complex messages, visual reinforcement, or much feedback. The table below lists many
common channels used to deliver messages ranked on a Likert scale from 1, the lowest number and
ranking, to 4, the highest number and ranking. Take a look at the common business channels and
pretend you are a marketing or public relations professional with a sales message, announcing an
important event. Each channel has its cost, advantages, and disadvantages. If you know your audi-
ence is quite large, an in-person meeting with each person simply isn't feasible. Given the scenario,
which method(s) would you select?
TABLE 2.1
Channel(s) Richness Complexity Feedback Urgency/

Immediacy
In-person interac- 4 4 4 4
tions
In-person presen- 4 4 4 4
tations
Videoconferenc- 3 3 3 4
ing, Skype, Google
Hangout
Live voice or tele- 2 2 3 4

phone
Text, tweet, What- 1 1 2 2

sApp, e-mail
Print and image 3 3 1 1

(blog, online news
article) without
comments
Print, image, and/ 3 3 2 1

or video with com-
ments
Radio 2 2 1 1
Print, letters, and 3 3 1 1

memos
Print, magazines 3 3 1 1
and newspapers
Print, business 3 3 1 1
reports, sales
analysis, annual
reports
Handwritten letter 4 3 2 1
As we can see, messages are an important part of business communication. We can craft a
message with words and images to evoke emotions, reinforce brand image, or gain attention that
leads to interest and sales. We may view messages from a marketing viewpoint, or through the lens
of public relations, or as someone who serves customers one-on-one. Our messages represent our
ideas, and are open to interpretation. Through feedback and understanding we can adjust our
message again and again as we target audiences and focus on key points. We can consider what a
person has told us they want in a cellphone, for example, and tailor our response to their needs.
Messages are an important part of business communication, are impacted and influenced by the
channels we use to transmit or share them, and require our consideration, planning, and prepara-
tion in order to maximize our return on investment.
Key Takeaway
ture composed of an attention statement, introduction, body, conclusion, and residual message.
1. Choose three examples of communication and identify the primary message. Share and
2. Choose three examples of communication and identify the auxiliary message(s). Share and
3. Think of a time when someone said something like “please take a seat” and you correctly or
incorrectly interpreted the message as indicating that you were in trouble and about to be
reprimanded. Share and compare with classmates.
4. How does language affect self-concept? Explore and research your answer, finding exam-
ples that can serve as case studies.
5. Choose an article or opinion piece from a major newspaper or news Web site. Analyze the
piece according to the five-part structure described here. Does the headline serve as a good
attention statement? Does the piece conclude with a sense of closure? How are the main
points presented and supported? Share your analysis with your classmates. For a further
challenge, watch a television commercial and do the same analysis.
6. Role playing exercise: You've been tasked with either 1) delivering negative news to an
employee or 2) addressing a complaint from a significant and long-term customer. Choose
three channels to delivery your message, rank them in order of effectiveness, and explain
why you selected and ranked them. Share and compare with classmates.
7. ShamWow exercise: Think of an advertisement that got your attention. Consider how it
gained your attention and whether it was effective. Share and compare with classmates.
8. When is best to choose a channel that limits the scope of interaction? When is an e-mail
better than a face-to-face conversation for delivering a message? Explain your viewpoint.
9. Choose a job description and identify the key messages. For example, what is the core prob-
lem that the position addresses and why? Share and compare with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: What are the core message(s) in your ePortfolio? How can you best com-
municate them using which channels and why?
11. Branding Exercise: Choose a brand and identify it's core message(s). Explain how you iden-
tified the messages and what channels are used by the brand to communicate them. Share
2.4 Mobile Communication Messages
1. Describe the impact of mobile communication on human interactions.

2.
FIGURE 2.6
Mobile communication is an important part of our lives.
flicker at http://bit.ly/1j5lyZb
When wireless cellphones first came out, analysts predicted that at peak, it would only
replace 5 percent of landlines.
― Lynn Jurich[6]
“In the age of technology there is constant access to vast amounts of information. The
basket overflows; people get overwhelmed; the eye of the storm is not so much what goes
on in the world, it is the confusion of how to think, feel, digest, and react to what goes on.”
― Criss Jami, Venus in Arms[7]
Once upon a time, the telegraph connected the East and West coasts of the
FIGURE 2.7 United States, and it was called a triumph. Then we celebrated the Apollo 11 land-
Mobile communication is global
ing on the moon with less computer power than we observe in a modern
communication.
calculator. From the first Apple computer made of wood to floppy drives with
memory capacities measured in kilobytes (kb), not megabytes (Mb), gigabytes
(Gb), terabytes (Tb), we can see how amazing the modern cellphone really is even
as most of us both take it for granted but go through serious withdrawal symp-
toms, even panic, at its loss or misplacement.
For many, our smartphones are our lives. They hold all of our contacts, pass-
words, calendars, WhatsApp conversations; in short, everything we need to
communicate with each other. It’s precisely that utility that contributes to shift
in how we communicate. While we once might have gathered around a kitchen
table, picked up a phone connected to a wall by a cord, met with neighbors over a
barbeque, or even assembled as a community in a hall, lodge, or school, we now
https://www.flickr.com/photos/johnragai/15823751904/ check Facebook (or your choice of the many social media network sites and apps)
several times a day to interact.
We choose to communicate electronically, often preferring speed and convenience over the
antiquated personal interactions and the time such transactions once required. We see a text mes-
sage in many ways as the same as a quick call. We are humans, and as such crave belonging, and
often meet this need through our tiny screen that beeps when it’s hungry, again when it needs
attention, and yet again when it reminds us what to do, where to go, or where we are supposed to
be.
Our smartphones in many ways are comforting and familiar, and as such we prefer them, inter-
act with them, learn from them, shop with them, and do many of our daily activities through their
apps. As communicators we can recognize this seismic shift in cultural patterns confers advantages
and disadvantages. As professionals who craft, present, display, and measure the impact of mes-
sages, we understand that this medium, these platforms and social media networks, and that tiny
screen represent our palate for the representation of our ideas.
Now that digital lifestyle devices, tablets, wireless phones, and other Internet appliances
are beginning to come of age, we need to worry about presenting our content to these
devices so that it is optimized for their display capabilities.
― Mike Davidson[8]
In order to be effective, we need to tailor our messages to mobile communi-

cation media. It’s where people are. It is where we gather, research, interact, spend FIGURE 2.8
money, offer our services, and complete our transactions all day long. Our smartphones are tools we use to interact
with each other.
Mobile communication is a marketplace in itself. Its bazaar walls are non-
existent. Merchants can create their stands in endless forms, take advantage of
communities like eBay or Etsy, or work on search engine optimization strategies
themselves, laying virtual hooks and bait out to excite, interest, and attract us.
We can trade with each other around the world, pursue niche hobbies and
collection interests, and get to know fellow hobbyists with similar interests who
happen to live thousands of miles away better than we know our next-door
neighbors. For an increasing number of us, we work online. We are members of
the information age. We perform services at a distance, interact with clients, cus-
tomers, and colleagues all day long without ever meeting them in person.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/39908901@N06/
8366449168/
FIGURE 2.9
We use smartphones to record important moments in our lives.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/faceme/2353589363/
With advances in technology, our concept of community is changing. We can

FIGURE 2.10 have groceries delivered and never enter a grocery store, let alone visit the farm
We meet our basic communication needs
where a product was grown. Mobile communication allows us to connect in a
through interactions, including via mobile
communication. myriad of ways, but also allows us to separate ourselves from our environments,
and each other.
This section explores the amazing, wonderful, creative, and, at times, chal-
lenging aspects of mobile communication. It is the modern market. Our messages
must be designed for the characteristics of the devices that will display them, and
how they will be read or viewed. We, as communicators, need to recognize the
cultural shifts that accompany these shifts in trends in communication in order
to tailor our messages to the target audience.
Our expectations influence our interactions, and our preference for effi-
https://www.flickr.com/photos/francisco_osorio/ ciency and mobile communication over interpersonal interactions is one
11076788946/ important aspect to consider. Mobile communication is both social and can pro-
mote isolation. Again, we as communicators can view challenges as opportunities, and see how our
basic human needs, including belonging, can be met through electronic interactions. We can use
our communication tools, including mobile communication, to make this a better world.
The Mobile Revolution

FIGURE 2.11
We hold the power to communicate in the palm of our hands.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/pestoverde/15247501745/
A quick online search quickly establishes that the mobile communication market is huge and
growing.[9]
According to Statista.com, in 2014 the mobile communication industry saw values of mobile
services revenues totaling $1.114 billion, global voice service revenues of $698 billion, and mobile data
service revenues worldwide of $416 billion. Each year these numbers increase, reflecting the mobile
trend among consumers.
TABLE 2.2 Facts on the Mobile Communication Industry

Industry Revenue Values
Mobile service revenues worldwide $1.114 billion
Global voice service revenues $698 billion
Mobile data service revenues worldwide $416 billion
Source: http://www.statista.com/topics/1147/mobile-communications/
In addition, again according to Statista.com, in 2014 the number of mobile (cellular) subscrip-
tions worldwide totaled $6.915 million, that 93 percent of people worldwide have access to mobile
wireless communication, that the number of text messages (SMS) sent per second worldwide
totaled 192,192, and that the total number of mobile subscriptions worldwide totaled 6.989 million.
Again, we can observe a large and growing market, reflecting the usage and consumption trends of
consumers.
Subscribers and Usage Values

Number of mobile (cellular) subscriptions worldwide 6.915 million
Mobile wireless penetration worldwide 93%
Number of text messages (SMS) sent per second worldwide 192,192
Total number of mobile subscriptions worldwide 6.969 million
Source: http://www.statista.com/topics/1147/mobile-communications/
Finally, here are several mobile statistic links that offer even more insight into this growing
medium of communication:
Mobile Statistics Links
Mobile service revenues worldwide from 2010 to 2015: http://www.statista.com/statistics/

218605/global-mobile-service-revenues-since-2010/
Global voice service revenues from 2010 to 2015: http://www.statista.com/statistics/218607/
global-mobile-voice-service-revenues-since-2010/
Mobile data service revenues worldwide from 2010 to 2015: http://www.statista.com/statistics/
218609/global-mobile-data-service-revenues-since-2010/
Number of mobile (cellular) subscriptions worldwide from 1993 to 2014: http://www.statista.com/
statistics/262950/global-mobile-subscriptions-since-1993/
Mobile wireless penetration worldwide from 2008 to 2020: http://www.statista.com/statistics/
232594/mobile-wireless-penetration-worldwide/
Number of text messages (SMS) sent per second worldwide from 2007 to 2010: http://www.
statista.com/statistics/270298/number-of-sms-sent-per-second-worldwide-since-2007/
Number of mobile subscriptions worldwide from 2008 to 2015 (in millions): http://www.statista.
com/statistics/203882/forecast-of-the-global-mobile-subscriptions-up-to-2013/
Mobile communications: Market trends around the world: http://raconteur.net/infographics/
mobile-communications-market-trends-around-the-world
Mobile broadband: The dollars & the data: http://engage.acma.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/
2014/04/Mobile-Broadband_A4.jpg
A few facts about wireless communication: http://thumbnails-visually.netdna-ssl.com/a-few-
facts-about-wireless-communication_526ee4235f633.jpg
FIGURE 2.12 A Mobile Phone Timeline
http://bit.ly/1YiA8Qz, http://bit.ly/1YiAgzz, http://bit.ly/1k3DJio, http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2456595,00.asp

Now that we’ve observed this large and growing market, let’s look at what makes it a revolu-
tion.
Smartphones as a Communication Platform

Smartphones do a lot more than make telephone calls. They are smart in terms
of how they receive, process, store, display, and most important, integrate infor- FIGURE 2.13
We focus on mobile communication often to the
mation. Want to manage your business contacts on your smartphone? Not a
exclusion of what is around us.
problem. E-mail, text/SMS, messaging, Web browsing, Skype and video confer-
ences, instant updates from Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, or your choice of social
media networks? Again, not a problem for a standard phone. Want to record a
video or take a photo and upload it right now? Easy and simple. Smartphones are
the ultimate gatekeepers of information, and many of us would be lost without
them.
The lines between business and our personal lives, between school and play,
between games and learning environments are all blurring. We can access our
textbooks, tutorials, our class, and even our professor via our smartphones in real
time. No more searching for a paper syllabus given to you on the first day of class.
Just download it again, or access the file that is already on your phone.
The same strength that makes smartphones so valuable is also an inherent
weakness. When are we at work if we can work all the time, or at least interact https://www.flickr.com/photos/128539140@N03/
with clients, customers, co-workers, colleagues, and supervisors all the time? A 15773553090/
cubicle, or classroom, without walls encompasses everything, but leaves little

space to get away from it all. FIGURE 2.14
Smartphones are loaded with apps, or applications, and more are born each We may not get to know others around us even
as we communicate with friends and family via
day to solve all sorts of problems. From social networking programs to cloud-
mobile communication.
based storage systems, how we create, use, interact, display, share, produce,
market, sell, and follow up on information and its use has changed dramatically.
For example, we may often see an “m” in front of a word we know already, from
mLearning (mobile + learning) to mHealth (mobile + health). Mobile is the norm,
and consumers are increasingly accessing information via their smartphones. We
can see the transformation all around us.
Smartphones are already the workstations of the future, ready to replicate,
even exceed the expectations of many desktop computers. What if we considered
them as interface devices with our service providers, like education or health?
That’s becoming more of a reality each day. Doctors can receive digital images on
their phone and receive test results right away. They can schedule a surgery, con- https://www.flickr.com/photos/128539140@N03/
17767819718/
tact a patient, or make a dinner reservation, or all three, in the space of minutes. Want to pay your
gas, electric, or water bill? Again, that is almost old school in terms of what smartphones can do.
Smartphones are a mobile communication platform used daily by many around the word, as
the cost of the devices plummets, the adoption rates increase. They serve as a way to alert a popu-
lation to a public health emergency, like the zombie apocalypse, or can warn people of a tsunami,
giving specific, actionable information on where to go and what to do. While the former may be
quite unlikely, the latter is becoming the norm not only in the United States but coastal countries
like Chile, where the threat of an earthquake and a tsunami is much more likely.
Smartphones, with their microphones, cameras, and go-anywhere screens,

FIGURE 2.15 have become the interface platform of choice. As people increasingly turn to their
Smartphones, with their microphones, cameras,
cellphones for movie critiques, product reviews, and price comparisons, so too do
go anywhere screens have become the
interface platform of choice. the businesses and governments that serve the clients, customers, and citizens.
Mobile communication is not new news, but the ability to integrate and unify,
even synch, our communication interactions with work, family, school, and com-
munity all while on the go is relatively new.
Smartphones, with their memory and ability to integrate information, pose
a particular challenge. Once you have invested time and energy into one, and it
holds everything from your passwords to your secrets, what happens when it is
lost, stolen, or worse—hacked for its information? Information about you is often
far more valuable than the value of the phone itself. To meet this challenge you
only need to Google, or “search,” terms like “smartphone security” to see the wide
range of apps available. There is no lack of business services available to you to
meet this increasing need.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jakecaptive/419258111/
In addition, smartphones themselves are increasingly built to protect that
information. iPhones, for example, can be erased remotely. They can also be locked and tracked.
Nokia and LG also have security protocols, use biometric security measures like fingerprints, and
are designed to protect your information. Information itself has become a prized commodity.
Smartphones are only getting smarter, and can do more each year. Each time we adapt them
to our lives, with a multitude of apps, we reinforce their central role as a communication platform
where we interact, date, research, buy, sell, and network with colleagues and family alike. They are
omnipresent, and we do sometimes lose sleep to their chirps that alert us to updates, but they have
changed how, where, and when we interact. They are an important part of business communica-
tion.
Impact of Mobile Communication on

Businesses
Perhaps you’ve heard the phrase, “follow the money.” It is often used in crime
FIGURE 2.16 movies to discover who did it. Regardless of the context, it holds true when we
Our mobile communication devices can serve
as just in time guides. apply it to mobile communication and smartphones. Once upon a time, it was
radio that overcame newspapers, and television that overcame radio, and the
Internet that overcame (and became) all of them. Now we see it all rolled into
one—print, audio, video—into our handy smartphone screens, our tablets, and
even our laptop computers. Across all applications, it’s the “mobile” in mobile
communication that we follow when we follow the money.
First, let’s consider how many smartphones are really out there in use today.
Gartner (March 2015), a leading UK/English news source, said that smartphone
sales surpassed one billion units in 2014.[10] That’s only counting 2014 sales, and not
the billions of phones already in use. You can go to almost any corner of the
planet, regardless how remote, and find a form of cellphone in use. From rural
Africa to Southern Patagonia to the Artic, the low cost and easy of adoption has
made the mobile platform desired and accessible.
According to eMarketer, through its research of the U.S. market across 169
data points from forty-seven research firms, eCommerce, or online transactions,
are gaining market share. They estimate it will increase 15.5 percent in 2014 to
https://www.flickr.com/photos/highwaysagency/ reach $304.1 billion, up from $263.3 billion in 2013. Even more telling is the percent-
6011470974/
age of eCommerce as part of total growth: more than 20 percent of total retail sales.[11] The money
action is increasingly in the mobile environment.
FIGURE 2.17
Mobile communication can provide a wealth of insight into consumer preferences and behaviors.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/aaronpk/5955823816/
If we follow the money, we see not only are online transactions, that increasingly include
mobile transactions, taking off in terms of growth, they are also outpacing other mediums of trans-
actions, like brick-and-mortar stores. If you are a business in 2016 and want to stay in business (and
hopefully increase sales), you have to look to eCommerce and mobile communication as a hot spot
for growth. That means learning all about search engine optimization, analytics, and where best to
spend your advertising or marketing dollar for your return on investment. Social media, radical
transparency, and accountability to customers have taken on completely new meanings. When a
tweet about the service of your business can instantly be read around the world, you need to con-
sider customer relationship management in a whole new light. “Follow the money” means we see
more people turning to their smartphones for transactions than ever before, and that trend shows
no sign of slowing down.
Smartphones, mobile communication, and eCommerce are transforming the modern market-
place. As effective business communicators we need to not only recognize the trend but to leverage
it to best deliver our message effectively, correctly, as designed for maximum impact. We also need
to be hyper-responsive to the dynamic online marketplace, where customer reviews, interactions,
suggestions and comments make an impact on our brand and its reputation. Mobile communica-
tion is not just a medium for interaction; it’s the dynamic space where we live, shop, create, and
share, creating an amazing array of opportunities for the entrepreneur.
FIGURE 2.18
Mobile communication is not just a medium for interaction; it’s the dynamic space where we live, shop, create, and
share, creating an amazing array of opportunities for the entrepreneur.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/dawidone/4525902434/
Designing Messages for Mobile Devices

FIGURE 2.19
Does this phone make you remember when? Do text messages still represent significant risk of miscommunication?
https://www.flickr.com/photos/consumerist/1487894092/
As a business communicator, you recognize the need to tailor your message to your audience.
That involves meeting their expectations, both explicit and implicit. Consumers’ preferences of
platforms are an important point to consider. If you are designing a message for a 42-inch flat
screen, high-resolution television you have a much larger “palette,” or range of space and colors,
than you will on a small smartphone screen. In addition, as we know from experience, mobile is not
completely synonymous with “quick,” but it is closely related. People on the go do not want to sit
and read at length on their smartphone, and most prefer a message that can be understood quickly
and effectively, at first glance.
Regardless of “palette” or platform, some basics are important to consider. First, the words you
choose can and do make a difference, and your grammar is not ignored. In a world of text messages,
your grammar still speaks volumes about you, your product or service, or your company.
For example, according to The Wall Street Journal, your use of grammar may
FIGURE 2.20 be a significant factor in how you are perceived, influencing the likelihood of con-
Mobile communication messages can influence
what we choose to pay attention to, and what nections, via social dating sites like Tinder and OkCupid (find article at http://
we ignore www.wsj.com/articles/whats-really-hot-on-dating-sites-proper-grammar-
1443746849). Match.com, a dating site, surveyed over 5,000 of its U.S.-based users
on what they consider the most important criteria for judging a potential date,
and hygiene aside, grammar was ranked number one.[12] That’s right, how you
express yourself via the written word, and whether you break grammar rules,
impacts how potential dates perceive you. Eighty-eight percent of women, and
75 percent of men, indicated grammar was an important criteria, ranking higher
than a prospective partner’s confidence or, surprisingly, their teeth.
If grammar is considered a top factor to judge a potential date or mate, it cer-
tainly stands to reason that it will impact the perception of an employee,
company, image or brand. Text messages have a place, but when it comes to busi-
ness communication, formality, including formal grammar, is often best.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/nate/71805821/
Next to words, in mobile messages we have images and links. Apple's Human
Interface Guidelines provide a wealth of resources on how to design your message for human inter-
face on a mobile application. A sharp color contrast to a simple image that directly relates to a single
point, function, or goal is encouraged, and images as we navigate to be consistent. According to Apple,
“Consistency lets people transfer their knowledge and skills from one part of an app’s UI to another
and from one app to another app.”[13] The message reflects the standards and paradigms people are
already comfortable with, including their expectations, and provides them clearly and consistently.
FIGURE 2.21
Consistency across interfaces improves the user experience.
Five questions, adapted from Apple’s IOS, that you can ask yourself to see if a message
designed for a mobile application demonstrates consistency:
1. Does text use uniform words, jargon, terminology, titles, and style?
2. Do the same icons always mean the same thing?
3. Can people predict what will happen when they perform the same action in different places?
4. Do custom user interface elements look and behave the same throughout the app?
5. Does the design language reflect earlier versions?
Direct Manipulation
“When people directly manipulate onscreen objects instead of using separate controls to manipu-
late them, they're more engaged with their task and it’s easier for them to understand the results of
their actions.”[14]
FIGURE 2.22
Users are more fully engaged with their task when they use a touch screen directly, instead of alternate controls.
As you explore mobile messages you will want to learn size constraints[15] and recommen-
dations,[16] but as effective business communication you know that people hold expectations for
interactions, use previous experiences to guide their interactions in new contexts or with new mes-
sages, and that familiar, consistent messages reflect these expectations.
Visual Media for Mobile Devices

FIGURE 2.23
Visual media for mobile devices should capture our attention and communicate a single idea we can grasp at first
glance.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jdhancock/3420540107/
Blog posts became Facebook updates and Tumblr posts, which shrunk to tweets and
finally to Instagram or Pinterest.
― Ekaterina Walter[17]
Blog posts are so yesterday. That is something you may have heard, but it’s not exactly accurate.
Blogs, or personal websites devoted to individuals, groups, causes, community, passions and hob-
bies, and even product reviews, are not going anywhere soon. Citizen journalism is an ever-growing
trend, and we only need to look to the prevalence in witness videos used in the news, or tweets in
real time, to see that more and more, we are documenting and sharing our experiences online, often
through social media. How we are sharing that information, however, has changed.
Blogs were once known for their long posts. It resembled old-school newspaper articles mea-
sured in “column inches.” Now we measure impact in clicks, baskets, and tweets of 140 characters
or less. Blogs are increasingly known for their images and video. They reflect the expectation for
quick, current, clear and concise information we can easily grasp at first glance. Stories are posted
within seconds of the incident, and the role of the old fashioned news cycle, with its emphasis on
the five or ten o’clock news, is fading. We are online, and mobile, all the time, and want the informa-
tion when we need it.
We have the equivalent of an amazingly modern video and sound studio device right in our
hands, and we’re using it. We take selfies. We share pictures all day long via Instagram. We feel
compelled to post images and video after a day’s vacation, and watch the comments on them on
Facebook in the evening. We feel compelled to share, and others help reinforce this expectation.
If we don’t post or share we might get comments of concern, or even worry. Being connected has
never been so easy, but it is getting harder to manage social expectations.
FIGURE 2.24
How we share information has changed.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/x1brett/9787064163/
Moore’s Law[18] is a computer term, and an observation of exponential growth, that states com-
puter power, often measured by processer speed, will double every two years. This law, applied to your
smartphone, should make its power quite apparent. The cellphones of old were bricks. They weighed
pounds, not ounces. Then smaller phones, with more memory came along, flip phones made a
debut, and then the integrated communication device you hold in your hand came on the scene. At first
the video and audio quality was less than ideal, but it worked. Then, partnered with the easy access
to the Internet via wireless systems or the cellphone network, it became possible to upload photos as
they were taken, right away. Same for video.
The smartphone in your hand has more computing power than what was available to NASA
in its early years. Ease of technology has influenced how we communicate with each other, and as
business communicators, we need to adapt our messages to meet the needs of our audience. Our
audience is increasingly looking down into their smartphones for visual media, and as bandwidth
and reliability improve, along with computing power, we now have amazingly sophisticated devices
in our hands that small children can successfully operate. Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat all pro-
vide excellent examples of social media networks designed for a mobile communication interface.
We now update each other with images and video, and reserve words for
FIGURE 2.25 comments and brief explanations. Images can communicate a lot of information
Moore’s Law states computer power, often
quickly, and video even more, and if we are to successfully attract and retain
measured by processer speed, will double
every two years. attention on the Web, with clients, or consumers, we need to be visual.
Visual images that work best speak for themselves. They require little inter-
pretation or context clues via the comments or captions. They communicate the
message to the target audience with efficiency, tact, and grace. Sometimes they
might even add a little humor, though that is a challenging element to capture
and depict without misinterpretation or offense. They have currency, and
become dated very quickly.
FIGURE 2.26
Visual images that work best speak for themselves.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/psd/48083472/
https://www.flickr.com/photos/lge/5444275093/
Mobile devices, once judged by how small they were, are increasing in size and capabilities.
They no longer easily fit in a pocket, but they can certainly display the latest movie trailer. The mod-
ern mobile screen can render an amazing array of colors and hues, and the effective communicator
recognizes their widespread use and plans for it. Infographics have replaced long columns. Video
shorts are increasingly the norm. Just-in-time messages are quickly becoming the standard across
industries, including education and healthcare.
As a business communicator, recognize that humans are visual creatures, and we respond well
to engaging images and video that communicates a clear, current message that meets our imme-
diate need. Also recognize the sizable investment individuals and, collectively, society has made in
portable or mobile communication devices. Images and video light up the screen in our palms, and
engage our minds. Use this awareness to craft your own informative or persuasive messages.
Conclusion
Mobile communication is here to stay. We often choose to interact, to learn more about products, to
FIGURE 2.27
make purchases, to pay bills, to record memories, to share photos and images, and in many ways, As a business communicator,
live our lives, through mobile communication technologies. From platforms to apps, from smart- recognize that humans are
phones to tablets, the explosion of devices now found around the world has impacted how we, as visual creatures, and we
respond well to engaging
business communicators, interface with clients, customers, users, and ourselves. We must be aware
images and video that
of both the strengths and limitations of this medium of communication, and tailor our message to communicates a clear,
best communicate our purpose in clear and concise messages that can be understood at first glance. current message that meets
Making the most of mobile communication is more important than ever, and as effective business our immediate need.
communicators, we leverage the tools to effectively deliver the message.
clanlife/6369792721/
Video Links
Renny Gleason on antisocial phone tricks: https://www.ted.com/talks/renny_gleeson_on_

antisocial_phone_tricks?language=en
Jim Chipchase on the anthropology of mobile phones: https://www.ted.com/talks/jan_
chipchase_on_our_mobile_phones?language=en
Key Takeaway
Mobile communication impacts and influences how, when, and where we interact with each
other. The platform has both strengths and limitations. Effective business messages need to
be tailored to both the platform and the audience expectations.
1. Survey your classmates on how many hours a day they interact with the cellphone. Create a
graph or chart and share with your class.
2. Create a sample calendar and ask ten classmates when they first interact with their cellphone
each day. Present your findings.
3. Find an example of an effective mobile message, in your assessment, and write a brief para-
graph on what you find particularly attractive, effective, or remarkable about it.
4. Create a sample mobile message, remembering to stay small (44x44 points is the norm), to
keep you icon images clear, and your stacked list (table of contents, for example) easy to
interface.
2.5 Principles of Verbal

Communication
1.
2.
3.
Verbal communication reflects several basic principles. In this section, we’ll examine each principle
and explore how it influences everyday communication. Whether it’s a simple conversation with a
coworker or a formal sales presentation to a board of directors, these principles apply to all con-
texts of communication. Your ability to understand these principles, or rules, provides insight into
the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and challenges present in verbal communication. Across
your professional career and through each customer interaction, your verbal communication will
reflect you, your employer, and your company. Learn these verbal communication principles and
use them to improve your effectiveness as a business communicator.
Language Has Rules

We use languages to communication, but each language has its own rules. Language is a code, a
collection of symbols, letters, or words with arbitrary meanings that are arranged according to the
rules of syntax and are used to communicate.[19]
In the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, were you able to successfully
match the terms to their meanings? Did you find that some of the definitions did not match your
understanding of the terms? The words themselves have meaning within their specific context or
language community. But without a grasp of that context, “my bad” may have just sounded odd.
Your familiarity with the words and phrases may have made the exercise easy for you, but it isn’t an
easy exercise for everyone. The words themselves only carry meaning if you know the understood
meaning and have a grasp of their context to interpret them correctly.
There are three types of rules that govern or control our use of words. You
may not be aware that they exist or that they influence you, but from the FIGURE 2.28
Language has rules.
moment you put a word into text or speak it, these rules govern your communi-
cations. Think of a word that is all right to use in certain situations and not in
others. Why? And how do you know?
Syntactic rules govern the order of words in a sentence. In some languages,
such as German, syntax or word order is strictly prescribed. English syntax, in
contrast, is relatively flexible and open to style. Still, there are definite combina-
tions of words that are correct and incorrect in English. It is equally correct to
say, “Please come to the meeting in the auditorium at twelve noon on Wednesday”
or, “Please come to the meeting on Wednesday at twelve noon in the auditorium.”
But it would be incorrect to say, “Please to the auditorium on Wednesday in the
meeting at twelve noon come.”
Semantic rules govern the meaning of words and how to interpret them.[20]
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It considers what words mean, or
are intended to mean, as opposed to their sound, spelling, grammatical function,
and so on. Does a given statement refer to other statements already communi-
cated? Is the statement true or false? Does it carry a certain intent? What does
the sender or receiver need to know in order to understand its meaning? These
are questions addressed by semantic rules.
Contextual rules govern meaning and word choice according to context and
maczter, Some Good Rules to Live By, Flickr, CC-BY,
social custom. For example, suppose Greg is talking about his coworker, Carol,
retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/maczter/
and says, “She always meets her deadlines.” This may seem like a straightforward 2944438445
statement that would not vary according to context or social custom. But sup-
pose another coworker asked Greg, “How do you like working with Carol?” and, after a long pause, Govern the order of words
in a sentence.
Greg answered, “She always meets her deadlines.” Are there factors in the context of the question
or social customs that would influence the meaning of Greg’s statement?
Even when we follow these linguistic rules, miscommunication is possible, for our cultural con- Govern the meaning of
text or community may hold different meanings for the words used than the source intended. Words words and how to interpret
attempt to represent the ideas we want to communicate, but they are sometimes limited by factors them.
beyond our control. They often require us to negotiate their meaning, or to explain what we mean in
more than one way, in order to create a common vocabulary. You may need to state a word, define it,
and provide an example in order to come to an understanding with your audience about the meaning Govern meaning and word
of your message. choice according to
context and social custom.
Our Reality Is Shaped by Our Language

What would your life be like if you had been raised in a country other than the one where you grew
up? Malaysia, for example? Italy? Afghanistan? Or Bolivia? Or suppose you had been born male
instead of female, or vice versa. Or had been raised in the northeastern United States instead of the
Southwest, or the Midwest instead of the Southeast. In any of these cases, you would not have the
same identity you have today. You would have learned another set of customs, values, traditions,
other language patterns, and ways of communicating. You would be a different person who com-
municated in different ways.
You didn’t choose your birth, customs, values, traditions, or your language. You didn’t even
choose to learn to read this sentence or to speak with those of your community, but somehow you
accomplished this challenging task. As an adult, you can choose to see things from a new or diverse
perspective, but what language do you think with? It’s not just the words themselves, or even how
they are organized, that makes communication such a challenge. Your language itself, ever chang-
ing and growing, in many ways determines your reality.[21] You can’t escape your language or culture
completely, and always see the world through a shade or tint of what you’ve been taught, learned,
or experienced.
FIGURE 2.29 Suppose you were raised in a culture that values formality. At work, you pride yourself on
Our language expresses being well dressed. It’s part of your expectation for yourself and, whether you admit it or not, for
customs and traditions.
others. Many people in your organization, however, come from less formal cultures, and they prefer
business casual attire. You may be able to recognize the difference, and because humans are highly
adaptable, you may get used to a less formal dress expectation, but it won’t change your fundamen-
tal values.
Thomas Kuhn[22] makes the point that “paradigms, or a clear point of view involving theories,
laws, and/or generalizations that provide a framework for understanding, tend to form and become
set around key validity claims, or statements of the way things work.”[23] The paradigm, or world-
www.audio-luci-store.it, view, may be individual or collective. And paradigm shifts are often painful. New ideas are always
11717728_m, Flickr, CC-BY,
suspect, and usually opposed, without any other reason than because they are not already com-
retrieved at: https://www.flickr.
com/photos/audiolucistore/
mon.[24]
13712330025 As an example, consider the earth-heavens paradigm. Medieval Europeans believed that the
Earth was flat and that the edge was to be avoided, otherwise you might fall off. For centuries after
the acceptance of a “round earth” belief, the earth was still believed to be the center of the universe,
A clear point of view with the sun and all planets revolving around it. Eventually, someone challenged the accepted view.
involving theories, laws,
Over time, despite considerable resistance to protect the status quo, people came to better under-
provide a framework for stand the earth and its relationship to the heavens.
understanding.
In the same way, the makers of the Intel microprocessor once thought that a
slight calculation error, unlikely to negatively impact 99.9 percent of users, was
FIGURE 2.30 better left as is and hidden.[25] Like many things in the information age, the error
Language reflects our worldview.
was discovered by a user of the product, became publicly known, and damaged
Intel’s credibility and sales for years. Recalls and prompt, public communication
in response to similar issues are now the industry-wide protocol.
Paradigms involve premises that are taken as fact. Of course the Earth is the
center of the universe, of course no one will ever be impacted by a mathematical
error so far removed from most people’s everyday use of computers, and of
course you never danced the macarena at a company party. We now can see how
those facts, attitudes, beliefs, and ideas of “cool” are overturned.
How does this insight lend itself to your understanding of verbal communi-
cation? Do all people share the same paradigms, words, or ideas? Will you be
presenting ideas outside your audience’s frame of reference? Outside their world-
view? Just as you look back at your macarena performance, get outside your
frame of reference and consider how to best communicate your thoughts, ideas,
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Satellite View of and points to an audience that may not have your same experiences or under-
Earth on 11.11.11, Flickr, CC-BY
standing of the topic.
By taking into account your audience’s background and experience, you can become more
“other-oriented,” a successful strategy to narrow the gap between you and your audience. Our expe-
riences are like sunglasses, tinting the way we see the world. Our challenge, perhaps, is to avoid
letting them function as blinders, like those worn by working horses, which create tunnel vision
and limit our perspective.
Language Is Arbitrary and Symbolic

As we have discussed previously, words, by themselves, do not have any inherent meaning. Humans
give meaning to them, and their meanings change across time. The arbitrary symbols, including let-
ters, numbers, and punctuation marks, stand for concepts in our experience. We have to negotiate
the meaning of the word “home,” and define it, through visual images or dialogue, in order to com-
municate with our audience.
Words have two types of meanings: denotative and connotative. Attention to both is necessary
to reduce the possibility of misinterpretation. The denotative meaning is the common meaning,
A word’s common
often found in the dictionary. The connotative meaning is often not found in the dictionary but in meaning, often found in
the community of users itself. It can involve an emotional association with a word, positive or neg- the dictionary.
ative, and can be individual or collective, but is not universal.
With a common vocabulary in both denotative and connotative terms, effective communica-
tion becomes a more distinct possibility. But what if we have to transfer meaning from one A meaning often not found
in the dictionary but in the
vocabulary to another? That is essentially what we are doing when we translate a message. In such community of users; it can
cases, language and culture can sometimes make for interesting twists. The New York Times[26] involve an emotional
noted that the title of the 1998 film There’s Something About Mary proved difficult to translate association, and can be
when it was released in foreign markets. The movie was renamed to capture the idea and to adapt individual or collective, but
is not universal.
to local audiences’ frame of reference: In Poland, where blonde jokes are popular and common, the
film title (translated back to English for our use) was For the Love of a Blonde. In France, Mary at All
Costs communicated the idea, while in Thailand My True Love Will Stand All Outrageous Events
dropped the reference to Mary altogether.
Capturing our ideas with words is a challenge when both conversational partners speak the
same language, but across languages, cultures, and generations the complexity multiplies exponen-
tially.
FIGURE 2.31
Words have denotative and connotative
Language Is Abstract meanings.
Words represent aspects of our environment, and can play an important role in
that environment. They may describe an important idea or concept, but the very
act of labeling and invoking a word simplifies and distorts our concept of the
thing itself. This ability to simplify concepts makes it easier to communicate, but
it sometimes makes us lose track of the specific meaning we are trying to convey
through abstraction. Let’s look at one important part of life in America: trans-
portation.
Take the word “car” and consider what it represents. Freedom, status, or style?
Does what you drive say something about you? To describe a car as a form of
transportation is to consider one of its most basic and universal aspects. This level
of abstraction means we lose individual distinctions between cars until we impose
another level of labeling. We could divide cars into sedans (or saloon) and coupe (or
Procsilas Moscas, self explaining addiction, Flickr, CC-
coupé) simply by counting the number of doors (i.e., four versus two). We could also BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
examine cost, size, engine displacement, fuel economy, and style. We might arrive procsilas/170398770
at an American classic, the Mustang, and consider it for all these
factors and its legacy as an accessible American sports car. To describe it in terms of transportation
only is to lose the distinctiveness of what makes a Mustang a desirable American sports car.
We can see how, at the extreme level of abstraction, a car is like any other
FIGURE 2.32 Abstraction Ladder automobile. We can also see how, at the base level, the concept is most concrete.
“Mustang,” the name given to one of the best-selling American sports cars, is a
specific make and model with specific markings; a specific size, shape, and range
of available colors; and a relationship with a classic design. By focusing on con-
crete terms and examples, you help your audience grasp your content.
Language Organizes and Classifies

Reality
We use language to create and express some sense of order in our world. We often
group words that represent concepts by their physical proximity or their similar-
ity to one another. For example, in biology, animals with similar traits are
classified together. An ostrich may be said to be related to an emu and a nandu,
but you wouldn’t group an ostrich with an elephant or a salamander. Our ability
to organize is useful, but artificial. The systems of organization we use are not
part of the natural world but an expression of our views about the natural world.
Adapted from J. DeVito’s Abstraction Ladder.DeVito, J.
What is a doctor? A nurse? A teacher? If a male came to mind in the case of
(1999). Messages: building interpersonal
the word “doctor” and a female came to mind in reference to “nurse” or “teacher,”
communication skills (p. 119). New York, NY: Addison
Wesley Longman. then your habits of mind include a gender bias. There was once a time in the
United States where that gender stereotype was more than just a stereotype, it
was the general rule, the social custom, the norm. Now it no longer holds true.
FIGURE 2.33 More and more men are training to serve as nurses. Business Week noted in 2008
Language reflects how we organize and classify
things in our world. that one-third of the U.S. physician workforce was female.[27]
We all use systems of classification to navigate through the world. Imagine
how confusing life would be if we had no categories such as male/female, young/
old, tall/short, doctor/nurse/teacher. These categories only become problematic
when we use them to uphold biases and ingrained assumptions that are no
longer valid. We may assume, through our biases, that elements are related when
they have no relationship at all. As a result, our thinking is limited and our grasp
of reality impaired. It is often easier to spot these biases in others, but it behooves
us as communicators to become aware of them in ourselves. Holding them
unconsciously will limit our thinking, our grasp of reality, and our ability to com-
municate successfully.
Murray Barnes, Doctor Tom Saves The Day!, Flickr, CC-

BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
aeu04117/2478514667
Key Takeaway
Language is a system governed by rules of syntax, semantics, and context; we use paradigms
to understand the world and frame our communications.
1.
with
those of your classmates.
2.
Use each word in two sentences, one employing the denotative meaning and the other
employing the connotative. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
3. List
five cars you observe people you know driving and discuss each one, noting whether you
perceive that the car says something about them or not. Share and compare with class-
mates.
4. While we know language has rules, we also recognize we break them. Identify one common
word or phrase that seems to break standard language rules and share it with the class.
5. Language influences how we perceive our world. For example, if you have never been to
New York City, what you know of it may come from the media, a collection of images and
words, that may not represent reality. Identify one aspect of where you live that people
wouldn't know if they didn't live there and experience it themselves. Share and compare with
classmates.
6. Do uniforms and what we wear influence our expectations of each other, and if so, what
does it mean when we violate those expectations?
7. What is the dress code where you work and how does it influence customer expectations?
8.
9. Identify one word that is used where you live, or with a group you belong to, that an outsider
wouldn't understand. Share and explain it to the class.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: What words do you use in your ePortfolio and why? Do you include pro-
fession-specific jargon, or do you avoid the use of jargon? Share and compare.
2.6 Language Can be an Obstacle to

Communication
1. Demonstrate six ways in which language can be an obstacle or barrier to communication.

2.
3. Explain the difference between sexist or racist language and legitimate references to gender
or race in business communication.
As you use language to make sense of your experiences, as part of our discussion, you no doubt
came to see that language and verbal communication can work both for you and against you. Lan-
guage allows you to communicate, but it also allows you to miscommunicate and misunderstand.
The same system we use to express our most intimate thoughts can be frustrating when it fails to
capture our thoughts, to represent what we want to express, and to reach our audience. For all its
faults, though, it is the best system we have, and part of improving the communication process is
the clear identification of where it breaks down. Anticipate where a word or expression may need
more clarification and you will be on your way to reducing errors and improving verbal communi-
cation.
Let's consider an example. A customer comes in and expresses frustration with their smart-
phone. It won't do that they want it to, and doesn't seem to have the features described. They may
want to exchange or a refund. You may want to ask clarifying questions to come to understand
what they mean by a feature or how they perceive it doesn't work, and discover what they mean
and their understanding of how to operate the smartphone would benefit from your assistance. By
listening, and understanding what they mean, you may find in fact that the smartphone works just
fine, but they don't know how to access the feature, and with your guidance, you can both retain
the customer and build the relationship, underscoring the importance of business communication
and your skills as a professional communicator.
In an article titled “The Miscommunication Gap,” Susan Washburn lists several undesirable
results of poor communication in business:[28]
• Damaged relationships
• Loss of productivity
• Inefficiency and rework
• Conflict
• Missed opportunities
• Schedule slippage (delays, missed deadlines)
• Scope creep…or leap (gradual or sudden changes in an assignment that make it more complex
and difficult than it was originally understood to be)
• Wasted resources
• Unclear or unmet requirements
In this section we discuss how words can serve either as a bridge, or a barrier, to understanding
and communication of meaning. Our goals of effective and efficient business communication mean
an inherent value of words and terms that keeps the bridge clear and free of obstacles.
Cliché
A cliché is a once-clever word or phrase that has lost its impact through overuse. If you spoke or
wrote in clichés, how would your audience react? Let’s try it. How do you react when you read this
sentence: “A cliché is something to avoid like the plague, for it is nothing but a tired old war horse, A once-clever word or
phrase that has lost its
and if the shoe were on the other foot you too would have an axe to grind”? As you can see, the impact through overuse.
problem with clichés is that they often sound silly or boring.
Clichés are sometimes a symptom of lazy communication—the person using
FIGURE 2.34
the cliché hasn’t bothered to search for original words to convey the intended A cliché is a once-clever word or phrase that
meaning. Clichés lose their impact because readers and listeners tend to gloss has lost its impact through overuse.
over them, assuming their common meaning while ignoring your specific use of
them. As a result, they can be obstacles to successful communication.
Jargon
Let’s pretend you’ve been assigned to the task of preparing a short presentation
on your company’s latest product for a group of potential customers. It’s a big
responsibility. You only have one opportunity to get it right. You will need to do
extensive planning and preparation, and your effort, if done well, will produce a Tom Newby, Cliché, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://
www.flickr.com/photos/noodle93/4652373324
presentation that is smooth and confident, looking simple to the casual audience
member.
What words do you use to communicate information about your product? Is your audience
familiar with your field and its specialized terms? As potential customers, they are probably some-
what knowledgeable in the field, but not to the extent that you and your coworkers are; even less so
compared to the “techies” who developed the product. For your presentation to succeed, your chal-
lenge is to walk a fine line between using too much profession-specific language on the one hand,
and “talking down” to your audience on the other hand.
While your potential customers may not understand all the engineering and schematic detail
terms involved in the product, they do know what they and their organizations are looking for in
considering a purchase. Your solution may be to focus on common ground—what you know of
their past history in terms of contracting services or buying products from your company. What
can you tell from their historical purchases? If your research shows that they place a high value on
saving time, you can focus your presentation on the time-saving aspects of your new product and
leave the technical terms to the user’s manual.
FIGURE 2.35
Jargon is an occupation-specific language used by people in a given profession.
(CC) Gavin Llewellyn. www.onetoomanymornings.co.uk, Jargon, buzzwords and meaningless expressions, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/gavinjllewellyn/6826303487
Jargon is an occupation-specific language used by people in a given profession. Jargon does

not necessarily imply formal education, but instead focuses on the language people in a profession
An occupation-specific use to communicate with each other. Members of the information technology department have a
language used by people
in a given profession. distinct group of terms that refer to common aspects in their field. Members of the marketing
department, or advertising, or engineering, research, and development also have sets of terms they
use within their professional community. Jargon exists in just about every occupation, indepen-
dent of how much formal education is involved—from medicine and law; to financial services,
banking, and insurance; to animal husbandry, auto repair, and the construction trades.
Whether or not to use jargon is often a judgment call, and one that is easier to make in speaking
than in writing. In an oral context, we may be able to use a technical term and instantly know from
feedback whether or not the receiver of the message “got it.” If they didn’t, we can define it on the
spot. In written language, we lack that immediate response and must attend more to the context
of receiver. The more we learn about our audience, the better we can tailor our chosen words. If
we lack information or want our document to be understood by a variety of readers, it pays to use
common words and avoid jargon.
Slang
Think for a moment about the words and expressions you use when you communicate with your
best friends. If a coworker was to hang out with you and your friends, would they understand all
the words you use, the music you listen to, the stories you tell and the way you tell them? Probably
not, because you and your friends probably use certain words and expressions in ways that have
special meaning to you.
This special form of language, which in some ways resembles jargon, is slang. Slang is the use
of existing or newly invented words to take the place of standard or traditional words with the
intent of adding an unconventional, nonstandard, humorous, or rebellious effect. It differs from The use of existing or
newly invented words to
jargon in that it is used in informal contexts, among friends or members of a certain age group, take the place of standard
rather than by professionals in a certain industry. or traditional words with
the intent of adding an
unconventional,
nonstandard, humorous,
or rebellious effect.
FIGURE 2.36
Slang is the use of existing or newly invented words to take the place of standard or traditional words with the intent of adding an unconventional,
nonstandard, humorous, or rebellious effect.
See-ming Lee, “When Cantonese are written out it is just weird,” Flickr, CC-BY, https://www.flickr.com/photos/seeminglee/8371756531
If you say something is “phat,” you may mean “cool,” which is now a commonly understood
slang word, but your coworker may not know this. As word “phat” moves into the mainstream, it
will be replaced and adapted by the communities that use it.
Since our emphasis in business communication is on clarity, and a slang word runs the risk of
creating misinterpretation, it is generally best to avoid slang. You may see the marketing depart-
ment use a slang word to target a specific, well-researched audience, but for our purposes of your
general presentation introducing a product or service, we will stick to clear, common words that are
easily understood.
Sexist and Racist Language

Some forms of slang involve put-downs of people belonging to various groups. This type of slang
often crosses the line and becomes offensive, not only to the groups that are being put down, but
also to others who may hear it. In today’s workplace there is no place where sexist or racist lan-
guage is appropriate. In fact, using such language can be a violation of company policies and in
some cases antidiscrimination laws.
Sexist language uses gender as a discriminating factor. Referring to adult women as “girls” or
Uses gender as a using the word “man” to refer to humankind are examples of sexist language. In a more blatant
example, several decades ago a woman was the first female sales representative in her company’s
sales force. The men resented her and were certain they could outsell her, so they held a “Beat the
Broad” sales contest. (By the way, she won.) Today, a contest with a name like that would be out of
the question.
FIGURE 2.37
Sexist language uses gender as a discriminating factor.
Graham Richardson, historically_sexist_ads_640_16, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/didbygraham/

6487285383
Racist language discriminates against members of a given race or ethnic group. While it may
be obvious that racial and ethnic slurs have no place in business communication, there can also be
issues with more subtle references to “those people” or “you know how they are.” If race or ethnicity Discriminates against
members of a given race
genuinely enters into the subject of your communication—in a drugstore, for example, there is or ethnic group.
often an aisle for black hair care products—then naturally it makes sense to mention customers
belonging to that group. The key is that mentioning racial and ethnic groups should be done with
the same respect you would desire if someone else were referring to groups you belong to.
Euphemisms
In seeking to avoid offensive slang, it is important not to assume that a euphemism is the solution.
A euphemism involves substituting an acceptable word for an offensive, controversial, or unaccept-
Involves substituting an
able one that conveys the same or similar meaning. The problem is that the audience still knows
acceptable word for an
what the expression means, and understands that the writer or speaker is choosing a euphemism
for the purpose of sounding more educated or genteel. unacceptable one that
conveys the same or
Euphemisms can also be used sarcastically or humorously—“H-E-double-hockey-sticks,” for similar meaning.
example, is a euphemism for “hell” that may be amusing in some contexts. If your friend has just
gotten a new job as a janitor, you may jokingly ask, “How’s my favorite sanitation engineer this
morning?” But such humor is not always appreciated, and can convey disrespect even when none
is intended.
Euphemistic words are not always disrespectful, however. For example, when referring to a
death, it is considered polite in many parts of the United States to say that the person “passed” or
“passed away,” rather than the relatively insensitive word, “died.” Similarly, people say, “I need to find
a bathroom” when it is well understood they are not planning to take a bath.
Still, these polite euphemisms are exceptions to the rule. Euphemisms are generally more of a
hindrance than a help to understanding. In business communication the goal is clarity, and the very
purpose of euphemism is to be vague. To be clear, choose words that mean what you intend to
convey.
Doublespeak
Doublespeak is the deliberate use of words to disguise, obscure, or change meaning. Doublespeak
is often present in bureaucratic communication, where it can serve to cast a person or an organiza-
tion in a less unfavorable light than plain language would do. words to disguise,
When you ask a friend, “How does it feel to be downsized?” you are using a euphemism to con- obscure, or change
meaning.
vey humor, possibly even dark humor. Your friend’s employer was likely not joking, though, when
the action was announced as a “downsizing” rather than as a “layoff” or “dismissal.” In military com-
munications, “collateral damage” is often used to refer to civilian deaths, but no mention of the dead
is present. You may recall the “bailout” of the U.S. economy in 2008, which quickly came to be called
the “rescue” and finally the “buy in” as the United States bought interests in nine regional and
national banks. The meaning changed from saving an economic system or its institutions to invest-
ing in them. This change of terms, and the attempt to change the meaning of the actions, became
common in comedy routines across the nation.
Doublespeak can be quite dangerous when it is used deliberately to obscure meaning and the
listener cannot anticipate or predict consequences based on the (in)effective communication. When
a medical insurance company says, “We insure companies with up to twenty thousand lives,” is it
possible to forget that those “lives” are people? Ethical issues quickly arise when humans are dehu-
manized and referred to as “objects” or “subjects.” When genocide is referred to as “ethnic cleansing,”
is it any less deadly than when called by its true name?
If the meaning was successfully hidden from the audience, one might argue that the double-
speak was in fact effective. But our goal continues to be clear and concise communication with a
minimum of misinterpretation. Learn to recognize doublespeak by what it does not communicate
as well as what it communicates.
Each of these six barriers to communication contributes to misunderstanding and miscommu-
nication, intentionally or unintentionally. If you recognize one of them, you can address it right
away. You can redirect a question and get to essential meaning, rather than leaving with a mis-
understanding that impacts the relationship. In business communication, our goal of clear and
concise communication remains constant, but we can never forget that trust is the foundation
for effective communication. Part of our effort must include reinforcing the relationship inherent
between source and receiver, and one effective step toward that goal is to reduce obstacles to effec-
tive communication.
Key Takeaway
To avoid obstacles to communication, avoid clichés, jargon, slang, sexist and racist language,
euphemisms, and doublespeak.
1. Identify at least five common clichés and look up their origins. Try to understand how and
when each phrase became a cliché. Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Using your library’s microfilm files or an online database, look through newspaper articles
from the 1950s or earlier. Find at least one article that uses sexist or racist language. What
makes it racist or sexist? How would a journalist convey the same information today? Share
your findings with your class.
3. Identify one slang term and one euphemism you know is used in your community, among
your friends, or where you work. Share and compare with classmates.
4. How does language change over time? Interview someone older than you and someone
younger than you and identify words that have changed. Pay special attention to jargon and
slang words.
5. Is there ever a justifiable use for doublespeak? Why or why not? Explain your response and
give some examples.
6. Can people readily identify the barriers to communication? Survey ten individuals and see if
they accurately identify at least one barrier, even if they use a different term or word.
7. When is jargon useful and effective? When is it not? Share and compare your viewpoints.
8. Identify a slang word that is now common. Explain the word or term and share with the class.
9. Identify a slang word that you once used, but now you don't. Explain the term and why you
no longer use it.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Jargon can demonstrate professional proficiency, or create barriers to
understanding. Do you use jargon in your ePortfolio? Why or why not?
2.7 Emphasis Strategies
1.
2.
3.
etition in an oral or written presentation.
One key to communication is capturing and holding the audience’s attention. No one likes to be
bored, and no communicator likes to send boring messages. To keep your communications dynamic
and interesting, it often helps to use specific strategies for emphasis. Let’s examine some of these
strategies and how to use them to strengthen your message.
Visual Communication
Adding the visual dimension to a document or speech can be an excellent way to hold your audi-
ence’s interest and make your meaning clear. But be careful not to get carried away. Perhaps the
most important rule to remember in using visuals is this: the visuals are to support your docu-
ment or presentation, not to take the place of it. A picture may be worth a thousand words, but it is
the words that really count. Make sure that your communication is researched, organized, and pre-
sented well enough to stand on its own. Whatever visuals you choose should be clearly associated
with your verbal content, repeating, reinforcing, or extending the scope of your message.
Table 2.3 lists some common types of visuals and gives examples of their strategic uses.
TABLE 2.3 Strategic Use of Visuals

Type Purpose Example(s)
Photograph, Video Clip, or Show an actual person, event, Historic photo of U.S. troops
Video Still or work of art. raising the flag on Iwo Jima.
Video Trailer, Video Still Show the visual relationships Diagram of a process or series
among two or more things; a of relationships.
shape, a contrast in size, a
process or how something
works.
Bar Chart Show the amount of one or Different colored bars show the
more variables at different time monthly dollar amount of sales
intervals. closed by each of six sales
associates for six months.
Pie Chart Show the percentages of the “Pie slices” illustrate the market
whole occupied by various seg- share held by competing prod-
ments. ucts or companies.
Type Purpose Example(s)
Line Graph Show the change in one or Graph stock prices each day.
more variables progressively
across time.
Actual Object Show the audience an item cru- In a presentation on emergency

cial to the discussion. preparedness, hold up a dust
mask. In a presentation on auto
safety, hold up a seatbelt.
Body Motion Use your body as a visual to Sit in a chair, pretend to buckle
demonstrate an event. up, look at the audience, pre-
tend to drive, and then have a
mock accident, turning your
chair on its side.
http://www.iwojima.com/raising/raisingb.htm
Signposts
Signposts (or indicators), are key words that alert the audience to a change in topic, a tangential
explanation, an example, or a conclusion. Readers and listeners can sometimes be lulled into “losing
their place”—forgetting what point is being made or how far along in the discussion the writer or
Key words that alert the
speaker has gotten. You can help your audience avoid this by signaling to them when a change is audience to a change in
coming. topic, a tangential
Common signposts include “on the one hand,” “on the other hand,” “the solution to this problem or a conclusion.
is,” “the reason for this is,” “for example,” “to illustrate,” and “in conclusion” or “in summary.”
Internal Summaries and Foreshadowing

Like signposts, internal summaries and foreshadowing help the audience to keep track of where
they are in the message. These strategies work by reviewing what has been covered and by high-
lighting what is coming next.
As a simple example, suppose you are writing or presenting information on how to assemble a
home emergency preparedness kit. If you begin by stating that there are four main items needed
for the kit, you are foreshadowing your message and helping your audience to watch or listen for
four items. As you cover each of the items, you can say, “The first item,” “The second item,” “Now
we’ve got X and Y in our kit; what else do we need? Our third item is,” and so forth. These internal
summaries help your audience keep track of progress as your message continues. (The four items,
by the way, are water, nonperishable food, first aid supplies, and a dust mask.)[29]
With this strategy, you reinforce relationships between points, examples, and ideas in your
message. This can be an effective strategy to encourage selective retention of your content.
Repetition
Saying the same word over and over may not seem like an effective strategy, but when used artfully,
repetition can be an effective way to drive home your meaning and help your audience retain it in
their memory. Many of history’s greatest speakers have used repetition in speeches that have stood
the test of time. For example, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave a speech in 1940 that
is remembered as his “We Shall Fight” speech; in it he repeats the phrase “we shall fight” no fewer
than six times. Similarly, in his famous “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King Jr. repeated
the phrases “I have a dream” and “let freedom ring” with unforgettable effect.
Another form of repetition is indirect repetition: finding alternative ways of saying the same
point or idea. Suppose your main point was, “global warming is raising ocean levels.” You might go
on to offer several examples, citing the level in each of the major oceans and seas while showing
them on a map. You might use photographs or video to illustrate the fact that beaches and entire
islands are going underwater. Indirect repetition can underscore and support your points, helping
them stand out in the memory of your audience.
Key Takeaway
Emphasize your message by using visuals, signposts, internal summaries and foreshadowing,
and repetition.
1. Find a news article online or in a newspaper or magazine that uses several visuals. What do
the visuals illustrate? Would the article be equally effective without them? Why or why not?
Share your findings with your class.
2. Find an article or listen to a presentation that uses signposts. Identify the signposts and
explain how they help the audience follow the article or presentation. Share your findings
with your class.
3. Find the legend on a map. Pick one symbol and describe its use. Share and compare with
the class.
4. Find an example of a visual that does not fit with the words around it and share it with the
class.
5. Find an example of a visual that effectively complements the words around it and share it
with the class.
6. Find an example of a signpost visual and share it with the class.
7.
8. Imagine you are tasked with creating an orientation presentation on your job or where you
live. What elements would you include in your presentation, what visuals would you feature,
and why? Share and compare with classmates.
9. Find one example of a visual that communicates a relationship between two or more ideas.
For example, a line graph on foreign currency exchange rates. Share your example with the
class.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: How will you present your visual information in your ePortfolio? Will you
communicate information and relationships with graphs or charts? Why or why not?
2.8 Improving Verbal Communication
1.
2.
3. Understand how to assess the audience, choose an appropriate tone, and check for under-
standing and results in an oral or written presentation.
Throughout the chapter we have visited examples and stories that highlight the importance of ver-
bal communication. To end the chapter, we need to consider how language can be used to enlighten
or deceive, encourage or discourage, empower or destroy. By defining the terms we use and choos-
ing precise words, we will maximize our audience’s understanding of our message. In addition, it
is important to consider the audience, control your tone, check for understanding, and focus on
results. Recognizing the power of verbal communication is the first step to understanding its role
and impact on the communication process.
Define Your Terms

Even when you are careful to craft your message clearly and concisely, not everyone will under-
stand every word you say or write. As an effective business communicator, you know it is your
responsibility to give your audience every advantage in understanding your meaning. Yet your pre-
sentation would fall flat if you tried to define each and every term—you would end up sounding
like a dictionary.
FIGURE 2.38 The solution is to be aware of any words you are using that may be unfamiliar to your audi-
Improve verbal ence. When you identify an unfamiliar word, your first decision is whether to use it or to substitute
communication by defining a more common, easily understood word. If you choose to use the unfamiliar word, then you need
your terms.
to decide how to convey its meaning to those in your audience who are not familiar with it. You
may do this in a variety of ways. The most obvious, of course, is to state the meaning directly or to
rephrase the term in different words. But you may also convey the meaning in the process of mak-
ing and supporting your points. Another way is to give examples to illustrate each concept, or use
parallels from everyday life.
Overall, keep your audience in mind and imagine yourself in their place. This will help you to
adjust your writing level and style to their needs, maximizing the likelihood that your message will
Doug Belshaw, Definition of blog, be understood.
Flickr, CC-BY, https://www.flickr.
com/photos/dougbelshaw/
6877298592
Choose Precise Words

To increase understanding, choose precise words that paint as vivid and accurate a mental picture
as possible for your audience. If you use language that is vague or abstract, your meaning may be
Words that paint as vivid
lost or misinterpreted. Your document or presentation will also be less dynamic and interesting
and accurate a mental
picture as possible for your than it could be.
audience. Table 2.4 lists some examples of phrases that are imprecise and precise. Which one evokes a
more dynamic image in your imagination?
TABLE 2.4 Precisely What Are You Saying?
The famous writer William Safire died in 2009; he The former Nixon speech writer, language author-
was over seventy. ity, and New York Times columnist William Safire
died of pancreatic cancer in 2009; he was sev-
enty-nine.
Clumber spaniels are large dogs. The Clumber Spaniel Club of America describes
the breed as a “long, low, substantial dog,”
standing 17 to 20 inches high and weighing 55 to
80 pounds.
It is important to eat a healthy diet during preg- Eating a diet rich in whole grains, fruits and veg-
nancy. etables, lean meats, low-fat dairy products can
improve your health during pregnancy and boost
your chances of having a healthy baby.
We are making good progress on the project. In the two weeks since inception, our four-mem-
ber team has achieved three of the six objectives
we identified for project completion; we are on
track to complete the project in another three to
four weeks.
For the same amount spent, we expected more We have examined several proposals in the
value added. $10,000 range, and they all offer more features
than what we see in the $12,500 system ABC
Corp. is offering.
Officers were called to the scene. Responding to a 911 call, State Police Officers
Arellano and Chavez sped to the intersection of
County Route 53 and State Highway 21.
The victim went down the street. The victim ran screaming to the home of a neigh-
bor, Mary Lee of 31 Orchard Street.
Several different colorways are available. The silk jacquard fabric is available in ivory, moss,
cinnamon, and topaz colorways.
This smartphone has more applications than cus- At last count, the BlackBerry Tempest has more
tomers can imagine. than 500 applications, many costing 99 cents or
less; users can get real-time sports scores,
upload videos to TwitVid, browse commuter train
schedules, edit e-mails before forwarding, and
find recipes—but so far, it doesn’t do the cooking
for you.
A woman was heckled when she spoke at a On August 25, 2009, Rep. Frank Pallone (Demo-
health care event. crat of New Jersey’s 6th congressional district)
hosted a “town hall” meeting on health care
reform where many audience members heckled
and booed a woman in a wheelchair as she
spoke about the need for affordable health insur-
ance and her fears that she might lose her home.
Consider Your Audience

In addition to precise words and clear definitions, contextual clues are important to guide your
audience as they read. If you are speaking to a general audience and choose to use a word in profes-
sional jargon that may be understood by many—but not all—of the people in your audience, follow
it by a common reference that clearly relates its essential meaning. With this positive strategy you
will be able to forge relationships with audience members from diverse backgrounds. Internal sum-
maries tell us what we’ve heard and forecast what is to come. It’s not just the words, but also how
people hear them that counts.
If you say the magic words “in conclusion,” you set in motion a set of expec-
FIGURE 2.39
tations that you are about to wrap it up. If, however, you introduce a new point Effective customer service involves considering
and continue to speak, the audience will perceive an expectancy violation and their expectations.
hold you accountable. You said the magic words but didn’t honor them. One of
the best ways to display respect for your audience is to not exceed the expected
time in a presentation or length in a document. Your careful attention to contex-
tual clues will demonstrate that you are clearly considering your audience.
Take Control of Your Tone

Does your writing or speech sound pleasant and agreeable? Simple or sophisti- David Armano, Speaking in Portugal, Flickr, CC-BY,
https://www.flickr.com/photos/7855449@N02/
cated? Or does it come across as stuffy, formal, bloated, ironic, sarcastic, flowery,
4825678236
rude, or inconsiderate? Recognizing our own tone is not always easy, as we tend
to read or listen from our own viewpoint and make allowances accordingly.
Once we have characterized our tone, we need to decide whether and how it can be improved.
Getting a handle on how to influence tone and to make your voice match your intentions takes time
and skill.
One useful tip is to read your document out loud before you deliver it, just as you would prac-
tice a speech before you present it to an audience. Sometimes hearing your own words can reveal
their tone, helping you decide whether it is correct or appropriate for the situation.
Another way is to listen or watch others’ presentations that have been described with terms
associated with tone. Martin Luther King Jr. had one style while President Barack Obama has
another. The writing in The Atlantic is far more sophisticated than the simpler writing in USA
Today, yet both are very successful with their respective audiences. What kind of tone is best for
your intended audience?
Finally, seek out and be receptive to feedback from teachers, classmates, and coworkers. Don’t
just take the word of one critic, but if several critics point to a speech as an example of pompous elo-
quence, and you don’t want to come across in your presentation as pompous, you may learn from
that example speech what to avoid.
Check for Understanding

When we talk to each other face-to-face, seeing if someone understood you isn’t all that difficult.
Even if they really didn’t get it, you can see, ask questions, and clarify right away. That gives oral
communication, particularly live interaction, a distinct advantage. Use this immediacy for feedback
to your advantage. Make time for feedback and plan for it. Ask clarifying questions. Share your pre-
sentation with more than one person, and choose people that have similar characteristics to your
anticipated audience.
FIGURE 2.40
Ask clarifying questions to avoid conflict and to check for understanding.
www.audio-luci-store.it, student asking question teacher, Flickr, CC-BY, https://www.flickr.com/photos/audiolucistore/14163042905
If you were going to present to a group that you knew in advance was of a certain age, sex, or
professional background, it would only make sense to connect with someone from that group prior
to your actual performance to check and see if what you have created and what they expect are
similar. In oral communication, feedback is core component of the communication model and we
can often see it, hear it, and it takes less effort to assess it.
Be Results Oriented
At the end of the day, the assignment has to be complete. It can be a challenge to balance the need
for attention to detail with the need to arrive at the end product—and its due date. Stephen Covey[30]
suggests beginning with the end in mind as one strategy for success. If you have done your
preparation, know your assignment goals, desired results, have learned about your audience and
tailored the message to their expectations, then you are well on your way to completing the task.
No document or presentation is perfect, but the goal itself is worthy of your continued effort for
improvement.
Here the key is to know when further revision will not benefit the presentation and to shift the
focus to test marketing, asking for feedback, or simply sharing it with a mentor or coworker for a
quick review. Finding balance while engaging in an activity that requires a high level of attention to
detail can be challenge for any business communicator, but it is helpful to keep the end in mind.
Key Takeaway
To improve communication, define your terms, choose precise words, consider your audience,
control your tone, check for understanding, and aim for results.
1. Choose a piece of writing from a profession you are unfamiliar with. For example, if you are
studying biology, choose an excerpt from a book on fashion design. Identify several terms
you are unfamiliar with, terms that may be considered jargon. How does the writer help you
understand the meaning of these terms? Could the writer make them easier to understand?
Share your findings with your class.
2. In your chosen career field or your college major, identify ten jargon words, define them, and
share them with the class.
3. Describe a simple process, from brushing your teeth to opening the top of a bottle, in as
precise terms as possible. Present to the class.
4. Think back to a miscommunication and consider what were the key elements of the misun-
derstanding. Please share and compare with your classmates.
5. How does your tone influence the meaning of the message. Think of an example to share
with the class.
6. How can clarifying questions improve customer service? Can you think of an example?
Please share with the class.
7. False Advertising! Find an example of words or phrases that were used in marketing or
advertising and later found to be false or misleading. Share and compare with classmates.
8. Social media is full of examples of tweets or Facebook posts gone wrong. Find one example
of a message in social media that went awry and share it with the class. What can we learn
from the mistake?
9. Consider the list in the section on ways to improve verbal communication and add one of
your own. Briefly describe why it should be added to the list. Share and compare with class-
mates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Results count - how will you communicate results in your ePortfolio?
11. When can precision in language be too much information and hinder interactions? Share

Benjamin Lee Whorf was one of the twentieth century’s foremost linguists. Learn more about his
theories of speech behavior by visiting this site. http://web.stanford.edu/dept/SUL/library/extra4/
sloan/mousesite/Secondary/RelThoughtLanguage.htm
Visit Infoplease to learn more about the eminent linguist (and U.S. senator) S. I. Hayakawa.
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0880739.html
Harvard psychology professor Steven Pinker is one of today’s most innovative authorities on
language. Explore reviews of books about language Pinker has published. http://stevenpinker.com/
pages/review-excerpts-language-instinct
Reference.com offers a wealth of definitions, synonym finders, and other guides to choosing
the right words. http://dictionary.reference.com
Visit Goodreads and learn about one of the best word usage guides, Bryan Garner’s Modern
American Usage. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/344643.Garner_s_Modern_American_
Usage
Visit Goodreads and learn about one of the most widely used style manuals, The Chicago Man-
ual of Style. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/103362.The_Chicago_Manual_of_Style
For in-depth information on how to present visuals effectively, visit the Web site of Edward
Tufte, a Professor Emeritus at Yale University, where he taught courses in statistical evidence, infor-
mation design, and interface design. http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/index
The “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin Luther King Jr. is one of the most famous speeches
of all time. View it on video and read the text. http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/
mlkihaveadream.htm
The Religious Communication Association, an interfaith organization, seeks to promote hon-
est, respectful dialogue reflecting diversity of religious beliefs. www.relcom.org
To learn more about being results oriented, visit the Web site of Stephen Covey, author of the
best seller The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. https://www.stephencovey.com
Endnotes
1. Odgen, C., & Richards, I. (1932). The meaning of meaning: A study of the influence of language upon thought and of the science of symbolism. New York,
NY: Harcourt Brace & World.
3. Hayakawa, S. I. (1978). Language in thought and action. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
4. Moore, R. (2003). Racism in the English language. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
5. Hasling, J. (1998). Audience, message, speaker. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
6. Wireless Quotes. Retrieved from http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/wireless.html#bbW8zCErUusv56h0.99
7. Quotes about Mobile. Retrieved from http://www.goodreads.com/quotes/tag/mobile
8. Wireless Quotes. Retrieved from http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/wireless.html#bbW8zCErUusv56h0.99
9. Mobile Communications. Retrieved http://www.statista.com/topics/1147/mobile-communications/
10. Gartner. (2015, March). Gartner says smartphone sales surpassed one billion units in 2014. Newsroom. Retrieved from http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/
id/2996817
11. (2014, April). Total US Retail Sales Top $4.5 Trillion in 2013, Outpace GDP Growth. eMarketer. Retrieved from http://www.emarketer.com/Article/Total-US-
Retail-Sales-Top-3645-Trillion-2013-Outpace-GDP-Growth/1010756
12. Vineyard, Rebecca. (2015, October). This is the most irresistible trait on dating websites. Hello Giggles. Retrieved from http://hellogiggles.com/irresistible-
trait-dating-websites/
13. Design Principles. Retrieved from https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/MobileHIG/Principles.html
14. Design Principles. Retrieved from https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/MobileHIG/Princ
15. Icon and Image Sizes. (2015, November). Retrieved from https://developer.apple.com/library/ios/documentation/UserExperience/Conceptual/MobileHIG/
IconMatrix.html
16. Kopprasch, Carolyn. (2011, July). Anna Yeaman's 6 mobile design tips. Emma. Retrieved from http://myemma.com/blog/article/anna-yeamans-6-mobile-
design-tips
17. Walter, Ekaterina. (2012, August). The Rise of Visual Social Media. Fast Company. Retrieved from http://www.fastcompany.com/3000794/rise-visual-social-
media
18. Moore's Law. Retrieved from http://www.mooreslaw.org/
20. Martinich, A. P. (Ed.). (1996). The philosophy of language (3rd ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
21. Whorf, B. L. (1956). Science and linguistics. In J. B. Carroll (Ed.), Language, thought and reality (pp. 207–219). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
22. Kuhn, T. (1996). The structure of scientific revolutions (3rd ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
23. McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication (p. 50). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
24. Ackerman, B. A. (1980). Social justice in the liberal state. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
25. Emery, V. (1996). The Pentium chip story: A learning experience. Retrieved from http://www.emery.com/1e/pentium.htm
26. Sterngold, J. (1998, November 15). Lost, and gained, in the translation. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com
26. DeVito, J. (1999). Messages: building interpersonal communication skills (p. 119). New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman.
27. Arnst, C. (2005, April 17). Are there too many women doctors? As an MD shortage looms, female physicians and their flexible hours are taking some of the
blame. Business Week. Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/08_17/b4081104183847.htm
28. Washburn, S. (2008, February). The miscommunication gap. ESI Horizons, 9(2). Retrieved from http://www.esi-intl.com/public/Library/html/
200802HorizonsArticle1.asp?UnityID=8522516.1290
29. Federal Emergency Management Administration. (2009). Get a kit. Retrieved from http://www.ready.gov/america/getakit
30. Covey, S. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
3
Understanding Your Audience
Your mind is like a parachute. It works best when it’s open.

— Anonymous
To see an object in the world we must see it as something.

— Ludwig Wittgenstein
You will either step forward into growth or you will step back into safety.
— Abraham Maslow
3.1 Getting Started
Introductory Exercises
1. In order to communicate with others, you need to know yourself. Please complete a personal
inventory, a simple list of what comes to mind in these five areas:
• Your knowledge: What is your favorite subject?
• Your skills: What can you do?
• Your experience: What has been your experience writing to date?
• Your interests: What do you enjoy?
• Your relationships: Who is important to you?
2. To be a successful communicator, it is helpful to be conscious of how you view yourself and
others. Please consider what groups you belong to, particularly in terms of race, ethnicity, or culture.
Imagine that you had to communicate your perception of just one of these groups. Please choose
five terms from the list below, and indicate the degree to which you agree or disagree that the
term describes the group accurately.
Term Describes the Group Accurately

1—Strongly 2—Somewhat 3—Neither 4—Somewhat 5—Strongly
disagree disagree agree nor agree agree
disagree
Independent
Dependent
Hardworking
Lazy
Progressive
Traditional
Sophisticated
Term Describes the Group Accurately

Simple
Creative
Practical
3. Now consider a group that you have little or no contact with. Please choose five terms (the
same ones or different ones) and again indicate how accurately they describe the group. How
do your results compare with those in Exercise 2?[1]
4.
5. Connect the dots by drawing four straight lines, making sure not to lift your pen from the paper
or retrace lines.[3]
3.1
3.2
Communicating involves the translation of your thoughts and ideas to words. Speaking or
writing involves sharing your perspective with others. If you talk to yourself, the action is a reflec-
tion of the communication process, but you play the role of audience. In your head, you may make
sense of your words and their meaning, but when I hear what you said, what you meant may escape
me. I might not “get it” because I don’t know you, your references, your perspectives, your word
choices, or your underlying meaning and motivation for speaking in the first place. In this chapter
we’ll discuss perspectives, and how people perceive information, as we learn how communication
is an imperfect bridge to understanding. It requires our constant attention, maintenance, and effort.
Knowing your audience involves understanding others, and their perspectives, to see if they
understand your words, examples, or the frames of reference you use to communicate your experi-
ences, points, and conclusions. Ask yourself when you last had a miscommunication with someone.
No doubt it was fairly recently, as it is for most people.
It’s not people’s fault that language, both verbal and nonverbal, is an imperfect system. We can,
however, take responsibility for the utility and limitations of language to try to gain a better under-
standing of how we can communicate more effectively. As a business communicator, consider both
the roles of the speaker and audience, not only what and how you want to communicate but also
what and how your customer, for example, needs you to communicate with them in order to pre-
sent an effective message.
Take, for example, the word “love.” Yes, we recognize those four little letters all in a row, but
FIGURE 3.3
what does it really mean? You can use it to describe the feelings and emotions associated with your Solution to Introductory
mother, a partner, or perhaps your dog. Or you might say you love chocolate cake. Does your use of Exercise 5 (the “Nine-
the word in any given context allow the audience to get any closer to what you mean by this word, Dot Problem”)
“love”? The key here is context, which provides clues to how you mean the word and what its use
means to you. The context allows you to close the gap between your meaning of “love” and what
the receiver, or audience, has in their range of understanding of the same word. Your experiences
are certainly different, but through clues, contexts, and attempts to understand each other’s per-
spectives, we can often communicate more effectively.
This gives rise to an issue: how do I deal with twenty or twenty-five “perspectives” in a class-
room or a reading audience of infinite size and try to narrow the gap with each audience member?
Before we tackle this question, let’s first follow the advice given by the character Polonius in Shake-
speare’s Hamlet: “To thine own self be true.” This relates to the notion that you need to know
yourself, or your perspective, before you can explore ways to know others and communicate more
effectively. You will examine how you perceive stimuli, choosing some information over others,
organizing the information according to your frame of reference, and interpreting it, deciding what
it means to you and whether you should remember it or just ignore it and move on. We can recog-
nize that not everyone tunes in to the same music, trends in clothing, or even classes, so experiences
or stimuli can have different meanings. Still, we can find common ground and communicate effec-
tively.
3.2 Self-Understanding Is
Fundamental to Communication
1. Describe the factors that contribute to self-concept.

2.
In the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, you listed terms to describe yourself.
This exercise focuses on your knowledge, skills, experience, interests, and relationships. Your sense
of self comes through in your oral and written presentations. Public communication starts with
intrapersonal communication, or communication with yourself. You need to know what you want
to say before you can say it to a customer or audience.
Understanding your perspective can lend insight to your awareness, the ability to be conscious awareness
of events and stimuli. Awareness determines what you pay attention to, how you carry out your The ability to be conscious
intentions, and what you remember of your activities and experiences each day. Awareness is a of events and stimuli.
complicated and fascinating area of study. The way we take in information, give it order, and assign
it meaning has long interested researchers from disciplines including sociology, anthropology, and
psychology.
Your perspective is a major factor in this dynamic process. Whether you are aware of it or not,
you bring to the act of reading this sentence a frame of mind formed from experiences and educa-
tion across your lifetime. Imagine that you see a presentation about snorkeling in beautiful Hawaii
as part of a travel campaign. If you have never been snorkeling but love to swim, how will your per-
spective lead you to pay attention to the presentation? If, however, you had a traumatic experience
as a child in a pool and are now afraid of being under water, how will your perspective influence
your reaction?
Learning to recognize how your perspective influences your thoughts is a

FIGURE 3.4 key step in understanding yourself and preparing to communicate with others.
Peaceful or dangerous? Your perception
influences your response. The communication process itself is the foundation for oral and written
communication, essential, in-demand skills for business communicators.
Whether we express ourselves in terms of a live, face-to-face conversation or
across a voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) chat via audio and visual channels,
emoticons (:)), and abbreviations (IMHO [In My Humble Opinion]), the communi-
cation process remains the same. Imagine that you are at work and your Skype
program makes the familiar noise indicating that someone wants to talk. Your
caller ID tells you that it is a friend. You also know that you have the report right
in front of you to get done before 5:00 p.m. Your friend is quite a talker, and for
him everything tends to have a “gotta talk about it right now” sense of urgency.
You know a little bit about your potential audience or conversational partner. Do
you take the call? Perhaps you chat back “Busy, after 5,” only to have him call
again. You interpret the ring as his insistent need for attention, but you have pri-
orities. You can choose to close the Skype program, stop the ringing, and get on
with your report, but do you? Communication occurs on many levels in several
ways.
Self-Concept
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation When we communicate, we are full of expectations, doubts, fears, and hopes.
Where we place emphasis, what we focus on, and how we view our potential has
a direct impact on our communication interactions. You gather a sense of self as you grow, age, and
experience others and the world. At various times in your life, you have probably been praised for
some of your abilities and talents, and criticized for doing some things poorly. These compliments
and criticisms probably had a deep impact on you. Much of what we know about ourselves we’ve
learned through interaction with others. Not everyone has had positive influences in their lives, and
not every critic knows what they are talking about, but criticism and praise still influence how and
what we expect from ourselves.
FIGURE 3.5
Our self-concept influences how we communicate.
Alexandre Normand , Walking Around (52th/52), Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/alexnormand/3172305095
Carol Dweck, a psychology researcher at Stanford University, states that “something that
seems like a small intervention can have cascading effects on things we think of as stable or fixed,
including extroversion, openness to new experience, and resilience.”[4] Your personality and expres-
sions of it, like oral and written communication, were long thought to have a genetic component.
But, says Dweck, “More and more research is suggesting that, far from being simply encoded in the
genes, much of personality is a flexible and dynamic thing that changes over the life span and is
shaped by experience.”[5] If you were told by someone that you were not a good speaker, know this:
You can change. You can shape your performance through experience, and a business communica-
tion course, a mentor at work, or even reading effective business communication authors can result
in positive change.
Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values

When you consider what makes you you, the answers multiply as do the questions. As a baby, you
learned to recognize that the face in the mirror was your face. But as an adult, you begin to wonder
what and who you are. While we could discuss the concept of self endlessly and philosophers have One’s own sense of
individuality, personal
wrestled and will continue to wrestle with it, for our purposes, let’s focus on self, which is defined characteristics,
as one’s own sense of individuality, motivations, and personal characteristics.[6] We also must keep motivations, and actions.
in mind that this concept is not fixed or absolute; instead it changes as we grow and change across
our lifetimes.
One point of discussion useful for our study about ourselves as communicators is to examine
our attitudes, beliefs, and values. These are all interrelated, and researchers have varying theories
as to which comes first and which springs from another. We learn our values, beliefs, and attitudes
through interaction with others. Table 3.1 defines these terms and provides an example of each.
TABLE 3.1 Attitudes, Beliefs, and Values

Definition Changeable? Example
Attitudes Learned predispositions Subject to change I enjoyed the writing
to a concept or object exercise in class today.
Beliefs Convictions or expres- Can change over time This course is important
sions of confidence because I may use the
communication skills I
am learning in my
career.
Values Ideals that guide our Generally long lasting Effective communica-
behavior tion is important.
An attitude is your immediate disposition toward a concept or an object. Attitudes can change
easily and frequently. You may prefer vanilla while someone else prefers peppermint, but if some-
toward a concept or an
one tries to persuade you of how delicious peppermint is, you may be willing to try it and find that
object. you like it better than vanilla.
Beliefs are ideas based on our previous experiences and convictions and may not necessarily
be based on logic or fact. You no doubt have beliefs on political, economic, and religious issues.
Ideas based on our These beliefs may not have been formed through rigorous study, but you nevertheless hold them
previous experiences and as important aspects of self. Beliefs often serve as a frame of reference through which we interpret
convictions, not
our world. Although they can be changed, it often takes time or strong evidence to persuade some-
or fact. one to change a belief.
Values are core concepts and ideas of what we consider good or bad, right or wrong, or what is
values
worth the sacrifice. Our values are central to our self-image, what makes us who we are. Like beliefs,
Core concepts and ideas our values may not be based on empirical research or rational thinking, but they are even more
of what we consider good
or bad, right or wrong, or resistant to change than are beliefs. To undergo a change in values, a person may need to undergo
what is worth the sacrifice. a transformative life experience.
For example, suppose you highly value the freedom to make personal decisions, including the
freedom to choose whether or not to wear a helmet while driving a motorcycle. This value of indi-
vidual choice is central to your way of thinking and you are unlikely to change this value. However,
if your brother was driving a motorcycle without a helmet and suffered an accident that fractured
his skull and left him with permanent brain damage, you might reconsider this value. While you
might still value freedom of choice in many areas of life, you might become an advocate for helmet
laws—and perhaps also for other forms of highway safety, such as stiffer penalties for cell-phone
talking and texting while driving.
Self-Image and Self-Esteem

Your self-concept is composed of two main elements: self-image and self-esteem.
self- Your self-image is how you see yourself, how you would describe yourself to others. It includes
How you see yourself, how
your physical characteristics—your eye color, hair length, height, and so forth. It also includes
you would describe your knowledge, experience, interests, and relationships. If these sound familiar, go back and look
yourself to others. at the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter. In creating the personal inventory in
this exercise, you identified many characteristics that contribute to your self-image. In addition,
image involves not just how you look but also your expectations of yourself—what you can be.
height, and so forth.

What is your image of yourself as a communicator? How do you feel about

your ability to communicate? While the two responses may be similar, they indi- FIGURE 3.6
Your self-image is how you see yourself.
cate different things. Your self-esteem is how you feel about yourself; your
feelings of self-worth, self-acceptance, and self-respect. Healthy self-esteem can
be particularly important when you experience a setback or a failure. Instead of
blaming yourself or thinking, “I’m just no good,” high self-esteem will enable you
to persevere and give yourself positive messages like “If I prepare well and try
harder, I can do better next time.”
Putting your self-image and self-esteem together yields your self-concept:
your central identity and set of beliefs about who you are and what you are capa-
ble of accomplishing. When it comes to communicating, your self-concept can
play an important part. You may find that communicating is a struggle, or the
thought of communicating may make you feel talented and successful. Either
way, if you view yourself as someone capable of learning new skills and improv-
ing as you go, you will have an easier time learning to be an effective Jonathan Mueller, suit, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at:
communicator. Whether positive or negative, your self-concept influences your https://www.flickr.com/photos/jonomueller/
performance and the expression of that essential ability: communication. 5915912323
self-esteem
FIGURE 3.7
How we see ourselves, and others see us, impacts our communication. How you feel about
yourself; your feelings of
self-worth,
self-acceptance, and
self-respect.
self-concept
What we perceive
ourselves to be.
brett jordan, multiple personalities, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/x1brett/3005836422
Looking-Glass Self
In addition to how we view ourselves and feel about ourselves, of course, we often take into consid-
eration the opinions and behavior of others. Charles Cooley’s[7] looking-glass self reinforces how
we look to others and how they view, treat, and interact with us to gain insight of our identity. We How we look to others and
how they view us, treat us,
place an extra emphasis on parents, supervisors, and on those who have some degree of control and interact with us to gain
over us when we look at others. Developing a sense of self as a business communicator involves insight of our own identity.
balance between constructive feedback from others and constructive self-affirmation. You judge
yourself, as others do, and both views count.
FIGURE 3.8
How we view ourselves is influenced by others, how they view us, and how they treat us.
Camera Eye Photography Week #49 This Is Me (SELF PORTRAIT) [49of52], Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
camera_is_a_mirror_with_memory/8243876165
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy
Now, suppose that you are treated in an especially encouraging manner in one of your classes.
Imagine that you have an instructor who continually “catches you doing something right” and
praises you for your efforts and achievements. Would you be likely to do well in this class and per-
haps go on to take more advanced courses in this subject?
In a psychology experiment that has become famous through repeated trials, several public
school teachers were told that specific students in their classes were expected to do quite well
because of their intelligence.[8] These students were identified as having special potential that had
not yet “bloomed.” What the teachers didn’t know was that these “special potential” students were
randomly selected. That’s right: as a group, they had no more special potential than any other stu-
dents.
Can you anticipate the outcome? As you may guess, the students lived up to their teachers’
level of expectation. Even though the teachers were supposed to give appropriate attention and
encouragement to all students, in fact they unconsciously communicated special encouragement
verbally and nonverbally to the special potential students. And these students, who were actually
no more gifted than their peers, showed significant improvement by the end of the school year.
This phenomenon came to be called the “Pygmalion effect” after the myth of a Greek sculptor
named Pygmalion, who carved a marble statue of a woman so lifelike that he fell in love with
her—and in response to his love she did in fact come to life and marry him.[9],[10]
In more recent studies, researchers have observed that the opposite effect can also happen:
when students are seen as lacking potential, teachers tend to discourage them or, at a minimum,
fail to give them adequate encouragement. As a result, the students do poorly.[11]
FIGURE 3.9
Our expectations of ourselves influence what we accomplish.
Robert Nunnally, self image, Flickr, CC-By, retrieved at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/46183897@N00/1394931804
When people encourage you, it affects the way you see yourself and your potential. Seek
encouragement for your writing and speaking. Actively choose positive reinforcement as you
develop your communication skills. You will make mistakes, but the important thing is to learn
from them. Keep in mind that criticism should be constructive, with specific points you can
address, correct, and improve.
The concept of a self-fulfilling prophecy, in which someone’s behavior comes to match and
mirror others’ expectations, is not new. Robert Rosenthal,[12] a professor of social psychology at Har-
vard, has observed four principles while studying this interaction between expectations and
performance: someone’s behavior
comes to match and
1. We form certain expectations of people or events. mirror others’
2. We communicate those expectations with various cues, verbal and nonverbal. expectations.
3. People tend to respond to these cues by adjusting their behavior to match the expectations.
4. The outcome is that the original expectation becomes true.
This video lecture on Self-fulfilling Prophecy was recorded for use in a college class in
College in Dayton, Ohio.
Key Takeaway
you:
your attitudes, beliefs, and values; your self-concept; and how the self-fulfilling prophecy may
influence your decisions.
1. How would you describe yourself as a public speaker? Now, five, and ten years ago? Is your
description the same or does it change across time? This business communication text and
course can make a difference in what you might write for the category “one year from today.”
2. How does your self-concept influence your writing? Write a one- to two-page essay on this
topic and discuss it with a classmate.
3. Make a list of at least three of your strongly held beliefs. What are those beliefs based on?
List some facts, respected authorities, or other evidence that support them. Share your
results with your class.
4. What are some of the values held by people you know? Identify a target sample size (twenty
is a good number) and ask members of your family, friends, and peers about their values.
Compare your results with those of your classmates.
5. Make a list of traits you share with your family members. Interview them and see if anyone
else in your family has shared them. Share and compare with your classmates.
6. What does the field of psychology offer concerning the self-fulfilling prophecy? Investigate
the topic and share your findings.
7. How do your expectations of customers influence how you think, act, and interact with them?
Share and compare with the class.
8. As a business communicator, how would you connect self-concept with brand image when
training a group of new employees?
9. Do mass media messages, including images of celebrities and their lifestyles, preferences,
and actions influence you or people you know? Why or why not? Share and compare with
classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: How will present your self-concept in your ePortfolio? What images,
sounds, images, or words will you use to represent yourself? What image of yourself do you
want to project and why?
3.3 Perception
1. Describe the concept of perception.

2.
3.
4.
Look at the fourth of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter. If you deciphered the hidden
message, how did you do it? You may have tried looking for words that were diagonal or backwards,
using skills you learned solving similar puzzles in the past. While there are many ways to solve this
puzzle, there is only one right answer.[13] Reading from right to left (not left to right), and bottom
to top (not top to bottom), the hidden message reads: Your perspective influences how you perceive
your world.
Where did you start reading on this page? The top left corner. Why not the bottom right corner,
or the top right one? In English we read left to right, from the top of the page to the bottom. But
not everyone reads the same. If you read and write Arabic or Hebrew, you will proceed from right
to left. Neither is right or wrong, simply different. You may find it hard to drive on the other side of
the road while visiting England, but for people in the United Kingdom, it is normal and natural.
We can extend this concept in many ways. Imagine that you are doing a sales presentation to
a group where the average age is much older or younger than you. In terms of words to use to com-
municate ideas, references to music or movies, even expectations for behaviors when dating, their
mental “road map” may be quite different from yours. Even though your sales message might focus
on a product like a car, or a service like car washing, preconceived ideas about both will need to be
addressed.
For example, how many advertisements have you seen on television that have a song from spe-
cific time period, like the 1980s, or perhaps the 1960s? The music is a clear example of targeting a
specific audience with something distinctive, like a familiar song that reflects the demographics.
When speaking or writing, your style, tone, and word choice all influence the reader. The degree to
which you can tailor your message to their needs will be associated with an increase in the overall
effectiveness of your message. These differences in perspective influence communication and your
ability to recognize not only your point of view but theirs will help you become “other-oriented”
and improve communication.
Look at the puzzle again and see if you can avoid seeing the solution. It’ll be hard because now
that you know where it is, you have a mental road map that leads you to the solution. The mental
state where you could not see it, or perceive it, is gone. Your audience has a mental road map that
includes values, experiences, beliefs, strategies to deal with challenges, even scripts for behavioral
expectations. You need to read the maps as closely as possibly in order to be able to communicate
from common ground.
This discussion illustrates what the German philosopher Jürgen Habermas[14] calls
preunderstanding, a set of expectations and assumptions from previous experience that we apply
A set of expectations and
to a new problem or situation. We draw from our experiences to help guide us to our goal, even
experience that we apply when the situations may be completely different. We “understand” before we experience because
to a new problem or we predict or apply our mental template to what we think is coming.
situation.
Expectations affect our perceptions. If the teacher says, “I need to see you after class” your per-
ception might involve thoughts like, “What have I done? Why me? What does he or she want?” and
you may even think back to other times in similar situations. This may contribute to a negative
perception of the meeting, and then you might be surprised to learn the teacher only wanted to tell
you about a scholarship opportunity. The same idea applies to your audience. They will have cer-
tain expectations of you as a speaker.
FIGURE 3.10
Expectations affect our perceptions.
Laura Lewis, It is all a matter of perception IV, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/lauralewis23/
7515152254
“The customary forms and configurations (of communication) that members expect” are called
conventions.[15] You’ve probably heard the terms “conventional,” perhaps in relation to a “conven-
patterns for a specific
tional oven.” This use means a standard type oven with a heat source as opposed a microwave oven.
genre. Who decided that a stove, for example, would have burners on top and a front-opening door to the
oven? Why four burners and not three, or two? Many modern stoves have ceramic burners that are
integrated in to the top of the oven, or even into the top of a counter, separate from the oven. These
new applications “stretch” the notion of what is the standard for a stove.
People use conventions to guide them every day. On which side of the plate will you find the
spoon? In a formal place setting, the answer is “right.” If, however, you are at a potluck supper, you
may be handed a plate with all your utensils, including the spoon, just sitting on top. Or you might
find a pile of spoons next to the plates and have to get one for yourself. In each case there are a set
of conventions in place that we use to guide behavior and establish expectations. At a formal din-
ner, eating with your fingers might be unconventional or even rude. The same actions at a potluck
might be the dominant convention, as in everyone is doing it.
In business communication, conventions are always in place. The audience will have a set of
expectations you need to consider, and you need to keep an open mind about the importance of
those expectations; but you also need to achieve your goal of informing, persuading, or motivating
them. If you are presenting a sales message and the results are zero sales, you’ll have to take a long
look at what you presented and develop alternative strategies. Providing a different perspective to
your audience while adapting to their expectations and finding common ground is a good first step
in gaining and maintaining their attention.
We often make assumptions about what others are communicating and connect the dots in
ways that were not intended by the speaker. As a business communicator, your goal is to help the
audience connect the dots in the way you intend while limiting alternative solutions that may con-
fuse and divide the audience.
FIGURE 3.11
Our perceptions are influenced by our expectations.
Daniela Vladimirova, Perceptions, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/danielavladimirova/

5603370808
Taking care to make sure you understand before connecting your dots and creating false
expectations is a positive way to prepare yourself for the writing process. Do you know what the
assignment is? Are the goals and results clear? Do you know your audience? All these points rein-
force the central theme that clear and concise communication is critical in business and industry.
Selection
Can you imagine what life would be like if you heard, saw, and felt every stimulus or activity in
your environment all day long? It would be overwhelming. It is impossible to perceive, remember,
process, and respond to every action, smell, sound, picture, or word that we see, hear, small, taste,
or touch. We would be lost paying attention to everything, being distracted by everything, and lack
focus on anything.
FIGURE 3.12 In the same way, a cluttered message, with no clear format or way of discern-
Selection involves choosing one thing over ing where the important information is located, can overwhelm the listener. It is
another. handy, therefore, that we as humans can choose to pay attention to a specific
stimulus while ignoring or tuning out others. This raises the question, however,
of why we choose to pay attention to one thing over another. Since we cannot
pay attention to everything at once, we choose to pay attention to what appears
to be the most relevant for us.
This action of sorting competing messages, or choosing stimuli, is called
selection. Selection is one very important part of perception and awareness. You
select what to pay attention to based on what is important to you, or what you
value, and that is different for each person. Let’s pretend you’re reading an article
for class, or perhaps you’re not as much reading but skimming or half-listening
Richard North, Fruit selection 1, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved to the author’s voice in your head, and only following along enough to get the
on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ main idea, as you do when you scan rather than read something word for word.
richardnorth/6884699814
At the same time you are thinking about the attractive classmate who sits in
the third row, wondering when it will be noon, and starting to think about what to eat for lunch. In
this real-world example, we can quickly count the four stimuli you’ve selected to pay attention to,
Action of sorting
but not all of them receive equal attention at every moment. Perhaps your stomach starts to growl;
competing messages or
choosing stimuli. while the mental image of the attractive classmate is indeed attractive, your stomach demands the
center stage of your attention.
A stage is a useful way to think about your focus or attention. There are times when you see
everything on the stage, the literal stage in terms of theater or the page you are reading now, in
The setting, scene, and
context of the
print or online. The stage refers to the setting, scene, and context of the communication interac-
tion, and can be equally applied to written or oral communication. This page can be a stage, where
objects, symbols, and words are placed to guide your attention in the same way an actor striding
across a theater stage will compel you.
You may perceive everything happening at once—while your attention is divided, you still
have a larger perspective. Suppose you have just come home from work and are standing by your
kitchen table opening the day’s mail. At the same time, you are planning what to cook for dinner
and trying to get your dog leashed up to take a quick walk outside. You open a letter in a preprinted
envelope whose return address is unfamiliar. The relationships between the words or characters
are readily apparent. With one glance you can see that the letter is an introduction letter with a
sales message, you assess that it doesn’t interest you, and into the round file (garbage can) it goes.
If you were the author of that letter, you might be quite disappointed. How do you grasp a
reader’s attention? Part of the solution lies in your ability to help the reader select the key point or
bit of information that will lead to “what else?” instead of “no, thanks.”
The same lesson applies to public speaking, but the cues will be distinct. The audience won’t
throw you into the round file, but mentally they may ignore you and start planning what’s for din-
ner, tuning you out. They may fidget, avoid eye contact, or even get up and walk out—all signs that
your sales message was not well received.
There are other times where you are so focused on one character or part of the stage that you
miss something going on the other side. In the same way, as you sit in your late-morning class and
focus on your growling stomach, the instructor’s voice becomes less of a focus until you hear laugh-
ter from your classmates. You look up to see and hear a friend say, “We can clearly see the power
and the importance of nutrition and its impact on attention span,” as he or she gestures in your
direction. You notice that everyone is looking back at you and realize they too heard your stomach.
Your focus and attention are important and constantly challenged.
As we follow the bouncing ball of attention, we see how selection involves focusing on one
stimulus while limiting our attention on another, or ignoring it altogether. We do this as a matter of
course.
The process of selection and ignoring has been discussed in both contexts of a learned behav-
ior as well as something we are born with, as in instinct or preprogrammed behavioral patterns.
Regardless of whether this process is instinctive or learned, we can easily see from the previous
example how the speaker, to a degree, competes with internal and external stimuli.
Internal stimuli are those that arise from within one’s self, such as being hungry. External
stimuli involve stimulation from outside one’s self, such as the image of the attractive classmate or
Those that arise from
the sound of the instructor’s voice. As a communicator, your awareness of both of these sources of within one’s self, such as
stimuli will help you recognize the importance or preparation, practice, and persistence as you pre- being hungry.
pare your message with them in mind. How will you help guide the audience’s thoughts about your
topic? How will you build attention-getting features throughout your written work? How will you
address issues like sleepiness when you cannot change the designated time of your speech, sched-
uled right after lunch? All these issues relate to the selection process, and to a degree the speaker outside one’s self.
can influence the perception of both internal and external stimuli.
FIGURE 3.13
Selection is an important part of marketing and business communication.
Prayitno / Thank you for visiting ! (3 millions ), Wine Selection, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
prayitnophotography/5296400594
Selection has three main parts: exposure, attention, and retention.[16] Selective exposure is
both information we choose to pay attention to and information that we choose to ignore, or that is
Both information we unavailable to us. For example, in a class you may have been required to view a student-created
choose to pay attention to
and information that we YouTube video presentation on which is better for you, Gatorade or water. As your levels of expo-
choose to ignore, or that is sure to stimuli influence your decisions, you may think, “Oh, I’ve heard this before,” and tune the
unavailable to us. speaker out. Selective attention involves focusing on one stimulus, like the image of an attractive
classmate, and tuning out a competing stimulus, like the instructor’s voice. Selective retention
involves choosing to remember one stimulus over another.
Involves focusing on one
You may be out walking and spot a friend from the same class. Your friend may say, “The pro-
stimulus and tuning out a
competing stimulus. gram we had to watch for class said Gatorade has trans fat in it. Do you think that’s true?” and you
may be at a loss, having no memory of hearing any such thing because, while you were present in
your room, you were paying attention to other stimuli. Furthermore, you may not be a nutrition
Involves choosing to
major like your friend so that the term “trans fat” may not mean anything to you. To someone
majoring in nutrition, it might be a common term used across their classes, but if you are an
over another. accounting major, you may not be familiar with the term. This illustrates how one aspect of selec-
tion, like exposure, can influence another aspect, like retention.
You might then think to yourself that the point in which you tuned out in the Gatorade pro-
gram has something to do with this term and realize that as the speaker became technical about
the nutritional and metabolic properties of Gatorade, you lost interest because you were unfamil-
iar with the terms being used. This highlights one aspect of a presentation that a speaker can focus
on to influence the perception process. Not everyone in the audience will understand all the termi-
nology, so by defining terms, providing visual aid cues, or speaking in common terms, you can make
your topic and its presentation more accessible to a larger percentage of your audience.
Now, if you were asked to recall the basic properties of Gatorade after watching the program,
could you? Even if you recall the general idea of the program, you may have a hard time remember-
ing any specific property because you were focused on your hunger. Although you may have heard
the words, you may not have chosen to listen to them. Hearing means you heard words, but listen-
ing implies you actively chose to listen to the program, processing the sounds, following the thread
of discussion, making it easier for you to recall. This again illustrates the point that you chose one
stimuli over another, in effect selecting what to pay attention to, and if the speaker was competing
for your attention with more attractive, interesting or distracting stimuli, you probably just tuned
him or her out, in effect deselecting them.
Organization
Organization is the process of sorting information into logical categories or series. We often take
things we perceive and organize them into categories based on what we have perceived previously.
The process of sorting
Think back to the Gatorade video. Suppose the speaker started out with an attention statement
categories or series. and quickly moved to highlight three main points in the introduction. While the attention state-
ment got you, by the second main point you were already starting to think, “This is going to be just
another speech on how great Gatorade is for my body.” You may think this because you have
already heard other speakers presented similar information and you classify what you think this
presentation is going to be in relation to your previous experiences.
FIGURE 3.14
Organization is the process of sorting information into logical categories or series.
EvelynGiggles, bead organization, Flickr, CC-By, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/evelynishere/3716705025
But this speaker may have given some thought to the presentation and how to make it unique
and interesting, and prepared their discussion on the nutritional aspects in more depth. As a result,
the information may have been organized into categories like ingredients, how your body uses the
ingredients, and what the net result is. The final conclusion might be that if you exercise and burn
off the calories present in Gatorade, it might be a positive choice, but if you drink it just to drink it,
then it will only provide you with empty calories just like any other soft drink.
Organization Schemes
The organization scheme used to create three categories focuses on nutrition and the process by
which Gatorade’s ingredients are used by the body. The conclusion creates two categories of con-
sumers. This organization scheme can promote active listening and allow the audience to follow,
but the speaker must take into account the possibility that an audience member might think,
“Oh no, not again.” To set this presentation apart from others the audience might have heard, the
speaker could include a phrase like, “Is Gatorade always for you? Not necessarily. Let’s look at…”
which gains attention and penetrates a stereotype.
When you write a document or give a presentation, you may not be able to anticipate all the
ways an audience might organize the information you present or how they might use it, but by
investing time in seeing it from their perspective, you can improve your organization and be a more
effective communicator.
For example, suppose you are assigned the task of writing a cost-benefit analysis report on
a specific product currently in development. Do you already know the essential points you need to
include and the common industry standards for this type of report? You may not know, but you
have written an essay before and appreciate the need for organization. Your ability to organize
information, taking something that you know or have experienced and applying it to new informa-
tion, helps you make sense of your world.
Gestalt Principles of Organization

In the early twentieth century, some psychologists thought we could examine parts of things, much
as a scientist would examine an atom, and make a whole and complete picture regardless of con-
text. Their theory was that the setting and scene would not influence the picture or perspective. In
response to this view, other psychologists developed what they called Gestalt principles—the Ger-
man word “Gestalt” referring to the unified whole. According to Gestalt theory, context matters, and
the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. What you see and how you see it matters, and you
yourself play a role in that perception of organization.
In the fifth of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, you were asked to connect nine
dots with four straight lines, without retracing any line. Did you find a solution? (A common solu-
tion appears at the end of this chapter.) The key to solving this puzzle is finding a way to “think
outside the box”—in this case, to take your pencil outside the implied square, or box, formed by the
three rows of dots. The physical configuration of the dots contributed to the illusion of the “box.”
But in fact there is no box, and our tendency to see one where one does not exist creates barriers
to solving the puzzle. Gestalt theory states that we will perceive the nine dots as belonging to a
whole—a group or set having a certain shape—whether or not that whole actually exists.
Gestalt principles apply not only to images or objects, but also to ideas and concepts. You can
associate two or more bits of information in predictable ways, but your perspective can influence
your view of the overall idea. We don’t always have all the information we need to draw a conclu-
sion, literally drawing a series of relationships to form a whole picture in our minds, so we often fill
in the gaps. We guess and make logical leaps, even suspend disbelief, all in an effort to make sense
of our experiences.
In your presentations, if you jump from topic to topic or go off on a tangent, what happens to
the listener’s ability to listen and follow you effectively? Why make barriers for your audience when
you’ve worked so hard to get their attention? How does this relate to Gestalt principles? By failing
to recognize our natural tendency to want ideas, shapes, or words to make sense, the author is con-
fusing the reader. What happens when the reader is confused? He or she moves on to something
else, and leaves your writing behind. The opposite of clear and concise, confused, and poorly orga-
nized writing can distract and defeat even the most motivated of readers. Table 3.2 lists some of the
Gestalt organization principles.
TABLE 3.2 Gestalt Principles of Organization
Principle Definition Example

Proximity Organization based on relation- Next to me on the beach, I see
ship of space to objects my daughter playing with her
pail and shovel; in the middle
distance, a trio of kayakers pad-
dle by; farther away, I see sev-
eral power boats, and in the far
distance, the green shore of
Long Island.
Continuity Drawing connections between I am beginning to notice a pat-
things that occur in sequence tern in the absentee rate in our
department. For the past year,
more workers have been absent
on the first Friday of the month
than on other days. I expect we
will again have many absences
next Friday, as it is the first Fri-
day of the month.
Principle Definition Example

Similarity Grouping things or concepts by To make appliquéd candles,[17]
properties they share you will need the following:
1. Decorative material to
appliqué: floral (fresh flowers,
pine needles, or leaves),
homey (dried beans or
grains) or folksy (small nuts
and bolts)
2. Candle body: fat candles (at
least 4'' diameter to keep
dried flowers away from
flame), natural colored wax
(sheets or chunks of
beeswax or paraffin)
3. Tools: a microwave flower
press, a ½-inch paintbrush,
a tin pie plate, a chip carving
knife or v-tool
Uniformity/Homogeneity Noting ways in which concepts Armored personnel carriers

or objects are alike include the Stryker, LAV, Pan-
dur, M113 Armored Personnel
Carrier, Amphibious Assault
Vehicle, Expeditionary Fighting
Vehicle, Grizzly APC, Rhino
Runner, Bison (armored person-
nel carrier), and Mamba APC.
Figure and Ground Emphasis on a single item that On a rock in Copenhagen Har-
stands out from its surroundings bor stands the small statue of
The Little Mermaid, a memorial
to one of Denmark’s most
beloved citizens, Hans Christian
Andersen.
Symmetry Balancing objects or ideas Representing the conservative
equally from one side to the viewpoint was Wall Street Jour-
other nal correspondent John Emsh-
willer; the liberal viewpoint was
argued by New York Times
columnist Paul Krugman.
Closure Tendency to use previous The wording of the memo was,
knowledge to fill in the gaps in “It is important for all employees
an incomplete idea or picture to submit their health insurance
enrollment selections no than
November 1,” but everyone
understood that it should have
said, “no later than November
1.”
Let’s examine some of the commonly used Gestalt principles: proximity, continuation, similar-
ity, and closure.
It makes sense that we would focus first on things around us and the degree to which they are
close to us and to each other. Proximity is the perceptual organization of information based on
The perceptual
physical relationship of space to objects. In creating a scene for a play or movie, a stage designer
knows that the audience will tend to pay attention to objects in the foreground, unless special based on physical
emphasis is added to objects farther away. This principle extends to people and daily life. Just relationship of space to
objects.
because someone is walking down the street next to someone else, this does not necessarily mean
they have a connection to each other—they are simply in close proximity.
We also see a similar tendency in the principle of continuity. We like things to be orderly, and
our brain will see lines and movement where none exist. Examine Figure 3.15 What you see? Do you
Tendency for our brain to perceive two lines crossing one another? Or an X? The principle of continuity predicts that you
see lines and movement
where none exist. would demonstrate a tendency to perceive continuous figures. The two lines cross one another, and
you might even say from top to bottom or the reverse, when there is no motion indicated.
FIGURE 3.15 Continuity
Continuity can also lead to a well-known logical fallacy, or false belief, involving sequence and
cause-effect relationships. If something happens after something else, does that mean that the first
event caused the second event? You wish for rain and it rains. Connected? Logic and common sense
would say no. You have a dream about a plane crash, and the next day there is a major airline crash.
Did your dream cause the crash? Obviously not.
When objects or events are similar, we tend to group them together in our minds, again making
the assumption that they are related by their common characteristics. Similarity is the perceptual
The perceptual
organization of information based on perceived points of common characteristics across distinct
based on perceived points items. For example, a horse, a mule, and a donkey are distinct, but we perceive them as being similar
of common characteristics to one another.
across distinct items.
The principle of closure underscores our tendency to use previous knowledge to fill in the gaps
in an incomplete idea or picture. If you are talking to a friend on your cell phone and the connec-
Our tendency to use
tion breaks up for a few seconds, you may miss some words, but you can grasp the main idea by
previous knowledge to fill automatically guessing what was said. You do this based on your previous history of communicat-
in the gaps in an ing with your friend on similar topics. Do you always guess correctly? Of course not. Look at Figure
incomplete idea or picture. 3.16.
FIGURE 3.16
Do you see a ring of Pac-Man-like circles?
When we say we see a star, we don’t really see one because there is no star. The five Pac-Man
shapes in that arrangement, however, allow our mind to say, “If this was connected to this and that
was connected to that, there would be a star.” Sometimes the sense we make does not match reality,
and we see a star where there is no star.
Sometimes we “fill in the blanks” without even being aware of it. When we speak on a topic and
fail to clearly articulate a point or substantiate an assertion, we leave a “hole” in our presentation
that the listener may or may not be aware of, but will predictably fill. This tendency to jump to con-
clusions may seem like a disadvantage, but it is only a disadvantage if you are unaware of it. If fact,
it’s a positive ability that allows us to infer and guess correctly, often in times of crisis when time
is limited. But we don’t always guess correctly. If your goal is to communicate your message to the
audience, then by definition you don’t want a “pothole” to interrupt, distract, or create a barrier that
leads to misinterpretation.
Interpretation
After selection and organization, interpretation is the third step in the perception process. From
your past experiences combined with your current expectations, you assign meaning to the current
stimuli. If the word “college” for you has meaning, then what comes to mind? If a high school stu-
dent has to take the PSAT (Preliminary Scholastic Aptitude Test) in the morning, what does that
word mean to him? Will his state of anxiety and anticipation over the importance of the exam and
the unknown word of college influence how he responds to that word? If his parents ask, “Where
are you planning on going to college?” when he is simply focused on the test that may influence his
options, the word itself may take on a whole new meaning. It may invite issues of control (“Which
college? You are going to the college we went to, right?”) or of self-esteem (“Am I good enough to go
to college?”) to become associated with the word “college.”
The word itself may shift in terms of meaning across time. Let’s say the high
FIGURE 3.17
school student did well on the PSAT and went to the same college as his parents. Your perspective influences your interpretation.
Is it the same college, or just the same location and buildings? It may have a tra-
dition, but it is at the same time new and ever-changing, just like the students
that arrive each year. Fast forward a couple of years and the college may repre-
sent a place where you studied, made friends, and came to know yourself. In a
few more years, you may choose to become a member of the alumni association.
The meaning of the word “college” can shift intrapersonally across time, and can
mean different things to different groups.
Let’s rewind and look back at a test gone bad, taken by a less than adequately
prepared student from a household where there may not be sufficient resources
to make the dream of college come true. The image of college may remain an
Becky Wetherington, 25/365 – Organization, Flickr, CC-
image instead of a reality; a goal not attained. Structural barriers like socioeco- BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/
nomic status, parental and peer influences, and the need to work to support photos/macbeck/3985839229
yourself or your family can all influence your decisions and perspective. Change
your perspective and perceptions, and you can change your world.
Key Takeaway
Exercises
1. Do a search on “M. C. Escher” or “tessellation art.” How does Escher’s work manipulate your
perception? Share your opinions with your classmates.
2. Think of ways to describe something you know, such as what your home looks like. Organize the
information using one of the Gestalt principles (e.g., proximity, similarity, continuity, or
closure). Present the organized information to a classmate. Can your classmate tell which
Gestalt principle you have used?
3. How does the process of perception limit our view, or expand it? Can we choose how to
perceive things? Write a one- to two-page essay on this topic and discuss it with a class-
mate.
4. Think of a time when you jumped to a conclusion and later learned that it was incorrect. Write
a brief summary of the experience. Share and compare with classmates.
5. Advertising Activity: Select a magazine-style advertisement and identify which element
catches your attention first. Consider why it grasped your attention and how it influences
your perceptions. Share and compare with classmates.
6. Making the Cover Activity: Select a magazine cover page and identify which element catches
your attention first. Consider why it grasped your attention and how it influences your per-
ceptions. Share and compare with classmates.
7. Body Image Controversy: What types of body images do you perceive as being celebrated
in the media and how do you perceive they influence young people? What consequences
could be associated with the impact on their perceptions?
8. Photoshop Error Activity: Search for an image that has been discussed as obviously photo-
shopped, altered, or changed to fit an ideal or image. Share and compare with classmates.
9. The Twist Activity: Consider a movie or video you've seen where there was a twist you didn't
see coming, a switch, or a surprise that really got your attention. How did it play on your
perceptions to fool or surprise you? Share and compare with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Selection, organization, and interpretation are important elements to
consider when constructing your ePortfolio. How will you consider each element as you pre-
pare and present your ePortfolio? Share your results with the class.
3.4 Differences in Perception
1. Determine how perception differs between people.
Someone may say what you consider to be a simple exclamatory sentence—“Earn college credit
FIGURE 3.18
while studying abroad!”—but a thought may come to mind: “How will I fit in as an outsider in a Learn to see things from a
foreign country?” What makes you a member of a group? How you distinguish between those who new perspective.
belong in your family, group, or community and those who do not is central to our study of com-
munication. Learning to see issues and experiences from multiple perspectives can be a challenging
task, but the effort is worth it. We perceive our world in many ways (https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=Pzd7ReqiQnE). Increased understanding about each other can positively impact our com-
munication and improve the degree to which we can share and understand meaning across
languages, cultures, and divergent perspectives.
Moyan Brenn, Travel, Flickr, CC-
BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at:
Why Don’t We All See Eye to Eye?

aigle_dore/5825413134 Also see:
earthincolors.wordpress.com
People perceive things differently. We choose to select different aspects of a message to focus our
attention based on what interests us, what is familiar to us, or what we consider important. Often, FIGURE 3.19
We are all unique, so we
our listening skills could use improvement. Listening and thinking are directly related. When you perceive things in different
are reading, what do you hear? When you are talking with someone, what do you hear? If the sound ways.
of your thoughts or voice is at least one of your answers, then communication is not occurring. Try
to read this paragraph again without interruption. Your tendency might be to skim over the words,
or to focus on key vocabulary, but if you allow your thoughts to stray from the text you are reading,
even for a moment, you are interrupting your processing of the written word, or reading. Interrup-
tions will impair your ability to understand and retain information, and make studying even
harder.
In order to better understand perception, we will examine how you choose to pay attention,
remember, and interpret messages within the communication process.
Individual Differences in Perception Keith Williamson, Little and Large,

Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/
2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/
Why do people perceive things in different ways? To answer the question, recall that we all engage photos/elwillo/6021095486
in selection, or choosing some stimuli while ignoring others. We exist as individuals within a com-
munity, regardless of whether we are conscious of it. Do you like eighties music? Prefer the Beatles?
Nothing before 2005? Your tastes in music involve the senses, and what you choose to experience is
influenced by your context and environment. Your habits, values, and outlook on life are influenced
by where you come from and where you are. You were born with some factors that influence your
perceptions, and others you learned.
The attributes that cause people to perceive things differently are known as individual
differences. Let’s examine several of the most important ones. Attributes that cause
Physical characteristics influence how we perceive and respond to information. You may be different people to
asked to design a sign that says, “Watch your head,” which will be placed next to a six foot six inch
overhang that is above floor level. While a few very tall people will have to worry about hitting their
heads on the overhang, most people in the world are not that tall. Tall and short individuals will
perceive this sign differently.
FIGURE 3.20 Your psychological state can also influence what you read and listen to, and
Your physical characteristics influence your why you do so. The emergency procedures binder on the wall next to the first aid
perceptions. kit doesn’t mean much to you until a coworker falls and suffers some bad cuts
and bruises. If you were asked to design the binder and its contents, could you
anticipate a psychological state of anxiety that would likely be present when
someone needed the information? If so, then you might use clear bullet lists, con-
cise, declarative sentences, and diagrams to communicate clearly.
Your cultural background plays a significant role in what and how you per-
ceive your world. You may be from a culture that values community. For example,
the message across the advertisement reads: Stand out from the crowd. Given
your cultural background, it may not be a very effective slogan to get your atten-
tion.
Jenn Durfey, I'm the tallest, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on Our perceptual set involves our attitudes, beliefs, and values about the world.
08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ Perhaps you’ve heard the phrase, “Looking at the world through rose-colored
dottiemae/5393993010
glasses” and can even think of someone as an example. We experience the world
FIGURE 3.21 through mediated images and mass communication. We also come to know one another interper-
Our personal traits and sonally in groups. All these experiences help form our mental expectations of what is happening
characteristics influence our and what will happen.
perceptions.
As an effective business communicator, you'll understand that you cannot create one message
that works for every audience. Whether you are in marketing, public relations, or even non-profit
fundraising, you need to tailor your message to a specific audience, taking into consideration their
expectations as well as variables like socioeconomic status, demographics, educational attainment
or professional field, age, location, or interests. Focus groups, for example, are often created with a
mix of individuals who represent a range of groups to provide a broad approach and specific
insights into how each target audience receives the sample message. Other tools, like
MyBestSegments (http://www.claritas.com/MyBestSegments/Default.jsp?ID=20), allow for in-
depth research by ZIP code. Finally, there are quite a few online analytical tools that are free and
easy to use, including Google Analytics, GoingUp, Piwik, ConceptFeedback.com, and Compete.
Regardless of the research method, understanding your customers and audience is an important
part of effective business communication.
Gareth Williams, Whatever
Happened to. ....Flower Power? - Think about your brand preferences, your choice of transportation, your self-expression
Alive and Well in Lyme Regis - through your clothing, haircut, and jewelry—all these external symbols represent in some way how
June 2006, Flickr, CC-BY,
you view yourself within your community and the world. We can extend this perspective in many
retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https:/
ways, both positive and negative, and see that understanding the perspective of the audience takes
/www.flickr.com/photos/
gareth1953/4669143976 on new levels of importance.
Key Takeaway
1. When you watch a film with friends, make a point of talking about it afterward and listen to
how each person perceived aspects of the film. Ask them each to describe it in ten words or
less. Did they use the same words? Did you see it the same way, or differently? Did you
about perception?
2. Think of a time when you misunderstood a message. What was your psychological state at
the time? Do you think you would have understood the message differently if you had been
in a different psychological state?
3. Think of a time when someone misunderstood your message. What happened and why?
4.
(children and grandparents, for example), and tailor one message in two ways that reflect
each distinct audience. Share and compare with classmates.
5. MyBestSegments Activity: Use the MyBestSegments tool mentioned in this section. How
can a nonprofit use this market segments tool for marketing purposes? How can a nonprofit
use this tool for fundraising purposes? How could you use it as a business professional?
Choose two ZIP codes (from 46203, 33109, 99651, 80226, for example) or one from the list
and your own and compare and contrast the results. Share and compare with classmates.
6. Colors and Perception Activity: What colors work well together? What colors should you
avoid in certain combinations and why? Create one electronic slide (like PowerPoint) with an
image, a few words, and then discuss your choices and use of color.
7. Pinterest Activity: Explore the site for groups and communities. Select one. Share and com-
pare with your classmates.
8. Twitter as a Search Engine: Use the search engine function on Twitter to discover one new
business communication resource that relates to your area of interest and share it with the
class.
9. LinkedIn.com Activity: Explore the groups area on the site and identify one that appears to
be a resource for your professional area of interest. Share and compare with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Audiences will perceive your ePortfolio in different ways depending on
their role, responsibilities, interests, and perspective. How will you offer examples of your
work that will capture the interest of two or more distinct readers? How do you imagine they
might interpret your work differently and why? Share your results with your classmates.
3.5 Getting to Know Your Audience
1. Describe three ways to better understand and reach your audience.
As a business communicator you recognize the importance of tailoring your message to your audi-
ence’s expectations, but how do you get a sense of your readers? Research, time, and effort. At first
glance you may think you know your customer or audience, but if you dig a little deeper you will
learn more about them and become a more effective communicator.
Examine Figure 3.22 When you see an iceberg on the ocean, the great majority of its size and
depth lie below your level of awareness. When you write a document or give a presentation, each
person in your reading or listening audience is like the tip of an iceberg. You may perceive people
of different ages, races, ethnicities, and genders, but those are only surface characteristics. This is
your challenge. When you communicate with a diverse audience, you are engaging in intercultural
communication. The more you learn about the audience, the better you will be able to navigate the
waters, and your communication interactions, safely and effectively.
Let's take the cellphone sales scenario and introduce two customers: Lorenzo and Suzie.
Lorenzo is in his thirties and, from his clothes, appears to be well-off—even affluent. When he
speaks, he's articulate and seems well-versed in technology and his smartphone. Suzie, in contrast,
is probably in her teens, is dressed in a relaxing outfit, and doesn't say much while appearing ner-
vous about getting a new smartphone. All you know about them is what you can observe with your
senses. How might you approach each potential customer in a way that reflects their needs?
FIGURE 3.22 Iceberg Model
Theodore Roosevelt pointed out that “the most important single ingredient in the formula of
success is knowing how to get along with people.” Knowing your audience well before you speak
is essential. You wouldn't approach Lorenzo as a customer in the same way you might approach
Suzie. Here are a few questions to help guide you in learning more about your audience:
• What are their expectations of you?
• What are their backgrounds, gender, age, jobs, education, and/or interests?
• Do they already know about your topic? If so, how much?
• What do they say, and what do they not say, that allows you to estimate their comfort-level
with the topic?
• Will other materials be presented or available? If so, what are they, what do they cover, and
how do they relate to your message?
• How much time is allotted for your presentation or sales pitch, or how much space do you have
for your written document? Will your document or presentation stand alone or do you have
the option of adding visuals, audio-visual aids, or links?
These questions provide a starting place to consider how to effectively approach a customer
or an audience. They will have expectations of you, and the common phrase "How can I help you?"
often serves to open the discussion, and to allow you more insight into their goals, wants, or needs.
Always remember the adage, "You can't judge a book by its cover," as you consider your initial
assessment of a potential customer or audience. What you observe might only be the tip of the ice-
berg.
Demographic Traits
Demographic traits refer to the characteristics that make someone an individual, but that he or
she has in common with others. For example, if you were born female, then your view of the world
Characteristics that make
may be different from that of a male, and may be similar to that of many other females. Being
that he or she has in female means that you share this “femaleness” trait with roughly half the world’s population.
common with others.
How does this demographic trait of being female apply to communication? For example, we
might find that women tend to be more aware than the typical male of what it means to be capable
of becoming pregnant, or to go through menopause. If you were giving a presentation on nutrition
to a female audience, you would likely include more information about nutrition during pregnancy
and during menopause than you would if your audience were male.
FIGURE 3.23
Demographics provide insight into an audience.
Cambodia4kids.org Beth Kanter, facebook demographics, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
cambodia4kidsorg/3409434648
We can explore other traits by considering your audience’s age, level of education, employment
or career status, and various other groups they may belong to. Imagine that you are writing a report
on the health risks associated with smoking. To get your message across to an audience of twelve-
year-olds, clearly you would use different language and different examples than what you would
use for an audience of adults age fifty-five and older. If you were writing for a highly educated
audience—say, engineering school graduates—you would use much more scholarly language and
rigorous research documentation than if you were writing for first-year college students.
Writing for readers in the insurance industry, you would likely choose examples of how insur- FIGURE 3.24
ance claims are affected by whether or not a policyholder smokes, whereas if you were writing for Tailor your message to your
readers who are athletes, you would focus on how the human body reacts to tobacco. Similarly, if audience.
you were writing for a community newsletter, you would choose local examples, whereas if your
venue was a Web site for parents, you might choose examples that are more universal.
Audiences tend to be interested in messages that relate to their interests, needs, goals, and
motivations. Demographic traits can give us insight into our audience and allow for an audience-
centered approach to your assignment that will make you a more effective communicator.[18]
Improving Your Perceptions of Your Audience

The better you can understand your audience, the better you can tailor your communications to
© 2010 Jupiterimages
reach them. To understand them, a key step is to perceive clearly who they are, what they are inter-
Corporation
ested in, what they need, and what motivates them. This ability to perceive is important with
audience members from distinct groups, generations, and even cultures. William Seiler and Melissa
Beall[19] offer us six ways to improve our perceptions, and therefore improve our communication,
particularly in public speaking; they are listed in Table 3.3
TABLE 3.3 Perceptual Strategies for Success
Perceptual Strategy Explanation
Become an active perceiver We need to actively seek out as much informa-

tion as possible. Placing yourself in the new
culture, group, or co-culture can often expand
your understanding.
Recognize each person’s unique frame of refer- We all perceive the world differently. Recognize
ence that even though you may interact with two peo-
ple from the same culture, they are individuals
with their own set of experiences, values, and
interests.
Recognize that people, objects, and situations The world is changing and so are we. Recogniz-
change ing that people and cultures, like communication
process itself, are dynamic and ever changing
can improve your intercultural communication.
Become aware of the role perceptions play in As we explored in Chapter 2 perception is an

communication important aspect of the communication process.
By understanding that our perceptions are not
the only ones possible can limit ethnocentrism
and improve intercultural communication.
Keep an open mind The adage “A mind is like a parachute—it works

best when open” holds true. Being open to differ-
ences can improve intercultural communication.
Check your perceptions By learning to observe, and acknowledging our

own perceptions, we can avoid assumptions,
expand our understanding, and improve our abil-
ity to communicate across cultures.
We can learn about our audiences and customers in many ways. We can also come to recognize
that not all tools, social media platforms, or even ways of presenting information work in the same
way. Facebook, for example, may attract a different audience than Twitter. WhatsApp may attract a
different audience than Pinterest. Regardless of the medium, we recognize it impacts the message,
influences perceptions, and as effective business communicators, we want to learn as much about
our customers and audiences as possible to best tailor to their needs, wants, and desires.
FIGURE 3.25
We can learn about our audience in many ways.
concreete, facbook_vs_twitter_infographic, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/concreete/5277238110

It's also important to recognize that your customers or audience have perceptions of you, your
company, your organization, and the brand. Understanding those perceptions is critical in brand
management, and when there is a misalignment, it can go wrong, costing more than lost sales.
Land's End, a retail brand of clothing known for its family-friendly lines and custom mono- grams,
got in hot water over cross-channel marketing when it sent to its customers a free issue of GQ
Magazine, according to Leslie Kaufman and Christine Haughney at The New York Times carried
by Yahoo Finance (read more at http://finance.yahoo.com/news/gift-gq-magazine-prompts- outcry-
203616196.html). The cover of the magazine featured the model and actress Emily Rata- jkowski
of “Blurred Lines” (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yyDUC1LUXSU) wearing little more than a
necklace of flowers called a lei (http://racked.com/archives/2014/08/14/emily-ratajkowski- soft-
porn-lands-end.php). Concerned and outraged comments poured into the Land's End Face- book
page (https://www.facebook.com/landsend).
Fairness in Communication
Finally, consider that your audience has several expectations of you. No doubt you have sat
through a speech or classroom lecture where you asked yourself, “Why should I listen?” You have
probably been assigned to read a document or chapter and found yourself wondering, “What does
this have to do with me?” These questions are normal and natural for audiences, but people seldom
actually state these questions in so many words or say them out loud.
In a report on intercultural communication, V. Lynn Tyler[20] offers us some insight into these
The mutual expectation for
audience expectations, which can be summarized as the need to be fair to your audience. One key
exchange of value or fairness principle is reciprocity, or a relationship of mutual exchange and interdependence. Reci-
service. procity has four main components: mutuality, nonjudgmentalism, honesty, and respect.
Mutuality means that the speaker searches for common ground and understanding with his
or her audience, establishing this space and building on it throughout the speech. This involves
Searching for common
examining viewpoints other than your own and taking steps to insure the speech integrates an
ground and understanding
with the audience. inclusive, accessible format rather than an ethnocentric one.
Nonjudgmentalism involves willingness to examine diverse ideas and viewpoints. A nonjudg-
mental communicator is open-minded, and able to accept ideas that may be strongly opposed to his
or her own beliefs and values.
to examine diverse
perspectives.
Another aspect of fairness in communication is honesty: stating the truth as

you perceive it. When you communicate honestly, you provide supporting and FIGURE 3.26
Fairness involves respect for customers, the
clarifying information and give credit to the sources where you obtained the audience, and individual members.
information. In addition, if there is significant evidence opposing your viewpoint,
you acknowledge this and avoid concealing it from your audience.
Finally, fairness involves respect for the audience and individual mem-
bers—recognizing that each person has basic rights and is worthy of courtesy.
Consider these expectations of fairness when designing your message and you
will more thoroughly engage your audience.
Johanna Blakley: Social Media and The End of

Gender
torbakhopper LONG LIVE HONESTLY -- HONESTY :

handler and the open hand : san francisco (2010),
Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.
flickr.com/photos/gazeronly/14227245653
honesty
Truthfulness; a key
ingredient in trust.
respect
View the video online at: http://www.youtube.com/embed/ZR4LdnFGzPk?rel=0
Giving and displaying
particular attention to the
value you associate with
someone or a group.
Key Takeaway
To better understand your audience, learn about their demographic traits, such as age, gender,
and employment status, as these help determine their interests, needs, and goals. In addition,
become aware of your perceptions and theirs, and practice fairness in your communications.
1. List at least three demographic traits that apply to you. How does belonging to these demo-
graphic groups influence your perceptions and priorities? Share your thoughts with your
classmates.
2. Think of two ways to learn more about your audience. Investigate them and share your find-
ings with your classmates.
3. Think of a new group you have joined, or a new activity you have become involved in. Did the
activity or group have an influence on your perceptions? Explain the effects to your class-
mates.
4. When you started a new job or joined a new group, to some extent you learned a new lan-
guage. Please think of at least three words that outsiders would not know and share them
with the class and provide examples.
5. Consider where you work or go to school. How would you describe the demographics of the
audience? What characteristics would you say are present, or absent? Share and compare
with classmates.
6. Learning from the example of Land's End, if you were assigned the task of sending their cus-
tomers a free magazine, which one would you choose and why? Share and compare with
classmates.
7. Find an example of an honest advertisement. Share it with the class.
8. Find an example of when a company or business did not listen to its customers. Investigate
the case, and share it with the class.
9. Think of a time when you asked a clarifying question to check your perceptions that resulted
in a change to your point of view. Share and compare with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: How will you learn more about your target audience's expectations of
you as you design your ePortfolio? How will the lessons learned influence your decisions on
what to include, and what not to include?
11. Think of a time when you felt a lack of respect in a communication interaction. How did it
make you feel? If you could go back and express yourself again, what would you say or do
and why? Share and compare with the class.
3.6 Listening and Reading for

Understanding
1. Explain the importance of becoming an active listener and reader.
As the popular author and Hollywood entrepreneur Wilson Mizner said, “A good listener is not
only popular everywhere, but after a while he knows something.” Learning to listen to your con-
versational partner, customer, supplier, or supervisor is an important part of business communica-
tion (learn more at http://www.wright.edu/~scott.williams/LeaderLetter/listening.htm). Too often,
instead of listening we mentally rehearse what we want to say. Similarly, when we read, we are
often trying to multitask and therefore cannot read with full attention. Inattentive listening or
reading can cause us to miss much of what the speaker is sharing with us.
FIGURE 3.27
To learn, we need to listen.
Ben Smith, 090/365: String telephone, Flickr, retrieved

on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
dotbenjamin/2843144877
Communication involves the sharing and understanding of meaning. To fully share and under-
stand, practice active listening and reading so that you are fully attentive, fully present in the
moment of interaction. Pay attention to both the actual words and for other clues to meaning, such
Focusing your attention on
as tone of voice or writing style. Look for opportunities for clarification and feedback when the the message you are
time comes for you to respond, not before. hearing or reading, without
distractions or
interruptions.
Active Listening and Reading

You’ve probably experienced the odd sensation of driving somewhere and, having arrived, have real-
ized you don’t remember driving. Your mind may have been filled with other issues and you drove
on autopilot. It’s dangerous when you drive like that, and it is dangerous in communication. Choos-
ing to listen or read attentively takes effort. People communicate with words, expressions, and even
in silence, and your attention to them will make you a better communicator. From discussions on
improving customer service to retaining customers in challenging economic times, the importance
of listening comes up frequently as a success strategy.
Here are some tips to facilitate active listening and reading: FIGURE 3.28
• Maintain eye contact with the speaker; if reading, keep your eyes on the page. Active listening is an
important part of effective
• Don’t interrupt; if reading, don’t multitask. communication.
• Focus your attention on the message, not your internal monologue.
• Restate the message in your own words and ask if you understood correctly.
• Ask clarifying questions to communicate interest and gain insight.
When the Going Gets Tough Lars Plougmann Headshift

business card discussion, Flickr,
CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014
Our previous tips will serve you well in daily interactions, but suppose you have an especially diffi- at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
cult subject to discuss, or you receive a written document delivering bad news. In a difficult criminalintent/2744040362
situation like this, it is worth taking extra effort to create an environment and context that will
facilitate positive business communication. Effective business requires effective communication.
FIGURE 3.29
Setting aside time to communicate is a sign of respect.
Moyan Brenn, Talking, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/aigle_dore/8130444037 Also see: earthincolors.wordpress.com
Here are some tips that may be helpful:

• Set aside a special time. To have a difficult conversation or read bad news, set aside a special
time when you will not be disturbed. Close the door and turn off the TV, music player, and
instant messaging client. If appropriate, close the door to your office to display respect and pri-
vacy.
• Don’t interrupt. Keep silent while you let the other person “speak his piece.” If you are reading,
make an effort to understand and digest the news without mental interruptions.
• Be nonjudgmental. Receive the message without judgment or criticism. Set aside your opin-
ions, attitudes, and beliefs. Ask clarifying questions to avoid conflict.
• Be accepting. Be open to the message being communicated, realizing that acceptance does not
necessarily mean you agree with what is being said.
• Take turns. Wait until it is your turn to respond, and then measure your response in propor-
tion to the message that was delivered to you. Reciprocal turn-taking allows each person have
his say.
• Acknowledge. Let the other person know that you have listened to the message or read it
attentively.
• Understand. Be certain that you understand what your partner is saying. If you don’t under-
stand, ask for clarification. Restate the message in your own words.
• Keep your cool. Speak your truth without blaming. A calm tone will help prevent the conflict
from escalating. Use “I” statements (e.g., “I felt concerned when I learned that my department
is going to have a layoff”) rather than “you” statements (e.g., “you want to get rid of some of our
best people”).
Finally, recognize that mutual respect and understanding are built one conversation at a time.
Trust is difficult to gain and easy to lose. Be patient and keep the channels of communication open,
as a solution may develop slowly over the course of many small interactions. Recognize that it is
more valuable to maintain the relationship over the long term than to “win” in an individual trans-
action.
Julian Treasure: 5 Ways to Listen Better

Key Takeaway
Part of being an effective communicator is learning to receive messages from others through
active listening and reading.
1. Pair up with a classmate and do a role-play exercise in which one person tries to deliver a
message while the other person multitasks and interrupts. Then try it again while the listener
practices active listening. How do the two communication experiences compare? Discuss
your findings.
2. of
its main points in your own words. Write a letter to the editor commenting on the article—
you don’t have to send it, but you may if you wish.
3. In a half-hour period of time, see if you can count how many times you are interrupted. Share
and compare with your classmates.
4. Cellphone Exercise: Recall a time when you were distracted while talking on your cell/smart-
phone. What did you do when they asked you something? Did you cover up your distraction
or ask them to repeat themselves? Share your responses with the class.
5. What is the longest period of time where you read something without interruption? What
were you reading and how long was the time period? Share and compare with classmates.
6. How do members of your family demonstrate they are listening? What verb or nonverbal
cues do they display? Share and compare with classmates.
7. How do you like to receive feedback from others? How do you provide feedback to others?
Does listening play a role in either response? Why or why not?
8. Consider one of your most important relationships and then estimate how many minutes you
communicate each day. How much of that time is spent listening?
9. We can think faster than we can speak, and when listening, our mind can run away from the
conversation. How hard is for you to focus on the conversation and to not get distracted by
yourself and your thoughts?
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Listening is an essential business communication skill. How will you
demonstrate your listening skills in your ePortfolio?

Explore the Web site of the National Association for Self-Esteem. http://www.self-esteem-nase.org
Forum Network offers a wealth of audio and video files of speeches on various topics. Listen
to a lecture titled “Selective Attention: Neuroscience and the Art Museum” by Barbara Stafford, pro-
fessor of art history, University of Chicago. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AvoGEScg0m4
Explore the Web site of the journal Perception. http://www.perceptionweb.com
Visit this About.com site to learn more about the Gestalt principles of perception. http://
psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws_4.htm
Visit About.com to read an article by Kendra Van Wagner on the Gestalt laws of perceptual
organization. http://psychology.about.com/od/sensationandperception/ss/gestaltlaws.htm
Philosophe.com offers a collection of articles about understanding your audience when you
design a Web site. http://philosophe.com/understanding_users
Read more about active listening on this MindTools page. http://www.mindtools.com/

CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm
Consider these academic survival tips provided by Chicago State University. http://www.csu.
edu/cas/chemistryphysicsengineering/engineeringstudies/acadsurvivaltips.htm
Endnotes
1. Adapted from Gudykunst, W. (1994). Ethnocentrism scale and instructions. In Bridging differences: Effective intergroup communication (2nd ed., pp. 98–99).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
2. Adapted from McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
4. Begley, S. (2008, December 1). When DNA is not destiny. Newsweek, p. 14.
5. Begley, S. (2008, December 1). When DNA is not destiny. Newsweek, p. 14.
7. Cooley, C. (1922). Human nature and the social order (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Scribners.
8. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
9. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston.
10. Insel, P., & Jacobson, L. (1975). What do you expect? An inquiry into self-fulfilling prophecies. Menlo Park, CA: Cummings.
11. Schugurensky, D. (Ed.). (2009). Selected moments of the 20th century. In History of education: A work in progress. Department of Adult Education, Commu-
nity Development and Counselling Psychology, The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE/UT). Retrieved from http://fcis.
oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_sc/assignment1/1968rosenjacob.html. Pygmalion in the Classroom was followed by many other school-based studies that exam-
ined these mechanisms in detail from different perspectives. Prominent among the works on this subject conducted by U.S. scholars are Rist, R. C. (1970,
August). Student social class and teacher expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in ghetto education. Harvard Educational Review, 40(3), 411–451; Anyon,
J. (1980, Fall). Social class and the hidden curriculum of work. Journal of Education, 162(1), 67–92; Oakes, J. (1985). Keeping track: How schools structure
inequality. Birmingham, NY: Vail-Ballou Press; and Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America’s schools cheat girls. New York, NY:
Macmillan Publishing Company.
12. Rosnow, R., & Rosenthal, R. (1999). Beginning behavioral research: A conceptual primer (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
14. Habermas, J. (1984). The theory of communicative action (Vol. 1). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
15. Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing visual language: Strategies for professional communicators. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
16. Klopf, D. (1995). Intercultural encounters: The fundamentals of intercultural communication (2nd ed., p. 7). Englewood, CO: Morton.
17. Ruffman, M. (2007, August 12). How to appliqué candles with flowers and other stuff. ToolGirl, Mag Ruffman’s Official Web Log. Retrieved from http://www.
toolgirl.com/toolgirl/2007/12/how-to-applique.html#more
18. Beebe, S. [Steven], & Beebe, S. [Susan]. (1997). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
19. Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
20. Tyler, V. (1978). Report of the working groups of the second SCA summer conference on intercultural communication. In N. C. Asuncio-Lande (Ed.), Ethical
Perspectives and Critical Issues in Intercultural Communication (pp. 170–177). Falls Church, VA: SCA.
4
Effective Business Writing
However great…natural talent may be, the art of writing cannot be learned all at once.
— Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Read, read, read…Just like a carpenter who works as an apprentice and studies the master.
— William Faulkner
You only learn to be a better writer by actually writing.

— Doris Lessing
4.1 Getting Started
1. Take a moment to write three words that describe your success in writing.
2. Make a list of words that you associate with writing. Compare your list with those of your
classmates.
3. Briefly describe your experience writing and include one link to something you like to read in
your post.
Something we often hear in business is, “Get it in writing.” This advice is meant to prevent
misunderstandings based on what one person thought the other person said. But does written
communication—getting it in writing—always prevent misunderstandings?
According to a Washington Post news story, a written agreement would have been helpful to
an airline customer named Mike. A victim of an airport mishap, Mike was given vouchers for $7,500
worth of free travel. However, in accordance with the airline’s standard policy, the vouchers were
due to expire in twelve months. When Mike saw that he and his wife would not be able to do
enough flying to use the entire amount before the expiration date, he called the airline and asked
for an extension. He was told the airline would extend the deadline, but later discovered they were
willing to do so at only 50 percent of the vouchers’ value. An airline spokesman told the newspaper,
“If [Mike] can produce a letter stating that we would give the full value of the vouchers, he should
produce it.”[1]
FIGURE 4.1
Written communication doesn't eliminate miscommunication or misunderstandings.
Grant Wickes , American Airlines Super 80 Photo i132 by Grant Wickes, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/18/2014 at: https://www.flickr.
com/photos/grantwickes/9130352254
Yet, as we will see in this chapter, putting something in writing is not always a foolproof way
to ensure accuracy and understanding. A written communication is only as accurate as the writer’s
knowledge of the subject and audience, and understanding depends on how well the writer cap-
tures the reader’s attention.
This chapter addresses the written word in a business context. We will also briefly consider the
symbols, design, font, timing, and related nonverbal expressions you make when composing a page
or document. Our discussions will focus on effective communication of your thoughts and ideas
through writing that is clear, concise, and efficient.
4.2 Oral versus Written

Communication
1. Explain how written communication is similar to oral communication, and how it is different.
The written word often stands in place of the spoken word. People often say, “It was good to hear
from you,” when they receive an e-mail or a letter, when in fact they didn’t hear the message, they
read it. Still, if they know you well, they may mentally “hear” your voice in your written words. Writ-
ing a message to friends or colleagues can be as natural as talking to them. Yet when we are asked
to write something, we often feel anxious and view writing as a more laborious, exacting process
than talking would be.
The written word in the form of a text message can also take the place of
FIGURE 4.2
verbal interaction, and in fact, many people prefer it. Again, written communica- Written communication via microblogs, Twitter,
tion may stand in place of what we say, but it doesn't provide the context clues and text message resembles some aspects of
like a personal conversation. In the case of text messages, the slang, abbrevia- oral communication.
tions, and spontaneous comments can not only lead to misunderstandings but
contribute to hurt feelings. Text messaging, while quite popular and used to a
degree in business internal communications, is still ripe for error and miscommu-
nication. Have you ever had a misunderstanding in a text message conversation?
Then you know how easy it is to confuse and be confused, and why we'll focus
on more accepted business communication channels. Twitter messages and
microblog broadcast messages, however, may be like text messages, or not, and
certainly the lines between informal text conversations and formal social media
marketing messages is becoming blurred. Regardless, as a professional business
communicator you recognize the importance of clarity, accuracy, and precision in
your interactions with co-workers, customers, and clients. In this section, we'll
examine the difference between oral and written communication, and recognize
Mark Hillary, Twitter messages about my wedding,
that lines between the two are increasingly overlapping.
flickr.com/photos/markhillary/5412943529
TABLE 4.1 Eight Essential Elements of Communication
Element of Definition Oral Application Written Application

Communication
1. Source A source creates and Jay makes a telephone Jay writes an e-mail to
communicates a mes- call to Heather. Heather.
sage.
2. Receiver A receiver receives the Heather listens to Jay. Heather reads Jay’s e-
message from the mail.
source.
3. Message The message is the Jay asks Heather to Jay’s e-mail asks
stimulus or meaning participate in a confer- Heather to participate in
produced by the source ence call at 3:15. a conference call at
for the receiver. 3:15.
4. Channel A channel is the way a The channel is the tele- The channel is e-mail.
message travels phone.
between source and
receiver.
5. Feedback Feedback is the mes- Heather says yes. Heather replies with an
sage the receiver sends e-mail saying yes.
in response to the
source.
6. Environment The environment is the Heather is traveling by Heather is at her desk
physical atmosphere train on a business trip when she receives
where the communica- when she receives Jay’s e-mail.
tion occurs. Jay’s phone call.
Element of Definition Oral Application Written Application

Communication
7. Context The context involves the Heather expects Jay to Heather expects Jay to
psychological expecta- send an e-mail with the dial and connect the
tions of the source and call-in information for call. Jay expects
receiver. the call. Jay expects to Heather to check her e-
do so, and does. mail for the call-in infor-
mation so that she can
join the call.
8. Interference Also known as noise, Heather calls in at 3:15, Heather waits for a
interference is anything but she has missed the phone call from Jay at
that blocks or distorts call because she forgot 3:15, but he doesn’t
the communication that she is in a different call.
process. time zone from Jay.
As you can see from the applications in this example, at least two different kinds of inter-
ference have the potential to ruin a conference call, and the interference can exist regardless of
whether the communication to plan the call is oral or written. Try switching the “Context” and
“Interference” examples from Oral to Written, and you will see that mismatched expectations and
time zone confusion can happen by phone or by e-mail. While this example has an unfavorable out-
come, it points out a way in which oral and written communication processes are similar.
Another way in which oral and written forms of communication are similar
FIGURE 4.3
E-mails are impacted by context and is that they can be divided into verbal and nonverbal categories. Verbal commu-
interference. nication involves the words you say, and nonverbal communication involves how
you say them—your tone of voice, your facial expression, body language, and so
forth. Written communication also involves verbal and nonverbal dimensions.
The words you choose are the verbal dimension. How you portray or display
them is the nonverbal dimension, which can include the medium (e-mail or a
printed document), the typeface or font, or the appearance of your signature on
a letter. In this sense, oral and written communication are similar in their
approach even as they are quite different in their application.
The written word allows for a dynamic communication process between
source and receiver, but is often asynchronous, meaning that it occurs at differ-
ent times. When we communicate face-to-face, we get immediate feedback, but
our written words stand in place of interpersonal interaction and we lack that
Ian Lamont , BlackBerry e-mail on the BB 8330, Flickr,
immediate response. Since we are often not physically present when someone
CC-BY, retrieved on 08/18/2014 at: https://www.flickr.
com/photos/ilamont/4329363938 reads what we have written, it is important that we anticipate the reader’s needs,
interpretation, and likely response to our written messages. Our words represent
us in our absence, and we're not immediately present and available to clarify, rephrase, restate, or
times. explain. Feedback, unlike a conversational context, is not immediately available. Care and consider-
ation of each word and how it could be interpreted, and misinterpreted, is an important part of
business communication.
FIGURE 4.4
E-mail marketing requires planning and precision.
Mike Schinkel Sandi Solow on Workflow of an E-mail Marketing Campaign, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved on 08/18/2014 at: https://www.flickr.
com/photos/mikeschinkel/2679511536
Suppose you are asked to write a message telling clients about a new product or service your
company is about to offer. If you were speaking to one of them in a relaxed setting over coffee, what
would you say? What words would you choose to describe the product or service, and how it may
fulfill the client’s needs? As the business communicator, you must focus on the words you use and
how you use them. Short, simple sentences, in themselves composed of words, also communicate
a business style. In your previous English classes you may have learned to write eloquently, but in
a business context, your goal is clear, direct communication. One strategy to achieve this goal is to
write with the same words and phrases you use when you talk. However, since written communica-
tion lacks the immediate feedback that is present in an oral conversation, you need to choose words
and phrases even more carefully to promote accuracy, clarity, and understanding.
Finally, let's consider business communication as a changing environment. We have people in
business who learned to prepare business documents on typewriters when computers took up entire
floors of buildings. We also have people in business who have been using mobile technologies
and the Internet most, if not all of, their lives. In business, we have a wide and complex range of
expectations, contexts, and cultures that all influence how and when we interact. Business com-
munication involves formats, organizational models, and displays that reflect those expectations,
and the effective communicator knows their skills are in demand as they adapt, anticipate, prepare,
publish, and evaluate each memo, letter, sales message, or business report.
Key Takeaway
Written communication involves the same eight basic elements as oral communication, but it is
often asynchronous.
1. Review the oral and written applications in Table 4.1 and construct a different scenario for
each. What could Jay and Heather do differently to make the conference call a success?
2. Visit a business website that has an “About Us” page. Read the “About Us” message and
write a summary in your own words of what it tells you about the company. Compare your
results with those of your classmates.
3. You are your own company. What words describe you? Design a logo, create a name, and
present your descriptive words in a way that gets attention. Share and compare with class-
mates.
4. Recall a text message conversation that involved a miscommunication, misinterpretation, or
confusion that lead to less than effective communication. Briefly summarize the interaction
and share with the class.
5. How do text messages help speed up communication? When does it take more time to
explain something via text message? Is there a time or context or message that takes more
time to explain, effectively cancelling out a speed advantage? Discuss the issue with your
classmates.
6. With a rise in online platforms dedicated to social and professional networking, are cover let-
ters and resumes out of date or even obsolete? Why or why not? Discuss the issue with your
classmates.
7. Credibility and trust are part of the foundation of any good relationship, including business
relationships. How do you view spelling, grammar, or even factual errors in written docu-
ments? How do you think others perceive those errors? Discuss the issue with classmates.
8. The written word represents you, and your company, in your absence, but creates an
impression and presence that says something about you. What are the characteristics of
effective, professional business writing? How does it compare or contrast with informal writ-
ing? Discuss the issue with classmates.
9. Marketing 101: Don't make mistakes! Find an example of a spelling, grammar, or factual
error in the media and share it with the class. Briefly share with the class what the outcome
was of the error, and how difficult it was to repair the damage done.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Words and images will represent you in your ePortfolio, and it is your
responsibility to consider their interpretation, and misinterpretation, before you publish or
share them. Select one aspect or area of your ePortfolio for revision and edit it, noting before
and after. Share and compare examples with your classmates.
4.3 How Is Writing Learned?
1. Explain how reading, writing, and critical thinking contribute to becoming a good writer.
You may think that some people are simply born better writers than others, but in fact writing is a
reflection of experience and effort. If you think about your successes as a writer, you may come up
with a couple of favorite books, authors, or teachers that inspired you to express yourself. You may
also recall a sense of frustration with your previous writing experiences. It is normal and natural to
experience a sense of frustration at the perceived inability to express oneself. The emphasis here is
on your perception of yourself as a writer as one aspect of how you communicate. Most people use
oral communication for much of their self-expression, from daily interactions to formal business
meetings. You have a lifetime of experience in that arena that you can leverage to your benefit in
your writing. Reading out loud what you have written is a positive technique we’ll address later in
more depth.
Martin Luther King Jr.’s statement, “Violence is the language of the unheard”
FIGURE 4.5
emphasizes the importance of finding one’s voice, of being able to express one’s We learn to write across our lifetime.
ideas. Violence comes in many forms, but is often associated with frustration
born of the lack of opportunity to communicate. You may read King’s words and
think of the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s, or perhaps of the violence of the
9/11 terrorist attacks, or of wars happening in the world today. Public demonstra-
tions and fighting are expressions of voice, from individual to collective. Finding
your voice, and learning to listen to others, is part of learning to communicate.
You are your own best ally when it comes to your writing. Keeping a positive
frame of mind about your journey as a writer is not a cliché or simple, hollow
advice. Your attitude toward writing can and does influence your written prod-
ucts. Even if writing has been a challenge for you, the fact that you are reading
this sentence means you perceive the importance of this essential skill. This text
and our discussions will help you improve your writing, and your positive atti-
tude is part of your success strategy. Pedro Ribeiro Simões , Writing, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved
on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/
There is no underestimating the power of effort when combined with inspi-
pedrosimoes7/2394843377
ration and motivation. The catch then is to get inspired and motivated. That’s not
all it takes, but it is a great place to start. You were not born with a key pad in front of you, but when
you want to share something with friends and text them, the words (or abbreviations) come almost
naturally. So you recognize you have the skills necessary to begin the process of improving and har-
nessing your writing abilities for business success. It will take time and effort, and the proverbial
journey starts with a single step, but don’t lose sight of the fact that your skillful ability to craft
words will make a significant difference in your career.
Reading
Reading is one step many writers point to as an integral step in learning to write effectively. You
may like Harry Potter books or be a Twilight fan, but if you want to write effectively in business,
you need to read business-related documents. These can include letters, reports, business proposals,
and business plans. You may find these where you work or in your school’s writing center, business
department, or library; there are also many websites that provide sample business documents of all
kinds, but don't forget books that can be found on a shelf.
Your reading should also include publications in the industry where you
FIGURE 4.6
Reading can help improve your writing work or plan to work, such as Aviation Week, InfoWorld, Journal of Hospitality,
performance. International Real Estate Digest, or Women’s Wear Daily, to name just a few. You
can also gain an advantage by reading publications in fields other than your cho-
sen one; often reading outside your niche can enhance your versatility and help
you learn how other people express similar concepts. Finally, don’t neglect gen-
eral media like the business section of your local newspaper, national
publications like the Wall Street Journal, Fast Company, and the Harvard Busi-
ness Review, or even books on writing when you read. Reading is one of the most
useful lifelong habits you can practice to boost your business communication
skills.
In the “real world” when you are under a deadline and production is para-
mount, you’ll be rushed and may lack the time to do adequate background
reading for a particular assignment. For now, take advantage of your business
Kristin Nador , Writing Books, Flickr, CC-BY, retrieved communication course by exploring common business documents you may be
on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ called on to write, contribute to, or play a role in drafting. Some documents have
kristinnador/7666431386
a degree of formula to them, and your familiarity with them will reduce your
FIGURE 4.7 preparation and production time while increasing your effectiveness. As you read similar docu-
Reading is one of the most ments, take notes on what you observe. As you read several sales letters, you may observe several
useful lifelong habits you can
patterns that can serve you well later on when it’s your turn. These patterns are often called
practice to boost your
business communication conventions, or conventional language patterns for a specific genre.
skills.
Writing
Never lose sight of one key measure of the effectiveness of your writing: the degree to which it ful-
fills readers’ expectations. If you are in a law office, you know the purpose of a court brief is to
convince the judge that certain points of law apply to the given case. If you are at a newspaper, you
Corporation
know that an editorial opinion article is supposed to convince readers of the merits of a certain
viewpoint, whereas a news article is supposed to report facts without bias. If you are writing ad
copy, the goal is to motivate consumers to make a purchase decision. In each case, you are writing
patterns for a specific to a specific purpose, and a great place to start when considering what to write is to answer the fol-
genre.
lowing question: what are the readers’ expectations?
When you are a junior member of the team, you may be given clerical tasks like filling in forms,
populating a database, or coordinating appointments. Or you may be assigned to do research that
involves reading, interviewing, and note taking. Don’t underestimate these facets of the writing
process; instead, embrace the fact that writing for business often involves tasks that a novelist
might not even recognize as “writing.” Your contribution is quite important and in itself is an on-
the-job learning opportunity that shouldn’t be taken for granted.
When given a writing assignment, it is important to make sure you under-

stand what you are being asked to do. You may read the directions and try to put FIGURE 4.8
Writing requires time and effort.
them in your own words to make sense of the assignment. Be careful, however,
not to lose sight of what the directions say versus what you think they say. Just
as an audience’s expectations should be part of your consideration of how, what,
and why to write, the instructions given by your instructor, or in a work situation
by your supervisor, establish expectations. Just as you might ask a mentor more
about a business writing assignment at work, you need to use the resources avail-
able to you to maximize your learning opportunity. Ask the professor to clarify
any points you find confusing, or perceive more than one way to interpret, in
order to better meet the expectations.
Before you write an opening paragraph, or even the first sentence, it is
important to consider the overall goal of the assignment. The word assignment
can apply equally to a written product for class or for your employer. You might josef.stuefer , write down my name ..., Flickr, CC-BY,
make a list of the main points and see how those points may become the topic retrieved on 08/14/2014 at: https://www.flickr.com/
sentences in a series of paragraphs. You may also give considerable thought to photos/josefstuefer/5137407
whether your word choice, your tone, your language, and what you want to say is in line with your
understanding of your audience. We briefly introduced the writing process previously, and will visit
it in depth later in our discussion, but for now writing should about exploring your options.
Authors rarely have a finished product in mind when they start, but once you know what your goal
is and how to reach it, you writing process will become easier and more effective.
Constructive Criticism and Targeted Practice

Mentors can also be important in your growth as a writer. Your instructor can
serve as a mentor, offering constructive criticism, insights on what he or she has FIGURE 4.9
Feedback can help improve your writing
written, and life lessons about writing for a purpose. Never underestimate the
performance.
mentors that surround you in the workplace, even if you are currently working
in a position unrelated to your desired career. They can read your rough draft and
spot errors, as well as provide useful insights. Friends and family can also be help-
ful mentors—if your document’s meaning is clear to someone not working in
your business, it will likely also be clear to your audience.
The key is to be open to criticism, keeping in mind that no one ever improved
by repeating bad habits over and over. Only when you know what your errors
are—errors of grammar or sentence structure, logic, format, and so on—can you
correct your document and do a better job next time. Writing can be a solitary
activity, but more often in business settings it is a collective, group, or team effort.
Keep your eyes and ears open for opportunities to seek outside assistance before
you finalize your document.
Andrea Balzano, Corporate Brochure Report Template,

flickr.com/photos/andreabalzano/10418619495 Also
see: issuu.com/andre28/docs/12_pages_corporate_
brochure
Learning to be a successful business writer comes with practice. Targeted practice, which
involves identifying your weak areas and specifically working to improve them, is especially valu-
Identifying one’s weak able. In addition to reading, make it a habit to write, even if it is not a specific assignment. The more
areas and specifically
working to improve them. you practice writing the kinds of materials that are used in your line of work, the more writing will
come naturally and become an easier task—even on occasions when you need to work under pres-
sure.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking means becoming aware of your thinking process. It’s a human trait that allows us
“Self-directed, to step outside what we read or write and ask ourselves, “Does this really make sense?” “Are there
other, perhaps better, ways to explain this idea?” Sometimes our thinking is very abstract and
becomes clear only through the process of getting thoughts down in words. As a character in E. M.
Forster’s Aspects of the Novel said, “How can I tell what I think till I see what I say?”[2] Did you really
write what you meant to, and will it be easily understood by the reader? Successful writing forms a
relationship with the audience, reaching the reader on a deep level that can be dynamic and moti-
vating. In contrast, when writing fails to meet the audience’s expectations, you already know the
consequences: they’ll move on.
Learning to write effectively involves reading, writing, critical thinking, and hard work. You
FIGURE 4.10
Excellence in writing comes may have seen The Wizard of Oz and recall the scene when Dorothy discovers what is behind the
from effort. curtain. Up until that moment, she believed the Wizard’s powers were needed to change her situa-
tion, but now she discovers that the power is her own. Like Dorothy, you can discover that the
power to write successfully rests in your hands. Excellent business writing can be inspiring, and it
is important to not lose that sense of inspiration as we deconstruct the process of writing to its ele-
mental components.
You may be amazed by the performance of Tony Hawk on a skateboard ramp, Mia Hamm on
the soccer field, or Michael Phelps in the water. Those who demonstrate excellence often make it
look easy, but nothing could be further from the truth. Effort, targeted practice, and persistence
will win the day every time. When it comes to writing, you need to learn to recognize clear and con-
cise writing while looking behind the curtain at how it is created. This is not to say we are going to
© 2010 Jupiterimages lose the magic associated with the best writers in the field. Instead, we’ll appreciate what we are
Corporation reading as we examine how it was written and how the writer achieved success.
View the video online at:

Key Takeaway
Success in writing comes from good habits: reading, writing (especially targeted practice), and
critical thinking.
Exercises
1. Interview one person whose job involves writing. This can include writing e-mails, reports,
proposals, invoices, or any other form of business document. Where did this person learn to
write? What would they include as essential steps to learning to write for success in busi-
ness? Share your results with a classmate.
2. For five consecutive days, read the business section of your local newspaper or another daily
paper. Write a one-page summary of the news that makes the most impression on you.
Review your summaries and compare them with those of your classmates.
3. Practice filling out an online form that requires writing sentences, such as a job application
for a company that receives applications online. How does this kind of writing compare with
the writing you have done for other courses in the past? Discuss your thoughts with your
classmates.
4. English literature and its associated writing styles are different than we observe in business
communication. How would you characterize those differences? In which style do you per-
ceive a strength or weakness? Which do you prefer and why? Discuss the issue with
classmates.
5. Find an example of clear and concise business writing and share it with the class. Discuss
the elements that contribute to its clarity and brevity.
6. Find an example of less-than-clear-and-concise business writing and share it with the class.
How could you improve it?
7. Think of a word you learned recently and share it with the class. In what context did you learn
the new word, and have you used it since? Why or why not? Share and compare new words
with your classmates.
8. What does the word "critical" or "critic" mean to you? Does it have a negative connotation?
How does your interpretation of the word relate to our discussion of critical thinking? Share
9. How do you prefer to receive feedback? Consider how you've observed feedback in the past
and share positive and negative examples with the class. Compare and contrast the exam-
ples with classmates.
10. ePortfolio Exercise: Has your ePortfolio received feedback? If not, seek out someone to
review it for you, making sure you clearly indicate who the target audience is, how it will be
used, and any other elements you want to highlight. Take notes on their feedback and con-
sider them for your next revision.
4.4 Good Writing
1.
2. Identify and explain the rhetorical elements and cognate strategies that contribute to good
writing.
One common concern is to simply address the question, what is good writing? As we progress
through our study of written business communication we’ll try to answer it. But recognize that
while the question may be simple, the answer is complex. Edward P. Bailey[3] offers several key
points to remember.
Good business writing
• follows the rules,
• is easy to read, and
• attracts the reader.
Let’s examine these qualities in more depth.
Bailey’s first point is one that generates a fair amount of debate. What are the rules? Do “the
rules” depend on audience expectations or industry standards, what your English teacher taught
you, or are they reflected in the amazing writing of authors you might point to as positive exam-
ples? The answer is “all of the above,” with a point of clarification. You may find it necessary to
balance audience expectations with industry standards for a document, and may need to find a bal-
ance or compromise. Bailey[4] points to common sense as one basic criterion of good writing, but
common sense is a product of experience. When searching for balance, reader understanding is the
deciding factor. The correct use of a semicolon may not be what is needed to make a sentence work.
Your reading audience should carry extra attention in everything you write because, without them,
you won’t have many more writing assignments.
When we say that good writing follows the rules, we don’t mean that a writer cannot be cre-
ative. Just as an art student needs to know how to draw a scene in correct perspective before he can
“break the rules” by “bending” perspective, so a writer needs to know the rules of language. Being
well versed in how to use words correctly, form sentences with proper grammar, and build logical
paragraphs are skills the writer can use no matter what the assignment. Even though some busi-
ness settings may call for conservative writing, there are other areas where creativity is not only
allowed but mandated. Imagine working for an advertising agency or a software development firm;
in such situations success comes from expressing new, untried ideas. By following the rules of lan-
guage and correct writing, a writer can express those creative ideas in a form that comes through
clearly and promotes understanding.
Similarly, writing that is easy to read is not the same as “dumbed down” or simplistic writing.
What is easy to read? For a young audience, you may need to use straightforward, simple terms, but
to ignore their use of the language is to create an artificial and unnecessary barrier. An example
referring to Miley Cyrus may work with one reading audience and fall flat with another. Profession-
specific terms can serve a valuable purpose as we write about precise concepts. Not everyone will
understand all the terms in a profession, but if your audience is largely literate in the terms of the
field, using industry terms will help you establish a relationship with your readers.
The truly excellent writer is one who can explain complex ideas in a way that the reader can
understand. Sometimes ease of reading can come from the writer’s choice of a brilliant illustrative
example to get a point across. In other situations, it can be the writer’s incorporation of definitions
into the text so that the meaning of unfamiliar words is clear. It may also be a matter of choosing
dynamic, specific verbs that make it clear what is happening and who is carrying out the action.
Bailey’s third point concerns the interest of the reader. Will they want to read it? This question
should guide much of what you write. We increasingly gain information from our environment
through visual, auditory, and multimedia channels, from YouTube to streaming audio, and to
watching the news online. Some argue that this has led to a decreased attention span for reading,
meaning that writers need to appeal to readers with short, punchy sentences and catchy phrases.
However, there are still plenty of people who love to immerse themselves in reading an interesting
article, proposal, or marketing piece.
Perhaps the most universally useful strategy in capturing your reader’s attention is to state
how your writing can meet the reader’s needs. If your document provides information to answer a
question, solve a problem, or explain how to increase profits or cut costs, you may want to state this
in the beginning. By opening with a “what’s in it for me” strategy, you give your audience a reason
to be interested in what you’ve written.
More Qualities of Good Writing

To the above list from Bailey, let’s add some additional qualities that define good writing. Good writ-
ing
• meets the reader’s expectations,
• is clear and concise,
• is efficient and effective.
To meet the reader’s expectations, the writer needs to understand who the intended reader is.
In some business situations, you are writing just to one person: your boss, a coworker in another
department, or an individual customer or vendor. If you know the person well, it may be as easy for
you to write to him or her as it is to write a note to your parent or roommate. If you don’t know the
person, you can at least make some reasonable assumptions about his or her expectations, based
on the position he or she holds and its relation to your job.
In other situations, you may be writing a document to be read by a group or team, an entire
department, or even a large number of total strangers. How can you anticipate their expectations
and tailor your writing accordingly? Naturally you want to learn as much as you can about your
likely audience. How much you can learn and what kinds of information will vary with the situa-
tion. If you are writing Web site content, for example, you may never meet the people who will visit
the site, but you can predict why they would be drawn to the site and what they would expect to
read there. Beyond learning about your audience, your clear understanding of the writing assign-
ment and its purpose will help you to meet reader expectations.
Our addition of the fifth point concerning clear and concise writing reflects the increasing
tendency in business writing to eliminate error. Errors can include those associated with produc-
tion, from writing to editing, and reader response. Your twin goals of clear and concise writing
point to a central goal across communication: fidelity. This concept involves our goal of accurately
communicating all the intended information with a minimum of signal or message breakdown or
misinterpretation. Designing your documents, including writing and presentation, to reduce mes-
sage breakdown is an important part of effective business communication.
This leads our discussion to efficiency. There are only twenty-four hours in a day and we are
increasingly asked to do more with less, with shorter deadlines almost guaranteed. As a writer, how
do you meet ever-increasing expectations? Each writing assignment requires a clear understand-
ing of the goals and desired results, and when either of these two aspects is unclear, the efficiency
of your writing can be compromised. Rewrites require time that you may not have, but will have to
make if the assignment was not done correctly the first time.
As we have discussed previously, making a habit of reading similar documents prior to begin-
ning your process of writing can help establish a mental template of your desired product. If you
can see in your mind’s eye what you want to write, and have the perspective of similar documents
combined with audience’s needs, you can write more efficiently. Your written documents are prod-
ucts and will be required on a schedule that impacts your coworkers and business. Your ability to
produce effective documents efficiently is a skill set that will contribute to your success.
Our sixth point reinforces this idea with an emphasis on effectiveness. What is effective writ-
ing? It is writing that succeeds in accomplishing its purpose. Understanding the purpose, goals, and
desired results of your writing assignment will help you achieve this success. Your employer may
want an introductory sales letter to result in an increase in sales leads, or potential contacts for fol-
low-up leading to sales. Your audience may not see the document from that perspective, but will
instead read with the mindset of, “How does this help me solve X problem?” If you meet both goals,
your writing is approaching effectiveness. Here, effectiveness is qualified with the word “approach-
ing” to point out that writing is both a process and a product, and your writing will continually
require effort and attention to revision and improvement.
Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies

Another approach to defining good writing is to look at how it fulfills the goals of two well-known
systems in communication. One of these systems comprises the three classical elements of
The art of presenting an
rhetoric, or the art of presenting an argument. These elements are logos (logic), ethos (ethics and
argument.
credibility), and pathos (emotional appeal), first proposed by the ancient Greek teacher Aristotle.
Although rhetoric is often applied to oral communication, especially public speaking, it is also fun-
damental to good writing.
A second set of goals involves what are called cognate strategies, or ways of promoting under-
Ways of framing, standing,[5] developed in recent decades by Charles Kostelnick and David Rogers. Like rhetorical
expressing and elements, cognate strategies can be applied to public speaking, but they are also useful in develop-
ing good writing. Table 4.2 describes these goals, their purposes, and examples of how they may be
an audience.
carried out in business writing.
TABLE 4.2 Rhetorical Elements and Cognate Strategies

Aristotle’s Rhetorical Cognate Strategies Focus Example in Business
Elements Writing
Logos Clarity Clear understanding An announcement will
be made to the com-
pany later in the week,
but I wanted to tell you
personally that as of the
first of next month, I will
be leaving my position
to accept a three-year
assignment in our Sin-
gapore office. As soon
as further details about
the management of
your account are avail-
able, I will share them
with you.
Conciseness Key points In tomorrow’s confer-
ence call Sean wants to
introduce the new team
members, outline the
schedule and budget
for the project, and
clarify each person’s
responsibilities in meet-
ing our goals.

Elements Writing
Arrangement Order, hierarchy, place- Our department has
ment matrix structure. We
have three product
development groups,
one for each category
of product. We also
have a manufacturing
group, a finance group,
and a sales group; dif-
ferent group members
are assigned to each of
the three product cate-
gories. Within the
matrix, our structure is
flat, meaning that we
have no group leaders.
Everyone reports to
Beth, the department
manager.
Ethos Credibility Character, trust Having known and
worked with Jesse for
more than five years, I
can highly recommend
him to take my place as
your advisor. In addition
to having superb qualifi-
cations, Jesse is known
for his dedication, hon-
esty, and caring atti-
tude. He will always go
the extra mile for his
clients.
Expectation Norms and anticipated As is typical in our
outcomes industry, we ship all
merchandise FOB our
warehouse. Prices are
exclusive of any federal,
state, or local taxes.
Payment terms are net
30 days from date of
invoice.
Reference Sources and frames of According to an article
reference in Business Week dated
October 15, 2009,
Doosan is one of the
largest business con-
glomerates in South
Korea.
Pathos Tone Expression I really don’t have
words to express how
grateful I am for all the
support you’ve
extended to me and my
family in this hour of
need. You guys are the
best.

Elements Writing
Emphasis Relevance It was unconscionable
for a member of our
organization to shout an
interruption while the
president was speak-
ing. What needs to
happen now—and let
me be clear about
this—is an immediate
apology.
Engagement Relationship Faithful soldiers pledge
never to leave a fallen
comrade on the battle-
field.
Key Takeaway
Good writing is characterized by correctness, ease of reading, and attractiveness; it also meets
reader expectations and is clear, concise, efficient, and effective. Rhetorical elements
expectation, reference, tone, emphasis, and engagement) are goals that are achieved in good
business writing.
1. Choose a piece of business writing that attracts your interest. What made you want to read
it? Share your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Choose a piece of business writing and evaluate it according to the qualities of good writing
presented in this section. Do you think the writing qualifies as “good”? Why or why not? Dis-
cuss your opinion with your classmates.
3. Identify the ethos, pathos, and logos in a document. Share and compare with classmates.
4.5 Style in Written Communication
1.
2. Demonstrate the appropriate use of colloquial, casual, and formal writing in at least one doc-
ument of each style.
One way to examine written communication is from a structural perspective. Words are a series of
symbols that communicate meaning, strung together in specific patterns that are combined to
communicate complex and compound meanings. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,
and articles are the building blocks you will use when composing written documents. Misspellings
of individual words or grammatical errors involving misplacement or incorrect word choices in a
sentence, can create confusion, lose meaning, and have a negative impact on the reception of your
document. Errors themselves are not inherently bad, but failure to recognize and fix them will
reflect on you, your company, and limit your success. Self-correction is part of the writing process.
Another way to examine written communication is from a goals perspective, where specific
documents address stated (or unstated) goals and have rules, customs, and formats that are antic-
ipated and expected. Violations of these rules, customs, or formats—whether intentional or unin-
tentional—can also have a negative impact on the way your document is received.
Colloquial, casual, and formal writing are three common styles that carry their own particular
sets of expectations. Which style you use will depend on your audience, and often whether your
communication is going to be read only by those in your company (internal communications) or The sharing and
by those outside the organization, such as vendors, customers or clients (external
communications). As a general rule, external communications tend to be more formal, just as cor- between individuals,
departments, or
porate letterhead and business cards—designed for presentation to the “outside world”—are more
representatives of the
formal than the e-mail and text messages that are used for everyday writing within the organiza- same business.
tion.
Style also depends on the purpose of the document and its audience. If your writing assign-
ment is for Web page content, clear and concise use of the written word is essential. If your writing
assignment is a feature interest article for an online magazine, you may have the luxury of addi- The sharing and
tional space and word count combined with graphics, pictures, embedded video or audio clips, and between individuals,
links to related topics. If your writing assignment involves an introductory letter represented on a departments, or
printed page delivered in an envelope to a potential customer, you won’t have the interactivity to representatives of the
enhance your writing, placing an additional burden on your writing and how you represent it. business and parties
outside the organization.
Colloquial
Colloquial language is an informal, conversational style of writing. It differs from standard busi-
ness English in that it often makes use of colorful expressions, slang, and regional phrases. As a
result, it can be difficult to understand for an English learner or a person from a different region of style of writing.
the country. Sometimes colloquialism takes the form of a word difference; for example, the differ-
ence between a “Coke,” a “tonic,” a “pop, and a “soda pop” primarily depends on where you live. It can
also take the form of a saying, as Roy Wilder Jr. discusses in his book You All Spoken Here: Southern
Talk at Its Down-Home Best.[6] Colloquial sayings like “He could mess up a rainstorm” or “He couldn’t
hit the ground if he fell” communicate the person is inept in a colorful, but not universal way. In
the Pacific Northwest someone might “mosey,” or walk slowly, over to the “café,” or bakery, to pick
up a “maple bar”—a confection known as a “Long John doughnut” to people in other parts of the
United States.
Colloquial language can be reflected in texting:
“ok fwiw i did my part n put it in where you asked but my ? is if the group does not par-
ticipate do i still get credit for my part of what i did n also how much do we all have to do
i mean i put in my opinion of the items in order do i also have to reply to the other team
members or what? Thxs”
We may be able to grasp the meaning of the message, and understand some of the abbrevi-
ations and codes, but when it comes to business, this style of colloquial text writing is generally
suitable only for one-on-one internal communications between coworkers who know each other
well (and those who do not judge each other on spelling or grammar). For external communications,
and even for group communications within the organization, it is not normally suitable, as some of
the codes are not standard, and may even be unfamiliar to the larger audience.
Colloquial writing may be permissible, and even preferable, in some business contexts. For
example, a marketing letter describing a folksy product such as a wood stove or an old-fashioned
popcorn popper might use a colloquial style to create a feeling of relaxing at home with loved ones.
Still, it is important to consider how colloquial language will appear to the audience. Will the
meaning of your chosen words be clear to a reader who is from a different part of the country? Will
a folksy tone sound like you are “talking down” to your audience, assuming that they are not
intelligent or educated enough to appreciate standard English? A final point to remember is that
colloquial style is not an excuse for using expressions that are sexist, racist, profane, or otherwise
offensive.
Casual
Casual language involves everyday words and expressions in a familiar group context, such as con-
versations with family or close friends. The emphasis is on the communication interaction itself,
and expressions in a and less about the hierarchy, power, control, or social rank of the individuals communicating. When
familiar group context. you are at home, at times you probably dress in casual clothing that you wouldn’t wear in pub-
lic—pajamas or underwear, for example. Casual communication is the written equivalent of this
kind of casual attire. Have you ever had a family member say something to you that a stranger or
coworker would never say? Or have you said something to a family member that you would never
say in front of your boss? In both cases, casual language is being used. When you write for business,
a casual style is usually out of place. Instead, a respectful, professional tone represents you well in
your absence.
Formal
In business writing, the appropriate style will have a degree of formality. Formal language is com-
munication that focuses on professional expression with attention to roles, protocol, and
Focuses on professional
appearance. It is characterized by its vocabulary and syntax, or the grammatical arrangement of
words in a sentence. That is, writers using a formal style tend to use a more sophisticated vocabu- to roles, protocol, or
lary—a greater variety of words, and more words with multiple syllables—not for the purpose of appearance.
throwing big words around, but to enhance the formal mood of the document. They also tend to
use more complex syntax, resulting in sentences that are longer and contain more subordinate
clauses. The grammatical
arrangement of words in a
The appropriate style for a particular business document may be very formal, or less so. If your sentence.
supervisor writes you an e-mail and you reply, the exchange may be informal in that it is fluid and
relaxed, without much forethought or fanfare, but it will still reflect the formality of the business
environment. Chances are you will be careful to use an informative subject line, a salutation (“Hi
[supervisor’s name]” is typical in e-mails), a word of thanks for whatever information or suggestion
she provided you, and an indication that you stand ready to help further if need be. You will proba-
bly also check your grammar and spelling before you click “send.”
A formal document such as a proposal or an annual report will involve a great deal of planning
and preparation, and its style may not be fluid or relaxed. Instead, it may use distinct language
to emphasize the prestige and professionalism of your company. Let’s say you are going to write
a marketing letter that will be printed on company letterhead and mailed to a hundred sales
prospects. Naturally you want to represent your company in a positive light. In a letter of this nature
you might write a sentence like “The Widget 300 is our premium offering in the line; we have designed
it for ease of movement and efficiency of use, with your success foremost in our mind.” But in an
e-mail or a tweet, you might use an informal sentence instead, reading “W300—good sta- pler.”
Writing for business often involves choosing the appropriate level of formality for the com-
pany and industry, the particular document and situation, and the audience.
Amy Tan: Where does Creativity Hide?

Key Takeaway
The best style for a document may be colloquial, casual, informal, or formal, depending on the
audience and the situation.
1. Refer back to the e-mail or text message example in this section. Would you send that
message to your professor? Why or why not? What normative expectations concerning
professor-student communication are there and where did you learn them? Discuss your
thoughts with your classmates.
2. Select a business document and describe its style. Is it formal, informal, or colloquial? Can
you rewrite it in a different style? Share your results with a classmate.
3. List three words or phrases that you would say to your friends. List three words or phrases
that communicate similar meanings that you would say to an authority figure. Share and
4. When is it appropriate to write in a casual tone? In a formal tone? Write a one- to two-page
essay on this topic and discuss it with a classmate.
5. How does the intended audience influence the choice of words and use of language in a
document? Think of a specific topic and two specific kinds of audiences. Then write a short
example (250–500 words) of how this topic might be presented to each of the two audi-
ences.
4.6 Principles of Written

Communication
1.
2.
You may not recall when or where you learned all about nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepo-
sitions, articles, and phrases, but if you understand this sentence we’ll take for granted that you
have a firm grasp of the basics. But even professional writers and editors, who have spent a lifetime
navigating the ins and outs of crafting correct sentences, have to use reference books to look up
answers to questions of grammar and usage that arise in the course of their work. Let’s examine
how the simple collection of symbols called a word can be such a puzzle.
Words Are Inherently Abstract

There is no universally accepted definition for love, there are many ways to describe desire, and
there are countless ways to draw patience. Each of these terms is a noun, but it’s an abstract noun,
referring to an intangible concept. concept.
While there are many ways to define a chair, describe a table, or draw a window, they each have
a few common characteristics. A chair may be made from wood, crafted in a Mission style, or made
from plastic resin in one solid piece in nondescript style, but each has four legs and serves a com-
mon function. A table and a window also have common characteristics that in themselves form a can see and touch.
basis for understanding between source and receiver. The words “chair,” “table,” and “window” are
concrete terms, as they describe something we can see and touch.
Concrete terms are often easier to agree on, understand, or at least define the common char-
acteristics of. Abstract terms can easily become even more abstract with extended discussions, and
the conversational partners may never agree on a common definition or even a range of under-
standing.
In business communication, where the goal is to be clear and concise, limiting the range of mis-
interpretation, which type of word do you think is preferred? Concrete terms serve to clarify your
writing and more accurately communicate your intended meaning to the receiver. While all words
are abstractions, some are more so than others. To promote effective communication, choose words
that can be easily referenced and understood.
Words Are Governed by Rules

Perhaps you like to think of yourself as a free spirit, but did you know that all your communication
is governed by rules? You weren’t born knowing how to talk, but learned to form words and sen-
tences as you developed from infancy. As you learned language, you learned rules. You learned not
only what a word means in a given context, and how to pronounce it; you also learned the social
protocol of when to use it and when not to. When you write, your words represent you in your
absence. The context may change from reader to reader, and your goal as an effective business com-
municator is to get your message across (and some feedback) regardless of the situation.
The better you know your audience and context, the better you can anticipate and incorporate
the rules of how, what, and when to use specific words and terms. And here lies a paradox. You may
think that, ideally, the best writing is writing that is universally appealing and understood. Yet the
more you design a specific message to a specific audience or context, the less universal the mes-
sage becomes. Actually, this is neither a good or bad thing in itself. In fact, if you didn’t target your
messages, they wouldn’t be nearly as effective. By understanding this relationship of a universal or
specific appeal to an audience or context, you can look beyond vocabulary and syntax and focus on
the reader. When considering a communication assignment like a sales letter, knowing the intended
audience gives you insight to the explicit and implicit rules.
All words are governed by rules, and the rules are vastly different from one language and cul-
ture to another. A famous example is the decision by Chevrolet to give the name “Nova” to one of
its cars. In English, nova is recognized as coming from Latin meaning “new”; for those who have
studied astronomy, it also refers to a type of star. When the Chevy Nova was introduced in Latin
America, however, it was immediately ridiculed as the “car that doesn’t go.” Why? Because “no va”
literally means “doesn’t go” in Spanish.
By investigating sample names in a range of markets, you can quickly learn the rules surround-
ing words and their multiple meaning, much as you learned about subjects and objects, verbs and
nouns, adjectives and adverbs when you were learning language. Long before you knew formal
grammar terms, you observed how others communicate and learned by trial and error. In busi-
ness, error equals inefficiency, loss of resources, and is to be avoided. For Chevrolet, a little market
research in Latin America would have gone a long way.
Words Shape Our Reality

Aristotle is famous for many things, including his questioning of whether the table you can see,
feel, or use is real.[7] This may strike you as strange, but imagine that we are looking at a collection
of antique hand tools. What are they? They are made of metal and wood, but what are they used
for? The words we use help us to make sense of our reality, and we often use what we know to fig-
ure out what we don’t know. Perhaps we have a hard time describing the color of the tool, or the
table, as we walk around it. The light itself may influence our perception of its color. We may lack
the vocabulary to accurately describe to the color, and instead say it is “like a” color, but not directly
describe the color itself.[8] The color, or use of the tool, or style of the table are all independent of the
person perceiving them, but also a reflection of the person perceiving the object.
In business communication, our goal of clear and concise communication involves anticipation
FIGURE 4.11
Meaning is a reflection of the of this inability to label a color or describe the function of an antique tool by constructing meaning.
person perceiving the object Anticipating the language that the reader may reasonably be expected to know, as well as unfamil-
or word. iar terms, enables the writer to communicate in a way that describes with common reference points
while illustrating the new, interesting, or unusual. Promoting understanding and limiting misinter-
pretations are key goals of the effective business communicator.
Your letter introducing a new product or service relies, to an extent, on your preconceived
notions of the intended audience and their preconceived notions of your organization and its prod-
ucts or services. By referencing common ground, you form a connection between the known and
the unknown, the familiar and the new. People are more likely to be open to a new product or ser-
© 2010 Jupiterimages vice if they can reasonably relate it to one they are familiar with, or with which they have had good
Corporation experience in the past. Your initial measure of success is effective communication, and your long
term success may be measured in the sale or new contract for services.
Words and Your Legal Responsibility

Your writing in a business context means that you represent yourself and your company. What you
write and how you write it can be part of your company’s success, but can also expose it to unin-
work as your own. tended consequences and legal responsibility. When you write, keep in mind that your words will
keep on existing long after you have moved on to other projects. They can become an issue if they
exaggerate, state false claims, or defame a person or legal entity such as a competing company.
Another issue is plagiarism, using someone else’s writing without giving credit to the source.
Whether the “cribbed” material is taken from a printed book, a Web site, or a blog, plagiarism is a
violation of copyright law and may also violate your company policies. Industry standards often
have legal aspects that must be respected and cannot be ignored. For the writer this can be a chal-
lenge, but it can be a fun challenge with rewarding results.
The rapid pace of technology means that the law cannot always stay current with the realities
of business communication. Computers had been in use for more than twenty years before Con-
gress passed the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998, the first federal legislation to “move the
nation’s copyright law into the digital age.”[9] Think for a moment about the changes in computer
use that have taken place since 1998, and you will realize how many new laws are needed to clarify
what is fair and ethical, what should be prohibited, and who owns the rights to what.
For example, suppose your supervisor asks you to use your Facebook page or Twitter account
to give an occasional “plug” to your company’s products. Are you obligated to comply? If you later
change jobs, who owns your posts or tweets—are they yours, or does your now-former employer
have a right to them? And what about your network of “friends”? Can your employer use their
contact information to send marketing messages? These and many other questions remain to be
answered as technology, industry practices, and legislation evolve.[10]
“Our product is better than X company’s product. Their product is dangerous and you would
be a wise customer to choose us for your product solutions.”
What’s wrong with these two sentences? They may land you and your company in court. You
made a generalized claim of one product being better than another, and you stated it as if it were a
fact. The next sentence claims that your competitor’s product is dangerous. Even if this is true,
your ability to prove your claim beyond a reasonable doubt may be limited. Your claim is stated as
fact again, and from the other company’s perspective, your sentences may be considered libel or
defamation.
Libel is the written form of defamation, or a false statement that damages a reputation. If a
false statement of fact that concerns and harms the person defamed is published—including pub-
The written form of
lication in a digital or online environment—the author of that statement may be sued for libel. If defamation, or a false
the person defamed is a public figure, they must prove malice or the intention to do harm, but if statement that damages a
the victim is a private person, libel applies even if the offense cannot be proven to be malicious. reputation.
Under the First Amendment you have a right to express your opinion, but the words you use and
how you use them, including the context, are relevant to their interpretation as opinion versus fact.
Always be careful to qualify what you write and to do no harm.
Key Takeaway
Words are governed by rules and shape our reality. Writers have a legal responsibility to avoid
plagiarism and libel.
1. Define the word “chair.” Describe what a table is. Draw a window. Share, compare, and con-
trast results with classmates.
2.
3. Identify a target audience and indicate at least three words that you perceive would be
and
indicate three words that you perceive would be appropriate and effective. How are the
audiences and their words similar or different? Compare your results with those of your
classmates.
4. Create a sales letter for an audience that comes from a culture other than your own. Identify
the culture and articulate how your message is tailored to your perception of your intended
audience. Share and compare with classmates.
5. Do an online search on “online libel cases” and see what you find. Discuss your results with
your classmates.
6.
environment. Conduct a search on the word “netiquette” and share your findings.
4.7 Overcoming Barriers to Effective

Written Communication
1. Describe some common barriers to written communication and how to overcome them.
In almost any career or area of business, written communication is a key to success. Effective writ-
ing can prevent wasted time, wasted effort, aggravation, and frustration. The way we communicate
with others both inside of our business and on the outside goes a long way toward shaping the
organization’s image. If people feel they are listened to and able to get answers from the firm and
its representatives, their opinion will be favorable. Skillful writing and an understanding of how
people respond to words are central to accomplishing this goal.
How do we display skillful writing and a good understanding of how people respond to words?
Following are some suggestions.
Do Sweat the Small Stuff

Let us begin with a college student’s e-mail to a professor:
“i am confused as to why they are not due intil 11/10 i mean the calender said that they
was due then so thats i did them do i still get credit for them or do i need to due them over
on one tape? please let me know thanks. also when are you grading the stuff that we have
done?”
What’s wrong with this e-mail? What do you observe that may act as a barrier to communica-
tion? Let’s start with the lack of formality, including the fact that the student neglected to tell the
professor his or her name, or which specific class the question referred to. Then there is the lack of
adherence to basic vocabulary and syntax rules. And how about the lower case “i’s” and the mis-
spellings?
One significant barrier to effective written communication is failure to sweat the small stuff.
Spelling errors and incorrect grammar may be considered details, but they reflect poorly on you
and, in a business context, on your company. They imply either that you are not educated enough
to know you’ve made mistakes or that you are too careless to bother correcting them. Making errors
is human, but making a habit of producing error-filled written documents makes negative conse-
quences far more likely to occur. When you write, you have a responsibility to self-edit and pay
attention to detail. In the long run, correcting your mistakes before others see them will take less
time and effort than trying to make up for mistakes after the fact.
Get the Target Meaning

How would you interpret this message?
“You must not let inventory build up. You must monitor carrying costs and keep them
under control. Ship any job lots of more than 25 to us at once.”
Bypassing involves the misunderstanding that occurs when the receiver completely misses
the source’s intended meaning. Words mean different things to different people in different con-
texts. All that difference allows for both source and receiver to completely miss one another’s occurs when the receiver
intended goal. completely misses the
source’s intended
Did you understand the message in the example? Let’s find out. Jerry Sullivan, in his article
meaning.
Bypassing in Managerial Communication,[11] relates the story of Mr. Sato, a manager from Japan
who is new to the United States. The message came from his superiors at Kumitomo America, a
firm involved with printing machinery for the publishing business in Japan. Mr. Sato delegated the
instructions (in English as shown above) to Ms. Brady, who quickly identified there were three lots
in excess of twenty-five and arranged for prompt shipment.
Six weeks later Mr. Sato received a second message:
“Why didn’t you do what we told you? Your quarterly inventory report indicates you are
carrying 40 lots which you were supposed to ship to Japan. You must not violate our
instructions.”
What’s the problem? As Sullivan relates, it is an example of one word, or set of words, having
more than one meaning.[12] According to Sullivan, in Japanese “more than x” includes the reference
number twenty-five. In other words, Kumitomo wanted all lots with twenty-five or more to be
shipped to Japan. Forty lots fit that description. Ms. Brady interpreted the words as written, but the
cultural context had a direct impact on the meaning and outcome.
You might want to defend Ms. Brady and understand the interpretation, but the lesson remains
clear. Moreover, cultural expectations differ not only internationally, but also on many different
dimensions from regional to interpersonal.
Someone raised in a rural environment in the Pacific Northwest may have a very different
interpretation of meaning from someone from New York City. Take, for example, the word “down-
town.” To the rural resident, downtown refers to the center or urban area of any big city. To a New
Yorker, however, downtown may be a direction, not a place. One can go uptown or downtown, but
when asked, “Where are you from?” the answer may refer to a borough (“I grew up in Manhattan”)
or a neighborhood (“I’m from the East Village”).
This example involves two individuals who differ by geography, but we can further subdivide
between people raised in the same state from two regions, two people of the opposite sex, or two
people from different generations. The combinations are endless, as are the possibilities for bypass-
ing. While you might think you understand, requesting feedback and asking for confirmation and
clarification can help ensure that you get the target meaning.
Sullivan also notes that in stressful situations we often think in terms of either/or relation-
ships, failing to recognize the stress itself. This kind of thinking can contribute to source/receiver
error. In business, he notes that managers often incorrectly assume communication is easier than it
is, and fail to anticipate miscommunication.[13]
As writers, we need to keep in mind that words are simply a means of communication, and that
meanings are in people, not the words themselves. Knowing which words your audience under-
stands and anticipating how they will interpret them will help you prevent bypassing.
Consider the Nonverbal Aspects of Your

Message
Let’s return to the example at the beginning of this section of an e-mail from a student to an
instructor. As we noted, the student neglected to identify himself or herself and tell the instructor
which class the question referred to. Format is important, including headers, contact information,
and an informative subject line.
This is just one example of how the nonverbal aspects of a message can get in the way of
understanding. Other nonverbal expressions in your writing may include symbols, design, font, and
the timing of delivering your message.
Suppose your supervisor has asked you to write to a group of clients announcing a new service
or product that directly relates to a service or product that these clients have used over the years.
What kind of communication will your document be? Will it be sent as an e-mail or will it be a
formal letter printed on quality paper and sent by postal mail? Or will it be a tweet, or a targeted
online ad that pops up when these particular clients access your company’s Web site? Each of these
choices involves an aspect of written communication that is nonverbal. While the words may com-
municate a formal tone, the font may not. The paper chosen to represent your company influences
the perception of it. An e-mail may indicate that it is less than formal and be easily deleted.
As another example, suppose you are a small business owner and have hired a new worker
named Bryan. You need to provide written documentation of asking Bryan to fill out a set of forms
that are required by law. Should you send an e-mail to Bryan’s home the night before he starts work,
welcoming him aboard and attaching links to IRS form W-4 and Homeland Security form I-9? Or
should you wait until he has been at work for a couple of hours, then bring him the forms in hard
copy along with a printed memo stating that he needs to fill them out? There are no right or wrong
answers, but you will use your judgment, being aware that these nonverbal expressions are part of
the message that gets communicated along with your words.
Review, Reflect, and Revise

Do you review what you write? Do you reflect on whether it serves its purpose? Where does it miss
the mark? If you can recognize it, then you have the opportunity to revise.
Writers are often under deadlines, and that can mean a rush job where not every last detail is
reviewed. This means more mistakes, and there is always time to do it right the second time. Rather
than go through the experience of seeing all the mistakes in your “final” product and rushing off
to the next job, you may need to focus more on the task at hand and get it done correctly the first
time. Go over each step in detail as you review.
A mental review of the task and your performance is often called reflection. Reflection is not
procrastination. It involves looking at the available information and, as you review the key points
A mental review of the task
and your performance.
in your mind, making sure each detail is present and perfect. Reflection also allows for another
opportunity to consider the key elements and their relationship to each other.
When you revise your document, you change one word for another, make subtle changes, and
revise
improve it. Don’t revise simply to change the good work you’ve completed, but instead look at it
from the perspective of the reader—for example, how could this be clearer to them? What would Change one word for
another, make subtle
make it visually attractive while continuing to communicate the message? If you are limited to changes, and improve a
words only, then does each word serve the article or letter? No extras, but just about right. document.
Key Takeaway
To overcome barriers to communication, pay attention to details; strive to understand the target
meaning; consider your nonverbal expressions; and review, reflect, and revise.
1. Review the example of a student’s e-mail to a professor in this section, and rewrite it to com-
municate the message more clearly.
2. Write a paragraph of 150–200 words on a subject of your choice. Experiment with different
formats and fonts to display it and, if you wish, print it. Compare your results with those of
your classmates.
3. How does the purpose of a document define its format and content? Think of a specific kind
of document with a specific purpose and audience. Then create a format or template suit-
able to that document, purpose, and audience. Show your template to the class or post it on
a class bulletin board.
4. Write one message of at least three sentences with at least three descriptive terms and pre-
sent it to at least three people. Record notes about how they understand the message, and
to what degree their interpretations are the same of different. Share and compare with class-
mates.

Visit AllYouCanRead.com for a list of the top ten business magazines. http://www.allyoucanread.
com/top-10-business-magazines
The Wall Street Executive Library presents a comprehensive menu of business Web sites, pub-
lications, and other resources. http://www.executivelibrary.com
The Web site 4hb.com (For Home Business) provides many sample business documents, as well
as other resources for the small business owner. http://www.4hb.com/index.html
The Business Owner’s Toolkit provides sample documents in more than a dozen categories
from finance to marketing to worker safety. http://www.toolkit.com/tools/index.aspx
Words mean different things to different people—especially when translated from one lan-
guage to another. Visit this site for a list of car names “que no va” (that won’t go) in foreign
languages. http://www.autoblog.com/2008/04/30/nissan-360-the-otti-and-the-moco
Visit “Questions and Quandaries,” the Writer’s Digest blog by Brian Klems, for a potpourri of
information about writing. http://blog.writersdigest.com/qq
Appearance counts. Read an article by communications expert Fran Lebo on enhancing the
nonverbal aspects of your document. http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Second-Law-of-Business-
Writing---Appearance-Counts&id=3039288
Visit this site to access the Sullivan[14] article on bypassing in managerial communication. http:/
/findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n1_v34/ai_10360317
Endnotes
1. Oldenburg, D. (2005, April 12). Old adage holds: Get it in writing. Washington Post, p. C10. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/
A45309-2005Apr11.html
2. Forster, E. M. (1976). Aspects of the novel (p. 99). Oliver Stallybrass (Ed.). Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin.
3. Bailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
4. Bailey, E. (2008). Writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
5. Kostelnick, C., & Roberts, D. (1998). Designing visual language: Strategies for professional communicators (p. 14). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
6. Wilde, J., Jr. (2003). You all spoken here: Southern talk at its down-home best. Athens: University of Georgia Press.
7. Aristotle. (1941). De anima. In R. McKeon (Ed.), The basic works of Aristotle (J. A. Smith, Trans.). New York, NY: Random House.
8. Russell, B. (1962). The problems of philosophy (28th ed., p. 9). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. (Original work published 1912)
9. United States Copyright Office (1998). Executive summary: Digital millennium copyright act. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved
from http://www.copyright.gov/reports/studies/dmca/dmca_executive.html
10. Tahmincioglu, E. (2009, October 11). Your boss wants you on Twitter: Companies recognizing value of having workers promote products. MSNBC Careers.
Retrieved from http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/33090717/ns/business-careers
11. Sullivan, J., Kameda, N., & Nobu, T. (1991). Bypassing in managerial communication. Business Horizons, 34(1), 71–80.
5
Writing Preparation
Before you write, think.

— William Arthur Ward
5.1 Getting Started
1. it,
taking note of the number of results returned and a couple of the top ten sources. Com- pare
your results with those of your classmates.
2. Visit your college or university library. Familiarize yourself with the resources available to
business writers and choose one resource that you find especially valuable. Write a short
summary of the resource to share with your classmates, explaining why you chose this
resource.
3. In a business setting, describe some circumstances where it would it be appropriate to send
coworker what they consider the best option and why, and share the results with the class.
No matter who you are, you were not born speaking English (or any other language), and were
certainly not born writing. You learned to speak and to write and, like all humans, your skill in
speaking and writing can continue to improve and adapt across your lifetime. The awareness of
this simple fact should encourage you. If your writing has been well received in the past, congratu-
lations. It may be that your skill in producing college-level essays has served you well. Still, the need
for learning to produce clear, concise business writing may be a new skill for you. Even seasoned
professional business communicators find it a challenge to present complex and dynamic relation-
ships in a way that the audience can grasp at a glance, on a first read, or with minimal effort. If your
writing has not been as well received in the past as you would like, this chapter will help you see
the process from a perspective where attention to specific steps can lead to overall success.
In addition to your previous experiences, you will necessarily draw on the writing of others as
you prepare for your writing effort. If you have ever fallen asleep on your textbook, you know that
trying to absorb many pages of reading in a single session is not the best strategy for studying. In
the same way, as you prepare to write a business document, you know that using the first search
result listed on Google or Yahoo! is not the best strategy for success. You may be tempted to gather
only the information that is most readily available, or that which confirms your viewpoint, but you
will sell yourself short and may produce an inferior piece of writing.
Instead, you need to determine the purpose of your writing project; search for information,
facts, and statistics to support your purpose; and remain aware of information that contradicts the
message you are aiming to convey. Think of it as an exercise program. If you only do the easy exer-
cises, and nothing else, you may develop a single muscle group, but will never gain real strength.
What kinds of skills, or strengths, will you need in order to write well enough to succeed in your
career? Solid research skills combined with effective preparation for writing involve a range of skill
sets that require time and practice. The degree to which you make the extra effort will pay divi-
dends throughout your career.
5.2 Think, Then Write: Writing

Preparation
1.
2.
“How do I prepare myself for writing?” is a common question and one that has no single correct
answer. When do you do your best work? Whatever your work or task may be, it doesn’t have to
be writing. Some people work best in the morning, others only after their daily dose of coffee. Still
others burn the midnight oil and work well late into the night while their colleagues lose their pro-
ductive edge as the sun sets. “To thine own self be true,” is a great idea when you have the freedom
to choose when you work, but increasingly our lives are governed by schedules and deadlines that
we do not control. You may have a deadline that requires you to work late at night when you recog-
nize that you are far more productive early in the morning. If you can, consider one important step
to writing success: know when you are most productive. If you cannot choose your timing, then
dedication and perseverance are required. The job must be completed and the show must go on.
Your effort demonstrates self-control and forbearance (as opposed to impatience and procrastina-
tion) and implies professionalism.
To be productive, you have to be alert, ready to work, and can accomplish tasks with relative
ease. You will no doubt recognize that sometimes tasks take a lot longer, the solution is much
harder to find, and you may find work more frustrating at other times. If you have the option, try
to adjust your schedule so the writing tasks before you can be tackled at times when you are most
productive, where you ability to concentrate is best, and when you are your most productive. If you
don’t have the option, focus clearly on the task before you.
Every individual is different, and what works for one person may be ineffective for someone
else. One thing that professional writers agree on, however, is that you don’t need to be in the “right
mood” to write—and that, in fact, if you wait for the right mood to strike, you will probably never
get started at all. Ernest Hemingway, who wrote some of the most famous novels of the twentieth
century as well as hundreds of essays, articles, and short stories, advised writers to “work every day.
No matter what has happened the day or night before, get up and bite on the nail.”[1]
In order for your work to be productive, you will need to focus your attention on your writing.
The stereotype of the writer tucked away in an attic room or a cabin in the woods, lost in the imag-
inary world created by the words as they flow onto the page, is only a stereotype. Our busy lives
involve constant interruption. In a distraction-prone business environment, much of your writing
will be done while colleagues are talking on the phone, having face-to-face conversations as they
walk by, and possibly stopping at your desk to say hello or ask a question. Your phone may ring or
you may have incoming instant messages (IMs) that need to be answered quickly. These unavoid-
able interruptions make it even more important to develop a habit of concentrating when you write.
The mind has been likened to a brace of wild horses; if you have ever worked with horses, you
know they each have a mind of their own. Taken individually they can be somewhat manageable,
but together they can prove to be quite a challenge. Our minds can multitask and perform several
tasks simultaneously, but we can also get easily distracted. We can get sidetracked and lose valu-
able time away from our designated task. Our ability to concentrate is central to our ability to write
effectively, whether we work alone or as part of a team.
In many business situations, you may not be writing solo but instead collaborating on a
document with various coworkers, vendors, or customers. The ability to concentrate is perhaps
even more important in these group writing situations.[2] In this discussion, we’ll consider the
writing process from a singular perspective, where you are personally responsible for planning,
researching, and producing a product of writing. In other areas of this text we also consider the
collaborative process, its strengths and weaknesses, and how to negotiate and navigate the group
writing process.
Thinking Critically
As you approach your writing project, it is important to practice the habit of thinking critically.
Critical thinking can be defined as “self-directed, self-disciplined, self-monitored, and self-correc-
“Self-directed,
tive thinking.”[3] It is the difference between watching television in a daze versus analyzing a movie
with attention to its use of lighting, camera angles, and music to influence the audience. One activ-
ity requires very little mental effort, while the other requires attention to detail, the ability to
compare and contrast, and sharp senses to receive all the stimuli.
As a habit of mind, critical thinking requires established standards and attention to their use,
effective communication, problem solving, and a willingness to acknowledge and address our own
tendency for confirmation bias, egocentrism, and sociocentrism. We’ll use the phrase “habit of
mind” because clear, critical thinking is a habit that requires effort and persistence. People do not
start an exercise program, a food and nutrition program, or a stop-smoking program with 100 per-
cent success the first time. In the same way, it is easy to fall back into lazy mental short cuts, such
as “If it costs a lot, it must be good,” when in fact the statement may very well be false. You won’t
know until you gather information that supports (or contradicts) the assertion.
As we discuss getting into the right frame of mind for writing, keep in mind that the same rec-
ommendations apply to reading and research. If you only pay attention to information that
When you only pay reinforces your existing beliefs and ignore or discredit information that contradicts your beliefs,
attention to information
that reinforces your you are guilty of confirmation bias.[4] As you read, research, and prepare for writing, make an effort
to gather information from a range of reliable sources, whether or not this information leads to
or discredit information conclusions you didn’t expect. Remember that those who read your writing will be aware of, or
that contradicts your
have access to, this universe of data as well and will have their own confirmation bias. Reading and
beliefs.
writing from an audience-centered view means acknowledging your confirmation bias and moving
beyond it to consider multiple frames of references, points of view, and perspectives as you read,
research, and write.
Egocentrism and sociocentrism are related concepts to confirmation bias. Egocentrism can be
defined as the use of self-centered standards to determine what to believe and what to reject. Simi-
The use of self-centered larly, sociocentrism involves the use of society-centered standards.[5] Both ways of thinking create
standards to determine
what to believe and what
an “us versus them” relationship that can undermine your credibility and alienate readers who
to reject. don’t share your viewpoint.
This leads to confirmation bias and groupthink, resulting in false conclusions with little or no
factual support for a belief. If a person believes the earth is flat and never questions that belief, it
serves as an example of egocentric thinking. The person believes it is true even though he has never
society-centered
standards.
questioned why he believes it. If the person decides to look for information but only finds informa-
tion that supports his pre-existing belief, ignoring or discrediting information that contradicts that
belief, he is guilty of confirmation bias. If he believes the earth is flat because everyone in his group
or community believes it, even though he himself has never questioned or confirmed the belief, he
is guilty of sociocentrism.
In each case, the false thinking strategy leads to poor conclusions. Watch out for your tendency
to read, write, and believe that which reflects only what you think you know without solid research
and clear, critical thinking.
Overcoming Fear of Writing

For many people, one of the most frightening things in life is public speaking. For similar reasons,
whether rational or irrational, writing often generates similar fears. There is something about
exposing one’s words to possible criticism that can be truly terrifying. In this chapter, we are going
to break down the writing process into small, manageable steps that, in turn, will provide you with
a platform for success. To take advantage of these steps, you need to acknowledge any reluctance
or fear that may be holding you back, and bring your interests and enthusiasm to this discussion
on writing.
Having a positive attitude about writing in general, and your effort, is also a key ingredient to
your success. If you approach a writing assignment with trepidation and fear, you will spend your
valuable time and attention in ways that do not contribute positively to your writing. People often
fear the writing process because of three main reasons:
1. Negative orientation
2. Risk of failure
3. Fear of the unknown
Let’s take each reason in turn. Negative orientation means the writer has a pre-existing nega-
tive association or view of the task or activity. We tend to like people who like us,[6] tend to pursue
activities where we perceive rewards and appreciation for our efforts, and are more likely to engage
in activities where we perceive we are successful. Conversely, we tend to not like people who we
perceive as not like us, tend to ignore or avoid activities where we perceive we are not appreci-
ated or are not rewarded, and are less likely to engage in activities where we perceive we are not
successful. For some writers, previous experiences have led to a pre-existing association with writ-
ing. That association may be positive if they have been encouraged, affirmed, or rewarded as they
demonstrated measurable gain. That association may also be negative if efforts have been met with
discouraging feedback, a lack of affirmation, or negative reinforcement.
Effective business writing is a highly valued skill, and regardless of the degree to which writing
will be a significant aspect of your designated job duties, your ability to do it well will be a boost to
your career. If you have a negative orientation toward writing, admitting this fact is an important
first step. Next, we need to actively seek ways to develop your skills in ways that will demonstrate
measurable gain and lead to positive affirmation. Not everyone develops in the same way on the
same schedule, and measurable gain means that from one writing assignment to the next you can
demonstrate positive progress. In an academic setting, measurable gain is one of your clear goals
as a writer. In a business or industry setting, you may lack the time to revise and improve, mean-
ing that you will need to get it right the first time. Take advantage of the academic setting to set
positive, realistic goals to improve your writing. Surround yourself with resources, including people
who will help you reach your goal. If your college or university has a writing center, take advan-
tage of it. If it does not, seek out assistance from those whose writing has been effective and well
received.
It is a given that you do not want to fail. Risk of failure is a common fear across public speaking
and writing situations, producing predictable behavioral patterns we can recognize, address, and
resolve. In public speaking, our minds may go blank at the start of a presentation as we confront
our fear of failure. In writing, we may experience a form of blankness often referred to as “writer’s
block”—the overwhelming feeling of not knowing what to write or where to start—and sit help-
lessly waiting for our situation to change.
But we have the power to change our circumstances and to overcome our risk of failure. You
may be familiar with the concept of a rough draft, but it may compete in your mind with a desire
for perfection. Writing is a dynamic process, a reflection of the communication process itself. It
won’t be perfect the first time you attempt it. Awareness that your rough draft serves a purpose, but
doesn’t represent your final product, should serve in the same way a rehearsal for a speech serves
a speaker. You get a second (or third) chance to get it right. Use this process to reduce your fear of
failure and let go of your perfectionist tendencies, if only for a moment. Your desire for perfection
will serve you well when it comes to polishing your finished document, but everything has its time
and place. Learning where and when to place your effort is part of writing preparation.
Finally, we often fear the unknown. It is part of being human, and is reflected across all con-
texts, including public speaking and writing. If you have never given a speech before, your first time
on stage can be quite an ordeal. If you have never written a formal business report, your fear of the
unknown is understandable. How can you address this fear? Make the unknown known. If we take
the mystery out of the process and product, we can see it for its essential components, its organi-
zational pattern, and start to see how our product may look before we even start to produce it. In
many organizations, you can ask your supervisor or coworkers for copies of similar documents to
the one you have been assigned, even if the content is quite different. If this is not an option, sim-
ply consider the way most documents in your company are written—even something as basic as
an interoffice e-mail will provide some clues. Your goal is to become familiar with the type of docu-
ment and to examine several successful examples. Once you see a couple of reports, you will have
a better feel for what you have to produce and the unknown will be far less mysterious.
ADVANCED WRITING: The Research Process
Key Takeaway
or eliminate those fears.
1. How would you describe your orientation to writing? Where does this orientation come from?
Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
2. If you could identify one aspect of your writing you would like to improve, what would it be
and why? Write a one- two-page essay on this subject.
3. What kinds of writing do you like? Dislike? Explain why and provide an example of each.
Share and compare with the class.
4. Who is your favorite author? What do you like about her or his writing? Discuss your opinion
with a classmate.
5.3 A Planning Checklist for Business

Messages
1. Understand who, what, where, when, why, and how as features of writing purpose.
2.
John Thill and Courtland Bovee,[7] two leading authors in the field of business communication, have
created a checklist for planning business messages. The following twelve-item checklist, adapted
here, serves as a useful reminder of the importance of preparation in the writing process:
1. Determine your general purpose: are you trying to inform, persuade, entertain, facilitate inter-
action, or motivate a reader?
2. Determine your specific purpose (the desired outcome).
3. Make sure your purpose is realistic.
4. Make sure your timing is appropriate.
5. Make sure your sources are credible.
6. Make sure the message reflects positively on your business.
7. Determine audience size.
8. Determine audience composition.
9. Determine audience knowledge and awareness of topic.
10. Anticipate probable responses.
11. Select the correct channel.
12. Make sure the information provided is accurate, ethical, and pertinent.
Throughout this chapter we will examine these various steps in greater detail.
Determining Your Purpose

Preparation for the writing process involves purpose, research and investigation, reading and ana-
lyzing, and adaptation. In the first section we consider how to determine the purpose of a docu-
ment, and how that awareness guides the writer to effective product.
While you may be free to create documents that represent yourself or your organization, your
employer will often have direct input into their purpose. All acts of communication have general The overall goal of the
and specific purposes, and the degree to which you can identify these purposes will influence how
effective your writing is. General purposes involve the overall goal of the communication interac- to inform, persuade,
entertain, facilitate
tion: to inform, persuade, entertain, facilitate interaction, or motivate a reader. The general purpose
interaction, or motivate a
influences the presentation and expectation for feedback. In an informative message—the most reader.
common type of writing in business—you will need to cover several predictable elements:
• Who
• What
• When
• Where
• How
• Why (optional)
Some elements may receive more attention than others, and they do not necessarily have to be
addressed in the order you see here. Depending on the nature of your project, as a writer you will
have a degree of input over how you organize them.
Note that the last item, Why, is designated as optional. This is because business writing some-
times needs to report facts and data objectively, without making any interpretation or pointing to
any cause-effect relationship. In other business situations, of course, identifying why something
happened or why a certain decision is advantageous will be the essence of the communication.
In addition to its general purpose (e.g., to inform, persuade, entertain, or motivate), every piece
of writing also has at least one specific purpose, which is the intended outcome; the result that will
happen once your written communication has been read.
For example, imagine that you are an employee in a small city’s housing authority and have
been asked to draft a letter to city residents about radon. Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive
gas that has been classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as a health haz-
ard. In the course of a routine test, radon was detected in minimal levels in an apartment building
operated by the housing authority. It presents a relatively low level of risk, but because the inci-
dent was reported in the local newspaper, the mayor has asked the housing authority director to be
proactive in informing all the city residents of the situation.
The general purpose of your letter is to inform, and the specific purpose is to have a written
record of informing all city residents about how much radon was found, when, and where; where
they can get more information on radon; and the date, time, and place of the meeting. Residents
may read the information and attend or they may not even read the letter. But once the letter has
been written, signed, and distributed, your general and specific purposes have been accomplished.
Now imagine that you begin to plan your letter by applying the above list of elements. Recall
that the letter informs residents on three counts: (1) the radon finding, (2) where to get information
about radon, and (3) the upcoming meeting. For each of these pieces of information, the elements
may look like the following:
1. Radon Finding
• Who: The manager of the apartment building (give name)
• What: Discovered a radon concentration of 4.1 picocuries per liter (pCi/L) and reported
it to the housing authority director, who informed the city health inspector, environ-
mental compliance office, and mayor
• When: During the week of December 15
• Where: In the basement of the apartment building located at (give address)
• How: In the course of performing a routine annual test with a commercially available
do-it-yourself radon test kit
2. Information about radon
• Who: According to the city health inspector and environmental compliance officer
• What: Radon is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that results from the breakdown
of uranium in soil; a radon test level above 4.0 pCi/L may be cause for concern
• When: Radon levels fluctuate from time to time, so further testing will be done; in past
years, test results were below 4.0 pCi/L
• Where: More information is available from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
or the state radon office
• How: By phone, mail, or on the Internet (provide full contact information for both
sources)
• Why: To become better informed and avoid misunderstandings about radon, its health
risks, and the meaning of radon test results
3. City meeting about radon
• Who: All city residents are welcome
• What: Attend an informational meeting where the mayor, director of the housing
authority, city health inspector, and city environmental compliance officer will speak
and answer questions
• When: Monday, January 7, at 7 p.m.
• Where: City hall community room
• Why: To become better informed and avoid misunderstandings about radon, its health
risks, and the meaning of radon test results
Once you have laid out these elements of your informative letter, you have an outline from
which it will be easy to write the actual letter.
Your effort serves as a written record of correspondence informing them that radon was
FIGURE 5.1
detected, which may be one of the specific or primary purposes. A secondary purpose may be to Communication about health
increase attendance at the town hall meeting, but you will need feedback from that event to deter- care concerns requires
mine the effectiveness of your effort. careful planning and
preparation.
Now imagine that instead of being a housing authority employee, you are a city resident who
receives that informative letter, and you happen to operate a business as a certified radon mitiga-
tion contractor. You may decide to build on this information and develop a persuasive message. You
may draft a letter to the homeowners and landlords in the neighborhood near the building in ques-
tion. To make your message persuasive, you may focus on the perception that radiation is
inherently dangerous and that no amount of radon has been declared safe. You may cite external
authorities that indicate radon is a contributing factor to several health ailments, and even appeal
to emotions with phrases like “protect your children” and “peace of mind.” Your letter will probably
encourage readers to check with the state radon office to verify that you are a certified contractor,
describe the services you provide, and indicate that friendly payment terms can be arranged.
Corporation
Credibility, Timing, and Audience

At this point in the discussion, we need to visit the concept of credibility. Credibility, or the percep-
tion of integrity of the message based on an association with the source, is central to any
communication act. If the audience perceives the letter as having presented the information in an
impartial and objective way, perceives the health inspector’s and environmental compliance offi- power to elicit from the
audience belief in one’s
cer’s expertise in the field as relevant to the topic, and generally regards the housing authority in a
character.
positive light, they will be likely to accept your information as accurate. If, however, the audience
does not associate trust and reliability with your message in particular and the city government in
general, you may anticipate a lively discussion at the city hall meeting.
In the same way, if the reading audience perceives the radon mitigation contractor’s letter as a
poor sales pitch without their best interest or safety in mind, they may not respond positively to its
message and be unlikely to contact him about any possible radon problems in their homes. If, how-
ever, the sales letter squarely addresses the needs of the audience and effectively persuades them,
the contractor may look forward to a busy season.
Returning to the original housing authority scenario, did you consider how your letter might
be received, or the fear it may have generated in the audience? In real life you don’t get a second
chance, but in our academic setting, we can go back and take more time on our assignment, using
the twelve-item checklist we presented earlier. Imagine that you are the mayor or the housing
authority director. Before you assign an employee to send a letter to inform residents about the
radon finding, take a moment to consider how realistic your purpose is. As a city official, you may
want the letter to serve as a record that residents were informed of the radon finding, but will that
be the only outcome? Will people be even more concerned in response to the letter than they were
when the item was published in the newspaper? Would a persuasive letter serve the city’s purposes
better than an informative one?
Another consideration is the timing. On the one hand, it may be important to get the letter sent
as quickly as possible, as the newspaper report may have already aroused concerns that the letter
will help calm. On the other hand, given that the radon was discovered in mid-December, many
people are probably caught up in holiday celebrations. If the letter is mailed during the week of
Christmas, it may not get the attention it deserves. After January 1, everyone will be paying more
attention to their mail as they anticipate the arrival of tax-related documents or even the dreaded
credit card statement. If the mayor has scheduled the city hall meeting for January 7, people may be
unhappy if they only learn about the meeting at the last minute. Also consider your staff; if many
of them will be gone over the holidays, there may not be enough staff in place to respond to phone
calls that will likely come in response to the letter, even though the letter advises residents to con-
tact the state radon office and the Environmental Protection Agency.
Next, how credible are the sources cited in the letter? If you as a housing authority employee
have been asked to draft it, to whom should it go once you have it written? The city health inspector
and environmental compliance officer are mentioned as sources; will they each read and approve
the letter before it is sent? Is there someone at the county, state, or even the federal level who can,
or should, check the information before it is sent?
The next item on the checklist is to make sure the message reflects positively on your business.
In our hypothetical case, the “business” is city government. The letter should acknowledge that
city officials and employees are servants of the taxpayers. “We are here to serve you” should be
expressed, if not in so many words, in the tone of the letter.
The next three items on the checklist are associated with the audience profile: audience size,
composition, knowledge, and awareness of the topic. Since your letter is being sent to all city res-
idents, you likely have a database from which you can easily tell how many readers constitute your
audience. What about audience composition? What else do you know about the city’s residents?
What percentage of households includes children? What is the education level of most of the
residents? Are there many residents whose first language is not English; if so, should your letter be
translated into any other languages? What is the range of income levels in the city? How well
informed are city residents about radon? Has radon been an issue in any other buildings in the city
in recent years? The answers to these questions will help determine how detailed the information
in your letter should be.
Finally, anticipate probable responses. Although the letter is intended to inform, could it be
misinterpreted as an attempt to “cover up” an unacceptable condition in city housing? If the local
newspaper were to reprint the letter, would the mayor be upset? Is there someone in public rela-
tions who will be doing media interviews at the same time the letter goes out? Will the release of
information be coordinated, and if so by whom?
One additional point that deserves mention is the notion of decision makers. Even if your
overall goal is to inform or persuade, the basic mission is to simply communicate. Establishing a
connection is a fundamental aspect of the communication audience, and if you can correctly tar-
get key decision makers you increase your odds for making the connection with those you intend
to inform or persuade. Who will open the mail, or e-mail? Who will act upon it? The better you can
answer those questions, the more precise you can be in your writing efforts.
In some ways this is similar to asking your professor to write a letter of recommendation for
you, but to address it to “to whom it may concern.” If you can provide a primary contact name for
the letter of recommendation it will increase its probable impact on the evaluation process. If your
goal is to get a scholarship or a job offer, you want to take the necessary steps to increase your pos-
itive impact on the audience.
Communication Channels
Purpose is closely associated with channel. We need to consider the purpose when choosing a
channel. From source to receiver, message to channel, feedback to context, environment, and inter-
ference, all eight components play a role in the dynamic process. While writing often focuses on
an understanding of the receiver (as we’ve discussed) and defining the purpose of the message, the
channel—or the “how” in the communication process—deserves special mention.
So far, we have discussed a simple and traditional channel of written communication: the
hardcopy letter mailed in a standard business envelope and sent by postal mail. But in today’s busi-
ness environment, this channel is becoming increasingly rare as electronic channels become more
widely available and accepted.
When is it appropriate to send an instant message (IM) or text message versus a conventional
e-mail or fax? What is the difference between a letter and a memo? Between a report and a pro-
posal? Writing itself is the communication medium, but each of these specific channels has its own
strengths, weaknesses, and understood expectations.
TABLE 5.1 Written Communication Channels

Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to Choose
IM or Text Mes- • Very fast • Informal Quick response • Informal use

sage • Good for rapid • Not suitable for among peers
at similar levels
exchanges of large amounts
within an orga-
small amounts of information
nization
of information • Abbreviations
• You need a
• Inexpensive lead to misun-
fast, inexpen-
derstandings
sive
connection
with a col-
league over a
small issue and
limited amount
of information
E-mail • Fast • May hit “send” Normally a • You need to

• Good for rela- prematurely response is communicate
tively fast • May be over- expected within 24 but time is not
exchanges of looked or hours, although the most
information deleted without norms vary by sit- important con-
being read uation and sideration
• “Subject” line
organizational cul- • You need to
allows compi- • “Reply to all”
ture send attach-
lation of many error
messages on ments
• “Forward” error (provided their
one subject or
• Large attach- file size is not
project
ments may too big)
• Easy to distrib- cause the e-
ute to multiple mail to be
recipients caught in
• Inexpensive recipient’s
spam filter
Fax • Fast • Receiving Normally, a long • You want to

issues (e.g., (multiple page) fax send a docu-
• Provides docu-
the receiving is not expected ment whose
mentation
machine may format must
be out of paper remain intact
or toner) as presented,
such as a
• Long distance
medical pre-
telephone
scription or a
charges apply
signed work
• Transitional order
telephone-
based • Allows use of
letterhead to
technology los- represent your
ing popularity company
to online infor-
mation
exchange
Channel Strengths Weaknesses Expectations When to Choose
Memo • Official but less • Memos sent Normally used You need to com-
formal than a through e- internally in an municate a general
letter mails can get organization to message within an
• Clearly shows deleted without communicate organization
who sent it, review directives from
when, and to • Attachments management on
whom can get policy and proce-
removed by dure, or
spam filters documentation
Letter • Formal • May get filed or Specific formats You need to

thrown away associated with inform, persuade,
• Letterhead
unread specific purposes deliver bad news
represents
or negative mes-
your company • Cost and time
sage, and
and adds cred- involved in
document the
ibility printing, stuff-
communication
ing, sealing,
affixing
postage, and
travel through
the postal sys-
tem
Report Significant time for Requires extensive Specific formats You need to docu-
preparation and research and doc- for specific pur- ment the
production umentation poses; generally relationship(s)
reports are to between large
inform amounts of data to
inform an internal
or external audi-
ence
Proposal Significant time for Requires extensive Specific formats You need to per-
preparation and research and doc- for specific pur- suade an audience
production umentation poses; generally with complex
proposals are to arguments and
persuade data
By choosing the correct channel for a message, you can save yourself many headaches and
increase the likelihood that your writing will be read, understood, and acted upon in the manner
you intended.
Our discussion of communication channels would not be complete without mentioning the
issues of privacy and security in electronic communications. The American Management Associa-
tion[8] estimates that about two thirds of employers monitor their employees’ electronic communi-
cations or Internet use. When you call and leave a voice message for a friend or colleague at work,
do you know where your message is stored? There was a time when the message may have been
stored on an analog cassette in an answering machine, or even on a small pink handwritten note
which a secretary deposited in your friend’s in-box. Today the “where” is irrelevant, as the in-box is
digital and can be accessed from almost anywhere on the planet. That also means the message you
left, with the representation of your voice, can be forwarded via e-mail as an attachment to anyone.
Any time you send an IM, text, or e-mail or leave a voice message, your message is stored on more
than one server, and it can be intercepted or forwarded to persons other than the intended receiver.
Are you ready for your message to be broadcast to the world? Do your words represent you and
your business in a positive light?
Newsweek columnist Jennifer Ordoñez raises this question when she writes, “For desk jockeys
everywhere, it has become as routine as a tour of the office-supply closet: the consent form attest-
ing that you understand and accept that any e-mails you write, Internet sites you visit or business
you conduct on your employer’s computer network are subject to inspection.”[9] As you use
MySpace, update your Facebook page, get LinkedIn, Twitter, text, and IM, you leave an electronic
trail of “bread crumbs” that merge personal and professional spheres, opening up significant issues
of privacy. In our discussion we address research for specific business document production, and
all the electronic research conducted is subject to review. While the case law is evolving as the tech-
nology we use to interface expands, it is wise to consider that anything you write or record can and
will be stored for later retrieval by people for whom your message was not initially intended.
In terms of writing preparation, you should review any electronic communication before you
send it. Spelling and grammatical errors will negatively impact your credibility. With written docu-
ments we often take time and care to get it right the first time, but the speed of IM, text, or e-mail
often deletes this important review cycle of written works. Just because the document you prepare
in IM is only one sentence long doesn’t mean it can’t be misunderstood or expose you to liability.
Take time when preparing your written messages, regardless of their intended presentation, and
review your work before you click “send.”
Key Takeaway
Choose the most effective channel for your document and consider the possible ramifications of
what you have written before you send it.
1. Write a one-page letter to a new customer introducing a new product or service. Compare
your result to the letters your classmates wrote. What do the letters have in common? How
do they differ from one another?
2. Write a memo that addresses a new norm or protocol, such as the need to register with a
expectations including what information is needed, when, and to whom.

3. Make a list of the written communication that you read, skim, or produce in a one day. Please
share your results with the class.
5.4 Research and Investigation:

Getting Started
1. Compare and contrast ways of knowing your reading audience.

2.
Clearly, not every piece of business writing requires research or investigation. If you receive an e-
mail asking for the correct spelling of your boss’s name and her official title, you will probably be
able to answer without having to look anything up. But what if the sender of the e-mail wants to
know who in your company is the decision maker for purchasing a certain supply item? Unless you
work for a very small company, you will likely have to look through the organizational chart, and
possibly make a phone call or two, before you are able to write an e-mail answering this question.
There—you have just done the research for a piece of business writing.
Even if you need to write something much more complex than an e-mail, such as a report or
proposal, research does not have to be all about long hours at a library. Instead, start by consulting
with business colleagues who have written similar documents and ask what worked, what didn’t
work, what was well received by management and the target audience. Your efforts will need to
meet similar needs. Your document will not stand alone but will exist within a larger agenda. How
does your proposed document fit within this agenda at your place of work, within the larger com-
munity, or with the target audience? It’s worth noting that the word “investigation” contains the
word “invest.” You will need to invest your time and effort to understand the purpose and goal of
your proposed document.
Before you go to the library, look over the information sources you already have in hand. Do
you regularly read a magazine that relates to the topic? Was there an article in the newspaper you
read that might work? Is there a book, CD-ROM or mp3 that has information you can use? Think
of what you want the audience to know and how you could show it to them. Perhaps a famous
quote or a line from a poem may make an important contribution to your document. You might
even know someone that has experience in the area you want to research, someone who has been
involved with skydiving locally for his or her whole life. Consider how you are going to tell and
show your audience what your document is all about.
Once you have an assignment or topic, know your general and specific purposes, and have
good idea of your reader’s expectations, it’s time to gather information. Your best sources may be all
around you, within your business or organization. Information may come from reports from the
marketing department or even from a trusted and well-versed colleague, but you will still need to
do your homework. After you have written several similar documents for your organization, you
may have your collection of sample documents, but don’t be tempted to take shortcuts and “repur-
pose” existing documents to meet a tight deadline. Creating an original work specifically tailored to
the issue and audience at hand is the best approach to establish credibility, produce a more effec-
tive document, and make sure no important aspect of your topic is left out.
Narrowing Your Topic

By now you have developed an idea of your topic, but even with a general and specific purpose, you
may still have a broad subject that will be a challenge to cover within the allotted time before the
deadline. You might want to revisit your purpose and ask yourself, how specific is my topic?
Imagine that you work for a local skydiving training facility. Your boss has assembled a list of
people who might be candidates for skydiving and asks you to write a letter to them. Your general
purpose is to persuade, and your specific purpose is to increase the number of students enrolled in
classes. You’ve decided that skydiving is your topic area and you are going to tell your audience how
exhilarating the experience is, discuss the history and basic equipment, cover the basic require-
ments necessary to go on a first jump, and provide reference information on where your audience
could go to learn more (links and Web sites, for example).
But at this point you might find that a one-page letter simply is not enough space for the
required content. Rather than expand the letter to two pages and risk losing the reader, consider
your audience and what they might want to learn. How can you narrow your topic to better con-
sider their needs? As you edit your topic, considering what the essential information is and what
can be cut, you’ll come to focus on the key points naturally and reduce the pressure on yourself to
cover too much information in a limited space environment.
Perhaps starting with a testimony about a client’s first jump, followed by basic equipment and
training needed, and finally a reference to your organization may help you define your document.
While the history may be fascinating, and may serve as a topic in itself for another day, it may add
too much information in this persuasive letter. Your specific purpose may be to increase enrollment,
but your general goal will be to communicate goodwill and establish communication. If you can get
your audience to view skydiving in a positive light and consider the experience for themselves, or
people they know, you have accomplished your general purpose.
Focus on Key Points

As a different example, let’s imagine that you are the office manager for a pet boarding facility that
cares for dogs and cats while their owners are away. The general manager has asked you to draft
a memo to remind employees about safety practices. Your general purpose is twofold: to inform
employees about safety concerns and to motivate them to engage in safe work practices. Your spe-
cific purpose is also twofold: to prevent employees from being injured or infected with diseases on
the job, and to reduce the risk of the animal patients being injured or becoming sick while in your
care.
You are an office manager, not a veterinary or medical professional, and clearly there are vol-
umes written about animal injuries and illnesses, not to mention entire schools devoted to teaching
medicine to doctors who care for human patients. In a short memo you cannot hope to cover all
possible examples of injury or illness. Instead, focus on the following behaviors and situations you
observe:
• Do employees wash their hands thoroughly before and after contact with each animal?
• Are hand-washing facilities kept clean and supplied with soap and paper towels?
• When cleaning the animals’ cages, do employees wear appropriate protection such as gloves?
• What is the procedure for disposing of animal waste, and do all employees know and follow
the procedure?
• When an animal is being transferred from one cage to another, are there enough staff mem-
bers present to provide backup assistance in case the animal becomes unruly?
• What should an employee do if he or she is bitten or scratched?

• What if an animal exhibits signs of being ill?
• Have there been any recent incidents that raised concerns about safety?
Once you have posed and answered questions like these, it should be easier to narrow down
the information so that the result is a reasonably brief, easy to read memo that will get employees’
attention and persuade them to adopt safe work practices.
Planning Your Investigation for Information

Now let’s imagine that you work for a small accounting firm whose president would like to start
sending a monthly newsletter to clients and prospective clients. He is aware of newsletter produc-
tion service vendors that provide newsletters to represent a particular accounting firm. He has
asked you to compile a list of such services, their prices and practices, so that the firm can choose
one to employ.
If you are alert, you will begin your planning immediately, while your conversation with the
president is still going on, as you will need more information before you can gauge the scope of
the assignment. Approximately how many newsletter vendors does your president want to know
about—is three or four enough? Would twenty be too many? Is there a set budget figure that the
newsletter cost must not exceed? How soon does your report need to be done?
Once you have these details, you will be able to plan when and where to gather the needed
information. The smartest place to begin is right in your office. If the president has any examples of
newsletters he has seen from other businesses, you can examine them and note the contact infor-
mation of the companies that produced them. You may also have an opportunity to ask coworkers
if they know or even have copies of any such newsletters.
Assuming that your president wants to consider more than just a couple of vendors, you will
need to expand your search. The next logical place to look is the Internet. In some companies,
employees have full Internet access from their office computers; other companies provide only a
few terminals with Internet access. Some workplaces allow no Internet access; if this is the case,
you can visit your nearest public library.
As anyone who has spent an entire evening aimlessly Web surfing can attest, the Internet is a
great place to find loads and loads of interesting but irrelevant information. Knowing what ques-
tions you are seeking to answer will help you stay focused on your report’s topic, and knowing the
scope of the report will help you to decide how much research time to plan in your schedule.
Staying Organized
Once you open up a Web browser such as Google and type in a search parameter like “newsletter
production,” you will have a wealth of information to look at. Much of it may be irrelevant, but even
the information that fits with your project will be so much that you will be challenged to keep track
of it.
Perhaps the most vital strategy for staying organized while doing online research is to open a
blank page in your word processor and title it “Sources.” Each time you find a Web page that con-
tains what you believe may be useful and relevant information, copy the URL and paste it on this
Sources page. Under the URL, copy and paste a paragraph or two as an example of the information
you found on this Web page. Err on the side of listing too many sources; if in doubt about a source,
list it for the time being—you can always discard it later. Having these source URLs and snippets of
information all in one place will save you a great deal of time and many headaches later on.
As you explore various Web sites of companies that provide newsletter production services,
you will no doubt encounter new questions that your president did not answer in the original con-
versation:
• Does the newsletter need to be printed on paper and mailed? Or would an e-mail newsletter be
acceptable, or even preferable?
• Does your firm want the newsletter vendor to write all of the content customized to your firm,
provide a menu of pre-existing articles for your firm to choose from, or let your firm provide
some—or even all—of the content?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of these various options?
You also realize that in order to get any cost estimates, even when the above questions are set-
tled, you will need to know the desired length of the newsletter (in pages or in words), and how
many recipients are on your firm’s mailing list. At this point in your research and investigation, it
may make sense to give your president an informal interim report, summarizing what you have
found out and what additional questions need to be answered.
Having a well-organized list of the information you have assembled, the new questions that
have arisen, and the sources where you found your information will allow you to continue
researching effectively as soon as you have gotten answers and more specific direction from your
president.
Key Takeaway
To make a writing project manageable, narrow your topic, focus on key points, plan your inves-
tigation for information, and stay organized as you go along.
1. Think of a time when someone asked you to gather information to make a decision, whether
for work, school, or in your personal life. How specific was the request? What did you need
to know before you could determine how much and what kind of information to gather? Dis-
cuss your answer with those of your classmates.
2. Make a list of all the ways you procrastinate, noting how much time is associated with each
activity or distraction. Share and compare your results with a classmate.
3. You are the manager. Write an e-mail requesting an employee to gather specific information
on a topic. Give clear directions and due date(s). Please share your results with the class.
4. How do you prepare yourself for a writing project? How do others? What strategies work
best for you? Survey ten colleagues or coworkers and compare your results with your class-
mates.
5.5 Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable

Sources
1. Understand how to be ethical, avoid plagiarism, and use reputable sources in your writing.
Unlike writing for personal or academic purposes, your business writing will help determine how
well your performance is evaluated in your job. Whether you are writing for colleagues within your
workplace or outside vendors or customers, you will want to build a solid, well-earned favorable
reputation for yourself with your writing. Your goal is to maintain and enhance your credibility,
and that of your organization, at all times.
Make sure as you start your investigation that you always question the credibility of the infor-
mation. Sources may have no reviews by peers or editor, and the information may be misleading,
biased, or even false. Be a wise information consumer.
Business Ethics
Many employers have a corporate code of ethics; even if your employer does not, it goes without
saying that there are laws governing how the company can and cannot conduct business. Some of
these laws apply to business writing. As an example, it would be not only unethical but also illegal
to send out a promotional letter announcing a special sale on an item that ordinarily costs $500,
offering it for $100, if in fact you have only one of this item in inventory. When a retailer does this,
the unannounced purpose of the letter is to draw customers into the store, apologize for running
out of the sale item, and urge them to buy a similar item for $400. Known as “bait and switch,” this
is a form of fraud and is punishable by law.
Let’s return to our previous newsletter scenario to examine some less clear-cut issues of busi-
ness ethics. Suppose that, as you confer with your president and continue your research on
newsletter vendors, you remember that you have a cousin who recently graduated from college
with a journalism degree. You decide to talk to her about your project. In the course of the conver-
sation, you learn that she now has a job working for a newsletter vendor. She is very excited to hear
about your firm’s plans and asks you to make her company “look good” in your report.
You are now in a situation that involves at least two ethical questions:
1. Did you breach your firm’s confidentiality by telling your cousin about the plan to start send-
ing a monthly newsletter?
2. Is there any ethical way you can comply with your cousin’s request to show her company in
an especially favorable light?
On the question of confidentiality, the answer may depend on whether you signed a confi-
dentiality agreement as a condition of your employment at the accounting firm, or whether your
president specifically told you to keep the newsletter plan confidential. If neither of these safe-
guards existed, then your conversation with your cousin would be an innocent, unintentional and
coincidental sharing of information in which she turned out to have a vested interest.
As for representing her company in an especially favorable light—you are ethically obligated to
describe all the candidate vendors according to whatever criteria your president asked to see. The
fact that your cousin works for a certain vendor may be an asset or a liability in your firm’s view,
but it would probably be best to inform them of it and let them make that judgment.
As another example of ethics in presenting material, let’s return to the skydiving scenario we
mentioned earlier. Because you are writing a promotional letter whose goal is to increase enroll-
ment in your skydiving instruction, you may be tempted to avoid mentioning information that
could be perceived as negative. If issues of personal health condition or accident rates in skydiv-
ing appear to discourage rather than encourage your audience to consider skydiving, you may be
tempted to omit them. But in so doing, you are not presenting an accurate picture and may mislead
your audience.
Even if your purpose is to persuade, deleting the opposing points presents a one-sided presen-
tation. The audience will naturally consider not only what you tell them but also what you are not
telling them, and will raise questions. Instead, consider your responsibility as a writer to present
information you understand to be complete, honest, and ethical. Lying by omission can also expose
your organization to liability. Instead of making a claim that skydiving is completely safe, you may
want to state that your school complies with the safety guidelines of the United States Parachute
Association. You might also state how many jumps your school has completed in the past year
without an accident.
Giving Credit to Your Sources

You have photos of yourself jumping but they aren’t very exciting. Since you are wearing goggles
to protect your eyes and the image is at a distance, who can really tell if the person in the picture
is you or not? Why not find a more exciting photo on the Internet and use it as an illustration for
your letter? You can download it from a free site and the “fine print” at the bottom of the Web page
states that the photos can be copied for personal use.
Not so fast—do you realize that a company’s promotional letter does not qualify as personal
use? The fact is that using the photo for a commercial purpose without permission from the pho-
tographer constitutes an infringement of copyright law; your employer could be sued because you
decided to liven up your letter by taking a shortcut. Furthermore, falsely representing the more
exciting photo as being your parachute jump will undermine your company’s credibility if your
readers happen to find the photo on the Internet and realize it is not yours.
Just as you wouldn’t want to include an image more exciting than yours and falsely state that
it is your jump, you wouldn’t want to take information from sources and fail to give them credit.
Whether the material is a photograph, text, a chart or graph, or any other form of media, taking work as your own.
someone else’s work and representing it as your own is plagiarism. Plagiarism is committed
whether you copy material verbatim, paraphrase its wording, or even merely take its ideas—if you
do any of these things—without giving credit to the source.
This does not mean you are forbidden to quote from your sources. It’s entirely likely that in
the course of research you may find a perfect turn of phrase or a way of communicating ideas that
fits your needs perfectly. Using it in your writing is fine, provided that you credit the source fully
enough that your readers can find it on their own. If you fail to take careful notes, or the sentence
is present in your writing but later fails to get accurate attribution, it can have a negative impact on
you and your organization. That is why it is important that when you find an element you would
like to incorporate in your document, in the same moment as you copy and paste or make a note of
it in your research file, you need to note the source in a complete enough form to find it again.
Giving credit where credit is due will build your credibility and enhance your document. More-
over, when your writing is authentically yours, your audience will catch your enthusiasm, and you
will feel more confident in the material you produce. Just as you have a responsibility in business
to be honest in selling your product of service and avoid cheating your customers, so you have a
responsibility in business writing to be honest in presenting your idea, and the ideas of others, and
to avoid cheating your readers with plagiarized material.
Challenges of Online Research

Earlier in the chapter we have touched on the fact that the Internet is an amazing source of infor-
mation, but for that very reason, it is a difficult place to get information you actually need. In the
from several search early years of the Internet, there was a sharp distinction between a search engine and a website.
engines at once. There were many search engines competing with one another, and their home pages were gener-
ally fairly blank except for a search field where the user would enter the desired search keywords
or parameters. There are still many search sites, but today, a few search engines have come to dom-
inate the field, including Google and Yahoo! Moreover, most search engines’ home pages offer a wide
range of options beyond an overall Web search; buttons for options such as news, maps, images,
and videos are typical. Another type of search engine performs a metasearch, returning search
results from several search engines at once.
When you are looking for a specific kind of information, these relatively general searches can
still lead you far away from your desired results. In that case, you may be better served by an online
dictionary, encyclopedia, business directory, or phone directory. There are also specialized online
databases for almost every industry, profession, and area of scholarship; some are available to any-
one, others are free but require opening an account, and some require paying a subscription fee. For
example, http://www.zillow.com allows for in-depth search and collation of information concerning
real estate and evaluation, including the integration of public databases that feature tax assess-
ments and ownership transfers. Table 5.2 provides a few examples of different kinds of search sites.
TABLE 5.2 Some Examples of Internet Search Sites

Description URL
General Web searches that can also be cus- • http://www.google.com

tomized according to categories like news, maps, • http://go.com
images, video
• http://www.itools.com/research-it
• http://www.yahoo.com
Metasearch engines • http://www.dogpile.com

• http://www.info.com
• http://www.metacrawler.com
• http://www.search.com
Description URL
Dictionaries and encyclopedias • http://www.britannica.com

• http://dictionary.reference.com
• http://www.encyclopedia.com
• http://www.merriam-webster.com
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Very basic information on a wide range of topics • http://www.about.com

• http://www.answers.com
• http://wiki.answers.com
To find people or businesses in white pages or • http://www.anywho.com

yellow pages listings • http://www.peoplelookup.com
• http://www.switchboard.com
• http://www.whitepages.com
• http://www.yellowpages.com
Specialized databases—may be free, require reg- • http://www.apa.org/psycinfo

istration, or require a paid subscription
• http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/screen/Advanced-
Search
• http://www.apa.org/psycinfo
Search
• http://www.proquest.com/products-services/
medline_ft.html
• http://www.northernlight.com
• http://www.zillow.com
At the end of this chapter, under “Additional Resources,” you will find a list of many Web sites
that may be useful for business research.
Evaluating Your Sources

One aspect of Internet research that cannot be emphasized enough is the abundance of online
information that is incomplete, outdated, misleading, or downright false. Anyone can put up a web-
site; once it is up, the owner may or may not enter updates or corrections on a regular basis. Anyone
can write a blog on any subject, whether or not that person actually has any expertise on that sub-
ject. Anyone who wishes to contribute to a Wikipedia article can do so—although the postings are
moderated by editors who have to register and submit their qualifications. In the United States, the
First Amendment of the Constitution guarantees freedom of expression. This freedom is restricted
by laws prohibiting libel (false accusations against a person) and indecency, especially child pornog-
raphy, but those laws are limited in scope and sometimes difficult to enforce. Therefore, it is always
important to look beyond the surface of a site to assess who sponsors it, where the information dis-
played came from, and whether the site owner has a certain agenda.
When you write for business and industry you will want to draw on reputable, reliable
sources—printed as well as electronic ones—because they reflect on the credibility of the message
and the messenger. Analyzing and assessing information is an important skill in the preparation
of writing, and here are six main points to consider when evaluating a document, presentation, or
similar source of information.[10] In general, documents that represent quality reasoning have the
following traits:
• A clearly articulated purpose and goal
• A question, problem, or issue to address
• Information, data, and evidence that is clearly relevant to the stated purpose and goals
• Inferences or interpretations that lead to conclusions based on the presented information,
data, and evidence
• A frame of reference or point of view that is clearly articulated
• Assumptions, concepts, and ideas that are clearly articulated
An additional question that is central to your assessment of your sources is how credible the
source is. This question is difficult to address even with years of training and expertise. You may
have heard of academic fields called “disciplines,” but may not have heard of each field’s profes-
sors called “disciples.” Believers, keepers of wisdom, and teachers of tomorrow’s teachers have long
played a valuable role establishing, maintaining, and perpetuating credibility. Academics have long
cultivated an understood acceptance of the role of objective, impartial use of the scientific method
to determine validity and reliability. But as research is increasingly dependent on funding, and
funding often brings specific points of view and agendas with it, pure research can be—and has
been—compromised. You can no longer simply assume that “studies show” something without
awareness of who conducted the study, how was it conducted, and who funded the effort. This may
sound like a lot of investigation and present quite a challenge, but again it is worth the effort.
Information literacy is an essential skill set in the process of writing. As you learn to spot key
signs of information that will not serve to enhance your credibility and contribute to your
document, you can increase your effectiveness as you research and analyze your resources. For
example, if you were researching electronic monitoring in the workplace, you might come upon a
site owned by a company that sells workplace electronic monitoring systems. The site might give
many statistics illustrating what percentage of employers use electronic monitoring, what percent-
age of employees use the Internet for nonwork purposes during work hours, what percentage of
employees use company e-mail for personal messages, and so on. But the sources of these per-
centage figures may not be credited. As an intelligent researcher, you need to ask yourself, did the
company that owns the site perform its own research to get these numbers? Most likely it did not—
so why are the sources not cited? Moreover, such a site would be unlikely to mention any court
rulings about electronic monitoring being unnecessarily invasive of employees’ privacy. Less biased
sources of information would be the American Management Association, the U.S. Depart- ment of
Labor, and other not-for-profit organizations that study workplace issues.
The Internet also encompasses thousands of interactive sites where readers can ask and
answer questions. Some sites, like Askville by Amazon.com, WikiAnswers, and Yahoo! Answers, are
FIGURE 5.2
Discover something new as open to almost any topic. Others, like ParentingQuestions and WebMD, deal with specific topics.
you research, but always Chat rooms on bridal Web sites allow couples who are planning a wedding to share advice and com-
evaluate the source. pare prices for gowns, florists, caterers, and so on. Reader comment sites like Newsvine facilitate
discussions about current events. Customer reviews are available for just about everything imagin-
able, from hotels and restaurants to personal care products, home improvement products, and
sports equipment. The writers of these customer reviews, the chat room participants, and the peo-
ple who ask and answer questions on many of these interactive sites are not experts, nor do they
pretend to be. Some may have extreme opinions that are not based in reality. Then, too, it is always
possible for a vendor to “plant” favorable customer reviews on the Internet to make its product look
© 2010 Jupiterimages good. Although the “terms of use” which everyone registering for interactive sites must agree to
Corporation usually forbid the posting of advertisements, profanity, or personal attacks, some sites do a better
job than others in monitoring and deleting such material. Nevertheless, if your business writing
project involves finding out how the “average person” feels about an issue in the news, or whether
a new type of home exercise device really works as advertised, these comment and customer review
sites can be very useful indeed.
It may seem like it’s hard work to assess your sources, to make sure your information is accu-
rate and truthful, but the effort is worth it. Business and industry rely on reputation and trust (just
as we individuals do) in order to maintain healthy relationships. Your document, regardless of how
small it may appear in the larger picture, is an important part of that reputation and interaction.
Key Takeaway
plagiarism, always record your sources so that you can credit them in your writing.
1. Before the Internet improved information access, how did people find information? Are the
strategies they used still valid and how might they serve you as a business writer? Interview
several people who are old enough to have done research in the “old days” and report your
findings.
2. Visit the Web site of the United States Copyright Office at http://www.copyright.gov. Find
something on the website that you did not know before reviewing it and share it with your
classmates.
3. On the United States Copyright Office website at http://www.copyright.gov view the mul-
timedia presentation for students and teachers, “Taking the Mystery out of Copyright.”
Download the “Copyright Basics” document and discuss it with your class.
4. Look over the syllabus for your business communication course and assess the writing
assignments you will be completing. Is all the information you are going to need for these
assignments available in electronic form? Why or why not?
5.
research and investigation? Why or why not? Discuss with a classmate.
6. Find an example of a bogus or less than credible website. Indicate why you perceive it to be
untrustworthy, and share it with your classmates.
7. Visit the parody website The Onion at http://www.theonion.com and find one story that you
think has plausible or believable elements. Share your findings with the class.
5.6 Completing Your Research and

Investigation
1. Demonstrate your ability to manage your time and successfully conduct research and inves-
tigation for a writing assignment.
Once you become immersed in your sources, it can be easy to get carried away in the pursuit of
information and lose sight of why you are doing all this research and investigation. As a responsi-
ble writer, you will need to plan not only how you will begin your information gathering, but also
how you will bring it to a conclusion.
Managing Your Time

Given the limited time for research involved in most business writing, how can you make the most
of your information-gathering efforts? Part of learning to write effectively involves learning to read
quickly and efficiently while conducting research. You are not required to read each word, and if
you did, you would slow yourself down greatly. At the same time, if you routinely skip large sec-
tions of print and only focus on the bullet lists, you may miss valuable examples that could inspire
you in your writing.
How can you tell when to skim and when to pay attention to detail? One strategy is to look for
abstracts (or brief summaries of information) before you commit time to reading an article all the
way through. Look for indexes to identify key terms you might want to cover before eliminating
them as you narrow your topic.
As we mentioned earlier in this chapter, it is smart to make a list of your sources as you search;
you may also want to bookmark pages with you Web browser. Sometimes a source that does not
look very promising may turn out to offer key information that will drive home an important point
in your document. If you have done a good job of recording your sources, it will be easy to go back
to a site or source that at first you passed over, but now think may make a relevant contribution.
Compiling Your Information

Patricia Andrews, James Andrews, and Glen Williams[11] provide a useful outline of a process to con-
sider when compiling your information. Compiling involves composing your document out of
speech out of materials materials from other documents or sources. This process has seven major steps, adapted from the
from the documents and Andrews, Andrews, and Williams[12] model, which we will consider: sensitivity, exposure, assimila-
other sources you have tion and accommodation, incubation, incorporation, production and revision.
collected.
Let’s say your letter introducing skydiving to a new audience was relatively successful and the
regional association asks you to write a report on the status of skydiving services in your region,
with the hope that the comprehensive guide may serve to direct and enhance class enrollment across
the region. Your task has considerably expanded and involves more research, but given the
opportunity this assignment presents, you are excited at the challenge. As you begin to research,
plan, and design the document, you will touch on the process of compiling information. If you are
aware of each step, your task can be accomplished effectively and efficiently.
Sensitivity refers to your capacity to respond to stimulation, being excited, responsive or sus-
ceptible to new information. This starts with a self-inventory of your current or past interests and
Your capacity to respond
activities. If you are intrigued by a topic or area of interest, your enthusiasm will carry through to to stimulation, be excited,
your document and make it more stimulating for your reading audience. You may not have consid- be responsive, or be
ered, or even noticed elements or ideas associated with your topic, but now that you have begun susceptible to new
information.
the process of investigation, you see them everywhere. For example, have you ever heard someone
say a word or phrase that you never heard before, but now that you are familiar with it, you hear it
everywhere? This same principle applies to your sensitivity to ideas related to your topic. You’ll
notice information and it will help you as you develop your awareness of your topic and the many An excited state of
awareness.
directions you could take the speech. Cognitive psychologist use the term priming to refer to this
excited state of awareness.[13]
Exposure involves your condition of being presented views, ideas, or experiences made known
to you through direct experience. If you are going to select a topic on flying but have never flown
before, your level of exposure may be low. Your level of awareness may be high, however, in terms Involves your condition of
being presented with
of the importance of security on airplanes after reading about, watching on television, or hearing
on the radio stories after the events of September 11, 2001. You may decide to expose yourself to or made known to you
more information through a range of sources as you investigate the topic of airline security. And
the more you become exposed to the issues, processes, and goals of your topic, the more likely you
are to see areas of interest, new ideas that might fit in your speech, and form patterns of awareness
you did not perceive earlier. We have previously discussed at length the importance of selection as
a stage in the perceptual process, and selective exposure is one way you gain awareness. You may
want to revisit this chapter as you develop your topic or choose where to look for information or
decide what kinds of information to expose yourself to as you research your topic.
Assimilation and accommodation refer to the processes by which you assimilate (or integrate)
new ideas into your thinking patterns and accommodate (or adopt, adapt, or filter out) new sources
of information as they relate to your goal. You may have had preconceived notions or ideas about The process by which you
integrate new ideas into
airline security before you began your investigation, but new information has changed the way you
your thinking patterns.
view your topic. You might also find issues (e.g., right to privacy) that may be points of conflict with
your beliefs as you review information. This stage is important to the overall process of developing
your topic, and it takes time. You need time to be able to contemplate, review, and reflect on how
The process by which you
the new information fits or fails to connect clearly to your chosen topic. adapt or filter out new
Incubation is the process by which you cause an idea or ideas to develop in your mind. This sources of information as
they relate to your goal.
might not happen all at once, and you might spend time thinking about the new information, direc-
tions, or ways you might develop or focus your topic. Consider the meaning of the word as it relates
to chickens and eggs. An egg may be produced, but it needs time and a warm environment to
develop. You might have an idea, but you need to create an environment for it to develop. This
cause an idea or ideas to
might involve further investigation and exploration, or it may involve removing yourself from develop in your mind.
active research to “digest” or “incubate” what you have already learned. You may feel stuck on an
idea or perceive an inability to move on in the development of your ideas or topic, and giving it a
rest may be the best course of action. You may also find that just when you least expect it, an idea,
fully formed, flashes in your mind and you think, “Why didn’t I see that before?” Before the idea
escapes you, write it down and make sure you can refer to it later.
Incorporation refers to the process by which you bring the information into a whole or com-
plete topic. By now you have investigated, chosen some information over others, and have started
to see how the pieces will come together. Your perceptions of how the elements come together will The process by which you
bring the information into a
form the basis for your development of the organization of your document. It will contribute to the whole or complete topic.
logos, or logic, of your thought and its representation in your document, and help you produce a
coherent, organized message that your audience can follow clearly.
Production involves the act of creating your document from the elements you have gathered.
You may start to consider what comes first, what goes last, and how you will link your ideas and
Involves the act of creating examples together. You may find that you need additional information and need to go back to your
your speech from the
elements you have notes that you have taken to find the source quickly and easily. You may also start to communicate
gathered; you may start to with friends, sharing some of the elements or even practicing the first drafts of your document,
consider what comes first, learning where the connections are clear and where they need work.
what goes last, and how
you will link your ideas and Revision is the process by which you look over again in order to correct or improve your mes-
examples together. sage. You will notice elements that need further investigation, development, or additional examples
and visual aids as you produce your document. This is an important step to the overall production
of your message, much like revising an essay for an English course. The first time you said, thought,
The process by which you or wrote something it may have made sense to you, but upon reflection and after trying an idea out,
look over your speech you need it to be revised in order to work effectively as part of your document. You may revisit the
again in order to correct or
place in which you started (and start all speeches) by reconsidering the rhetorical situation and see
improve it.
if what you have produces is in line with the expectations of the audience. Your awareness of the
content, audience, and purpose of the rhetorical situation will guide you through the revision
process and contribute to the production of a more effective document.
Once you have gathered what you think is enough material—or, perhaps, once your eyes begin to
glaze over—take a step back and return to the general and specific purpose of the document you set
out to write. Look again at the basic elements (i.e., who, what, when, etc.) and fill in the “answers”
based on what you have found. It is not unusual at this stage to have some “holes” in the information
that require more research to fill. You may also realize that your research findings have disproved part
or even all of your original agenda, making it necessary to change your message significantly.
Leave enough time before your deadline so that you can sketch out a detailed outline and
rough draft of your document and leave it alone for at least a day. When you look at it again, it
will probably be clear which additional details need more support, and you can perform targeted
research to fill in those gaps.
Research & Evaluate your Sources | DCU Library DCU Business

School
Key Takeaway
Be mindful of your result and your time frame as you conduct your research and investigation.
Allow enough time to let the writing rest before you return to it and make revisions.
1. that
topic on the Internet. Set a timer for fifteen minutes. Ready, set, go! At the end of fifteen
minutes, review the sources you have recorded in your list and think about the information
you have found. How well did you use your limited time? Could you do better next time? Try
it again.
2. Complete an Internet search of your name and report your findings to the class.
3. Complete an Internet search of your favorite product or service and report your findings to
the class.
4. a
list of what services or products your target audience would find attractive. Pick one and
develop a slogan that is sure to get attention. Share your results with the class.
5.7 Reading and Analyzing
1.
2. Demonstrate how to write for skimming and for analytical reading in at least one written doc-
ument of each kind.
When you read, do you read each and every word? Do you skim over the document and try to
identify key terms and themes? Do you focus on numbers and statistics, or ignore the text and go
straight to the pictures or embedded video? Because people read in many diverse ways, you as a
writer will want to consider how your audience may read and analyze your document.
Ever since Benjamin Franklin said that “time is money,”[14] business managers have placed a high
value on getting work done quickly. Many times, as a result, a document will be skimmed rather
than read in detail. This is true whether the communication is a one-paragraph e-mail or a twenty-page
proposal. If you anticipate that your document will be skimmed, it behooves you to make your main
points stand out for the reader.
In an e-mail, use a “subject” line that tells the reader the gist of your message before he or she
opens it. For example, the subject line “3 p.m. meeting postponed to 4 p.m.” conveys the most
important piece of information; in the body of the e-mail you may explain that Wednesday’s status
meeting for the XYZ project needs to be postponed to 4 p.m. because of a conflict with an off- site
luncheon meeting involving several XYZ project team members. If you used the subject line
“Wednesday meeting” instead, recipients might glance at their in-box, think, “Oh, I already know I’m
supposed to attend that meeting,” and not read the body of the message. As a result, they will not
find out that the meeting is postponed.
For a longer piece of writing such as a report or proposal, here are some techniques you can
use to help the reader grasp key points.
• Present a quick overview, or “executive summary,” at the beginning of the document.
• Use boldface headings as signposts for the main sections and their subsections.
• Where possible, make your headings informative; for example, a heading like “Problem Began
in 1992” is more informative than one that says “Background.”
• Within each section, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that indicates what the para-
graph discusses.
• When you have a list of points, questions, or considerations, format them with bullets rather
than listing them in sentences.
• The “bottom line,” generally understood to mean the total cost of a given expenditure or pro-
ject, can also refer to the conclusions that the information in the report leads to. As the
expression indicates, these conclusions should be clearly presented at the end of the doc-
ument, which is the place where the time-pressed reader will often turn immediately after
reading the first page.
Imagine how unhappy you would be if you submitted a report and your audience came away
with a message completely different from what you had intended. For example, suppose your man-
ager is considering adopting a specific new billing system in your office and has asked you to report
on the pros and cons of this system. You worked hard, gathered plenty of information, and wrote a
detailed report which, in your opinion, gave strong support for adopting the new system.
However, the first few pages of your report described systems other than the one under consid-
eration. Next, you presented the reasons not to implement the new system. Throughout the report,
embedded in the body of several different paragraphs, you mentioned the advantages offered by
the new system; but they were not grouped together so that you could emphasize them with a
heading or other signpost for the reader. At the end of the report, you reviewed the current billing
system and stated that few problems were encountered with it.
When you delivered your report, the manager and colleagues who received it missed your most
important information and decided not to consider the new system any further. Worse, your
manager later criticized you for spending too much time on the report, saying it was not very infor-
mative. Situations like this can be avoided if you provide a clear organizational framework to draw
your reader’s attention to your main points.
Analyzing is distinct from reading. When you read, you attempt to grasp the author’s meaning
via words and symbols, and you may come away with a general emotional feeling about what the
writer has written instead of an arsenal of facts. When you analyze a document, you pay more
attention to how the author assembled the information to present a coherent message. Business
writing often involves communication via words and symbols in ways that meet audience expecta-
tions; in many cases, the audience needs to be able to analyze the content, and reading is secondary.
For this reason, a solid organizational pattern will greatly enhance your document’s effectiveness.
Key Takeaway
1.
mative opening paragraph? Does each additional paragraph begin with a topic sentence?
Does it use subheadings? Is there a conclusion that follows logically from the information
presented?
2. Find an article that you do not like and review it. State specific reasons why you dislike it and
share your opinion with your classmates.
3. Find an article that you do like and review it. State specific reasons why you like it and share
your opinion with your classmates.
4. You’ve been assigned to a sales team that has not been performing at optimal levels.
Develop an incentive program to improve the team’s performance. Present your idea to the
class.

The Library of Congress is the nation’s oldest federal cultural institution and serves as the research
arm of the U.S. Congress. It is also the largest library in the world, with millions of books, record-
ings, photographs, maps, and manuscripts in its collections. http://www.loc.gov/index.html
The Copyright Office of the Library of Congress offers a wide variety of resources for under-
standing copyright law and how to avoid plagiarism. http://www.copyright.gov
Plagiarism.org is designed to help educators and students develop a better sense of what pla-
giarism means in the information age, and to teach the planning, organizational, and citation skills
essential for producing quality writing and research. http://plagiarism.org/resources/tools
The New York Public Library’s Science, Industry, and Business Library (SIBL) is the nation’s
largest public information center devoted solely to science and business. http://www.nypl.org/
research/sibl
The Lippincott Library serves the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, one of
the world’s top business schools. http://www.library.upenn.edu/lippincott
Thunderbird School of Global Management operates Thunderbird Knowledge Network, an
interactive forum on contemporary business issues delivered in stories, columns, videos, podcasts,
and blogs. http://knowledgenetwork.thunderbird.edu/research
The Wall Street Journal is one of the most widely read sources of business news. http://online.
wsj.com/home-page
Personalize your business news and analysis with Business Week’s member service, Business
Exchange. http://bx.businessweek.com
INSEAD: The Business School for the World, one of the largest and most highly regarded
schools for MBA, Executive MBA, and PhD degrees in business, makes its library resources available
online. http://www.insead.edu/library/index.cfm
As an example of an industry trade association, the Association of Construction Project Man-
agers (ACPM) is a voluntary association of specialist project management professionals working in
the built environment. http://www.acpm.co.za
The United States Government’s Small Business Administration has a mandate to aid, counsel,
assist and protect the interests of small business concerns, to preserve free competitive enterprise,
and to maintain and strengthen the overall economy of our nation. http://www.sba.gov
The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets
the standards and conducts inspections to ensure safety and prevent accidents in the workplace.
http://www.osha.gov
The Society for Human Resource Management is a key source of news and information on HR
topics. http://www.shrm.org/Pages/default.aspx
The Chicago Board of Trade, the world’s oldest futures and options exchange, trades treasury
bonds, corn, soybean, wheat, gold, silver, and other commodities. http://www.cbot.com
Yahoo! Finance is a useful site for tracking the Dow, S&P 500, and other major stock indices in
the United States and abroad; it also has areas for financial news, investing, and personal finance.
http://finance.yahoo.com
The Occupational Outlook Handbook, published every two years by the U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, describes hundreds of different types of jobs, the training and education each job
requires, the typical earnings in that job, and more. http://www.bls.gov/OCO
CareerBuilder.com, which describes itself as the largest online job search site, offers a vast
online and print network to help job seekers connect with employers. http://www.careerbuilder.
com
According to its Web site, Fast Company “sets the agenda, charting the evolution of business
through a unique focus on the most creative individuals sparking change in the marketplace.”
http://www.fastcompany.com
LinkedIn, which has been described as the professional counterpart to social networking sites
such as Facebook and MySpace, is an interconnected network of experienced professionals from
around the world, representing 170 industries and 200 countries. http://www.linkedin.com
Intuit, maker of QuickBooks, Quicken, TurboTax, and other accounting software, provides a
small business information center on its Web site. What would you expect to find here that is dif-
ferent from the resources a noncommercial source would offer? http://smallbusiness.intuit.com
Endnotes
1. Hemingway, E. (1999). Ernest Hemingway on writing (L. W. Phillips, Ed.). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing Group.
2. Nickerson, R. S., Perkins, D. N., & Smith, E. E. (1985). The teaching of thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erbaum Associates.
3. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.
4. Gilovich, T. (1993). How we know what isn’t so: The fallibility of human reason in everyday life. New York, NY: The Free Press.
6. Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (1997). Communicating with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (3rd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
7. Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2004). Business communication today (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
8. American Management Association. (2007). Electronic monitoring & surveillance survey: Over half of all employers combined fire workers for e-mail & Internet
abuse. Retrieved from http://press.amanet.org/press-releases/177/2007-electronic-monitoring-surveillance-survey
9. Ordoñez, J. (2008, July 14). The technologist: They can’t hide their pryin’ eyes. Retrieved from http://www.newsweek.com/id/143737
10. Adapted from Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2007). The miniature guide to critical thinking: Concepts and tools. Dillon Beach, CA: The Foundation for Critical Thinking
Press.
11. Andrews, P. H., Andrews, J., & Williams, G. (1999). Public speaking: Connecting you and your audience. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
13. Yaniv, I., & Meyer, D. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccessible stored information: potential bases for incubation effects in problem loving. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 187–205.
14. Franklin, B. (1748). Advice to a young tradesman, written by an old one. Philadelphia, PA: B. Franklin and D. Hall.
6
Writing
Although I usually think I know what I’m going to be writing about, what I’m going to say, most
of the time it doesn’t happen that way at all. At some point I get misled down a garden path, I
get surprised by an idea that I hadn’t anticipated getting, which is a little bit like being in a lab-
oratory.
— Lewis Thomas
6.1 Getting Started
1. Match each statement in the left column with the most appropriate mode of communication
in the right column, and note why.
1. Need the sales figures for the last month A. Text message or instant
available in three days message (IM)
2. Inform department employees of face-to-face B. E-mail
(F2F) meeting next month
3. International client requests price quote C. Fax
4. Assigned to investigate partnership with D. Report
supplier to codevelop a new product
5. Need to inform employee of a discrepancy in E. Proposal
their expense report
6. Need to facilitate meeting with two department F. Face-to-face (F2F) meeting,
managers from two distinct time zones. interpersonal interaction
7. Need to follow up with customer post sale G. F2F meeting, group or team
8. Need to contact new prospective customer H. Meeting (mediated),
teleconference or
videoconference
There are no right or wrong answers to this matching exercise, but there are strengths and
weaknesses associated with each mode. Does the information need to be received as soon as
require visual representation of data, trends, and their relationships(s)? Associate each state-
ment with what you consider the most appropriate model of communication and note why.
Discuss your responses with your classmates.
2. These sentences focus on some of the most common errors in English. Can you fill in the
blanks correctly?
1. accept or The office will accept Attendance is except

except applications until 5 required for all
p.m. on the 31st. employees
supervisors.
2. affect or To the affect A lack of water has a effect
effect growth of plants, we predictable
can regulate the water on most plants.
supply.
3. e.g. or i.e. Please order 2,000 e.g. Charge them to my i.e.
imprinted giveaways account ( ,
( , pens or account #98765).
coffee mugs)
4. its or it’s The department its my opinion It’s
surpassed that we reached peak
previous sales record oil in 2008.
this quarter.
5. lay or lie Please the lay The doctor asked him lie
report on the desk. to down on
the examination table.
6. pressure We need to pressurize It might be possible pressure
or the liquid nitrogen to him to
pressurize tanks. resign.
7. principle It’s the basic principle The reason principal
or principal of farming: for the trip is to
no water, no food. attend the sales
meeting.
8. of what we Regardless of your Regardless
regardless do, gas prices are beliefs, please try to (irregardless
or unlikely to go back listen with an open is not a
irregardless down. mind. standard
word; see
your
dictionary)
9. than or This year’s losses than If we can cut our then
then were worse costs, it
last year’s. might be possible to
break even.
10. that or type of Which Karen misplaced the which
which marketing data did report,
you need? caused a delay in
making a decision.
There are several that
kinds of data
could be useful.
11 there The report is there strategic Their
their, or , in the top advantage depends
they’re file drawer. on a wide distribution
network.
planning They’re
to attend the sales
meeting in Pittsburgh.
12. to too, Customers need to After sales meeting, too

or two drive slower if you should visit
they want to save gas. customers in the
Pittsburgh area
.
In fact, the of two
you should make
some customer visits
together.
13. He would be the best disinterested The sales manager uninterested
uninterested person to make a tried to speak
or decision, since he dynamically, but the
disinterested isn’t biased and is sales reps were
relatively in simply in
the outcome. what he had to say.
14. who, truck is Whose going to Who’s
whom, that? pay for the repairs?
who’s, or
will go to Who To whom
whose
the interview? should we address
the thank-you note?
15 your or My office is bigger your going to You’re
you’re than cubicle. learn how to avoid
making these
common mistakes in
English.
If all the world is a stage then you, as a business writer, must be the script writer, correct?
Actually, those who employ you, specify your job duties, manage the business, and designate which
problems you are to solve are more like the script writers, directors, and producers. So what role
does that leave you as a business writer? Actor. You may not be seen “on stage” by the suppliers you
write, the departments you inform with your reports, or the customers you serve, but your writing
represents you and your organization. As an actor must learn his or her lines, you too must learn
the role of a business writer within the context of your business or organization. It may well be that
you are allowed a degree of improvisation and creativity when you interpret your role, or it could
be the case that many of the written documents you will produce follow a standard template, much
like a script, that designates your lines before the writing process begins. Knowing your place on
stage and how it relates to your business is an important aspect of business writing best not ignored.
This chapter focuses on several strategies for success when it comes to the creative process of
writing, and your awareness of these skills will prove invaluable as your responsibility increases
and your ability to shape documents develops. Never lose sight of the fact that each document
exists with a universe of relationships and interaction; it does not stand alone. Also remember that
what you write today, particularly if you “publish” it on the Internet, will be there for years to come.
Always consider how your words will represent you and your organization when you are not there
to clarify, defend, or correct them. Your audience will have expectations of you, as will your
employer, and as an effective business writer you know that one key to success is meeting these
expectations.
Creative writing for exposition, narration, and self-expression is an important part of writing,
but in the business context you have a role, job duties, and responsibilities both internal and exter-
nal to your organization. Your mastery of clear and concise writing will directly affect the inter-
pretation, and misinterpretation, of your message. Your goal remains to reduce misunderstandings
through the effective and efficient use of words in business documents, and the well-known man-
date to “Omit needless words”[1] stands true. Up to this point you have been preparing to write, but
now the moment has come for performance.
6.2 Organization
1. Understand how to develop and organize content in patterns that are appropriate for your
document and audience.
2. Demonstrate your ability to order, outline, and emphasize main points in one or more written
assignments.
3. Demonstrate how to compose logically organized paragraphs, sentences, and transitions in
one or more written assignments.
The purpose of business writing is to communicate facts and ideas. In order to accomplish that
purpose, each document has key components that need to be present in order for your reading
audience to understand the message. These elements may seem simple to the point that you may
question how any writer could neglect them. But if you take note of how often miscommunication
and misunderstanding happen, particularly in written communications, you will realize that it hap-
pens all the time. Omission or neglect may be intentional, but it is often unintentional; the writer
assumes (wrongly) that the reader will easily understand a concept, idea, or the meaning of the
message. From background to language, culture to education, there are many variables that come
into play and make effective communication a challenge. The degree to which you address these
basic elements will increase the effectiveness of your documents. Each document must address the
following:
• Who
• What
• When
• Where
• How
• (and sometimes) Why
If you have these elements in mind as you prepare your document, it will be easier to decide
what to write and in what order. They will also be useful when you are reviewing your document
before delivering it. If your draft omits any one of these elements or addresses it in an unclear fash-
ion, you will know what you need to do to fix it.
Another way to approach organizing your document is with the classical proofs known as
ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos, or your credibility, will come through with your choice of sources
Credibility.
and authority on the subject(s). Your logos, or the logic of your thoughts represented across the
document, will allow the reader to come to understand the relationships among who, what, where,
when, and so forth. If your readers cannot follow your logic they will lose interest, fail to under-
Logic and reason.
stand your message, and possibly not even read it at all. Finally, your pathos, or passion and
enthusiasm, will be reflected in your design and word choices. If your document fails to convey
enthusiasm for the subject, how can you expect the reader to be interested? Every document, indeed
every communication, represents aspects of these classical elements.
General Purpose and Thesis Statements

No matter what your business writing project involves, it needs to convey some central idea. To
clarify the idea in your mind and make sure it comes through to your audience, write a thesis state-
ment. A thesis statement, or central idea, should be short, specific, and to the point. Steven Beebe
and Susan Beebe[2] recommend five guiding principles when considering your thesis statement. The
thesis statement should
1. be a declarative statement;
2. be a complete sentence;
3. use specific language, not vague generalities;
4. be a single idea;
5. reflect consideration of the audience.
This statement is key to the success of your document. If your audience has
to work to find out what exactly you are talking about, or what your stated pur- FIGURE 6.1
Begin with a clear purpose statement.
pose or goal is, they will be less likely to read, be influenced, or recall what you
have written. By stating your point clearly in your introduction, and then refer-
ring back to it in the body of the document and at the end, you will help your
readers to understand and remember your message.
Organizing Principles
Once you know the basic elements of your message, you need to decide in what
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
order to present them to your audience. A central organizing principle will help
you determine a logical order for your information. One common organizing
principle is chronology, or time: the writer tells what happened first, then what happened next, then
what is happening now, and, finally, what is expected to happen in the future. Another common
organizing principle is comparison: the writer describes one product, an argument on one side of an
issue, or one possible course of action; and then compares it with another product, argument, or
course of action.
As an example, let’s imagine that you are a business writer within the transportation industry
and you have been assigned to write a series of informative pieces about an international initiative
called the “TransAmerica Transportation System Study.” Just as the First Transcontinental Railroad
once unified the United States from east to west, which was further reinforced by the Interstate
Highway System, the proposed TransAmerica Transportation System will facilitate integrating the
markets of Mexico, the United States, and Canada from north to south. Rail transportation has long
been an integral part of the transportation and distribution system for goods across the Americas,
and its role will be important in this new system.
In deciding how to organize your report, you have several challenges and many possibilities
of different organizing principles to use. Part of your introduction will involve a historical per-
spective, and a discussion of the events that led from the First Transcontinental Railroad to the
TransAmerica Transportation System proposal. Other aspects will include comparing the old rail-
road and highway systems to the new ones, and the transformative effect this will have on business
and industry. You will need to acknowledge the complex relationships and challenges that collabo-
ration has overcome, and highlight the common benefits. You will be called on to write informative
documents as part of a public relations initiative, persuasive essays to underscore the benefits for
those who prefer the status quo, and even write speeches for celebrations and awards.
Table 6.1 lists seventeen different organizing principles and how they might be applied to var-
ious pieces you would write about the TransAmerican Transportation System. The left column
provides the name of the organizing principle. The center column explains the process of organiz-
ing a document according to each principle, and the third column provides an example.
TABLE 6.1 Organizing Principles
Organizing Principle Explanation of Process Example

1. Time (Chronological) Structuring your document by Before the First Transcontinental
time shows a series of events or Railroad, the events that led to
steps in a process, which typi- its construction, and its impact
cally has a beginning, middle, on early America. Additional
and end. “Once upon a time examples may include the
stories” follow a chronological national highway projects and
pattern. the development of reliable air
freight.
Now we can consider the
TransAmerica Transportation
System and the similar and dis-
tinct events that led us to today.
2. Comparison Structuring your document by A comparison of pre– and post–
comparison focuses on the simi- First Transcontinental Rail- road
larities and/or differences America, showing how health
between points or concepts. and life expectancy improved
with the increased access to
goods and services.
Another example could be
drawn from air freight, noting
that organ donation in one part
of the country can now save a
life in another state or on the
opposite coast.
In a similar way, the TransAmer-
ica Transportation System will
improve the lives of the citizens
of Mexico, the United States,
and Canada.

3. Contrast Structuring your document by A contrast of pre– and post–
using contrasting points high- First Transcontinental Rail- road
lights the differences between America showing how much
items and concepts. time it took to communicate
via letter, or how long it took to
move out West. Just in time
delivery and the modern
highway system and trucking
may serve as an example for
contrast.
The TransAmerica Transporta-
tion System will reduce customs
clearing time while increasing
border security along the distrib-
ution network.
4. Cause and Effect Structuring your document by The movement of people and
cause and effect structuring goods out West grew consider-
establishes a relationship ably from 1750 to 1850. With
between two events or situa- the availability of a new and
tions, making the connection faster way to go West, people
clear. generally supported its con-
struction. Both the modern high-
way and air transportation sys-
tems may serve as examples,
noting how people, goods, and
services can be delivered in
drastically reduced time frames.
Citizens of all three countries
involved have increasingly been
involved in trade, and movement
across common borders
through the TransAmerica
Transportation System will
enable the movement of goods
and services with great effi-
ciency.
5. Problem and Solution Structuring your document by Manufacturers were producing
problem and solution means you better goods for less money at
state the problem and detail the start of the Industrial Revolu-
how it was solved. This tion, but they lacked a fast and
approach is effective for persua- effective method of getting their
sive speeches. goods to growing markets. The
First Transcontinental Railroad
gave them speed, economy,
and access to new markets.
Highways and air routes have
dramatically increased this
trend. In a similar way, this new
system is the next evolutionary
step in the integration and
growth of our common market-
places.

6. Classification (Categorical) Structuring your document by At the time the United States
classification establishes cate- considered the First Transconti-
gories. nental Railroad, there were three
main types of transportation: by
water, by horse, and by foot.
Now rail, road, and air trans-
portation are the norm across
business and industry.
7. Biographical Structuring your document by • 1804: Lewis and Clark travel

biography means examining 4,000 miles in over two
specific people as they relate to years across America
the central topic. • 1862: President Lincoln
signs the Pacific Railroad Act
• 1876: The Transcontinental
Express from New York
arrives in San Francisco with
a record-breaking time of 83
hours and 39 minutes
• 2009: President Obama can
cross America by plane in
less than 5 hours
• So why shouldn’t the ratio of
time from import to con-
sumer be reduced?
8. Space (Spatial) Structuring your document by A train uses a heat source to

space involves the parts of heat water, create steam, and
something and how they fit to turn a turbine, which moves a
form the whole. lever, causing a wheel to move
on a track. A package picked up
from an office in New York in the
morning is delivered to another
in Los Angeles in the afternoon.
From a Pacific port in Northern
Mexico to a market in Chicago
or Canada, this system unifies
the movement of goods and
services.
9. Ascending and Descending Structuring your document by A day in the life of a traveler in
ascending or descending order 1800. Incremental develop-
involves focusing on quantity ments in transportation to the
and quality. One good story present, expressed through sta-
(quality) leads to the larger pic- tistics, graphs, maps, and
ture, or the reverse. charts. A day in the life of a trav-
eler in 1960, 1980, or even
2000, with visual examples of
changes and trends may also
contribute to the document. A
day in the life of a traveler in
2009 compared to the relatively
slow movement of goods and
services, constrained by an anti-
quated transportation network
that negatively impacts effi-
ciency.

10. Psychological It is also called “Monroe’s Moti- When families in the year 1800
vated Sequence.”[3] went out West, they rarely
returned to see family and
Structuring your document on
friends. The country as a whole
the psychological aspects of the
was an extension of this dis-
audience involves focusing on
tended family, separated by time
their inherent needs and wants.
and distance. The railroad, the
See Maslow[4] and Schutz.[5] The
highways, and air travel brought
author calls attention to a need,
families and the country
then focuses on the satisfaction
together. In the same way, com-
of the need, visualization of the
mon markets already exist
solution, and ends with a pro-
across the three countries, but
posed or historical action. Useful
remain separated by time, dis-
for a persuasive message.
tance, and an antiquated sys-
tem scheduled for significant
improvement.
11. Elimination Structuring your document The First Transcontinental Rail-
using the process of elimination road helped pave the way for
involves outlining all the possibil- the destruction of the Native
ities. American way of life in 1870.
After examining treaties, reloca-
tion and reservations, loss of the
buffalo, disease, and war, the
railroad can be accurately con-
sidered the catalyst for the end
of an era.
From the lessons of history we
can learn to protect and pre-
serve our distinct cultures,
languages, and sovereign terri-
tories as we integrate a
common transportation system
for our mutual benefit and secu-
rity.
12. Example Structuring your document by Just as it once took weeks,
example involves providing vivid, even months, for a simple letter
specific examples (as opposed to move from coast to coast,
to abstract representations of goods and services have had a
data) to support main points. long and arduous process from
importation to market. For
example, the popular Christmas
toy X, imported to Mexico from
China in September, may well
not be on store shelves by
December 25 under the old sys-
tem. Now it can move from
importation to market in under
two weeks.
13. Process and Procedure Structuring your document by From conception to design,
process and procedure is similar manufacturing to packaging, to
to the time (chronological) orga- transportation and inspection, to
nizational pattern with the dis- sales and sales support, let’s
tinction of steps or phases that examine how the new trans-
lead to a complete end goal. portation system facilitates
This is often referred to as the increased efficiency in delivery
“how-to” organizational pattern. to market and product support.

14. Point Pattern Structuring your document in a The TransAmerica Transporta-
series of points allows for the tion System offers several
presentation of diverse asser- advantages: security, speed,
tions to be aligned in a cohesive efficiency, and cost reduction.
argument with clear support.
15. Definition Structuring your document with The TransAmerica Transporta-
a guiding definition allows for a tion System can be defined by
clear introduction of terms and its purpose, its integrated com-
concepts while reducing the ponents, and its impact on the
likelihood of misinterpretation. secure movement of goods and
services across common bor-
ders.
16. Testimonial Structuring your document According to Ms. X, owner of
around a testimony, or first per- InterCountry Trading Company,
son account of an experience, it previously took 12 weeks to
can be an effective way to make import, clear, and deliver a
an abstract concept clearer to product from Mexico to the
an audience. United States, and an additional
four weeks to take delivery in
Canada. Now the process takes
less than two weeks.
17. Ceremonial (Events, Cere- Structuring your document by Thanking the representatives,
monies, or Celebrations) focusing on the following: builders, and everyone involved
1. Thanking dignitaries and rep- with the construction of the
TransAmerica Transportation
resentatives
System. The railroad will unite
2. The importance of the event America, and bring us closer in
3. The relationship of the event terms of trade, communication,
to the audience and family. Thank you for partici-
4. Thanking the audience for pating in today’s dedication.
participation in the event,
ceremony, or celebration
Outlines
Chances are you have learned the basic principles of outlining in English writing courses: an
outline is a framework that organizes main ideas and subordinate ideas in a hierarchical series of
A framework that
roman numerals and alphabetical letters. The right column of Table 6.2 presents a generic outline
subordinate ideas in a in a classical style. In the left column, the three main structural elements of an informative docu-
hierarchical series. ment are tied to the outline. Your task is to fill in the right column outline with the actual ideas and
points you are making in your writing project. Feel free to adapt and tailor it to your needs, depend-
ing on the specifics of your report, letter, or other document.
TABLE 6.2 Outline 1

Introduction Main Idea
Body I. Main idea: Point 1
Subpoint 1
A.1 specific information 1
A.2 specific information 2
Body II. Main idea: Point 2
Subpoint 1
B.1 specific information 1
B.2 specific information 2
III. Main idea: Point 3
Subpoint 1
C.1 specific information 1
C.2 specific information 2
Conclusion Summary: Main points 1–3
Table 6.3 presents an alternate outline form that may be more suitable for brief documents like
letters and e-mails. You can use this format as a model or modify it as needed.
TABLE 6.3 Outline 2

1 Introduction General purpose, statement, or
thesis statement
2 Body Point 1:
Point 2:
Point 3:
3 Conclusion Summarize main points
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are how we package information in business communication, and the more efficient
the package, the easier the meaning can be delivered.
You may wish to think of each paragraph as a small essay within a larger information platform,
defined by a guiding thesis and an organizing principle. The standard five-paragraph essay format
used on college term papers is mirrored in individual paragraphs. Often college essays have min-
imum or maximum word counts, but paragraphs hardly ever have established limits. Each para-
graph focuses on one central idea. It can be as long or as short as it needs to be to get the message
across, but remember your audience and avoid long, drawn-out paragraphs that may lose your
reader’s attention.
Just as a document generally has an introduction, body, and conclusion, so does a paragraph.
Each paragraph has one idea, thought, or purpose that is stated in an introductory sentence. This
is followed by one or more supporting sentences and concluded with a summary statement and
transition or link to the next idea, or paragraph. Let’s address each in turn:
• The topic sentence states the main thesis, purpose, or topic of the paragraph; it defines the
subject matter to be addressed in that paragraph.
Sentence that states the
main thesis, purpose, or • Body sentences support the topic sentence and relate clearly to the subject matter of the para-
subject of the graph and overall document. They may use an organizing principle similar to that of the
document itself (chronology, contrast, spatial) or introduce a related organizing principle
(point by point, process or procedure).
Sentences that support • The conclusion sentence brings the paragraph to a close; it may do this in any of several ways.
the topic sentence and
relate clearly to the subject It may reinforce the paragraph’s main point, summarize the relationships among the body
matter of the paragraph sentences, and/or serve as a transition to the next paragraph.
and overall document.
Sentence that brings the Effective Sentences

paragraph to a close.
We have talked about the organization of documents and paragraphs, but what about the organiza-
tion of sentences? You have probably learned in English courses that each sentence needs to have
a subject and a verb; most sentences also have an object. There are four basic types of sentences:
declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory. Here are some examples:
• Declarative – You are invited to join us for lunch.
• Imperative – Please join us for lunch.
• Interrogative – Would you like to join us for lunch?
• Exclamatory – I’m so glad you can join us!
Declarative sentences make a statement, whereas interrogative sentences ask a question.

Imperative sentences convey a command, and exclamatory sentences express a strong emotion.
Interrogative and exclamatory sentences are easy to identify by their final punctuation, a question Sentence that makes a
statement.
mark and an exclamation point, respectively. In business writing, declarative and imperative sen-
tences are more frequently used.
There are also compound and complex sentences, which may use two or more of the four basic
types in combination: Sentence that asks a
question.
1. Simple sentence. Sales have increased.
2. Compound sentence. Sales have increased and profits continue to grow.
3. Complex sentence. Sales have increased and we have the sales staff to thank for it. Sentence that conveys a
command.
4. Compound complex sentence. Although the economy has been in recession, sales have
increased, and we have sales staff to thank for it.
In our simple sentence, “sales” serves as the subject and “have increased” serves as the verb. The
sentence can stand alone because it has the two basic parts that constitute a sentence. In our com-
pound sentence we have two independent clauses that could stand alone; they are joined by the strong emotion.
conjunction “and.” In our complex sentence, we have an independent clause, which can stand on its
own, combined with a fragment (not a sentence) or dependent clause which, if it were not joined to
the independent clause, would not make any sense. The fragment “and we have the sales staff to
thank” on its own would have us asking “for what?” as the subject is absent. Complex compound
sentences combine a mix of independent and dependent clauses, and at least one of the clauses
must be dependent.
The ability to write complete, correct sentences is like any other skill—it comes with practice.
The more writing you do, as you make an effort to use correct grammar, the easier it will become.
Reading audiences, particularly in a business context, will not waste their time on poor writing and
will move on. Your challenge as an effective business writer is to know what you are going to write
and then to make it come across, via words, symbols, and images, in a clear and concise manner.
Sentences should avoid being vague and focus on specific content. Each sentence should con-
vey a complete thought; a vague sentence fails to meet this criteria. The reader is left wondering
what the sentence was supposed to convey.
• Vague – We can facilitate solutions in pursuit of success by leveraging our core strengths.
• Specific – By using our knowledge, experience, and capabilities, we can achieve the production
targets for the coming quarter.
Effective sentences also limit the range and scope of each complete thought, avoiding needless
complexity. Sometimes writers mistakenly equate long, complex sentences with excellence and
skill. Clear, concise, and often brief sentences serve to communicate ideas and concepts in effective
and efficient ways that complex, hard-to-follow sentences do not.
• Complex. Air transportation features speed of delivery in ways few other forms of transporta-
tion can match, including tractor-trailer and rail, and is readily available to the individual
consumer and the corporate client alike.
• Clear. Air transportation is accessible and faster than railroad or trucking.
Effective sentences are complete, containing a subject and a verb. Incomplete sentences—also
known as sentence fragments—demonstrate a failure to pay attention to detail. They often invite
misunderstanding, which is the opposite of our goal in business communication.
• Fragments – Although air transportation is fast. Costs more than trucking.
• Complete – Although air transportation is fast, it costs more than trucking.
Effective business writing avoids bureaucratic language and phrase that are the hallmark of
decoration. Decoration is a reflection of ritual, and ritual has its role. If you are the governor of a
state, and want to make a resolution declaring today as HIV/AIDS Awareness Day, you are allowed
to start the document with “Whereas” because of its ritual importance. Similarly, if you are writing
a legal document, tradition calls for certain standard phrases such as “know all men by these pre-
sents.” However, in standard business writing, it is best to refrain from using bureaucratic phrases
and ritualistic words that decorate and distract the reader from your clear, essential meaning. If the
customer, client, or supplier does not understand the message the first time, each follow-up attempt
to clarify the meaning through interaction is a cost. Table 6.4 presents a few examples of common
bureaucratic phrases and standard English alternatives.
TABLE 6.4 Bureaucratic Phrases and Standard Alternatives

Bureaucratic Phrase Standard English Alternatives
At the present time Now, today
Concerning the matter of Regarding, about
Despite the fact that Although, while, even though
Due to the fact that Because, since, as

Implement an investigation of Find out, investigate
Inasmuch as Because, since, as
It has been suggested [name of person or organization] has suggested,

said, or stated
It is believed that [name of person or organization] believes, thinks,
or says that
It is the opinion of the author I believe, I think, in my opinion
Until such time as Until, when
With the exception of Except, apart from
In oral communication, repetition can be an effective strategy to reinforce a message, but in

written communication it adds needless length to a document and impairs clarity.
• Redundant – In this day and age air transportation by air carrier is the clear winner over alter-
native modes of conveyance for speed and meeting tight deadlines.
• Clear – Today air transportation is faster than other methods.
When a writer states that something is a “true fact,” a group achieved a “consensus of opinion,”
or that the “final outcome” was declared, the word choices reflect an unnecessary redundancy. A
fact, consensus, or outcome need not be qualified with words that state similar concepts. If it is fact,
it is true. A consensus, by definition, is formed in a group from diverse opinions. An outcome is the
final result, so adding the word “final” repeats the fact unnecessarily.
In business writing we seek clear and concise writing that speaks for itself with little or no mis-
interpretation. The more complex a sentence becomes, the easier it is to lose track of its meaning.
When we consider that it may read by someone for whom English is a second language, the com-
plex sentence becomes even more problematic. If we consider its translation, we add another layer
of complexity that can lead to miscommunication. Finally, effective sentences follow the KISS for-
mula for success: Keep It Simple—Simplify!
Transitions
If you were going to build a house, you would need a strong foundation. Could you put the beams
to hold your roof in place without anything to keep them in place? Of course not; they would fall
down right away. In the same way, the columns or beams are like the main ideas of your document.
They need to have connections to each other so that they become interdependent and stay where
you want them so that your house, or your writing, doesn’t come crashing down.
Transitions involve words or visual devices that help the audience follow the author’s ideas,
connect the main points to each other, and see the relationships you’ve created in the information
you are presenting. They are often described as bridges between ideas, thought or concepts, provid- Bridges between ideas,
thoughts or concepts;
ing some sense of where you’ve been and where you are going with your document. Transitions words, phrases, or visual
guide the audience in the progression from one significant idea, concept, or point to the next. They devices that help the
can also show the relationships between the main point and the support you are using to illustrate audience follow the
your point, provide examples for it, or refer to outside sources. Table 6.5 is a summary of fourteen speaker’s ideas, connect
the main points to each
different types of transitions. Consider them as you contemplate how to bring together your infor- other, and see the
mation and make notes on your outline.
TABLE 6.5 Types of Transitions in Writing
Type Definition Examples

1. Internal Previews An internal preview is a brief If we look ahead to, next we’ll
statement referring to a point examine, now we can focus our
you are going to make. It can attention on, first we’ll look at,
forecast or foreshadow a main then we’ll examine
point in your document.
2. Signposts A signpost alerts the audience Stop and consider, we can now
you are moving from one topic address, turning from/to,
to the next. Sign posts or signal another, this reminds me of, I
words draw attention to them- would like to emphasize
selves and focus the audience’s
attention.
3. Internal Summaries An internal summary briefly As I have said, as we have seen,
covers information or alludes to as mentioned earlier, in any
information introduced previ- event, in conclusion, in other
ously. It can remind an audience words, in short, on the whole,
of a previous point and reinforce therefore, to summarize, as a
information covered in your doc- result, as has been noted previ-
ument. ously,
4. Sequence A sequence transition outlines First…second…third, further-
a hierarchical order or series of more, next, last, still, also, and
steps in your document. It can then, besides, finally
illustrate order or steps in a logi-
cal process.
5. Time A time transition focuses on Before, earlier, immediately, in
the chronological aspects of the meantime, in the past, lately,
your order. Particularly useful in later, meanwhile, now,
an article utilizing a story, this presently, shortly, simultane-
transition can illustrate for the ously, since, so far, soon as
audience progression of time. long as, as soon as, at last, at
length, at that time, then, until,
afterward
6. Addition An addition or additive transi- Additionally, not to mention, in
tion contributes to a previous addition to, furthermore, either,
point. This transition can build neither, besides, on, in fact, as a
on a previous point and extend matter of fact, actually, not only,
the discussion. but also, as well as
7. Similarity A transition by similarity draws In the same way, by the same
a parallel between two ideas, token, equally, similarly, just as
concepts or examples. It can we have seen, in the same vein
indicate a common area
between points for the audi-
ence.

8. Comparison A transition by comparison Like, in relation to, bigger than,
draws a distinction between two the fastest, larger than, than any
ideas, concepts or examples. It other, is bigger than, both,
can indicate a common or diver- either…or, likewise
gent area between points for the
audience.
9. Contrast A transition by contrast draws But, neither…nor, however on
a distinction of difference, oppo- the other hand, although,
sition, or irregularity between despite, even though, in con-
two ideas, concepts or exam- trast, in spite of, on the contrary
ples. This transition can indicate conversely, unlike, while instead,
a key distinction between points nevertheless, nonetheless,
for the audience. regardless, still, though, yet,
although
10. Cause and Effect, Result A transition by cause and As a result, because, conse-
effect or result illustrates a rela- quently, for this purpose,
tionship between two ideas, accordingly, so, then, therefore,
concepts or examples and may thereupon, thus, to this end, for
focus on the outcome or result. this reason, as a result, because
It can illustrate a relationship , therefore, consequently, as a
between points for the audi- consequence, and the outcome
ence. was
11. Examples A transition by example illus- In fact, as we can see, after all,
trates a connection between a even, for example, for instance,
point and an example or exam- of course, specifically, such as,
ples. You may find visual aids in the following example, to illus-
work well with this type of tran- trate my point
sition.
12. Place A place transition refers to a opposite to, there, to the left, to
location, often in a spatially the right, above, adjacent to,
organized essay, of one point of elsewhere, far, farther on,
emphasis to another. Again, below, beyond, closer to, here,
visual aids work well when dis- near, nearby, next to
cussing physical location with
the reading audience.
13. Clarification A clarification transi- To clarify, that is, I mean, in
tion restates or further develops other words, to put it another
a main idea or point. It can also way that is to say, to rephrase it,
serve as a signal to a key point. in order to explain, this means
14. Concession A concession transition indi- We can see that while, although
cates knowledge of contrary it is true that, granted that, while
information. It can address a it may appear that, naturally, of
perception the audience may course, I can see that, I admit
hold and allow for clarification. that while
Key Takeaway
Organization is the key to clear writing. Organize your document using key elements, an orga-
nizing principle, and an outline. Organize your paragraphs and sentences so that your audience
can understand them, and use transitions to move from one point to the next.
1. What functions does organization serve in a document? Can they be positive or negative?
Explain and discuss with a classmate.
2. Create an outline from a sample article or document. Do you notice an organizational pat-
tern? Explain and discuss with a classmate.
3. Which of the following sentences are good examples of correct and clear business English?
For sentences needing improvement, describe what is wrong and write a sentence that cor-
rects the problem. Discuss your answers with your classmates.
Because her work is exemplary.

At such time as it becomes feasible, it is the intention of our department to facilitate
a lunch meeting to congratulate Marlys
As a result of budget allocation analysis and examination of our financial condition, it
I am so envious!
Marlys intends to use her new position to mentor employees joining the firm, which
will encourage commitment and good work habits.
4. Find an example of a poor sentence or a spelling or grammar error that was published online
or in print and share your finding with the class.
6.3 Writing Style
1. Demonstrate your ability to prepare and present information using a writing style that will
increase understanding, retention, and motivation to act.
You are invited to a business dinner at an expensive restaurant that has been the top-rated dining
establishment in your town for decades. You are aware of the restaurant’s dress code, which forbids
casual attire such as jeans, T-shirts, and sneakers. What will you wear? If you want to fit in with the
other guests and make a favorable impression on your hosts, you will choose a good quality suit
or dress (and appropriately dressy shoes and accessories). You will avoid calling undue attention to
yourself with clothing that is overly formal—an evening gown or a tuxedo, for example—or that
would distract from the business purpose of the occasion by being overly revealing or provocative.
You may feel that your freedom to express yourself by dressing as you please is being restricted, or
you may appreciate the opportunity to look your best. Either way, adhering to these style conven-
tions will serve you well in a business context.
The same is true in business writing. Unlike some other kinds of writing
FIGURE 6.2 such as poetry or fiction, business writing is not an opportunity for self-expres-
Your writing style reflects on you when you are

sion. Instead it calls for a fairly conservative and unadorned style. Writing style,
not there to represent yourself. Make sure your
style is professional. also known as voice or tone, is the manner in which a writer addresses the reader.
It involves qualities of writing such as vocabulary and figures of speech, phras-
ing, rhythm, sentence structure, and paragraph length. Developing an appropriate
business writing style will reflect well on you and increase your success in any
career.
Formal versus Informal

There was a time when many business documents were written in third person to
give them the impression of objectivity. This formal style was often passive and
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation wordy. Today it has given way to active, clear, concise writing, sometimes
known as “Plain English.”[6] As business and industry increasingly trade across
borders and languages, writing techniques that obscure meaning or impede understanding can
cause serious problems. Efficient writing styles have become the norm. Still, you will experience in
Also known as voice or
tone; the manner in which your own writing efforts this “old school versus new school” writing debate over abbreviations, con-
a writer addresses the tractions, and the use of informal language in what was once considered a formal business context.
reader. Consider the following comparison of informal versus formal and bureaucratic styles.
Bureaucratic: Attached is the latest delivery data represented in topographical forms pursuant
to the directive ABC123 of the air transportation guide supplied by the Federal Aviation Adminis-
tration in September of 2008.
• Formal – Please note the attached delivery data for July 2009.
• Informal – Here’s the delivery data for last month.
While it is generally agreed that bureaucratic forms can obscure meaning, there is a debate on
the use of formal versus informal styles in business communication. Formal styles often require
more detail, adhere to rules of etiquette, and avoid shortcuts like contractions and folksy expres-
sions. Informal styles reflect everyday speech patterns and may include contractions and colloquial
expressions. Many managers prefer not to see contractions in a formal business context. Others
will point out that a comma preceding the last item in a series (known as the “serial comma”) is the
standard, not the exception. Some will make a general recommendation that you should always
“keep it professional.” Here lies the heart of the debate: what is professional writing in a business
context? If you answered “it depends,” you are correct.
Keep in mind that audiences have expectations and your job is to meet them. Some business
audiences prefer a fairly formal tone. If you include contractions or use a style that is too casual,
you may lose their interest and attention; you may also give them a negative impression of your
level of expertise. If, however, you are writing for an audience that expects informal language, you
may lose their interest and attention by writing too formally; your writing may also come across as
arrogant or pompous. It is not that one style is better than the other, but simply that styles of writ-
ing vary across a range of options. Business writing may need to meet legal standards and include
references, as we see in the bureaucratic example above, but that is generally not the norm for com-
munications within an organization. The skilled business writer will know his or her audience and
will adapt the message to best facilitate communication. Choosing the right style can make a sig-
nificant impact on how your writing is received.
You may hear reference to a conversational tone in writing as one option in business commu-
nication. A conversational tone, as the name implies, resembles oral communication in style, tone,
and word choice. It can be appropriate for some audiences, and may serve you well in specific con-
resembles oral
texts, but it can easily come across as less than professional. communication.
If you use expressions that imply a relationship or a special awareness of information such as
“you know,” or “as we discussed,” without explaining the necessary background, your writing may
be seen as overly familiar, intimate, or even secretive. Trust is the foundation for all communication
interactions and a careless word or phrase can impair trust.
If you want to use humor, think carefully about how your audience will interpret it. Humor is
a fragile form of communication that requires an awareness of irony, of juxtaposition, or a shared
sense of attitudes, beliefs, and values. Different people find humor in different situations, and what
is funny to one person may be dull, or even hurtful, to someone else.
Although there are business situations such as an interview or a performance self-evaluation
where you need to state your accomplishments, in general business writing it is best to avoid self-
referential comments that allude to your previous successes. These can come across as selfish or
arrogant. Instead, be generous in giving credit where credit is due. Take every opportunity to thank
your colleagues for their efforts and to acknowledge those who contributed good ideas.
Jargon is a vocabulary that has been developed by people in a particular group, discipline, or
industry, and it can be a useful shorthand as long as the audience knows its meaning. For exam-
ple, when writing for bank customers, you could refer to “ATM transactions” and feel confident that
your readers would know what you meant. It would be unnecessary and inappropriate to write
“Automated Teller Machine transactions.” Similarly, if you were working in a hospital, you would
probably use many medical terms in your interactions with other medical professionals. However,
if you were a hospital employee writing to a patient, using medical jargon would be inappropriate,
as it would not contribute to the patient’s understanding.
Finally, in a business context, remember that conversational style is not an

FIGURE 6.3 excuse to use poor grammar, disrespectful or offensive slang, or profanity. Com-
Sewing, like many other fields of expertise, has
munication serves as the bridge between minds and your written words will
its own jargon.
represent you in your absence. One strategy when trying to use a conversation
tone is to ask yourself, “Would I say it in this way to their face?” A follow-up ques-
tion to consider is, “Would I say it in this way in front of everyone?” Your
professional use of language is one the hallmark skills in business, and the degree
to which you master its use will reflect itself in your success. Take care, take time,
and make sure what you write communicates a professional tone that positively
represents you and your organization.
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation Introductions: Direct and Indirect
Sometimes the first sentence is the hardest to write. When you know the two main opening strate-
gies it may not make it any easier, but it will give a plan and form a framework. Business documents
often incorporate one of two opening strategies regardless of their organizational pattern. The direct
pattern states the main purpose directly, at the beginning, and leaves little room for misinter-
pretation. The indirect pattern, where you introduce your main idea after the opening paragraph,
can be useful if you need a strong opening to get the attention of what you perceive may be an
uninterested audience. Normally, if you expect a positive response from the reader you will choose
a direct opening, being clear from the first sentence about your purpose and goal. If you do not
expect a positive reception, or have to deliver bad news, you may want to be less direct. Each style
has its purpose and use; the skilled business writer will learn to be direct and be able to present bad
news with a positive opening paragraph.
Adding Emphasis
There are times when you will want to add emphasis to a word, phrase, or statistic so that it stands
out from the surrounding text. The use of visual aids in your writing can be an excellent option,
and can reinforce the written discussion. For example, if you write that sales are up 4 percent over
this time last year, the number alone may not get the attention it deserves. If, however, near the
text section you feature a bar graph demonstrating the sales growth figures, the representation of
the information in textual and graphical way may reinforce its importance.
As you look across the top of your word processing program you may notice bold, italics,
underline, highlights, your choice of colors, and a host of interesting fonts. Although it can be enter-
taining to experiment with these visual effects, do not use them just for the sake of decoration.
Consistency and branding are important features of your firm’s public image, so you will want the
visual aspects of your writing to support that image. Still, when you need to highlight an important
fact or emphasize a key question in a report, your readers will appreciate your use of visual effects
to draw their attention. Consider the following examples:
• Bullets can be effective when used with discretion.
Take care when using the following:
i. Numbers
ii. With subheadings
iii. In serial lists
iv. As they can get
v. A bit overwhelming to the point where

vi. The reader loses his or her interest
Emphasis can be influenced by your choice of font. Serif fonts, such as Times New Roman and
Garamond, have decorative ends that make the font easy to read. Sans serif fonts, like Arial, lack
these visual cues and often serve better as headers.
You can also vary the emphasis according to where you place information within a sentence:
• Maximum emphasis. Sales have increased across the United States because of our latest pro-
motion efforts in our largest and most successful market.
• Medium emphasis. Because of our latest promotion efforts in our largest and most successful
market, sales have increased across the United States.
• Minimum emphasis. The United States, which has experienced a sales increase, is our largest
and most successful market.
The information at end of the sentence is what people often recall, and is therefore normally
considered the location of maximum emphasis. The second best position for recall is the beginning
of the sentence, while the middle of the sentence is the area with the least recall. If you want to
highlight a point, place it at the beginning or end of the sentence, and if you want to deemphasize
a point, the middle is your best option.[7]
Active versus Passive Voice

You want your writing to be engaging. Which sentence would you rather read?
• A – All sales orders are processed daily by Mackenzie.
• B – Mackenzie processes all sales orders daily.
Most readers prefer sentence B, but why? You’ll recall that all sentences have a subject and a verb,
but you may not have paid much attention to their functions. Let’s look at how the subject and
verb function in these two sentences. In sentence A, the subject is “Mackenzie,” and the subject is the Sentence structure in
which the subject receives
doer of the action expressed by the verb (processes). In sentence A, the subject is “sales orders,” and the action.
the subject is the receiver of the action expressed by the verb (are processed). Sentence A is written in
passive voice—a sentence structure in which the subject receives the action. Sen- tence B is written
in active voice—a sentence structure in which the subject carries out the action. Sentence structure in
Active sentences tend to be shorter, more precise, and easier to understand. This is especially which the subject carries
out the action.
true because passive sentences can be written in ways that do not tell the reader who the doer of
the action is. For example, “All sales orders are processed daily” is a complete and correct sentence
in passive voice.
Active voice is the clear choice for a variety of contexts, but not all. When you want to deem-
phasize the doer of the action, you may write, “Ten late arrivals were recorded this month” and not
even mention who was late. The passive form doesn’t place blame or credit, so it can be more diplo-
matic in some contexts. Passive voice allows the writer to avoid personal references or personal
pronouns (he, she, they) to create a more objective tone. There are also situations where the doer of
the action is unknown, as in “graffiti was painted on the side of our building last night.”
Overall, business communication resources tend to recommend active voice as the preferred
style. Still, the styles themselves are not the problem or challenge, but it is how we use them that
matters. A skilled business writer will see both styles as options within a range of choices and learn
to distinguish when each style is most appropriate to facilitate communication.
Commonly Confused Words

The sentences in Table 6.6 focus on some of the most common errors in English. You may recall this
exercise from the introduction of this chapter. How did you do? Visit the “Additional Resources”
section at the end of the chapter for some resources on English grammar and usage.
TABLE 6.6 Common Errors in English

1. accept or The office will accept Attendance is except
except applica- required for all
tions until 5 p.m. employees
on the 31st. supervi-
sors.
2. affect or effect To the affect A lack of water effect
growth of plants, has a predictable
we can regulate on most
the water supply. plants.
3. e.g. or i.e. Please order 2,000 e.g. Charge them to i.e.
imprinted give- my account
aways ( , ( , account
pens or coffee #98765).
mugs)
4. its or it’s The department its my opin- It’s
surpassed ion that we
previous reached peak oil in
sales record this 2008.
quarter.
5. lay or lie Please lay The doctor asked lie

the report on the him to
desk. down on the
examination table.
6. pressure or We need to pressurize It might be possi- pressure
pressurize the liquid ble to him
nitrogen tanks. to resign.
7. principle or prin- It’s the basic principle The rea- principal
cipal of farm- son for the trip is
ing: no water, no to attend the sales
food. meeting.
8. regardless or of what Regardless of your Regardless (Irre-
irregardless we do, gas prices beliefs, please try gardless is not a
are unlikely to go to listen with an standard word;
back down. open mind. see your dictio-
nary)
9. than or then This year’s losses than If we can cut our then
were worse costs, it
last might be possible
year’s. to break even.
10. that or which type of Which Karen misplaced which
marketing data did the report,
you need? caused a
delay in making a
decision.
There are several that

kinds of data
could be
useful.
11 there their, or The report is there strate- Their
they’re , in the gic advantage
top file drawer. depends on a
wide distribution
network.
plan- They’re
ning to attend the
sales meeting in
Pittsburgh.
12. to, too, or two Customers need to After sales meet- too
drive ing, you should
slower if they want visit customers in
to save gas. the Pittsburgh area
.
In fact, the two
of you
should make some
customer visits
together.
13. uninterested or He would be the disinterested The sales manager uninterested
disinterested best person to tried to speak
make a decision, dynamically, but
since he isn’t the sales reps
biased and is rela- were simply
tively in in what
the outcome. he had to say.
14. who, whom, truck Whose going Who’s
who’s, or whose is that? to pay for the
repairs?
will go Who To whom
to the interview? should we address
the thank-you
note?
15 your or you’re My office is bigger your going to You’re
than cubi- learn how to avoid
cle. making these
common mistakes
in English.
Making Errors at the Speed of Light

In business and industry there is increasing pressure to produce under deadlines that in some
respects have been artificially accelerated by the immediacy inherent in technological communi-
cation devices. If you receive an e-mail or text message while you are in the middle of studying a
complex problem, you may be tempted to “get it out of the way” by typing out a quick reply, but
in your haste you may fail to qualify, include important information, or even check to make sure
you have hit “Reply” and not “Reply to All” or even “Delete.” Take care to pause and review your text
message, e-mail, or document before you consider it complete. Here is a quick electronic communi-
cation do/don’t list to keep in mind before you click “send.”
Do remember the following:
• Everything you access via an employer’s system is subject to inspection.

• Everything you write or record reflects you and your business or organization, even if it is
stored in a Google or Yahoo! account.
• Respect personal space by not forwarding every e-mail you think is funny.
• Use a concise but relevant and informative phrase for the subject line.
• E-mail the receiver before sending large attachments, as they may exceed the limit of the
receiver’s in-box.
• Attach your intended attachments.
Key Takeaway
An appropriate business writing style can be formal or informal, depending on the context, but it
should always reflect favorably on the writer and the organization.
1. Select at least three examples of writing from different kinds of sources, such as a gov-
ernment Web site, a textbook, a popular magazine, and a novel. According to the style
characteristics discussed in this section, how would you characterize the style of each?
Select a paragraph to rewrite in a different style—for example, if the style is formal, make it
informal; if the selection is written in active voice, make it passive. Discuss your results with
your classmates.
2. What are some qualities of a good business writing style? What makes certain styles more
appropriate for business than others? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3.
mates.
4. Find an example of informal writing and write a formal version. Please share with your class-
mates.
5. You are assigned to a work team that has to come up with a formal declaration and an infor-
mal explanation for the declaration. The declaration could be a memo indicating that your
business will be observing a holiday (each team should have a different holiday).
6. How would you characterize your writing style? Do you need to make modifications to make
your style suitable for business writing? Write a one- to two-page essay on this subject.
6.4 Making an Argument
1. Demonstrate how to form a clear argument with appropriate support to persuade your audi-
ence.
2.
According to the famous satirist Jonathan Swift, “Argument is the worst sort of conversation.” You
may be inclined to agree. When people argue, they are engaged in conflict and it’s usually not pretty.
It sometimes appears that way because people resort to fallacious arguments or false statements,
or they simply do not treat each other with respect. They get defensive, try to prove their own
points, and fail to listen to each other.
But this should not be what happens in written argument. Instead, when you make an argu-
ment in your writing, you will want to present your position with logical points, supporting each
point with appropriate sources. You will want to give your audience every reason to perceive you
as ethical and trustworthy. Your audience will expect you to treat them with respect, and to pre-
sent your argument in a way that does not make them defensive. Contribute to your credibility by
building sound arguments and using strategic arguments with skill and planning.
In this section we will briefly discuss the classic form of an argument, a more modern inter-
pretation, and finally seven basic arguments you may choose to use. Imagine that these are tools in
your toolbox and that you want to know how each is effectively used. Know that the people who
try to persuade you—from telemarketers to politicians—usually have these tools at hand.
Let’s start with a classical rhetorical strategy. It asks the rhetorician, speaker, or author to frame
arguments in the following steps:
TABLE 6.7 Classical Rhetorical Strategy
1. Exordium Prepares the audience to consider your argument
2. Narration Provides the audience with the necessary back-

ground or context for your argument
3. Proposition Introduces your claim being argued in the docu-
ment
4. Confirmation Offers the audience evidence to support your
argument
5. Refutation Introduces to the audience and then discounts or
refutes the counterarguments or objections
6. Peroration Your conclusion of your argument
This is a standard pattern in rhetoric and you will probably see it in both speech and English
courses. The pattern is useful to guide you in preparing your document and can serve as a valuable
checklist to insure you are prepared. While this formal pattern has distinct advantages, you may
not see it used exactly as indicated here on a daily basis. What may be more familiar to you is
Stephen Toulmin’s rhetorical strategy, which focuses on three main elements (see Table 6.8).[8]
TABLE 6.8 Toulmin’s Three-Part Rhetorical Strategy
Element Description Example

1. Claim Your statement of belief or truth It is important to spay or neuter
your pet.
2. Data Your supporting reasons for the Millions of unwanted pets are
claim euthanized every year.
3. Warrant You create the connection Pets that are spayed or
between the claim and the sup- neutered do not reproduce, pre-
porting reasons venting the production of
unwanted animals.
Toulmin’s rhetorical strategy is useful in that it makes the claim explicit, clearly illustrates the
relationship between the claim and the data, and allows the reader to follow the writer’s reason-
ing. You may have a good idea or point, but your audience will want to know how you arrived at
that claim or viewpoint. The warrant addresses the inherent and often unsaid question, “Why is
this data so important to your topic?” In so doing, it helps you to illustrate relationships between
information for your audience.
Effective Argumentation Strategies: GASCAP/

T
Here is a useful way of organizing and remembering seven key argumentative strategies:
1. Argument by Generalization
2. Argument by Analogy
3. Argument by Sign
4. Argument by Consequence
5. Argument by Authority
6. Argument by Principle
7. Argument by Testimony
Richard Fulkerson notes that a single strategy is sufficient to make an argument some of the
time, but it is often better to combine several strategies to make an effective argument.[9] He orga-
nized the argumentative strategies in this way to compare the differences, highlight the similarities,
and allow for their discussion. This model, often called by its acronym GASCAP, is a useful strat-
egy to summarize six key arguments and is easy to remember. Here we have adapted it, adding
one argument that is often used in today’s speeches and presentations, the argument by testimony.
Table 6.9 presents each argument, provides a definition of the strategy and an example, and exam-
ines ways to evaluate each approach.
TABLE 6.9 GASCAP/T Strategies

Argument by Claim Example Evaluation
G Generalization Whatever is true of If you can vote, STAR System: For
a good example or drive, and die for it to be reliable, we
sample will be true your country, you need a (S) suffi-
of everything like it should also be cient number of (T)
or the population it allowed to buy typical, (A) accu-
came from. alcohol. rate, and (R) reli-
able examples.
A Analogy Two situations, Alcohol is a drug. Watch for adverbs
things or ideas are So is tobacco. that end in “ly,” as
alike in observable They alter percep- they qualify, or
ways and will tend tions, have an lessen the relation-
to be alike in many impact physiologi- ship between the
other ways cal and psycho- examples. Words
logical systems, like “probably,”
and are federally “maybe,” “could,
regulated sub- “may,” or “usually”
stances. all weaken the
relationship.
S Sign Statistics, facts, or Motor vehicle acci- Evaluate the rela-
cases indicate dents involving tionship between
meaning, much alcohol occur at the sign and look
like a stop sign significant rates for correlation,
means “stop.” among adults of all where the presen-
ages in the United ter says what the
States. facts “mean.”
Does the sign say
that? Does it say
more? What is not
said? Is it rele-
vant?
C Cause If two conditions The U.S. insurance Watch out for
always appear industry has been “after the fact,
together, they are significantly therefore because
causally related. involved in state of the fact” (post
and national legis- hoc, ergo propter
lation requiring hoc) thinking.
proof of insurance, There might not be
changes in gradu- a clear connection,
ated driver’s and it might not be
licenses, and the the whole picture.
national change in Mothers Against
the drinking age Drunk Driving
from age 18 to might have also
age 21. been involved with
each example of
legislation.
A Authority What a credible According to the Is the source legiti-
source indicates is National Trans- mate and is their
probably true. portation Safety information trust-
Board, older dri- worthy? Institutes,
vers are increas- boards, and peo-
ingly involved in ple often have
motor vehicle acci- agendas and dis-
dents. tinct points of
view.

P Principle An accepted or The change in the Is the principle
proper truth drinking age was being invoked
never put to a generally
vote. It’s not about accepted? Is the
alcohol, it’s about claim, data or war-
our freedom of rant actually
speech in a demo- related to the prin-
cratic society. ciple stated? Are
there common
exceptions to the
principle? What
are the practical
consequences of
following the prin-
ciple in this case?
T Testimony Personal experi- I’ve lost friends Is the testimony
ence from age 18 to 67 authentic? Is it rel-
to alcohol. It evant? Is it repre-
impacts all ages, sentative of other’s
and its effects are experiences? Use
cumulative. Let me the STAR system
tell you about two to help evaluate
friends in particu- the use of testi-
lar. mony.
Evidence
Now that we’ve clearly outlined several argument strategies, how do you support your position
with evidence or warrants? If your premise or the background from which you start is valid, and
your claim is clear and clearly related, the audience will naturally turn their attention to “prove it.”
This is where the relevance of evidence becomes particularly important. Here are three guidelines
to consider in order to insure your evidence passes the “so what?” test of relevance in relation to
your claim. Make sure your evidence has the following traits:
1. Supportive. Examples are clearly representative, statistics are accurate, testimony is authorita-
tive, and information is reliable.
2. Relevant. Examples clearly relate to the claim or topic, and you are not comparing “apples to
oranges.”
3. Effective. Examples are clearly the best available to support the claim, quality is preferred to
quantity, there are only a few well-chosen statistics, facts, or data.
Appealing to Emotions
While we’ve highlighted several points to consider when selecting information to support your
claim, know that Aristotle strongly preferred an argument based in logic over emotion. Can the
same be said for your audience, and to what degree is emotion and your appeal to it in your audi-
ence a part of modern life?
Emotions are a psychological and physical reaction, such as fear or anger, to stimuli that we
experience as a feeling. Our feelings or emotions directly impact our own point of view and readi-
ness to communicate, but also influence how, why, and when we say things. Emotions influence not A psychological and
physical reaction, such as
only how you say or what you say, but also how you hear or what you hear. At times, emotions can fear or anger, to stimuli
be challenging to control. Emotions will move your audience, and possibly even move you, to that we experience as a
change or act in certain ways. feeling.
Aristotle thought the best and most preferable way to persuade an audience was through the
use of logic, free of emotion. He also recognized that people are often motivated, even manipu-
lated, by the exploitation of their emotions. In a business context, we still engage in this debate,
demanding to know the facts separate from personal opinion or agenda, but see the use of emo-
tional appeal to sell products.
Marketing experts are famous for creating a need or associating an emotion with a brand or
label in order to sell it. You will speak the language of your audience in your document, and may
choose to appeal to emotion, but you need to consider how the strategy works, as it may be consid-
ered a tool that has two edges.
If we think of the appeal to emotion as a knife, we can see it has two edges. One edge can cut
your audience, and the other can cut you. If you advance an appeal to emotion in your document
on spaying and neutering pets, and discuss the millions of unwanted pets that are killed each year,
you may elicit an emotional response. If you use this approach repeatedly, your audience may grow
weary of this approach, and it will lose its effectiveness. If you change your topic to the use of
animals in research, the same strategy may apply, but repeated attempts to elicit an emotional
response may backfire (i.e., in essence “cutting” you) and produce a negative response called “emo-
tional resistance.”
Emotional resistance involves getting tired, often to the point of rejection, of hearing mes-
sages that attempt to elicit an emotional response. Emotional appeals can wear out the audience’s
Occurs when the audience
capacity to receive the message. As Aristotle outlined, ethos (credibility), logos (logic), and pathos
gets tired, often to the
(passion, enthusiasm, and emotional response) constitute the building blocks of any document. It’s point of rejection, of
up to you to create a balanced document, where you may appeal to emotion, but choose to use it hearing messages that
judiciously. attempt to elicit an
emotional response.
On a related point, the use of an emotional appeal may also impair your ability to write persua-
sively or effectively. For example, if you choose to present an article about suicide to persuade
people against committing it and you start showing a photo of your brother or sister that you lost
to suicide, your emotional response may cloud your judgment and get in the way of your thinking.
Never use a personal story, or even a story of someone you do not know, if the inclusion of that
story causes you to lose control. While it’s important to discuss relevant topics, you need to assess
your relationship to the message. Your documents should not be an exercise in therapy. Otherwise,
you will sacrifice ethos and credibility, even your effectiveness, if you “lose it” because you are really
not ready to discuss the issue.
Recognizing Fallacies
“Fallacy” is another way of saying false logic. Fallacies or rhetorical tricks deceive your audience
with their style, drama, or pattern, but add little to your document in terms of substance. They are
best avoided because they can actually detract from your effectiveness. There are several tech-
niques or “tricks” that allow the writer to rely on style without offering substantive argument, to
obscure the central message, or twist the facts to their own gain. Table 6.10 examines the eight clas-
sical fallacies. Learn to recognize them so they can’t be used against you, and learn to avoid using
them with your audience.
TABLE 6.10 Fallacies

Fallacy Definition Example
1. Red Herring Any diversion intended to dis- It’s not just about the death
tract attention from the main penalty; it’s about the victims
issue, particularly by relating the and their rights. You wouldn’t
issue to a common fear. want to be a victim, but if you
were, you’d want justice.
2. Straw Man A weak argument set up to eas- Look at the idea that criminals
ily refute and distract attention who commit murder should be
from stronger arguments. released after a few years of
rehabilitation. Think of how
unsafe our streets would be
then!
3. Begging the Question Claiming the truth of the very We know that they will be
matter in question, as if it were released and unleashed on soci-
already an obvious conclusion. ety to repeat their crimes again
and again.
4. Circular Argument The proposition is used to prove Once a killer, always a killer.
itself. Assumes the very thing it
aims to prove. Related to beg-
ging the question.
5. Ad Populum Appeals to a common belief of Most people would prefer to get
some people, often prejudicial, rid of a few “bad apples” and
and states everyone holds this keep our streets safe.
belief. Also called the band-
wagon fallacy, as people “jump
on the bandwagon” of a per-
ceived popular view.
6. Ad Hominem or “Argument Argument against the man Our representative is a drunk
against the Man” instead of his message. Stating and philanderer. How can we
that someone’s argument is trust him on the issues of safety
wrong solely because of some- and family?
thing about the person rather
than about the argument itself.
7. Non Sequitur or “It Does Not The conclusion does not follow Since the liberal 1960s, we’ve
Follow” from the premises. They are not seen an increase in convicts
related. who got let off death row.
8. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc It is also called a coincidental Violent death rates went down
or “After This, Therefore correlation. once they started publicizing
because of This” executions.
Ethical Considerations in Persuasion

In his book Ethics in Human Communication, Richard Johannesen offers eleven points to consider
when communicating. Although they are related to public speaking, they are also useful in busi-
ness writing. You may note that many of his cautions are clearly related to the fallacies we’ve
discussed. His main points reiterate many of the points across this chapter and should be kept in
mind as you prepare, and present, your persuasive message.[10]
Do not
• use false, fabricated, misrepresented, distorted, or irrelevant evidence to support arguments or
claims;
• intentionally use unsupported, misleading, or illogical reasoning;
• represent yourself as informed or an “expert” on a subject when you are not;

• use irrelevant appeals to divert attention from the issue at hand;
• ask your audience to link your idea or proposal to emotion-laden values, motives, or goals to
which it is actually not related;
• deceive your audience by concealing your real purpose, your self-interest, the group you rep-
resent, or your position as an advocate of a viewpoint;
• distort, hide, or misrepresent the number, scope, intensity, or undesirable features of conse-
quences or effects;
• use emotional appeals that lack a supporting basis of evidence or reasoning;
• oversimplify complex, gradation-laden situations into simplistic, two-valued, either-or, polar
views or choices;
• pretend certainty where tentativeness and degrees of probability would be more accurate;
• advocate something that you yourself do not believe in.
Aristotle said the mark of a good person, well spoken, was a clear command of the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. He discussed the idea of perceiving
the various points of view related to a topic and their thoughtful consideration. While it’s impor-
tant to be able to perceive the complexity of a case, you are not asked to be a lawyer and defend a
client.
In your message to persuade, consider honesty and integrity as you assemble your arguments.
Your audience will appreciate your thoughtful consideration of more than one view and your
understanding of the complexity of the issue, thus building your ethos, or credibility, as you pre-
sent your document. Be careful not to stretch the facts, or assemble them only to prove your point;
instead, prove the argument on its own merits. Deception, coercion, intentional bias, manipulation
and bribery should have no place in your message to persuade.
Key Takeaway
The art of argument in writing involves presenting supportive, relevant, effective evidence for
each point and doing it in a respectful and ethical manner.
1. Select a piece of persuasive writing such as a newspaper op-ed essay, a magazine article,
or a blog post. Examine the argument, the main points, and how the writer supports them.
Which strategies from the foregoing section does the writer use? Does the writer use any
fallacies or violate any ethical principles? Discuss your results with your classmates.
2.
3. Find an example of a piece of writing that appears to want to be persuasive, but doesn’t get
the job done. Write a brief review and share it with classmates.
4. In what ways might the choice of how to organize a document involve ethics? Explain your
response and discuss it with your class.
6.5 Paraphrase and Summary versus

Plagiarism
1.
2. Demonstrate how to give proper credit to sources that are quoted verbatim, and sources
whose ideas are paraphrased or summarized.
3.
Even if you are writing on a subject you know well, you will usually get additional information
from other sources. How you represent others’ ideas, concepts, and words is critical to your cred-
ibility and the effectiveness of your document. Let’s say you are reading a section of a document
and find a point that relates well to your current writing assignment. How do you represent what
you have read in your work? You have several choices.
One choice is simply to reproduce the quote verbatim, or word for word, making sure that you
Word for word. have copied all words and punctuation accurately. In this case, you will put quotation marks around
the quoted passage (or, if it is more than about fifty words long, inset it with wider margins than the
body of your document) and give credit to the source. The format you use for your source citation
will vary according to the discipline or industry of your audience; common formats include APA
(American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), and CMS (Chicago Manual
of Style).
Another common strategy in business writing is to paraphrase, or rewrite the information in your
own words. You will relate the main point, but need to take care not to copy the original. You will give
your own words. credit where credit is due, but your citation will be more informal, such as “A Wall Street Journal
article dated July 8, 2009, described some of the disagreements among G-8 nations about
climate change.” Here are several steps that can help you paraphrase a passage while respecting its
original author:
1. Read the passage out loud, paying attention to the complete thought rather than the individ-
ual words.
2. Explain the concept in your own words to a friend or colleague, out loud, face-to-face.
3. Write the concept in your own words, and add one or more illustrative examples of the con-
cept that are meaningful to you.
4. Reread the original passage and see how your version compares with it in terms of grammar,
word choice, example, and conveyance of meaning.
5. If your writing parrots the original passage or merely substitutes synonyms for words in the
original, return to step one and start over, remembering that your goal is to express the central
concepts, not to “translate” one word into another.
6. When you are satisfied that your expression of the concept can stand on its own merit, include
it in your document and cite the original author as the source of the idea.
Summarizing information is another common way of integrating information into your origi-
nal work that requires care and attention to detail. To summarize is to reduce a concept, idea, or
data set to its most basic point or element. You may have a literature survey to summarize related To reduce a concept, idea,
or data set to its most
information in the field under consideration, or a section on background to serve a similar purpose. basic point or element.
Suppose you are reporting on a business situation and it occurs to you that one of Shakespeare’s
plays has a plot that resembles your situation. You may wish to summarize the Shakespeare play in
a few sentences before drawing parallels between it and your current situation. This may help read-
ers to remember and understand your report. Regardless of how or where you incorporate a
summary within your document, give attention to its original context and retain its essential mean-
ing free of distortion in the new context of your writing.
Because summarizing is an act of reductionism, some of the original richness in detail that sur-
rounds the original will be necessarily lost. Think of a photograph you have taken in the past that
featured several people you know. Using a software program that allows you to modify and manip-
ulate the image, draw a box around only one face. Delete the rest of the contents of the photo so
only the information in the box remains. Part of the photo is intact, and one person has become the
focal point for the image, but the context has been lost. In the same way, if you focus on one
statistic, one quote, or one idea and fail to capture its background you will take the information out
of context. Context is one of the eight components of communication, and without it, the process
breaks down. While you cannot retain all the definition and detail of the original context in a brief
summary, effort to represent the essential point within its context is essential or you risk distortion
of the original meaning.
Unlike quoting or paraphrasing, summarizing is something you can—and will—also do to the
material you have written. You may start your document with a summary of the background that
gives the document purpose. Formal business reports often begin with an executive summary, and
scientific articles usually begin with an abstract; both of these serve as a brief preview of the infor-
mation in the full document. You may write a brief internal summary after each main discussion
point in a lengthy document; this will serve to remind your reader of the discussion to date and
to establish the context for the upcoming point. Finally, a summary is a very common, and often
effective, way to conclude a document. Ending your writing with a summary helps your reader to
remember your main points.
Plagiarism is neither paraphrasing nor summarizing information from other works.

Plagiarism is representing another’s work as your own. Professional standards, which are upheld
work as your own.
in all fields from architecture to banking to zoology, all involve the elements of authenticity and
credibility. Credit is given where credit is due, authorities in the field are appropriately cited or ref-
erenced, and original writing is expected to be exactly that. Patch writing, or the verbatim cut-and-
paste insertion of fragments, snippets, or small sections of other publications into your own
Verbatim cut-and-paste
insertion of fragments of writing without crediting the sources, is plagiarism. Wholesale copying of other works is also pla-
other publications into giarism. Both destroy your professional credibility, and fail to uphold common professional
one’s own writing without standards.
crediting the sources.
Colleges and universities have policies against plagiarism, and within business and industry,
the negative impact on credibility and careers often exceeds any academic punishment. There is no
shame in quoting someone else’s work while giving credit, nor in paraphrasing a point correctly or
summarizing the research results of a study you did not perform; but there are significant conse-
quences to representing other’s ideas as your own.
Aside from the fear of punishment, a skilled business writer should recognize that intellectual
theft is wrong. You may be tempted to borrow a sentence; however, know your document will be
represented in many ways across time, and more than one career has been destroyed by plagiarism
discovered years after the fact. The accomplished business writer should take as a compliment the
correct citation and reference of their work. The novice business writer should learn by example
but refrain from cut and paste strategies to complete a document.
In a world where most modern documents are accessible in some form online, the ability to
cross-reference information with a couple of key strokes makes plagiarism a self-defeating solution
when better alternatives exist. Quote and give credit, link to related documents with permission,
paraphrase and summarize with citation, but do not plagiarize.
Key Takeaway
There is nothing wrong with quoting, paraphrasing, and summarizing with credit to your original
source, but presenting someone else’s work as if it were your own is plagiarism.
1. Select a piece of writing such as an essay from a Web site, a book chapter, or a newspaper
or magazine article. Write a paraphrase of a portion of it. Write a brief summary of the entire
piece. Note the difference between the two techniques. Giving credit to the original piece,
discuss your paraphrase and summary with your classmates.
2. Find an example of an advertisement you perceive as particularly effective and write a one-
sentence summary. Share the advertisement and your one-sentence summary with the
class.
3.
sentence summary. Share the advertisement and your one sentence review with the class.
4.
Share your findings and discuss with classmates.

Read an informative article about outlines and get a sample outline template. http://www.
essaywritinghelp.com/outline.htm
This Writing Tutorials site from John Jay College of Criminal Justice offers a menu of tools for
composing a thesis statement, an outline, well-constructed paragraphs, and more. http://resources.
jjay.cuny.edu/erc/writing/index.php.
This RefDesk.com page offers a compendium of different resources for English grammar and
usage. http://www.refdesk.com/factgram.html
Read an article on avoiding bureaucratic language by marketing strategist David Meerman
Scott. http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/ArticleReader.
aspx?ArticleID=14538&ContextSubtypeID=12
Read about logic in argumentative writing on Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL).
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/659/01
The College Board Web site provides a robust guide for how to avoid plagiarism. http://www.
collegeboard.com/student/plan/college-success/10314.html
Endnotes
1. Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Macmillian.
2. Beebe, S. [Steven], & Beebe, S. [Susan]. (1997). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach (3rd ed., pp. 121–122). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
3. Ayres, J., & Miller, J. (1994). Effective public speaking (4th ed., p. 274). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
4. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
5. Schutz, W. (1966). The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
6. Bailey, E. P. (2008). Plain English at work: A guide to business writing and speaking. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
8. Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
9. Fulkerson, R. (1996). The Toulmin model of argument and the teaching of composition. In E. Barbara, P. Resch, & D. Tenney (Eds.), Argument revisited:
argument redefined: negotiating meaning the composition classroom (pp. 45–72). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10. Johannesen, R. (1996). Ethics in human communication (4th ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
7
Revising and Presenting Your

Writing
I’m not a very good writer, but I’m an excellent rewriter.

— James A. Michener
Half my life is an act of revision.

— John Irving
7.1 Getting Started
1. Find an article you read online and review it, noting at least one area that would benefit from
revision. Please share your results with classmates.
2. Exchange draft revisions of a document prepared for a class or work assignment with a
classmate or colleague. Note at least one strength and one area for improvement. Provide
feedback to the writer.
One of the hardest tests to pass is the one of peer review. In the academic environment,
professors conduct research, learn lessons, and share their findings by contributing articles for pro-
fessional journals. Each academic journal article undergoes peer review, or evaluation by colleagues
in the same field as the professor who wrote the article. These evaluations, often conducted by
leaders in each field, do not only consider the value of the writer’s findings. They also evaluate the
mechanics of the document (spelling and grammar) and its presentation, organization, and design.
The first time a scholar submits an article for peer review, he or she can expect rejections and liberal
use of the red pen.
You may not experience such a rigorous and vigorous review of your writing, but in many ways
the world of business is equally challenging. Academic publications ultimately value solid findings
that contribute to the field or discipline. Business writing ultimately values writing that produces
results or outcomes in environments where you do not have the luxury of controlling the variables,
designing the context, or limiting the scope of your inquiry. Your business document will be eval-
uated by people you never met or even anticipated would read it, and errors will have a negative
impact on its performance.
In every career, industry, and profession, today’s business climate is a results-oriented environ-
ment. Regardless of what you write, there exists the possibility, even probability, that misunder-
standings and miscommunications can and will occur. Although you will not always have control
over the importance of the ideas you are assigned to communicate in your writing, there is one
thing you can control: errors. If you avoid mistakes, both in the document itself and in the way
your audience interprets your message, your document will have its best chance of success. To this
end a thorough revision is an important part of your writing process.
As you review and evaluate documents, those written by you and others, you will need to keep
in mind the three goals of being correct, clear, and concise. Next you will have to focus on effective-
ness and efficiency, recognizing that in a climate of increasing demands and limited resources like
time, you need to get it right the first time.
The environment of a business writer can be stressful, but it can also be rewarding. Recog-
nition from your peers—suppliers, internal department colleagues, or customers—can make it all
worthwhile. Still, the reward in terms of acknowledgement may come in the form of silence. When
your document clearly meets expectations and accomplishes its goal, the outcome may be the
absence of error or misinterpretation, a rare occasion that often goes unheralded. As a business
writer you need to value your work and note what works. When it does, take pride in your hard
work in effort. You may not always be celebrated for your error-free documents that communicate
concepts and ideas clearly, but know that they are successful, and their success is your success.
7.2 General Revision Points to

Consider
1. Discuss the process of revision

2.
Just when you think the production of your document is done, the revision process begins. Run-
ners often refer to “the wall,” where the limits of physical exertion are met and exhaustion is
imminent. The writing process requires effort, from overcoming writer’s block to the intense con-
centration composing a document often involves. It is only natural to have a sense of relief when
your document is drafted from beginning to end. This relief is false confidence, though. Your doc-
ument is not complete, and in its current state it could, in fact, do more harm than good. Errors,
omissions, and unclear phrases may lurk within your document, waiting to reflect poorly on you
when it reaches your audience. Now is not time to let your guard down, prematurely celebrate, or
to mentally move on to the next assignment. Think of the revision process as one that hardens and
strengthens your document, even though it may require the sacrifice of some hard-earned writing.
General revision requires attention to content, organization, style, and readability. These four
main categories should give you a template from which to begin to explore details in depth. A cur-
sory review of these elements in and of itself is insufficient for even the briefest review. Across
this chapter we will explore ways to expand your revision efforts to cover the common areas of
weakness and error. You may need to take some time away from your document to approach it
again with a fresh perspective. Writers often juggle multiple projects that are at different stages of
development. This allows the writer to leave one document and return to another without losing
valuable production time. Overall, your goal is similar to what it was during your writing prepara-
tion and production: a clear mind.
Evaluate Content
Content is only one aspect of your document. Let’s say you were assigned a report on the sales
trends for a specific product in a relatively new market. You could produce a one-page chart com-
paring last year’s results to current figures and call it a day, but would it clearly and concisely deliver
content that is useful and correct? Are you supposed to highlight trends? Are you supposed to spot-
light factors that contributed to the increase or decrease? Are you supposed to include projections
for next year? Our list of questions could continue, but for now let’s focus on content and its rela-
tionship to the directions. Have you included the content that corresponds to the given assignment,
left any information out that may be necessary to fulfill the expectations, or have you gone beyond
the assignment directions? Content will address the central questions of who, what, where, when,
why and how within the range and parameters of the assignment.
Evaluate Organization
Organization is another key aspect of any document. Standard formats that include an intro-
duction, body, and conclusion may be part of your document, but did you decide on a direct or
indirect approach? Can you tell? A direct approach will announce the main point or purpose at
the beginning, while an indirect approach will present an introduction before the main point. Your
document may use any of a wide variety of organizing principles, such as chronological, spatial,
compare/contrast. Is your organizing principle clear to the reader?
Beyond the overall organization, pay special attention to transitions. Readers often have dif-
ficulty following a document if the writer makes the common error of failing to make one point
relevant to the next, or to illustrate the relationships between the points. Finally, your conclusion
should mirror your introduction and not introduce new material.
Evaluate Style
Style is created through content and organization, but also involves word choice and grammatical
structures. Is your document written in an informal or formal tone, or does it present a blend, a mix,
or an awkward mismatch? Does it provide a coherent and unifying voice with a professional tone?
If you are collaborating on the project with other writers or contributors, pay special attention to
unifying the document across the different authors’ styles of writing. Even if they were all to write
in a professional, formal style, the document may lack a consistent voice. Read it out loud—can you
tell who is writing what? If so, that is a clear clue that you need to do more revising in terms of
style.
Evaluate Readability
Readability refers to the reader’s ability to read and comprehend the document. A variety of tools
are available to make an estimate of a document’s reading level, often correlated to a school grade
Readers’ ability to read
level. If this chapter has a reading level of 11.8, it would be appropriate for most readers in the
and comprehend the
eleventh grade. But just because you are in grade thirteen, eighteen, or twenty-one doesn’t mean document.
that your audience, in their everyday use of language, reads at a postsecondary level. As a business
writer, your goal is to make your writing clear and concise, not complex and challenging.
You can often use the “Tools” menu of your word processing program to determine the approx-
imate reading level of your document. The program will evaluate the number of characters per
word, add in the number of words per sentence, and come up with a rating. It may also note the
percentage of passive sentences, and other information that will allow you to evaluate readability.
Like any computer-generated rating, it should serve you as one point of evaluation, but not the only
point. Your concerted effort to choose words you perceive as appropriate for the audience will serve
you better than any computer evaluation of your writing.
Key Takeaway
The four main categories—content, organization, style, and readability—provide a template for
general revision.
1. Select a document, such as an article from a Web site, newspaper, magazine, or a piece of
writing you have completed for a course. Evaluate the document according to the four main
categories described in this section. Could the document benefit from revision in any of these
areas? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Interview a coworker or colleague and specifically ask how much time and attention they
dedicate to the revision process of their written work. Compare your results with classmates.
3. Find a particularly good example of writing according to the above criteria. Review it and
share it with your classmates.
4.
it with your classmates.
7.3 Specific Revision Points to

Consider
1. List six specific elements of every document to check for revision
When revising your document, it can be helpful to focus on specific points. When you consider each
point in turn, you will be able to break down the revision process into manageable steps. When you
have examined each point, you can be confident that you have avoided many possible areas for
errors. Specific revision requires attention to the following:
• Format
• Facts
• Names
• Spelling
• Punctuation
• Grammar
Let’s examine these characteristics one by one.
Format
Format is an important part of the revision process. Format involves the design expectations of
author and audience. If a letter format normally designates a date at the top, or the sender’s address
on the left side of the page before the salutation, the information should be in the correct location.
Formatting that is messy or fails to conform to the company style will reflect poorly on you before
the reader even starts to read it. By presenting a document that is properly formatted according to
the expectations of your organization and your readers, you will start off making a good impres-
sion.
Facts
Another key part of the revision process is checking your facts. Did you know that news orga-
nizations and magazines employ professional fact-checkers? These workers are responsible for
examining every article before it gets published and consulting original sources to make sure the
information in the article is accurate. This can involve making phone calls to the people who were
interviewed for the article—for example, “Mr. Diaz, our report states that you are thirty-nine years
old. Our article will be published on the fifteenth. Will that be your correct age on that date?” Fact
checking also involves looking facts up in encyclopedias, directories, atlases, and other standard ref-
erence works; and, increasingly, in online sources.
While you can’t be expected to have the skills of a professional fact-checker, you do need to
reread your writing with a critical eye to the information in it. Inaccurate content can expose you
and your organization to liability, and will create far more work than a simple revision of a docu-
ment. So, when you revise a document, ask yourself the following:
• Does my writing contain any statistics or references that need to be verified?
• Where can I get reliable information to verify it?
It is often useful to do independent verification—that is, look up the fact in a different source
from the one where you first got it. For example, perhaps a colleague gave you a list of closing aver-
ages for the Dow Jones Industrial on certain dates. You still have the list, so you can make sure your
Looking up facts in a
document agrees with the numbers your colleague provided. But what if your colleague made a
different source from the
one where you got it. mistake? The Web sites of the Wall Street Journal and other major newspapers list closings for “the
Dow,” so it is reasonably easy for you to look up the numbers and verify them independently.
Names
There is no more embarrassing error in business writing than to misspell some-
FIGURE 7.1 one’s name. To the writer, and to some readers, spelling a name “Michelle” instead
Always spell a person’s name correctly.
of “Michele” may seem like a minor matter, but to Michele herself it will make a
big difference. Attribution is one way we often involve a person’s name, and giv-
ing credit where credit is due is essential. There are many other reasons for
including someone’s name, but regardless of your reasons for choosing to focus
on them, you need to make sure the spelling is correct. Incorrect spelling of
names is a quick way to undermine your credibility; it can also have a negative
impact on your organization’s reputation, and in some cases it may even have
legal ramifications.
Spelling
Correct spelling is another element essential for your credibility, and errors will be glaringly obvi-
ous to many readers. The negative impact on your reputation as a writer, and its perception that
you lack attention to detail or do not value your work, will be hard to overcome. In addition to the
negative personal consequences, spelling errors can become factual errors and destroy the value of
content. This may lead you to click the “spell check” button in your word processing program, but
computer spell-checking is not enough. Spell checkers have improved in the years since they were
first invented, but they are not infallible. They can and do make mistakes.
Typically, your incorrect word may in fact be a word, and therefore, according to the program,
correct. For example, suppose you wrote, “The major will attend the meeting” when you meant to
write “The mayor will attend the meeting.” The program would miss this error because “major” is a
word, but your meaning would be twisted beyond recognition.
Punctuation
Punctuation marks are the traffic signals, signs, and indications that allow us to navigate the writ-
ten word. They serve to warn us in advance when a transition is coming or the complete thought
The traffic signals, signs,
has come to an end. A period indicates the thought is complete, while a comma signals that addi-
and indications that allow
us to navigate the written tional elements or modifiers are coming. Correct signals will help your reader follow the thoughts
word. through sentences and paragraphs, and enable you to communicate with maximum efficiency while
reducing the probability of error.[1]
Table 7.1 lists twelve punctuation marks that are commonly used in English in alphabetical
order along with an example of each.
TABLE 7.1 Punctuation Marks

Symbol Example
Apostrophe ’ Michele’s report is due tomor-
row.
Colon : This is what I think: you need to
revise your paper.
Comma , The report advised us when to
sell, what to sell, and where to
find buyers.
Dash — This is more difficult than it
seems—buyers are scarce
when credit is tight.
Ellipsis … Lincoln spoke of “a new
nation…dedicated to the propo-
sition that all men are created
equal.”
Exclamation Point ! How exciting!
Hyphen - The question is a many-faceted
one.
Parentheses () To answer it (or at least to begin
addressing it) we will need more
information.
Period . The answer is no. Period. Full
stop.
Question Mark ? Can I talk you into changing
your mind?
Quotation Marks “” The manager told him, “I will
make sure Renée is available to
help you.”
Semicolon ; Theresa was late to the meeting;
her computer had frozen and
she was stuck at her desk until
a tech rep came to fix it.
It may be daunting to realize that the number of possible punctuation errors is as extensive
as the number of symbols and constructions available to the author. Software program may catch
many punctuation errors, but again it is the committed writer that makes the difference. Here we
will provide details on how to avoid mistakes with three of the most commonly used punctuation
marks: the comma, the semicolon, and the apostrophe.
Commas
The comma is probably the most versatile of all punctuation marks. This means you as a writer can
use your judgment in many cases as to whether you need a comma or not. It also means that the
possible errors involving commas are many. Commas are necessary some of the time, but careless
writers often place a comma in a sentence where it is simply not needed.
Commas are used to separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction like “but,” “and,”
and “or.”
Example
Commas are not used simply to join two independent clauses. This is known as the comma
splice error, and the way to correct it is to insert a conjunction after the comma.
Examples
The advertising department is effective, the sales department needs to produce more results.
The advertising department is effective, but the sales department needs to produce more results.
Commas are used for introductory phrases and to offset clauses that are not essential to the
sentence. If the meaning would remain intact without the phrase, it is considered nonessential.
Examples
After the summary of this year’s sales, the sales department had good reason to celebrate.
The sales department, last year’s winner of the most productive award, celebrated their stellar sales
success this year.
The sales department celebrated their stellar sales success this year.
Commas are used to offset words that help create unity across a sentence like “however” and
“therefore.”
Examples
The sales department discovered, however, that the forecast for next year is challenging.
However, the sales department discovered that the forecast for next year is challenging.
Commas are often used to separate more than one adjective modifying a noun.
Example
Commas are used to separate addresses, dates, and titles; they are also used in dialogue
sequences.
Examples
John is from Ancud, Chile.
Katy was born on August 2, 2002.
Mackenzie McLean, D. V., is an excellent veterinarian.
Lisa said, “When writing, omit needless words.”
Semicolons
Semicolons have two uses. First, they indicate relationships among groups of items in a series when
the individual items are separated by commas. Second, a semicolon can be used to join two inde-
pendent clauses; this is another way of avoiding the comma splice error mentioned above. Using a
semicolon this way is often effective if the meaning of the two independent clauses is linked in
some way, such as a cause-effect relationship.
Examples
Merchandise on order includes women’s wear such as sweaters, skirts, and blouses; men’s wear
such as shirts, jackets, and slacks; and outwear such as coats, parkas, and hats.
The sales campaign was successful; without its contributions our bottom line would have been
dismal indeed.
Apostrophes
The apostrophe, like the semicolon, has two uses: it replaces letters omitted in a contraction, and it
often indicates the possessive.
Because contractions are associated with an informal style, they may not be appropriate for
some professional writing. The business writer will—as always—evaluate the expectations and
audience of the given assignment.
Examples
It’s great news that sales were up. It is also good news that we’ve managed to reduce our
advertising costs.
When you indicate possession, pay attention to the placement of the apostrophe. Nouns com-
monly receive “’s” when they are made possessive. But plurals that end in “s” receive a hanging
apostrophe when they are made possessive, and the word “it” forms the possessive (“its”) with no
apostrophe at all.
Examples
Mackenzie’s sheep are ready to be sheared.
The parents’ meeting is scheduled for Thursday.
We are willing to adopt a dog that has already had its shots.
Grammar
Learning to use good, correct standard English grammar is more of a practice than an event, or even
a process. Grammar involves the written construction of meaning from words and involves cus-
The written construction of
toms that evolve and adapt to usage over time. Because grammar is always evolving, none of us can
meaning from words,
sit back and rest assured that we “know” how to write with proper grammar. Instead, it is important involving customs that
to write and revise with close attention to grammar, keeping in mind that grammatical errors can evolve and adapt to usage
undermine your credibility, reflect poorly on your employer, and cause misunderstandings. over time.
Jean Wyrick has provided a list of common errors in grammar to watch out for, which we have
adapted here for easy reference.[2] In each case, the error is in italics and the [correct form] is itali-
cized within square bracket.
Subject-Verb Agreement
The subject and verb should agree on the number under consideration. In faulty writing, a singular
subject is sometimes mismatched with a plural verb form, or vice versa.
Examples
Sales have not been consistent and they doesn’t [do not] reflect your hard work and effort.
The president appreciates your hard work and wish [wishes] to thank you.
Verb Tense
Verb tense refers to the point in time where action occurs. The most common tenses are past, pre-
sent, and future. There is nothing wrong with mixing tenses in a sentence if the action is intended
Refers to the point in time to take place at different times. In faulty or careless writing, however, they are often mismatched
where action occurs.
illogically.
Examples
Sharon was under pressure to finish the report, so she uses [used] a shortcut to paste in the sales
figures.
The sales department holds a status meeting every week, and last week’s meeting will be [was] at
the Garden Inn.
Split Infinitive
The infinitive form of verb is one without a reference to time, and in its standard form it includes
the auxiliary word “to,” as in “to write is to revise.” It has been customary to keep the “to” next to the
Form of verb without a
verb; to place an adverb between them is known as splitting the infinitive. Some modern writers do
reference to time; in its
standard form it includes this all the time (for example, “to boldly go…”), and since all grammar is essentially a set of customs
the auxiliary word “to.” that govern the written word, you will need to understand what the custom is where you work. If
you are working with colleagues trained across the last fifty years, they may find split infinitives
annoying. For this reason, it’s often best to avoid splitting an infinitive wherever you can do so with-
out distorting the meaning of the sentence.
Examples
The Marketing Department needs assistance to accurately understand our readers [to understand
our readers accurately].
David pondered how to best revise [how best to revise] the sentence.
Double Negative
A double negative uses two negatives to communicate a single idea, duplicating the negation. In
some languages, such as Spanish, when the main action in the sentence is negative, it is correct to
A phrase or sentence express the other elements in the sentence negatively as well. However, in English, this is incorrect.
construction that employs
two negatives to indicate a In addition to sounding wrong (you can often hear the error if you read the sentence out loud), a
positive. double negative in English causes an error in logic, because two negatives cancel each other out and
yield a positive. In fact, the wording of ballot measures is often criticized for confusing voters with
double negatives.
Examples
John doesn’t need no [any] assistance with his sales presentation. [Or John needs no assistance
with his sales presentation.]
Jeri could not find no [any] reason to approve the request. [Or Jeri could find no reason to approve
the request.]
Irregular Verbs
Most verbs represent the past with the addition of the suffix “ed,” as in “ask” becomes “asked.”
Irregular verbs change a vowel or convert to another word when representing the past tense. Con-
sider the irregular verb “to go”; the past tense is “went,” not “goed.” Verbs that change a vowel
or convert to another word
when representing the
Examples past tense.
The need arised [arose] to seek additional funding.

Katy leaped [leapt] onto the stage to introduce the presentation.
Commas in a Series
A comma is used to separate the items in a series, but in some writing styles the comma is omitted
between the final two items of the series, where the conjunction joins the last and next-to-last items.
The comma in this position is known as the “serial comma.” The serial comma is typically required
in academic writing and typically omitted in journalism. Other writers omit the serial comma if the
final two items in the series have a closer logical connection than the other items. In business
writing, you may use it or omit it according to the prevailing style in your organization or industry.
Know your audience and be aware of the rule.
Examples
Lisa is an amazing wife, mother, teacher, gardener, and editor.
Lisa is an amazing wife, mother teacher, gardener and editor.
Lisa is an amazing teacher, editor, gardener, wife and mother.
Faulty Comparisons
When comparing two objects by degree, there should be no mention of “est,” as in “biggest” as all
you can really say is that one is bigger than the other. If you are comparing three or more objects,
then “est” will accurately communicate which is the “biggest” of them all.
Examples
Between the twins, Mackenzie is the fastest [faster] of the two.
Among our three children, Mackenzie is the tallest.
Dangling Modifiers
Modifiers describe a subject in a sentence or indicate how or when the subject carried out the
action. If the subject is omitted, the modifier intended for the subject is left dangling or hanging
Describes a subject in a out on its own without a clear relationship to the sentence. Who is doing the seeing in the first sen-
sentence, or indicates how
or when the subject tence?
carried out the action.
Examples
Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel, celebrations were in order.
Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel, we decided that celebrations were in order.
Misplaced Modifiers
Modifiers that are misplaced are not lost, they are simply in the wrong place. Their unfortunate
location is often far from the word or words they describe, making it easy for readers to misinter-
pret the sentence.
Examples
Trying to avoid the deer, the tree hit my car.
My car hit the tree when I tried to avoid a deer in the road.
How to Write a College Paper : The College Paper Revision

Process
Key Takeaway
By revising for format, facts, names, spelling, punctuation, and grammar, you can increase your
chances of correcting many common errors in your writing.
1. Select a news article from a news Web site, newspaper, or magazine. Find as many facts in
the article as you can that could require fact-checking. Then check as many of these facts
as you can, using sources available to you in the library and on the Internet. Did you find any
errors in the article? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2.
3. Find an example of an error in a published document and share it with classmates.
4. Interview a coworker or colleague and specifically ask them to share a story where an error
got past them during the revision process and made it to print or publication. How did they
handle it? How much time did it take to correct? What did they learn from the experience?
Compare your results with classmates.
7.4 Style Revisions
1. Discuss and demonstrate the use of twelve points to consider for style revisions.
You know the difference between cloudy and clear water, but can you tell when your writing is
cloudy, when meaning is hidden in shadows, when the message you are trying to communicate is
obscured by the style you use to present it? Water filtration involves removing particulates, harm-
ful inorganic and organic materials, and clarifying the water. In the same way, the revision process
requires filtration. You may come across word choices you thought were appropriate at the time
or notice words you thought you wrote but are absent, and the revision process will start to pro-
duce results. Some words and sentence constructions will be harmful to the effective delivery and
require attention. Some transitions fail to show the connections between thoughts and need to be
changed.
Another way of conceptualizing the revision process in general and the clarifying process
specifically is the common reference to a diamond in the rough. Like muddy water, diamonds do
not come to have significant value until they have had their rough edges removed, have received
expert polish, and been evaluated for clarity. Your attention to this important process will bring the
value quotient of your writing up as it begins to more accurately communicate intended meaning.
As we’ve discussed before, now is not the time to lose momentum. Just the opposite, now is the time
to make your writing shine.
Here we will discuss several strategies to help clarify your writing style. If you have made wise
word choices, the then next step to clarifying your document is to take it sentence by sentence.
Each sentence should stand on its own, but each sentence is also interdependent on all other
sentences in your document. These strategies will require significant attention to detail and an
awareness of grammar that might not be your area of strength, but the more you practice them
the more they will become good habits that will enhance your writing.
Break Up Long Sentences

By revising long sentences you can often increase the overall clarity of your document. To do this,
let’s start off with one strategy that will produce immediate results. Count the number of con-
junctions in your document. Word processing programs will often perform a search for a specific a
word and for our use, “and” will do just fine. Simple sentences often become compound and com-
plex through the use of the word “and.” The further the subject, the action, and the modifiers or
descriptions are from one another is directly related to the complexity of the sentence, increasing
the probability of reader error and misunderstandings. Look for the word “and” and evaluate
whether the sentence has two complete thoughts or ideas. Does it try to join two dissimilar ideas
or ones better off on their own?
In prose, and your expository writing classes, you may have learned that complex sentences
can communicate emotions, settings, and scenes that evoke a sense of place and time with your
reading audience. In business writing, our goals aim more toward precision and the elimination of
error; a good business document won’t read like a college essay. A professor may have advised you
to avoid short, choppy writing. Are we asking you to do something along those lines? No. Choppy
writing is hard to follow, but simple, clear writing does the job with a minimum of fuss and without
decoration.
In their best-selling book The Elements of Style, William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White[3] emphasize
clarity as a central goal. However, the following is one of their rules: “Do not break sentences in
two.” As effective business writers we would agree with this rule, and while it may seem to contra-
dict the preceding paragraph, let’s consider what they mean by that rule. They encourage writers
to avoid sentence fragments by refraining from using a period where the sentence needs a comma.
That means that an independent clause should be connected to a dependent clause when neces-
sary, and as we’ve discussed previously, a comma and a conjunction are appropriate for the task.
The sentence fragment cannot stand alone, so we would agree with the rule as written.
But we would also qualify its use: when you have two long and awkward independent clauses
that form an unwieldy sentence, it may indeed be better to divide the clauses into two independent
sentences. Your skill as a business writer is required to balance the needs of the sentence to com-
municate meaning with your understanding of audience expectations, and clarity often involves
concise sentences.
Revise Big Words and Long Phrases

Big words can clutter your writing with needless jargon that may be a barrier to many readers.
Even if you know your audience has significant education and training in a field, you may need
to include definitions and examples as effective strategies to communicate meaning. Don’t confuse
simple writing with simplistic writing. Your task will almost certainly not require an elementary
approach for new readers, but it may very well require attention to words and the degree to which
they contribute to, or detract from, the communication of your intended message. Long noun
sequences, often used as descriptive phrases, can be one example of how writing can reduce clarity.
If you need to describe a noun, use a phrase that modifies the noun clearly, with commas to offset
for example, to enhance clarity.
Another long phrase to watch out for is often located in the introduction. Long preambles can
make the sentence awkward and will require revision. Sentences that start with “It is” or “There are”
can often be shortened or made clearer through revision.
Evaluate Long Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase is a phrase composed of a preposition (a “where” word; a word that indi-
cates location) and its object, which may be a noun, a pronoun, or a clause. Some examples of simple
A phrase composed of a
prepositional phrases include “with Tom,” “before me,” and “inside the building security perimeter.”
preposition and its object,
Prepositional phrases are necessary—it would be difficult to write without them—but some which may be a noun, a
add to the bottom line word count without adding much to the sentence. Bureaucratic writing often pronoun, or a clause.
uses this technique in an attempt to make a sentence sound important, but the effort usually has the
undesirable dual effects of obscuring meaning and sounding pompous.
Examples
The 1040 Form will in all certainty serve the majority of our customers.
The 1040 Form will certainly serve the majority of our customers.
The revision places an adverb in place of a long prepositional phrase and allows for a reduction
in the word count while strengthening the sentence.
Delete Repetitious Words

Some level of repetition is to be expected and can be beneficial. It is also important to be consistent
in your use of words when precise terminology is appropriate. However, needless repetition can
make your document less than vigorous and discourage readers. For example, use of the word “said”
when attributing dialogue is acceptable a couple of times, but if it is the only word you use, it will
lose its impact quickly. People can “indicate,” “point out,” “share,” and “mention” as easily as they can
“say” words or phrases. Synonyms are useful in avoiding the boredom of repetition.
Eliminate Archaic Expressions or References

Some writing has been ritualized to the point of cliché and has lost its impact. For example, con-
sider “Heretofore, we have discussed the goal of omitting needless words.” Heretofore is an outdated
word that could easily be cut from the previous sentence. Another example is “as per your request
for documents that emphasize clarity and reduce reader error.” Feel free to eliminate as per your
request from your word choices.
Similar to outdated words and phrases, some references are equally outdated. While it is impor-
tant to recognize leaders in a field, and this text does include references to pioneers in the field
of communication, it also focuses on current research and concepts. Without additional clarifica-
tion and examples, readers may not understand references to an author long since passed even
though he or she made an important contribution to the field. For example, Shannon and Weaver
pioneered the linear model of communication that revolutionized our understanding of interaction
and contributed to computer interfaces as we know them today.[4] However, if we mention them
without explaining how their work relates to our current context, we may lose our readers.
Similarly, references to films like My Fair Lady may well be less understood than the use of The
Princess Diaries as an example of the transformative process the lead characters undergo, from
rough, street-smart women to formally educated, polished members of the elite.
Avoid Fillers
Like, you know, like, you know what I mean, ahh, umm, and all the fillers you may use or hear in
oral communication have, well, little or no place in the written representation of the spoken word.
Review your writing for extra words that serve the written equivalent of “like” and omit them. They
do not serve you as an author, and do not serve the reading audience.
Eliminate Slang
Many college professors can give examples of e-mails they have received from students that use
all the modern characteristics of instant message and text abbreviation combined with a complete
disregard for any norms of grammar or spelling, resulting in nearly incomprehensible messages. If
your goal is to be professional, and the audience expectations do not include the use of slang, then
it is inappropriate to include it in your document. Eliminate slang as you would a jargon term that
serves as a barrier to understanding meaning. Not everyone will understand your slang word no
more than they would a highly specialized term, and it will defeat your purpose. Norms for capi-
talization and punctuation that are routinely abandoned in efficient text messages or tweets are
necessary and required in professional documents. Finally, there is no place in reputable business
writing for offensive slang or profanity.
Evaluate Clichés
Clichés are words or phrases that through their overuse have lost their impact. That definition does
not imply they have lost their meaning, and sometimes a well-placed cliché can communicate a
message effectively. “Actions speak louder than words” is a cliché, but its five words speak volumes
that many of your readers will recognize. This appeal to familiarity can be an effective strategy to
communicate, but use it carefully. Excessive reliance on clichés will make your writing trite, while
eliminating them altogether may not serve you well either. As an effective business writer, you will
need to evaluate your use of clichés for their impact versus detraction from your message.
Emphasize Precise Words

Concrete words that are immediately available to your audience are often more effective than
abstract terms that require definitions, examples, and qualifications. All these strategies have their
place, but excessive use of abstractions will make your document less than precise, requiring addi-
tional clarification that can translate to work for you as the author and, more importantly, for your
readers. Qualifiers deserve special mention here. Some instructors may indicate that words like
“may,” “seems,” or “apparently” make your writing weak. Words are just words and it is how we
use them that creates meaning. Some qualifiers are necessary, particularly if the document serves
as record or may be the point of discussion in a legal issue. In other cases direct language is
required, and qualifiers must be eliminated. Too many qualifiers can weaken your writing, but too
few can expose you to liability. As a business writer, your understanding of audience expectations
and assignment requirements will guide you to the judicious use of qualifiers.
Evaluate Parallel Construction

When you are writing in a series or have more than one idea to express, it is important to present
them in similar ways to preserve and promote unity across your document. Parallel construction
The use of the same
refers to the use of same grammatical pattern; it can be applied to words, phrases, and sentences.
grammatical pattern; it can
For example, “We found the seminar interesting, entertaining, and inspiring” is a sentence with par- be applied to words,
allel construction, whereas “We found the seminar interesting, entertaining, and it inspired us” is phrases, and sentences.
not. If your sentences do not seem to flow well, particularly when you read them out loud, look for
misplaced parallels and change them to make the construction truly parallel.
Obscured Verbs
Business writing should be clear and concise. If the meaning is obscured, then revision is required.
One common problem is the conversion of verbs into nouns with the addition of suffixes like: -ant,-
ent, -ion, -tion, -sion, -ence, -ance, and ing. Instead of hiding meaning within the phrase “through
the consolidation of,” consider whether to use the verb forms “consolidated” or “consolidating.” Sim-
ilarly, instead of “the inclusion of,” consider using “including,” which will likely make the sentence
more active and vigorous.
The “Is It Professional?” Test

Finally, when revising your document with an attention to detail, you simply need to ask the ques-
tion: is it professional? If a document is too emphatic, it may seem like an attempt at cheerleading.
If it uses too much jargon, it may be appropriate for “nerds” but may limit access to the informa-
tion by a nontechnical audience. If the document appears too simplistic, it may seem to be “talking
down” to the audience, treating the readers more like children than adults. Does your document
represent you and your organization in a professional manner? Will you be proud of the work
a year from now? Does it accomplish its mission, stated objectives, and the audience’s expecta-
tions? Business writing is not expository, wordy, or decorative, and the presence of these traits may
obscure meaning. Business writing is professional, respectful, and clearly communicates a message
with minimal breakdown.
Key Takeaway
1.
wrong
with the original sentence. Discuss your results with your classmates.
At any given point in time, well, there is a possibility that we could, like, be called
upon for help.
The evaluation of writing can be done through the examination and modification of
each sentence.
Children benefit from getting enough sleep, eating a balanced diet, and outdoor play-
time.
Yee has asked us to maximize the department’s ka-ching by enhancing the bling-
bling of our merchandise; if we fail to do this the darn president may put the kibosh
on our project.
Ortega’s memo stated in no uncertain terms that all employees need to arrive for
work on time every day.
Although there are many challenges in today’s market and stock values have
dropped considerably since last year, but we can hope to benefit from strategic think-
ing and careful decision making.
If you are unable to attend the meeting, please let Steve or I know as soon as possi-
ble.
2. Find an example of a good example of effective business writing, review it, and share it with
your classmates.
3. Find an example of a bad example of effective business writing, review it, and share it with
your classmates.
4. Revision requires attention to detail, and you may be under pressure to produce quality
results within a deadline. How do you communicate your need for time for the revision
process to those who are waiting on you to complete the document? Share and discuss your
responses with your classmates.
7.5 Evaluating the Work of Others
1.
2.
As an experienced business writer, you may be called upon to review others’ work. Having a clear
understanding of the process will help you be efficient in your review, producing constructive
advice that would benefit the essay while resisting change for change’s sake.
Peer Review: What is Peer Review?
Five Steps in Evalution

By following a sequence of orderly steps, you can increase the likelihood that your evaluation of
someone else’s writing will be fair, constructive, and useful. Below are the five steps in evaluation:
1. Understand the assignment.
2. Evaluate how well the writing carries out the assignment.
3. Evaluate assertions.
4. Check facts.
5. Look for errors.
First, review the instructions that were given to the writer. Make sure you understand the
assignment and the target audience. What resources did the writer have access to, and how much
time was allotted for completing the assignment? What purpose did the document need to fulfill,
and what role will this document have in future business activities or decisions?
Second, evaluate how well the document fulfills its stated goals. As a reader, do you see the
goals carried out in the document? If you didn’t know the writer and you were to find the docu-
ment next year in a file where you were searching for information, would it provide you with the
information it aims to convey? For example, suppose the document refers to the sales history of
the past five years. Does the writer provide the sales history for the reader’s reference, or indicate
where the reader can get this information?
Evaluate the assertions made in the document. An assertion is a declaration, statement, or
claim of fact. Suppose the writer indicates that the sales history for the past five years is a signifi-
A declaration, a statement
of fact, or claim of fact.
cant factor. Does the writer explain why this history is significant? Is the explanation logical and
sufficient?
Evaluate the facts cited in the document. Does the writer credit the sources of facts, statistics,
and numbers? For example, suppose the writer mentions that the population of the United States
is approximately three hundred million. Obviously, the writer did not count all U.S. residents to
arrive at this number. Where did it come from? If you have access to sources where you can inde-
pendently verify the accuracy of these details, look them up and note any discrepancies.
Finally, check the document for proper format and for errors in spelling, punctuation, and
grammar. Word processing spell checkers do not catch all errors.
Delivering the Evaluation

If you are asked to evaluate someone else’s written work, keep in mind that not everyone can sep-
arate process from product, or product from personality. Many authors, particularly those new to
the writing process, see the written word as an extension of self. To help the recipient receive your
evaluation as professional advice, rather than as personal criticism, use strategies to be tactful and
diplomatic.
Until you know the author and have an established relationship, it is best to use “I” statements,
as in “I find this sentence difficult to understand.” The sentence places the emphasis on the speaker
rather than the sentence, and further distances the author from the sentence. If you were to say,
“This sentence is awful,” all the author may hear is, “I am an awful writer” and fail to pay attention
to your message, the sentence under examination, or ways to improve it. Business writing produces
products, and all products can be improved, but not all authors can separate messenger from mes-
sage.
Avoid the use of the word you in your evaluation, oral or written, as it can put the recipient on
the defensive. This will inhibit listening and decrease the probability of effective communication.[5]
If you phrase an evaluation point as, “Why did you include this word here?” it can be interpreted as
a personal attack. Just as speakers are often quite self-conscious of their public speaking abilities,
writers are often quite attached to the works they have produced. Anticipating and respecting this
relationship and the anxiety it sometimes carries can help you serve as a better evaluator.
FIGURE 7.2
To help the recipient receive your evaluation as professional advice, rather than as personal criticism, use strategies
to be tactful and diplomatic.
Phrasing disagreement as a question is often an effective response strategy. Let’s rephrase that
previous question to, “What is this sentence intended to communicate?” This places the emphasis
on the sentence, not the author, and allows for dialogue. Phrasing your evaluation as a question
emphasizes your need to understand, and provides the author with space to respond in a collabo-
rative fashion.
Focus on the document as a product, an “it,” and avoid associating the author or authors with
it. There may be times when the social rank or status of the individual involved with work requires
respectful consideration, and choosing to focus on the document as a work in progress, distinct
from authors themselves, can serve you well. This also means that at times you may notice a glar-
ing error but be reluctant to challenge the author directly as you anticipate a less than collaborative
response. By treating the document as a product, and focusing on ways to strengthen it, keeping in
mind our goals of clear and concise as reference points, you can approach issues without involving
personalities.
Key Takeaway
When evaluating the work of others, make sure you understand the assignment, evaluate how
well the writing carries out the assignment, evaluate assertions, check facts, and watch for
errors. Deliver your evaluation with tact and diplomacy.
1. Select a piece of writing from a Web site, book, newspaper, or magazine. Imagine that you
are delivering an evaluation to the author of the piece. Using the strategies in this section,
write a tactful and diplomatic critique. Your instructor may choose to make this a class exer-
cise, asking students to exchange papers and evaluate each others’ writing.
2. Select a piece of writing from a Web site, book, newspaper, or magazine. Imagine that you
are editing it half its original length. Share the article and your revised copy with your class-
mates.
3. What responsibility do you have to point out the need for correction in a document when the
author or team leader outranks you at work? Does it make a difference if you anticipate they
will take the feedback negatively? How do you reconcile these concerns with your responsi-
bility to the organization? Share and discuss your responses with your classmates.
7.6 Proofreading and Design

Evaluation
1. Understand the difference between revising and proofreading, and how to use proofreading
marks.
2.
In traditional publishing, proofreading and design are the final stages a book undergoes before it is
published. If the earlier steps of research, organizing, writing, revising, and formatting have been
done carefully, proofreading and design should go smoothly. Now is not the time to go back and
revise a document’s content, or to experiment with changes in format. Instead, the emphasis is on
catching any typographical errors that have slipped through the revision process, and “pouring” the
format into a design that will enhance the writer’s message.
Proofreading
By now you have completed a general and specific review of the document, with attention to detail.
You may have made changes, and most word processing programs will allow you to track those
changes across several versions and authors.
If you work in an environment where a document exists as a hard copy during the revision
process, you may use or see handwritten proofreading symbols. Professional proofreaders often
use standard markings that serve to indicate where changes needed to be made on a physical docu-
ment. Some of today’s word processing programs incorporate many proofreading symbols in their
menus. It is useful to be familiar with the various proofreading marks that were traditionally used
to review and revise hard copy documents. Even if you never use the symbols in a document, your
awareness of them—and the points of emphasis under review—will serve you well. Do you need to
insert a word, delete a word, capitalize a letter, or start a new paragraph? There are specific symbols
for each of these actions because the review and revision process has common and consistent ele-
ments that need to be addressed.
Design Evaluation
If you are asked to review a document, design an element that deserves consideration. While most
of our attention has focused on words (i.e., sentence construction and common errors), design can
have a strong impact on the representation and presentation of information.
Framing
Framing refers to how information is presented, including margins, line justifications, and template
expectations. Just as frame creates a border around a painting, highlighting part of the image while
boundaries, much like a
hiding the margins, the frame of a page influences how information is received. Margins create
frame around a picture or space around the edge and help draw attention to the content. One-inch margins are standard, but
a window, around a story, differences in margin widths will depend on the assignment requirements. A brief letter, for exam-
of what is included and ple, may have margins as wide as two inches so that the body of the letter fills up the stationery in
omitted, influencing the
a more balanced fashion. Template expectations are distinct from audience expectation, though
story itself.
they are often related. Most software programs have templates for basic documents, including let-
ters, reports, and résumés.
Templates represent the normative expectations for a specific type of document. Templates
have spaces that establish where a date should be indicated and where personal contact informa-
The normative tion should be represented. They also often allow you to “fill in the blank,” reflecting each
expectations for a specific
type of document. document’s basic expectations of where information is presented.
For example, line justification involves where the text lines up on the page. Letters often have
a left justify, lining up the text on the left side of the page while allowing the ends of each line on
Where the text lines up on the right side to be “ragged,” or not aligned. This creates even spaces between words and gives the
the page. appearance of organization while promoting white space, the space on the page free of text. Bal-
ance between text (often black) and white space creates contrast and allows for areas of emphasis.
Left justify often produces the appearance of balance, as the words are evenly spaced, while left
The space on the page and right justify can produce large gaps between words, making the sentences appear awkward and
free of text. hard to read.
Typefaces
Typeface refers to design of symbols, including letters and numbers.[6] The creation of the face of
the type, as in a typing machine or printing press, has long been both an art and a science. In past
centuries, carvings of the face of the type in copperplate, where ink was applied and then pressed The visual design of
to paper, created intricate and intriguing images designed to communicate style, prestige, status, and numbers.
and formality with the communication of words and symbols. We no longer use copper or hot lead
type, but the typeface still exists as a medium for communication in addition to the word itself.
There are two general categories of typeface: serif and sans serif. “Sans” means without, so the
emphasis here is on whether the face of the type has a serif or not. A serif is a small cross line, often
A small cross line, often
perpendicular to the stroke of the letter, that is decorative but also serves the useful purpose of dif-
perpendicular to the stroke
ferentiating characters that could otherwise look similar (e.g., “m” and “rn,” “d” and “cl,” or “3” and “8”). of the letter, that is
For this reason, serif typefaces, such as Times New Roman and Garamond, are often easier to read, decorative but also makes
especially when the font size is small. Sans serif fonts, such as Arial and Helvetica, lack the serif and the letter easier to read.
can be harder to read in long text sequences. They are most commonly used for headings. However,
when text is to be read electronically (on the screen of a computer or other device), serifs can tend
to break up, so sans serif typefaces can be a better choice.
The rule of thumb, or common wisdom, is to limit your document to two typefaces, contrasting
sans serif (headings) with text (serif). Take care not to use a font that is hard to read, creating an
unnecessary barrier for your reader. Also, use a font that conveys the tone of your professional mes-
sage to enhance your effectiveness.
Paragraphs
Paragraphs are the basic organizational unit for presenting and emphasizing the key points in
a document. Effective paragraphs can provide an effective emphasis strategy, but the placement
within the page can also influence recall and impact. The first point presented is often the second
in importance, the second point is the least important, and the third point in a series of three is
often the most important. People generally recall the last point presented, and tend to forget or
ignore the content in the middle of a sequence. Use this strategy to place your best point in the
most appropriate location.
A lengthy document that consists of paragraph after paragraph can become monotonous,
making reading a chore and obscuring pieces of information that need to stand out. To give the
document visual variety and to emphasize key information, consider the following strategies:
• Bullets
• Numbers
• Boldface
• Italics
• Underlining
• Capitalization (all caps)
Remember, however, that using all caps (all capitals) for body text (as opposed to headings) is
often considered rude, like shouting, particularly in electronic communications.
Visual Aids
If you have the luxury of including visual aids, such as graphics and pictures, in your document,
take care to make sure that the verbal and visual messages complement each other. The visual
should illustrate the text, and should be placed near the words so that the relationship is immedi-
ately clear. Sometimes during editing, a photograph will get pushed to the next page, leaving the
relevant text behind and creating discontinuity. This creates a barrier for your reader, so avoid it if
possible.
Designing Interactive Documents

Finally, documents increasingly have an interactivity component that can lead the reader in many
directions. Providing links can facilitate interactivity, and that depth of resources can be a distinct
advantage when writing documents to be read on a computer. However, be careful when integrat-
ing a web link within your document, as your audience may leave your message behind and not
return. If you create a link associated with clicking on a photograph or icon, make sure that the
scroll-over message is clear and communicates whether the reader will leave the current page. As
we have seen in many design elements, there are strengths and weaknesses associated with each
option and it requires a skilled business writer to create and deliver an effective message.
Key Takeaway
Proofreading and design put the finishing touches on a completed document.
1.
I never wanted to bacome a writer, but when I decidedon a career in sales, I found out that
being able to write was a skill that would help me. So much of my daily work involved Writing
that I sometimes thought i’d fallen asleep and woken up in someone else’s life. Messages,
about actual sales, were the least of it. In order to attract customers, I have to send notes to
people I already knew, asking them for sales leads. Then when I got a lead, I’ld write to the
contact asking for a few munutes of their time.If I got to meet with them or even have a phote
conversation, my next task was to write them a thank—you not. Oh, and the reports-I was
always filing out reports; for my sales manager, tracking my progress with each customer
and each lead. If someone had tell me how much writing sails would involve, I think I would
of paid more attention to my writing courses en school.
2. With a writing assignment in draft form from your class, swap with a classmate and review
the spelling, grammar, and punctuation, using proofreading marks where applicable.

Online Writing Laboratory (OWL) at Purdue University provides a comprehensive guide to the revi-
sion process. OWL is open access, free, and an excellence resource for any writer. Please feel free to
consult it anytime during our discussion to go more in depth on a grammatical point or writing tip.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/561/05
Visit this YourDictionary.com page for a useful article about punctuation marks. http://
grammar.yourdictionary.com/punctuation/punctuation-rules-help.html
Visit this site for a useful list of irregular verbs in English. http://www.englishpage.com/
irregularverbs/irregularverbs.html
This site from Capital Community College in Connecticut provides a menu of English gram-
mar resources. http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar
EnglishClub.com is dedicated to English learners and those for whom English is a second lan-
guage—but it can be useful for all of us. http://www.englishclub.com/grammar
The original (1918) edition of the famous style guide The Elements of Style is available online at
Bartleby.com. http://www.bartleby.com/141
The Writers and Editors site presents an article on tact and tone in editing the work of others.
http://www.writersandeditors.com/tips_on_tact_and_tone_30805.htm
Merriam-Webster provides a chart of proofreader’s marks and their meanings. http://www.
merriam-webster.com/mw/table/proofrea.htm
Visit this About.com site for information on designing a document. http://desktoppub.about.
com/od/designprinciples/Principles_of_Design.htm
For in-depth information on how to present visuals effectively, visit the Web site of Edward
Tufte, a Professor Emeritus at Yale University, where he taught courses in statistical evidence, infor-
mation design, and interface design. http://www.edwardtufte.com/tufte/index
For a wealth of articles and information about typefaces and other aspects of document design,
explore the Web site of AIGA, the professional association for design. http://www.aiga.org/
content.cfm/about
Endnotes
2. Wyrick, J. (2008). Steps to writing well (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Thomson Wadsworth.
4. McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
8
Feedback in the Writing

Process
Criticism may not be agreeable, but it is necessary. It fulfills the same function as pain in the
human body. It calls attention to an unhealthy state of things.
— Winston Churchill
Any fool can criticize, condemn, and complain but it takes character and self control to be
understanding and forgiving.
— Dale Carnegie
He has a right to criticize, who has a heart to help.

— Abraham Lincoln
Speaking is silver, listening is gold.

— Turkish proverb
8.1 Getting Started
1. Find a news Web site that includes a forum for reader comments on the articles. Read an
article that interests you and the comments readers have posted about it. Please share your
results with classmates.
2. Interview a colleague, coworker, or someone in a business or industry you are involved
or interested in. Ask them how they receive feedback about their work. Please share your
3. Review a document (online or offline) and create at least two different examples of how a
reader may respond to the content and presentation. Please share your results with class-
mates.
The feedback loop is your connection to your audience. It’s always there, even if you haven’t
noticed it. In today’s business environment, across a variety of careers and industries, people are
taking serious note of the power of feedback. How does a viral marketing campaign take off? How
does an article get passed along Twitter? How does a movie review, and its long list of discussion
thread comments, influence your viewing decisions? How do Wikipedia, the Global Business Net-
work, or customer book reviews on Amazon.com impact us, alter our views, or motivate us to write?
“The feedback loop provides you with an open and direct channel of communication with your
community, and that represents a never-available-before opportunity.”[1] The feedback on what you
write has never been as direct and interactive as today’s online environment can provide, and the
need to anticipate, lead, listen, and incorporate lessons learned has never been greater. This chapter
examines feedback in its many forms and how it can and will have an impact on what you write,
and how you write it.
What you write does not exist in a vacuum, unaffected by the world around it. It may be that
what you write is read by a relatively small group of readers, or by a large target audience who may
have only read a few of your messages. Either way, what you write is part of the communication
process, and it makes an impact whether you know it or not.
This chapter recognizes the writing process and its components with an emphasis on feed-
back. Do you know the difference between indirect and direct feedback? Are you aware of effective
strategies to elicit valuable feedback? How do you know if the feedback is valid? To what extent,
and in what ways, should you adapt and adjust your writing based on feedback? These are central
questions in the writing process, and any skilled business writer recognizes the need for improve-
ment based on solid feedback. You may not always enjoy receiving feedback, but you should always
give it due thought and consideration. Failure to change and adapt has many unfortunate conse-
quences.[2] It is up to you to seek good information and to separate the reliable from the unreliable
in your goal of improving your business writing.
8.2 Diverse Forms of Feedback
1. Describe feedback as part of the writing process.

2. Compare and contrast indirect and direct feedback.
3.
4.
Just as you know that religion and politics are two subjects that often provoke emotional responses,
you also recognize that once you are aware of someone’s viewpoint you can choose to refrain from
discussing certain topics, or may change the way you address them. The awareness of bias and
preference, combined with the ability to adapt the message before it is sent, increases the probability
of reception and successful communication. Up until now we have focused on knowing the
audience’s expectation and the assignment directions, as well as effective strategies for writing and
production. Now, to complete the communication process, to close the writing process, we need to
gather and evaluate feedback.
You may receive feedback from peers, colleagues, editors, or supervisors, but actual feedback
from the intended audience can be rare. Imagine that you work in the marketing department of an
engineering company and have written an article describing a new kind of water pump that oper-
ates with little maintenance and less energy consumption than previous models. Your company has
also developed an advertising campaign introducing this new pump to the market and has added it
to their online sales menu. Once your article has been reviewed and posted, it may be accessed
online by a reader in another country who is currently researching water pumps that fall within
your product range. That reader will see a banner ad displayed across the header of the Web page,
with the name of your company prominently displayed in the reader’s native language, even if your
article is in English. Ads of this nature are called contextually relevant ads. An example is Google’s
Feedback Ad function, which incorporates the content of the site and any related search data to
provide information to potential customers. If the reader found your article through the German
version of Google, Google.de, the ad will display the Adwords, or text in an advertisement, in Ger-
man.
As the author, you may never receive direct feedback on your article, but you may receive
significant indirect feedback. Google can report the “hits” and links to your Web site, and your
company’s information technology department can tell you about the hits on your Web site from
Germany, where they originated, and whether the visitor initiated a sales order for the pump. If the
sale was left incomplete, they will know when the basket or order was abandoned or became inac-
tive in the purchase process. If the sale was successful, your sales department can provide feedback
in the form of overall sales as well as information on specific customers. This in turn allows you an
opportunity for postsales communication and additional feedback.
The communication process depends on a series of components that are always present. If you
remove one or more, the process disintegrates. You need a source and a receiver, even if those roles
alternate and blur. You need a message and a channel, or multiples of each in divergent ratios of
signal strength and clarity. You also need context and environment, including both the psychologi-
cal expectations of the interaction as well as the physical aspects present. Interference is also part
of any communication process. Because interference—internal or external—is always present, as a
skilled business writer, you have learned how to understand and anticipate it so that you can get
your message across to your audience.
The final step in the communication process is feedback. It contributes to the transactional
relationship in communication, and serves as part of the cycling and recycling of information, con-
tent, negotiations, relationships, and meaning between the source and receiver. Because feedback
is so valuable to a business writer, you will welcome it and use strategies to overcome any interfer-
ing factors that may compromise reception and limit feedback.
Feedback is defined as a receiver’s response to a source, and can come in many forms. From the
change in the cursor arrow as you pass over a link as a response to the reader’s indication, via the
The verbal and/or
mouse, touch screen, or similar input device, as a nonverbal response, to one spoken out loud dur- nonverbal response to a
ing the course of a conversation, feedback is always present, even if we fail to capture or attend to message.
the information as it is displayed. Let’s examine several diverse types of feedback.
The Writing Process: A Feedback-Based Overview

Indirect Feedback
If you have worked in an office you may have heard of the grapevine, and may already be aware
that it often carries whines instead of wine. The grapevine is the unofficial, informal communica-
The unofficial, informal
tion network within an organization, and is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo.
communication network
within an organization, The grapevine often involves information that is indirect, speculative, and not immediately verifi-
often characterized by able. That makes it less than reliable, but understandably attractive and interesting to many.
rumor, gossip, and
innuendo. In the same way, indirect feedback is a response that does not directly come from the receiver
or source. The receiver may receive the message, and may become the source of the response, but
they may not communicate that response directly to you, the author. Your ability to track who
A response that does not
accesses your Web page, what they read, and how long their visit lasts can be a source of feedback
come from directly from that serves to guide your writing. You may also receive comments, e-mails, or information from
the receiver or source. individuals within your organization about what customers have told them; this is another source
of indirect feedback. The fact that the information is not communicated directly may limit its use
or reliability, but it does have value. All forms of feedback have some measure of value.
Direct Feedback
You post an article about your company’s new water pump and when you come back to it an hour
later there are 162 comments. As you scroll through the comments you find that ten potential
customers are interested in learning more, while the rest debate the specifications and technical
abilities of the pump. This direct response to your writing is another form of feedback.
Direct feedback is a response that comes from the receiver. Direct feedback can be both verbal
A response that comes
and nonverbal, and it may involve signs, symbols, words, or sounds that are unclear or difficult to
from the receiver. understand. You may send an e-mail to a customer who inquired about your water pump, offering
to send a printed brochure and have a local sales representative call to evaluate how suitable your
pump would be for the customer’s particular application. In order to do so, you will need the cus-
tomer’s mailing address, physical location, and phone number. If the customer replies simply with
“Thanks!”—no address, no phone number—how do you interpret this direct feedback? Communi-
cation is dynamic and complex, and it is no easy task to understand or predict. One aspect of the
process, however, is predictable: feedback is always part of the communication process.
Just as nonverbal gestures do not appear independent of the context in which the communi-
cation interaction occurs, and often overlap, recycle, and repeat across the interaction, the ability
to identify clear and direct feedback can be a significant challenge. In face-to-face communication,
yawns and frequent glances at the clock may serve as a clear signal (direct feedback) for lack of
interest, but direct feedback for the writer is often less obvious. It is a rare moment when the arti-
cle you wrote is read in your presence and direct feedback is immediately available. Often feedback
comes to the author long after the article is published.
Internal Feedback
We usually think of feedback as something that can only come from others, but in the case of inter-
nal feedback, we can get it from ourselves. Internal feedback is generated by the source in response
Feedback generated by
to the message created by that same source. You, as the author, will be key to the internal feedback
the source in response to
the message created by process. This may involve reviewing your document before you send it or post it, but it also may
that same source. involve evaluation from within your organization.
On the surface, it may appear that internal feedback cannot come from anyone other than the
author, but that would be inaccurate. If we go back to the communication process and revisit the
definitions of source and receiver, we can clearly see how each role is not defined by just one per-
son or personality, but instead within the transactional nature of communication by function. The
source creates and the receiver receives. Once the communication interaction is initiated, the roles
often alternate, as in the case of an e-mail or text message “conversation” where two people take
turns writing.
When you write a document for a target audience—for example, a group of farmers who will
use the pumps your company produces to move water from source to crop—you will write with
them in mind as the target receiver. Until they receive the message, the review process is internal
to your organization, and feedback is from individuals and departments other than the intended
receiver.
You may have your company’s engineering department confirm the technical specifications
of the information you incorporated into the document, or have the sales department confirm a
previous customer’s address. In each case, you as the author are receiving internal feedback about
content you produced, and in some ways, each department is contributing to the message prior to
delivery.
Internal feedback starts with you. Your review of what you write is critical. You are the first
and last line of responsibility for your writing. As the author, it is your responsibility to insure your
content is
• correct,
• clear,
• concise,
• ethical.
When an author considers whether the writing in a document is correct, it is important to
interpret correctness broadly. The writing needs to be appropriate for the context of audience’s
expectations and assignment directions. Some writing may be technically correct, even polished,
and still be incorrect for the audience or the assignment. Attention to what you know about your
reading audience (e.g., their reading levels and educational background) can help address the degree
to which what you have written is correct for its designated audience and purpose.
Correctness also involves accuracy: questions concerning true, false, and somewhere in
between. A skilled business writer verifies all sources for accuracy and sleeps well knowing that no
critic can say his or her writing is inaccurate. If you allow less than factual information into your
writing, you open the door to accusations of false information that could be interpreted as a fraud-
ulent act with legal ramifications. Keep notes on where and when you accessed Web sites, where
you found the information you cite or include, and be prepared to back up your statements with a
review of your sources.
Writing correctly also includes providing current, up-to-date information. Most business docu-
ments place an emphasis on the time-sensitivity of the information. It doesn’t make sense to rely
on sales figures from two years ago when you can use sales figures from last year. Neither does cit-
ing old articles, outdated materials, and sources that may or may not apply to the given discussion.
Information that is not current can and does serve useful purposes, but often requires qualifica- tion
on why it is relevant, with particular attention to a current context.
Business writing also needs to be clear, otherwise it will fail in its purpose to inform or per-
suade readers. Unclear writing can lead to misunderstandings that consume time and effort to
undo. An old saying in military communications is “Whatever can be misunderstood, will be mis-
understood.” To give yourself valuable internal feedback about the clarity of your document, try to
pretend you know nothing more about the subject than your least informed reader does. Can you
follow the information provided? Are your points supported?
In the business environment, time is money, and bloated writing wastes time. The advice from
the best-selling style guide by William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White[3] to “omit needless words” is always
worth bearing in mind.
Finally, a skilled business writer understands he or she does not stand alone. Ethical consider-
ation of the words you write, what they represent, and their possible consequences are part of the
responsibility of a business writer. The writer offers information to a reading audience and if their
credibility is lost, future interactions are far less likely to occur. Customer relationship management
requires consideration of the context of the interaction, and all communication occurs with the
context of community, whether that relationship is readily apparent or not. Brand management
reinforces the associations and a relationship with the product or services that would be negatively
compromised should the article, and by association, author and company, be found less than truth-
ful. Advertising may promote features, but false advertising can and does lead to litigation. The
writer represents a business or organization, but also represents a family and a community. For a
family or community to function, there has to be a sense of trust amid the interdependence.
External Feedback
How do you know what you wrote was read and understood? Essentially, how do you know com-
munication interaction has occurred? Writing, reading, and action based on the exchange of
A response from the
symbolic information is a reflection of the communication process. Assessment of the feedback
receiver.
from the receiver is part of a writer’s responsibility. Increasingly Web-based documents allow for
interaction and enhancement of feedback, but you will still be producing documents that may exist
as hard copies. Your documents may travel to places you don’t expect and cannot predict. Feedback
comes in many forms and in this part of our discussion we focus on answering that essential ques-
tion, assessing interaction, and gathering information from it. External feedback involves a
response from the receiver. Receivers, in turn, become a source of information themselves. Atten-
tion to the channel they use (how they communicate feedback), as well as nonverbal aspects like
time (when they send it), can serve you on this and future documents.
Hard Copy Documents and External Feedback

We’ll start this discussion with traditional, stand-alone hard copy documents in mind before we dis-
cuss electronic documents, including Web-based publications. Your business or organization may
communicate in written forms across time zones and languages via electronic communication, but
some documents are still produced on paper. Offline technologies like a copy machine or a printer
are still the tools you will be using as a normal course of business.
Letters are a common way of introducing information to clients and customers, and you may
be tasked to produce a document that is printed and distributed via “snail mail,” or the traditional
post mail services. Snail mail is a term that reflects the time delay associated with the physical pro-
duction, packaging, and delivery of a document. Legal documents are still largely in hard copy print
form. So too are documents that address the needs of customers and clients that do not, or prefer
not to, access information electronically.
Age is one characteristic of an audience that may be tempting to focus on when considering
who may need to receive a letter in hard copy form, but you may be surprised about this. In a 2009
study of U.S. Internet use, the Pew Research Center[4] found that between 2008 and 2009, broadband
Internet use by senior citizens increased from 20 percent to 30 percent, and broadband use by baby
boomers (people born 1945–1963) increased from 50 percent to 61 percent.
Socioeconomic status is a better characteristic to focus on when considering hard copy docu-
ments. Lack of access to a computer and the Internet is a reality for most of the world’s population.
It’s often stated that half of the world’s population will never make a phone call in their lifetime,
and even though the references for the claims are widespread and diverse, the idea that there are
people without access to a phone is striking for many Westerners. While cell phones are increas-
ingly allowing poor and rural populations to skip the investment in landline networks and wireless
Internet is a leapfrog technology that changes everything, cell phones and computers are still pro-
hibitively expensive for many.
Let’s say you work for a major bank on the West Coast of the United States.
FIGURE 8.1
You have been assigned to write a letter offering a refinance option to a select, In an increasingly interconnected world,
previously screened audience composed of individuals who share several com- feedback is important to business success.
mon characteristics: high-wage earners with exceptional credit scores. How will
you best get the attention of this audience? If you sent an e-mail it might get
deleted as spam, or unwanted e-mail that often lacks credibility and may even be
dangerous. The audience is small and you have a budget for hard copy produc-
tion of documents that includes a line item for mailing costs. If the potential
customer receives the letter from your department delivered by an overnight
courier like FedEx, they may be more likely to receive your message.
In 2005, Wells Fargo Bank did exactly that. They mailed a letter of introduc-
tion outlining an opportunity to refinance at no cost to the consumer, targeting
a group identified as high profit and low risk. The channels selected—print-based
documents on letterhead with the mode of delivery sure to get attention—were
designed to prompt a response. The letter introduced the program, highlighted the features, and
discussed why the customers were among a group of individuals to whom this offer was being
extended.[5]
In the letter, the bank specifically solicited a customer response, a form of feedback, via e-mail
and/or phone to establish dialogue. One could measure feedback in terms of response rate; in terms
of verification of data on income, debt outstanding on loans, and current home appraisal values;
and in terms of channel and how customers chose to respond. All these forms of feedback have
value to the author.
Hard copy documents can be a challenge when it comes to feedback, but that doesn’t mean it
is impossible to involve them in the feedback process. It’s important to remember that even in the
late 1990s, most business documents were print-based. From sales reports to product development
reports, they were printed, copied, bound, and distributed, all at considerable cost.
If one purpose of your letter is to persuade the client or customer to reply by e-mail or phone,
one way to assess feedback is the response rate, or the number of replies in relation to the number
The number of replies in
relation to the number of of letters sent. If your report on a new product is prepared for internal use and is targeted to a spe-
letters sent. cific division within your company, their questions in relation to the document may serve as
feedback. If your memo produces more questions than the one it was intended to address in terms
of policy, the negative feedback may highlight the need for revision. In each case, hard copy docu-
ments are often assessed through oral and written feedback.
External Feedback in a Virtual Environment

Rather than focus on the dust on top of documents once produced, perhaps read, and sometimes
forgotten, let’s examine document feedback from the interactive world that gathers no dust. One
challenge when the Web was young involved the accurate assessment of audience. Why is that rel-
estimated number of
viewers. evant to a business writer? Because you produce content for a specific audience with a specific
purpose, and the degree to which it is successful has some relation to its value. Imagine that you
produced a pilot television program with all the best characters, excellent dialogue, and big name
stars portraying the characters, only to see the pilot flop. If you had all the right elements in a pro-
gram, how could it fail? It failed to attract an audience. Television often uses ratings, or
measurements of the estimated number of viewers, to measure success. Nielsen is the leading mar-
ket research company associated with television ratings and online content. Programs that get past
a pilot or past a first season do so because they have good ratings and are ranked above other com-
peting programs. All programs compete with each other within a time slot or across a genre. Those
that are highly ranked—those that receive the largest number of viewers—can command higher
budgets, and often receive more advertising dollars. Those programs that reach few people are
often canceled and replaced with other programs that have great characters, solid writing, and
hopeful stars as the cycle continues.
Business writers experience a process of competition, ratings, feedback, and renewal within the
world of online publishing. Business writers want their content to be read. Just as companies devel-
oped ways to measure the number of viewers of a given television program, which led to rankings
that influenced which programs survived and prospered and which were canceled, the Web has a
system of keeping track of what gets read and by whom. Perhaps you’ve heard of hits, as in how
many hits a Web site receives, but have you stopped to consider what hits represent within our dis-
cussion of feedback?
First, let’s examine what a hit is. When a browser, like Internet Explorer or Firefox, receives a
file from a Web server, it is considered a hit. Your document may be kept on our company’s Web
Event that is tracked when
server, or a computer dedicated to serving the online requests for information via the Internet. The
a browser, like Internet
Explorer or Firefox, Web server receives a request from the user and sends the files associated with the page; every Web
receives a file from a Web page contains several files including graphics, images, and text. Each file request and receipt
server. between server and browser counts as a hit, regardless of how many files each page contains. So
let’s say you created an online sales catalog with twenty images per page, twenty boxed text descrip-
Web server tions, and all the files for indicating color, size, and quantity. Your document could have quite a few
A computer dedicated to hits with just one page request and only one viewer.
for information via the Does a large number of hits on your document mean that it was successful? Not necessarily.
Internet. Hits or page views have largely been discredited as a reliable measure of a document’s effectiveness,
popularity, or audience size. In fact, the word “hits” is sometimes humorously referred to as being
the acronym for how idiots track success.
Page views are a count of how many times a Web page is viewed, irrespective of the number of
files it contains. Each time a user or reader views the page counts as one page view.
A count of how many
Nielsen Online and Source.com are two companies that provide Web traffic rating services, and times a Web page is
Google has also developed services to better enable advertisers to target specific audiences [6]. They viewed, irrespective of the
commonly track the number of unique visits a reader makes to a Web site, and use cookies, or number of files it contains.
small, time-encoded files that identify specific users, as a means to generate data.
Another way to see whether a document has been read online is to present part of the article
Small, time-encoded files
with a “reveal full article” button after a couple of paragraphs. If someone wants to read the entire
article, the button needs to be clicked in order to display the remainder of the content. Because this
feature can be annoying for readers, many content providers also display a “turn off reveal full arti-
cle” button to provide an alternative; Yahoo! News is an example of a site that gives readers this
option.
Jon Kleinberg’s HITS (hyperlink-induced topic search) algorithm has become a popular and
more effective way to rate Web pages.[7] HITS ranks documents by the links within the document,
Documents with many
presuming that a good document is one that incorporates and references, providing links to, other links.
Web documents while also being frequently cited by other documents. Hubs, or documents with
many links, are related to authority pages, or frequently cited documents. This relationship of
hubs and authority is mutually reinforcing, and if you can imagine a Web universe of one hundred
pages, the one with the most links and which is most frequently referred to wins. documents.
As a business writer you will naturally want to incorporate authoritative sources and relevant
content, but you will also want to attract and engage your audience, positioning your document as
hub and authority within that universe. Feedback in the form of links and references may be one
way to assess your online document.
User-Generated Feedback
Moving beyond the Web tracking aspects of feedback measurement in terms of use, let’s examine
user-generated responses to your document. Let’s say you have reviewed the posts left by unique
users to the comments section of the article. This, in some ways, serves the same purpose as letters
to the editor in traditional media. In newspapers, magazines, and other offline forms of print media,
an edition is produced with a collection of content and then delivered to an audience. The audience
includes members of a subscriber-based group with common interests, as well as those who read
a magazine casually while waiting in the doctor’s office. If an article generated interest, enjoyment,
or outrage (or demanded correction), people would write letters in response to the content. Select
responses would be published in the next edition. There is a time delay associated with this system
that reflects the preparation, production, and distribution cycle of the medium. If the magazine is
published once a month, it takes a full month for user feedback to be presented in print—for exam-
ple, letters commenting on an article in the March issue would appear in the “Letters” section of the
May issue.
With the introduction of online media, the speed of this feedback loop has been greatly
increased. Public relations announcements, product reviews, and performance data of your orga-
nization are often made available internally or externally via electronic communication. If you see
a factual error in an article released internally, within minutes you may be able to respond with
an e-mail and a file attachment with a document that corrects the data. In the same way, if the
document is released externally, you can expect that feedback from outside your organization will
be quick. Audience members may debate your description of the water pump, or openly question
its effectiveness in relation to its specifications; they may even post positive comments. Customer
comments, like letters to the editor, can be a valuable source of feedback.
Customer reviews and similar forms of user-generated content are increasingly common
across the Internet. Written communication is often chosen as the preferred format; from tweets
to blogs and commentary pages, to threaded, theme-based forums, person-to-person exchange is
increasingly common. Still, as a business writer, you will note that even with the explosion of opin-
ion content, the tendency for online writers to cite a Web page with a link can and does promote
interaction.
It may sound strange to ask this question, but is all communication interaction good? Let’s
examine examples of interaction and feedback and see if we can arrive at an answer.
You may have heard that one angry customer can influence several future customers, but
negative customer reviews in the online information age can make a disproportionate impact in
a relatively short time. While the online environment can be both fast and effective in terms of
distribution and immediate feedback, it can also be quite ineffective, depending on the context.
“Putting ads in front of Facebook users is like hanging out at a party and interrupting conver-
sations to hawk merchandise,” according to Newsweek journalist Daniel Lyons.[8] Relationships
between users, sometimes called social graphs, are a reflection of the dynamic process of commu-
nication, and they hold value, but translating that value into sales can be a significant challenge.
Overall, as we have seen, your goal as a business writer is to meet the audience and employer’s
expectations in a clear and concise way. Getting your content to a hub position, and including
authoritative references, is a great way to make your content more relevant to your readers. Trying
to facilitate endless discussions may be engaging and generate feedback, but may not translate into
success. Facebook serves as a reminder that you want to provide solid content and attend to the
feedback. People who use Google already have something in mind when they perform a search, and
if your content provides what readers are looking for, you may see your page views and effective-
ness increase.
Interviews
Interviews provide an author with the opportunity to ask questions of, and receive responses from,
audience members. Since interviews take considerable time and cannot easily be scaled up to address
large numbers of readers, they are most often conducted with a small, limited audience. An interview
involves an interviewer, and interviewee, and a series of questions. It can be an employment
interview, or an informational interview in preparation of document production, but in this case
we’re looking for feedback. As a business writer, you may choose to schedule time with a supervisor
to ask a couple of questions about how the document you produced could be improved. You may
also schedule time with the client or potential customer and try to learn more. You may interact
across a wide range of channels, from face-to-face to an e-mail exchange, and learn more about how
your document was received. Take care not to interrupt the interviewee, even if there is a long
pause, as some of the best information comes up when people feel the need to fill the silence. Be
patient and understanding, and thank them for taking the time to participate in the interview.
Relationships are built over time and the relationship you build through a customer interview, for
example, may have a positive impact on your next writing project.
Surveys
At some point, you may have answered your phone to find a stranger on the other end asking you
to take part in a survey for a polling organization like Gallup, Pew, or Roper. You may have also
received a consumer survey in the mail, with a paper form to fill out and return in a postage-paid
envelope. Online surveys are also becoming increasingly popular. For example, SurveyMonkey.com is
an online survey tool that allows people to respond to a set of questions and provide responses.
This type of reader feedback can be valuable, particularly if some of the questions are open-ended.
Closed questions require a simple yes or no to respond, making them easier to tabulate as “votes,”
but open-ended questions give respondents complete freedom to write their thoughts. As such,
they promote the expression of new and creative ideas and can lead to valuable insights for you,
the writer.
Surveys can take place in person, as we discussed in an interview format, and this format is
common when taking a census. For example, the U.S. government employs people for a short time
to go door to door for a census count of everyone. Your organization may lack comparable resources
and may choose to mail out surveys on paper with postage-paid response envelopes or may reduce
the cost and increase speed by asking respondents to complete the survey online.
Focus Groups
Focus groups involve a representative sample of individuals, brought together to
represent a larger group or audience. If you know your target audience, and the FIGURE 8.2
Focus groups can be an important source of
range of characteristics they represent, you would look for participants who can
feedback.
represent more than one of those characteristics. As we’ve discussed in an inter-
view setting, the interaction involves a question-and-answer format, but may
also introduce other ways to facilitate interaction. If your company is looking to
launch a new product, you may introduce that product to this select audience to
see how they react. As a business writer, what they say and express may help you
in writing your promotional materials. In terms of feedback, you may assemble a
group of individuals who use your product or service, and then ask them a series
of questions in a group setting. The responses may have bearing on your current
and future documents.
Normally we’d think of focus groups in a physical setting, but again modern
technology has allowed for innovative adaptations. Forums, live Webcasts, and
other virtual gatherings allow groups to come together across time and distance
to discuss specific topics. A Web camera, a microphone, and an Internet connec-
tion are all it takes. There are a number of software programs and online
platforms for bringing individuals together. Anticipate that focus groups will
increasingly gather via computer-mediated technologies in the future as the costs
of bringing people together for a traditional meeting increase.

Key Takeaway
Feedback may be indirect or direct, internal or external, and may be mediated electronically in
many different ways.
1. Design a market survey that asks your friends at least three questions that have to do with
their attitudes, preferences, or choices. Prepare and present your results, noting the number
of respondents, and any characteristics that you requested or can offer, like age or level of
education, for example.
2. How does the online world affect the process of feedback on written documents? Does it
improve feedback, or lead to self-censorship? Discuss your thoughts with classmates.
3.
lication cycles? Why or why not?
4. Research online survey programs and review two competitors. Compare the features and
the apparent ease of use. Which would you recommend and why? Report your results and
8.3 Qualitative and Quantitative

Research
1. Compare and contrast the feedback that can be obtained with qualitative and quantitative
research.
2.
Perhaps you have heard the term “market research” or have taken a class on statistics. Whether
your understanding of the gathering of credible, reliable information is emerging or developed, a
general awareness of research is essential for business writing. Many businesses use research as a
preproduct, postproduct, and service development method of obtaining feedback. Understanding
the feedback from research can influence your writing as you learn more about your target audi-
ence. Ralph Rosnow and Robert Rosenthal offer a solid introductory discussion into basic research
terms in their text Beginning Behavioral Research: A Conceptual Primer that serves our discussion
well.[9]
We can divide research into two basic categories:
1. Qualitative research focuses on quality in the sense of “what is it like?” or “how does it feel?”
2. Quantitative research focuses on quantity in the sense of “how many customers?” or “what
percentage?”
Let’s examine the advantages and disadvantages of each of these kinds of research.
Obtaining Feedback with Qualitative Research

Qualitative research involves investigative methods that cross subjects and academic disciplines
to gain in-depth information. If quantitive research explores “what,” qualitative research explores
Involves interactions,
“how” and “why.” From interviews to focus groups, many of the face-to-face strategies used to gather
which by their very nature
information are qualitative in nature. are subject to
You have five senses, and you may be able to distinguish between sweet and salty foods, but interpretation and, as a
can you describe what you taste and smell? Let’s say you work for a vineyard, and have been tasked statistically valid.
to write a paragraph describing a new wine. Could you? Capturing fine data points and represent-
ing them in words and symbols can be a significant challenge for researchers. When testing the
wine with a focus group, you might want information on how it is perceived, and the responses
may be varied and unusual. What do you do with the information you gather? You may be able to
identify trends among the varied responses, and create groups that indicate a woody or earthy fla-
vor, but numbers will fail to capture the nuances of flavor and body of the wines in the information.
Some information—like the way consumers characterize the taste of a wine—is a challenge to
obtain, and qualitative research often serves well in this capacity. If quantitative research handles
large audiences well, qualitative research allows for in-depth interpersonal interviews that produce
rich and meaningful results. The information may not be as reliable, and your ability to produce
the same results over time may be limited, but humans are emotional, irrational, and unpredictable.
They are also, each in his or her own way, unique. As you increase the level of perspective in terms
of abstraction, all humans may eventually come to look similar, even the same. We all possess some
similar characteristics, such as the use of language, or the composition of our bodies. But when you
look more closely, you see the diverse range of languages, and learn that not everyone has 206 bones
in an adult body. Between these two views we find the range of information that quantitative and
qualitative research attempt to address.
Suppose we want to determine who has greater lifetime risk of developing heart disease, a man
or a woman? If we are talking about an individual man and an individual woman, our answer might
be quite different from what it would be if we were talking about men in general versus women in
general. A survey may work well to capture the data about men versus women, but a face-to-face
interview with a man and a woman will allow for interaction, follow-up questions, and a much better
picture of the question: between this individual woman and this individual man,
who is more likely to be at risk? The risk and protective factors we learn from broad research pro-
jects involving thousands of subjects have value, but there are times when a broad brushstroke will
fail to capture the fine data that is needed or desired.
Imagine that you are involved with a direct observation of buying behavior by reviewing video
recordings of security cameras that clearly show your company’s product in relation to other prod-
ucts on the shelf. You may find, particularly after a review of the literature, that product placement
makes a significant impact on purchase decisions. In addition, you may be involved with some level
of participation in the setting. Serving as a participant observer means you are part of the process,
involved in action, and not separated from the interaction. You look at the sales experience through
the eyes of a participant, and view others through the eyes of an observer. You may find that inter-
views and focus groups serve to teach you more about your audience, but may also find that others
have conducted similar interviews and learn from their findings.
As a business writer, you should be familiar with qualitative research and its relative strengths
and weaknesses. You may use some of its techniques to gather information about your audience,
may cite research that involves qualitative methods, and may utilize its strategies with an audience
post document, product, or service.
Obtaining Feedback with Quantitative

Research
Quantitative research involves investigation and analysis of data and relationships between data
that can be represented by numbers. It is often used to test a hypothesis, and normally involves
of data and relationships large volumes of data. Where a qualitative research project may involve a dozen interviews, a quan-
between data that can be titative one would involve hundreds or thousands. Since each interview carries a cost—and a
thousand or ten thousand interviews may exceed the research budget of your organization—a
more cost-effective alternative must be found. By limiting the number of questions and limiting
the ways in which participants can respond, the data can be gathered at a lower cost with often a
higher level of statistical validity.
In qualitative research, you may ask an open-ended question like “What does the wine taste
like?” In quantitative research, you may limit the response options: “Does the wine taste (a) woody,
(b) fruity, or (c) both?” You may find that 90 percent of respondents indicate answer (c); you can rep-
resent it with numbers and a graph, but it may not serve your investigation the way you planned.
Research methodologies involve examining and evaluating the methods used in investigation
or soliciting feedback. They are used to address and improve poorly worded questions, and to help
the investigator match the research goal to the method. Quantitative research serves us well when
The methods used in
we ask, does vitamin C, taken at a dosage of 500 mg daily for five years, lower the incidence of the investigation.
common cold? We could track a thousand participants in the study who provide intake prescreen-
ing information, confirm daily compliance, and participate in periodic interviews. We also know
that part of our group is taking a placebo (sugar pill) as part of the requirements of a double-blind
study. At the end of the term, we have certain numbers that may be able to indicate the degree to
which vitamin C affects the incidence rate of illness.
Advertisers often conduct research to learn more about preference and atti-
FIGURE 8.3
tudes, two areas that are not easily captured. Sometimes preference studies use Likert Audience research is critical to success.
scales, which give respondents a preset scale to rate their answers. An example of a
Likert item might be, “Please indicate to what degree you agree or disagree with this
statement: I enjoy drinking brand X wine. Do you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3)
neither agree nor disagree, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree?”
There is a tendency for some attitudinal and preferential research that may
be more accurately described as qualitative, to be described in numerical terms.
For example, you have probably heard the claim that “four out of five dentists
prefer brand X,” when in itself, the number or representation of preference is
meaningless. As an astute business writer, you will be able to understand pre
(before) and post (after) document, product, or service research investigations
and distinguish between the two main approaches.
What Is Validity?
How do you know the results presented in a study or article have value? How do you know they are
valid? Validity involves the strength of conclusions, inferences or assertions. Thomas Cook and
The extent to which a
Dan Campbell[10] indicate that validity is often the best available approximation of the truth or
point, concept,
falseness of an inference, proposition, or conclusion. Readers want to know that your information conclusion, or indication of
has value and that there is confidence in its points, supporting information, and conclusions. They measurement is accurate
want to know you are right and not making false statements. based on rigorous
examination.
One way you can address the value of validity is to cite all your sources clearly. As a writer, you
may certainly include information from authorities in the field when the attribution is relevant and
the citation is clear. Giving credit where credit is due is one way to make your information more
valuable, and by referencing the sources clearly, you enable the reader to assess the validity of the
information you have provided.
Does all feedback have validity? Just as there are many threats to validity in research appli-
cations, you cannot always be sure that the feedback you receive is accurate or truthful. Have
students ever evaluated professors negatively because of the required work in the course? Of
course. In the same way, some readers may have issues with the topic or your organization. Their
feedback post may be less than supportive, and even openly hostile. Assess the validity of the feed-
back, respond with professionalism at all times, and learn how to let go of the negative messages
that offer little opportunity to improve understanding.
What Is Reliability?
Reliability is the consistency of your measurements. The degree to which an instrument gives the
same measurement each and every time with the same subjects, in the same context, is a measure
The extent to which an
of its reliability. For example, if you took your temperature three times within fifteen minutes, and
assessment instrument
measures the same way your thermometer gave a different reading each time—say, 98.6, 96.6, and 100.2—you would con-
each time given the same clude that your thermometer was unreliable.
or conditions. How does this apply to feedback in business writing? Let’s say you have three sales agents who
will complete follow-up interactions with three customers after you have sent a report to each cus-
tomer on their purchases to date with suggestions for additional products and services. All three
sales agents have the same information about the products and services, but will they perform the
same? Of course not. Each one, even if they are trained to stay on script and follow specific proto-
cols, will not be identical in their approach and delivery. Each customer is also different, so the
context is different in each case. As business professionals, we need to learn about our environment
and adapt to it. This requires feedback and attention to the information in many forms. We need to
assess the degree of strength or weakness of the information, its reliability, or validity, and be pre-
pared to act on that information. Successful businesses, and by extension successful business
communicators, recognize that communication is a two-way process in which we need to listen,
learn, and respond to feedback. We need to meet and exceed the expectations of our customers.
Inter-rater reliability involves the degree to which each evaluator evaluates the same in simi-
lar contexts. One can think of a college essay, for example, to better understand this concept. Let’s
say you write an essay on customer relationship management and submit it to the instructor of The degree to which each
evaluator evaluates the
your business communication class. At the same time, you submit the same essay to your English same in similar contexts.
professor, and you submit a copy to your marketing professor. Will all three professors evaluate
your essay the same? Of course not. They will each have their own set of expectations and respec-
tive disciplines that will influence what they value and how the evaluate. Still, if your essay is
thoroughly researched, logically organized, and carefully written, each professor may give it a bet-
ter than average grade. If this is the case, inter-rater reliability would indicate that you did a good
job on the essay.
What Is Statistically Significant?

This is a research term that is often used and commonly misunderstood. Not every research find-
ing is statistically significant, and many of those that are considered significant are only slightly
more likely than pure chance. Statistically significant findings are those that have a high level of
Conclusions that have a
reliability, in that if the same test is applied in the same context to the same subjects, the results high level of reliability, in
will come out the same time and time again.[11] You may see a confidence level of +/– (plus or minus) that if the same test is
three percentage points as a common statement of reliability and confidence in a poll. It means that applied in the same
if the poll were repeated, there is confidence that the results would be within three points above or context to the same
subjects, the results will
below the percentages in the original results. When statements of statistical significance are made, come out the same time
you will know that it means a difference or a relationship was established with confidence by the and time again.
study. That confidence gives the results credibility.
Dr. Tim Urdan, author of Statistics in Plain English, 3rd Edition, discusses and illustrates the
concept of statistical significance.
Key Takeaway
Research can be qualitative or quantitative, and it is important to assess the validity, reliability,
and statistical significance of research findings.
1.
can you learn about how the organization conducts polls? How valid, reliable, and statisti-
cally significant are the results of this organization’s polls, and how do you know? Discuss
your findings with your classmates.
2. Find an example where information is presented to support a claim, but you perceive it to be
similar efforts.
8.4 Feedback as an Opportunity
1. Describe the five types of feedback identified by Carl Rogers.
Writing is a communicative act. It is a reflection of the communication process and represents each
of the process’s components in many ways. Yet, because many people tend to think of writing as a
one-way communication, feedback can be particularly challenging for a writer to assess. The best
praise for your work may be the sound of silence, of the document having fulfilled its purpose with-
out error, misinterpretation, or complaint. Your praise may come in the form of increased referrals,
or sales leads, or outright sales, but you may not learn of the feedback unless you seek it out. And
that is what this section is about: seeking out feedback because it is an opportunity—an opportu-
nity to engage with your audience, stimulate your thinking, and ultimately improve your writing.
You ask a colleague, “How was your weekend?” and he glances at the floor. Did he hear you?
Was his nonverbal response to your question one of resignation that the weekend didn’t go well, or
is he just checking to make sure his shoes are tied? Feedback, like all parts of the communication
model, can be complex and puzzling. Do you ask again? Do you leave him alone? It is hard to know
what an action means independent of context, and even harder to determine without more infor-
mation. Feedback often serves the role of additional information, allowing the source to adapt,
adjust, modify, delete, omit, or introduce new messages across diverse channels to facilitate com-
munication. One point of reference within the information or response we define as feedback may,
in itself, be almost meaningless, but taken together with related information can indicate a highly
complex response, and even be used to predict future responses.
Carl Rogers, the famous humanistic psychologist, divides feedback into five categories:
1. Evaluative
2. Interpretive
3. Supportive
4. Probing
5. Understanding
These five types of feedback vary in their frequency and effectiveness.[12],[13] This framework
highlights aspects of feedback that serve as opportunities for the business writer, as he or she rec-
ognizes feedback as an essential part of writing and the communication process. Let’s examine the five
types of feedback, as presented by Rogers,[14],[15] in their order of frequency.
Evaluative Feedback
This type of feedback is the most common. Evaluative feedback often involves judgment of the
writer and his or her ethos (or credibility). We look for credibility clues when we examine the letter-
head; feel the stationery; or read the message and note the professional language, correct grammar, the writer and his or her
and lack of spelling errors. Conversely, if the writer’s credibility is undermined by errors, is per- ethos, or credibility.
ceived to be inappropriately informal, or presents questionable claims, the reader’s view of the
writer will be negative. The reader is less likely to read or respond to the message communicated by
a source judged to lack credibility.
In an interpersonal context, evaluative feedback may be communicated as a lack of eye con-
tact, a frequent glance at a cell phone, or an overt act to avoid communication, such as walking
away from the speaker. In written communication, we don’t have the opportunity to watch the
reader “walk away.” As a business writer, your ethos is an important part of the message.
In aspects of interpersonal interaction, behavioral evaluations are one type of evaluative feed-
back. A behavioral evaluation assesses the action and not the actor, but the business writer lacks
Assesses the action, not
this context. You don’t always know when or where your content will be read and evaluated, so it is the actor.
in your best interest to be consistently professional. Fact checking, elimination of errors, and a pro-
fessional image should be habits, not efforts of will. They should be an automatic part of the
writing process for any business writer.
Interpretive Feedback
In the course of a conversation, you may not be completely sure you heard correctly, so it is often a
good idea to paraphrase or restate what you heard as a way of requesting confirmation or clarifica-
Requests confirmation or
tion. You may also understand what was said, but restate the main point as a way of communicating
often in the form of a attention. Listening is hard to assess in any conversation, and interpretive feedback allows the
question. speaker to hear a clear demonstration of feedback that confirms that the message was understood
or needs correction. Interpretive feedback requests confirmation or clarification of a message,
and is often expressed in the form of a question.
In hard copy documents, we normally lack this feedback loop, but online documents increas-
ingly allow for this form of exchange. You may find a “Comments” button at the end of an online
article. When you click on the button, a text box will appear, providing a space and a medium for
feedback from readers to the author, allowing an opportunity to respond with opinions, interpreta-
tions, and questions sparked by the article. Blogs incorporated this feature early in the development
of Web content, but you can see variations of this feedback style all over the Web. This form of feed-
back is increasingly common in Facebook’s wall, in MySpace’s comment box, and even in an article
published in the online version of the Wall Street Journal.
Supportive Feedback
You come in second in a marathon to which you have dedicated the better part of a year in training.
It was a challenging race and you are full of mixed emotions. The hug from your partner communi-
cates support and meets your need in ways that transcend language and the exchange of symbolic
meaning. In an interpersonal context it is easy to identify, describe, and even predict many repre-
sentations of supportive feedback, but in other communication contexts it can prove a significant
challenge.
You may give yourself encouragement as you mentally prepare for the race, and may receive
Communicates backslaps and hugs after the race, but when you write about your experience, how do you experi-
encouragement in ence supportive feedback? In the same way you receive evaluative or interpretive feedback via
response to a message. comments or to your Facebook wall, you may receive supportive feedback. Supportive feedback
communicates encouragement in response to a message.
Probing Feedback
As you’ve read an article, have you ever wanted to learn more? Increasingly, embedded links allow a
reader to explore related themes and content that give depth and breadth to content, but require
requests for specific the reader to be self-directed. Probing feedback communicates targeted requests for specific infor-
information. mation. As an author, you’ve crafted the message and defined what information is included and
what is beyond the scope of your document, but not every reader may agree with your framework.
Some may perceive that a related idea is essential to the article, and specifically request additional
information as a way of indicating that it should be included. Rather than responding defensively
to requests for specific information and interpreting them as challenges to your authority as the
author, see them for what they are: probing feedback. They are opportunities that you should
respond to positively with the view that each is an opportunity to interact, clarify, and promote
your position, product, or service.
Keeping a positive attitude is an important part of writing in general and feedback in particu-
lar. Not everyone is as skilled with words as you are, so their probing feedback may appear on the
surface to be less than diplomatic; it may even come across as rude, ignorant, or unprofessional. But
it will be to your advantage to see through the poor packaging of their feedback for the essential
request, and respond in a positive, professional fashion.
Understanding Feedback
Rogers discussed the innate tendency for humans to desire to be understood.[16],[17] We, at times, may
express frustration associated with a project at work. As we express ourselves to those we choose
to share with, we seek not only information or solutions, but also acceptance and respect. We may
not even want a solution, or need any information, but may simply want to be heard. and empathy for the
Understanding feedback communicates sympathy and empathy for the source of the message. source of the message.
As a business writer, you want your writing to be understood. When you receive feedback, it
may not always be supportive or encouraging. Feedback is not always constructive, but it is always
productive. Even if the feedback fails to demonstrate understanding or support for your cause or
point, it demonstrates interest in the topic.
As a skilled communicator, you can recognize the types of feedback you are likely to receive
from readers and can recognize that your readers may also desire feedback. Sometimes an author
may communicate respect and understanding in a follow-up message. By providing a clarification,
the writer can develop the relationship with the reader. Being professional involves keeping your
goals in mind, and in order for your writing to be successful, you will need a positive relationship
with your readers.
Key Takeaway
an opportunity for growth.
1. Select a piece of writing such as an article from a Web site, newspaper, or magazine. Write
at least one sentence of feedback in each of the five types described in this section. Do you
find one type of feedback easier to give than another? If you were the author, how would you
feel receiving this feedback? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Review a Web site, article, or similar presentation of information. Focus on strengths and
weaknesses from your perception and write a brief analysis and review. Please post your
results and compare with classmates.
3. Find a blog or online article with comments posted after the document. Choose one example
of feedback from the comments and share it with your classmates. Note any trends or
themes that present themselves as you explore the comments.
4. Create a blog and post an opinion or editorial article. What kinds of feedback do you get from
your readers? Compare and contrast your experiences with those of your classmates.

Online Writing Laboratory (OWL) at Purdue has a comprehensive guide to the writing process.
http://owl.english.purdue.edu
Workplaces that Work: Interpersonal Communication, Canada. http://hrcouncil.ca/hr-toolkit/
workplaces-interpersonal.cfm
Visit this About.com page for an informative article for managers on how to deliver feedback
to subordinates. http://humanresources.about.com/cs/communication/ht/Feedbackimpact.htm
Read more about how to accept and benefit from feedback in this e-zine article. http://
ezinearticles.com/?Workplace-Communication---Accepting-Feedback&id=2147532
Study Guides and Strategies presents an article on how to benefit from feedback when work-
ing with a tutor. http://www.studygs.net/feedback.htm
AllBusiness presents an article on the five main methods of market research. http://www.
allbusiness.com/marketing/market-research/1287-1.html
Free Management Library presents an in-depth article on market research. http://
managementhelp.org/mrktng/mk_rsrch/mk_rsrch.htm
Explore the home page of SurveyMonkey and learn about some of the decisions that need to
be made in the process of designing a survey. http://www.surveymonkey.com
Read an article on how to organize a focus group by Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD. http://
managementhelp.org/evaluatn/focusgrp.htm
Writers often receive feedback by having their documents edited. Read about what an editor
does on the home page of KOK Edit. http://www.kokedit.com
ChangingMinds.org discusses Rogers’s five feedback types with examples. http://
changingminds.org/techniques/conversation/reflecting/rogers_feedback.htm
Endnotes
1. Powel, J. (2009). 33 million people in the room: How to create, influence, and a run a successful business with social networking. Upper Saddle River, NJ: FT
Press/Pearson Education.
2. Johnson, S. (1998). Who moved my cheese? An amazing way to deal with change in your work and in your life. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
4. Horrigan, J. B. (2009, June 17). Home broadband adoption 2009. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved from http://pewresearch.org/pubs/1254/
home-broadband-adoption-2009
5. Diaz de Leon, M. (2005, September 1). Personal communication.
6. http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2012/01/search-plus-your-world.html (06/28/12)
7. Kleinberg, J. M. (1998). Authoritative sources in a hyperlinked environment. In Proceedings of the ninth annual ACM-SIAM symposium on discrete algorithms
(pp. 668–677). Philadelphia, PA: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Retrieved from http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=315045
8. Lyons, D. (2008, October 20). Facebook’s roar becomes a meow. Newsweek, E22.
9. Rosnow, R., & Rosenthal, R. (1999). Beginning behavioral research: A conceptual primer (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
10. Cook, T. D., & Campbel, D. T. (1979). Quasi-experimentation: Design and analysis issues for field settings. Chicago, IL: Rand McNally.
11. Stone-Romero, E. F. (2002). The relative validity and usefulness of various empirical research designs. In S. G. Rogelberg (Ed.), Handbook of research meth-
ods in industrial and organizational psycology (pp. 77–98). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
12. Rogers, C. R. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
13. Rogers, C. R. (1970). On encouter groups. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
9
Business Writing in Action
If you call failures experiments, you can put them in your résumé and claim them as achieve-
ments.
— Mason Cooley
Volunteer—not so you can build your résumé, but so you can build yourself.
— Author Unknown
9.1 Getting Started
1. Review the different kinds of common business communication writing covered by the main
headings in this chapter. Make a note of which kinds of documents you have produced in
the past and which you have not. For example, have you written many memos but not a
business report? Share and compare with classmates.
2. Conduct an online search for job descriptions associated with your chosen career and think
about what tasks are accomplished in a typical day or week. If possible, also talk to someone
who is employed in that career. Note the kinds of writing skills that are involved in carrying
out job duties or tasks. Share your results with the class.
Business communication in written form requires skill and expertise. From text messages to
reports, how you represent yourself with the written word counts. Writing in an online environ-
ment requires tact and skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there forever. From
memos to letters, from business proposals to press releases, your written business communication
represents you and your company: your goal is to make it clear, concise, and professional.
9.2 Text, E-mail, and Netiquette
1.
2.
3.
Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business commu-
nicators consider them a valuable tool to connect. Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and
Etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet.
norms for communication,
on the Internet.
Texting
Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting,
has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to
Written communication in
stay connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not use-
the form of brief messages
using a digital device. ful for long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience.
It is often said that you can tell how old someone is by how he or she inputs a phone number
on a cell phone. If the person uses his or her thumb while holding the digital device, that person
may have been raised on video games and be adept at one-handed interfaces. If he holds the digital
device with one hand and inputs the number with the other, he may be over thirty, or may be less
comfortable with some technological devices. Of course, there is no actual correlation between
input and age, but it is a useful example to use when considering who your audience is when writ-
ing a text message. If the person is a one-hander, and knows all the abbreviations common to
texting, you may be able to use similar codes to communicate effectively. If the person is a two-han-
der, you are better off using fewer words and spelling them out. Texting can be a great tool for
connecting while on the go, but consider your audience and your company, and choose words,
terms, or abbreviations that will deliver your message.
Tips for Effective Business Texting

• Know your recipient; “? % dsct” may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what
the proper discount is to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it
might be wiser to write, “what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?”
• Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to repre-
sent thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful
but limited tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief
messages.
• Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when
appropriate but don’t abuse it.
• Unplug yourself once in awhile. Do you feel constantly connected? Do you feel lost or “out of
it” if you don’t have your cell phone and cannot connect to people, even for fifteen minutes?
Sometimes being unavailable for a time can be healthy—everything in moderation, including
texting.
• Don’t text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically
if the driver is texting behind the wheel.[1] Being in an accident while conducting company
business would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.
E-mail
Electronic mail, usually called e-mail, is quite familiar to most students and workers. It may be used
e-
like text, or synchronous chat, and it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, it has largely
mail.
replaced print hard copy letters for external (outside the company) correspondence, as well as tak-
ing the place of memos for internal (within the company) communication.[2] E-mail can be very
useful for messages that have slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for
fairly brief messages.
Many businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public,
or to remind associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to
“populate” a form e-mail in which standard paragraphs are used but you choose from a menu of
sentences to make the wording suitable for a particular transaction.
E-mails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention
to detail, awareness that your e-mail reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so
that it may be forwarded to any third party if needed. E-mail often serves to exchange informa-
tion within organizations. Although e-mail may have an informal feel, remember that when used
for business, it needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you
wouldn’t want read in public or in front of your company president.
Tips for Effective Business E-mails

• Proper salutations should demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case a message is acci-
dentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like “Dear Ms. X” (external)
or “Hi Barry” (internal).
• Subject lines should be clear, brief, and specific. This helps the recipient understand the
essence of the message. For example, “Proposal attached” or “Your question of 10/25.”
• Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically con-
tains your name and business contact information.
• Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit
cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).
• Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.
• Use a good format. Include line breaks between sentences or divide your message into brief
paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-mail should get to the point and conclude in three
small paragraphs or less.
• Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press
“send.” It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written
e-mail than to get it right the first time.
• Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional response—never reply in anger—but make a
habit of replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will pro-
vide the requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
• Use “Reply All” sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail
unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
• Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emo-
tion or yelling and are considered rude.
• Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is complete.
• E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite
large) to prevent exceeding the recipient’s mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.
• Give feedback or follow up. If you don’t get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call.
Spam filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.
Let’s look at two examples of business e-mail. In Figure 9.1, we have an e-mail form. In Figure
9.2, we have a letter written specifically for the situation and audience.
FIGURE 9.1
FIGURE 9.2
Netiquette
We create personal pages, post messages, and interact via mediated technologies as a normal part
of our careers, but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph
you posted on your MySpace page may have been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty
remark in a post may come back to haunt you later. Some fifteen years ago, when the Internet was
a new phenomenon, Virginia Shea laid out a series of ground rules for communication online that
continue to serve us today.
Virginia Shea’s Rules of Netiquette

• Remember the human on the other side of the electronic communication.
• Adhere to the same standards of behavior online that you follow in real life.
• Know where you are in cyberspace.
• Respect other people’s time and bandwidth.
• Make yourself look good online.
• Share expert knowledge.
• Keep flame wars under control.
• Respect other people’s privacy.
• Don’t abuse your power.
• Be forgiving of other people’s mistakes.[3]
Her rules speak for themselves and remind us that the golden rule (treat others as you would
like to be treated) is relevant wherever there is human interaction.
Key Takeaways
for
informal, brief, time-sensitive communication.
E-mail is useful for both internal and external business communications. The content and
formatting of an e-mail message should reflect professionalism and follow the rules of neti-
quette.
Social customs that exist in traditional, live, human interaction also influence the rules and
customs by which we interact with each other in the online environment.
1. Write a text message in your normal use of language. It should use all your normal abbrevia-
tions (e.g., FWIW, IMHO, LOL), even if not everyone understands them.
2. Find an example of an e-mail that you wish you had never sent or received. Rewrite it to
eliminate the characteristics that you find problematic. Share it with your classmates.
3. Choose at least three e-mails you have sent or received that are good examples of business
communication. What makes them good examples? Could they be improved in any way?
Share your suggestions with classmates.
4.
5. Find a “flame war,” or heated discussion in an online forum and note how it is handled. Com-
pare the results with your classmates.
6. In your experience, how do people behave when they interact online? Share your observa-
tions with your classmates.
9.3 Memorandums and Letters
1. Discuss the purpose and format of a memo.

2.
3.
4.
Memos
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, pro-
cedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all
An abbreviation for
perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-
memorandum; normally
on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given used for communicating
project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance. policies, procedures, or
related official business
within an organization.
Memo Purpose
A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call
to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial,
informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is The unofficial, informal
communication network
often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that within an organization,
someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and trans- often characterized by
form as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are rumor, gossip, and
shutting down your entire department. innuendo.
One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all
employees what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be
wise to send a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to
take action, they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper man-
agement at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least
$1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the
company with purchases, it would benefit all.[4]
While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they
often represent the business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that
align business and employee interest, and underscore common ground and benefit.
Memo Format
A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay
particular attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also
present, followed by a message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.
In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
All these are present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening
uses a declarative sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major
points associated with the topic, and the conclusion serves as a summary.
Let’s examine a sample memo.
FIGURE 9.3
Five Tips for Effective Business Memos
Audience Orientation
Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbrevia-
tion that is known to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and
if the memo is to be posted and distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise
communication at all levels with no ambiguity.
Professional, Formal Tone
Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the
organization. While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from
the organization to the employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies
or procedures, and may reference an existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.
Subject Emphasis
The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is
announcing the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the
subject line—for example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”
Direct Format
Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but
memorandums are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.
Objectivity
Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, pref-
FIGURE 9.4
erence, or interest on display. Avoid subjectivity. The words you choose
represent you in your
absence. Make sure they
clearly communicate your
message.
Corporation
Letters
Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization.[5] They are
often printed on letterhead paper, and represent the business or organization in one or two pages.
Brief message sent to
Shorter messages may include e-mails or memos, either hard copy or electronic, while reports tend
outside the to be three or more pages in length.
While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective business let-
ter remains a common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential
employer, announce a product or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions. We’ll
examine the basic outline of a letter and then focus on specific products or writing assignments.
All writing assignments have expectations in terms of language and format. The audience or
reader may have their own idea of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and your organization
may have its own format and requirements. This chapter outlines common elements across letters,
and attention should be directed to the expectations associated with your particular writing assign-
ment. There are many types of letters, and many adaptations in terms of form and content, but in
this chapter, we discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional block-style letter.
Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers, deliver
important or specific information, or serve as documentation of an event or decision. Regardless of
the type of letter you need to write, it can contain up to fifteen elements in five areas. While you
may not use all the elements in every case or context, they are listed in Table 9.1.
TABLE 9.1 Elements of a Business Letter
Content Guidelines
1. Return Address This is your address where someone could send
a reply. If your letter includes a letterhead with
this information, either in the header (across the
top of the page) or the footer (along the bottom
of the page), you do not need to include it before
the date.
2. Date The date should be placed at the top, right or left
justified, five lines from the top of the page or let-
terhead logo.
Content Guidelines
3. Reference (Re:) Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you
indicate what the letter is in reference to, the sub-
ject or purpose of the document.
4. Delivery (Optional) Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter
itself how it was delivered. This can make it clear
to a third party that the letter was delivered via a
specific method, such as certified mail (a legal
requirement for some types of documents).
5. Recipient Note (Optional) This is where you can indicate if the letter is per-
sonal or confidential.
6. Salutation A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full
name).” But if you are unsure about titles (i.e.,
Mrs., Ms., Dr.), you may simply write the recipi-
ent’s name (e.g., “Dear Cameron Rai”) followed
by a colon. A comma after the salutation is cor-
rect for personal letters, but a colon should be
used in business. The salutation “To whom it may
concern” is appropriate for letters of recommen-
dation or other letters that are intended to be
read by any and all individuals. If this is not the
case with your letter, but you are unsure of how
to address your recipient, make every effort to
find out to whom the letter should be specifically
addressed. For many, there is no sweeter sound
than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly
runs the risk of alienating the reader before your
letter has even been read. Avoid the use of
impersonal salutations like “Dear Prospective
Customer,” as the lack of personalization can
alienate a future client.
7. Introduction This is your opening paragraph, and may include
an attention statement, a reference to the pur-
pose of the document, or an introduction of the
person or topic depending on the type of letter.
An emphatic opening involves using the most sig-
nificant or important element of the letter in the
introduction. Readers tend to pay attention to
openings, and it makes sense to outline the
expectations for the reader up front. Just as you
would preview your topic in a speech, the clear
opening in your introductions establishes context
and facilitates comprehension.
8. Body If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a
number of questions, they belong in the body of
your letter. You may choose organizational
devices to draw attention, such as a bullet list, or
simply number them. Readers may skip over
information in the body of your letter, so make
sure you emphasize the key points clearly. This is
your core content, where you can outline and
support several key points. Brevity is important,
but so is clear support for main point(s). Specific,
meaningful information needs to be clear, con-
cise, and accurate.
Content Guidelines
9. Conclusion An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction
with the added element of tying the main points
together, clearly demonstrating their relationship.
The conclusion can serve to remind the reader,
but should not introduce new information. A clear
summary sentence will strengthen your writing
and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter
requests or implies action, the conclusion needs
to make clear what you expect to happen. It is
usually courteous to conclude by thanking the
recipient for his or her attention, and to invite
them to contact you if you can be of help or if
they have questions. This paragraph reiterates
the main points and their relationship to each
other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.
10. Close “Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business
closing statements. (“Love,” “Yours Truly,” and
“BFF” are closing statements suitable for per-
sonal correspondence, but not for business.)
Closing statements are normally placed one or
two lines under the conclusion and include a
hanging comma, as in Sincerely,
11. Signature Five lines after the close, you should type your
name (required) and, on the line below it, your
title (optional).
12. Preparation Line If the letter was prepared, or word-processed, by
someone other than the signatory (you), then
inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.
13. Enclosures/Attachments Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter
sometimes has additional documents that are
delivered with it. This line indicates what the
reader can look for in terms of documents
included with the letter, such as brochures,
reports, or related business documents.
14. Courtesy Copies or “CC” The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon
copies but now refers to courtesy copies. Just
like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the rel-
evant parties that will also receive a copy of the
document.
15. Logo/Contact Information A formal business letter normally includes a logo
or contact information for the organization in the
header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).
Strategies for Effective Letters

Remember that a letter has five main areas:
1. The heading, which establishes the sender, often including address and date
2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose
3. The body, which articulates the message
4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action
5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact information
A sample letter is shown in Figure 9.5.
FIGURE 9.5 Sample Business Letter
Always remember that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to
communicate effectively and project a positive image,
• be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;
• each word should contribute to your purpose;
• each paragraph should focus on one idea;
• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;
• the letter should be free of errors.
Key Takeaways
Memos are brief business documents usually used internally to inform or persuade employ-
ees concerning business decisions on policy, procedure, or actions.
dors, or the public.
1. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know. Share it
name of the sender, recipient, and company. Compare and contrast.

2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share with
classmates.
3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post and
share with classmates.
4. Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card company or a
points of difference.
5. Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and fifteen
basic parts of any business letter, write a business letter that informs a prospective client or
customer of a new product or service.
9.4 Business Proposal
1.
2.
3.
An effective business proposal informs and persuades efficiently. It features many of the common
elements of a report, but its emphasis on persuasion guides the overall presentation.
Let’s say you work in a health care setting. What types of products or services might be put out
to bid? If your organization is going to expand and needs to construct a new wing, it will probably
be put out to bid. Everything from office furniture to bedpans could potentially be put out to bid,
specifying a quantity, quality, and time of delivery required. Janitorial services may also be bid on
each year, as well as food services, and even maintenance. Using the power of bidding to lower con-
tract costs for goods and services is common practice.
In order to be successful in business and industry, you should be familiar with the business
proposal. Much like a report, with several common elements and persuasive speech, a business pro-
Document designed to posal makes the case for your product or service. Business proposals are documents designed to
make a persuasive appeal
to the audience to achieve make a persuasive appeal to the audience to achieve a defined outcome, often proposing a solution
a defined outcome, often to a problem.
proposing a solution to a
problem.
Common Proposal Elements
Idea
Effective business proposals are built around a great idea or solution. While you may be able to pre-
sent your normal product, service, or solution in an interesting way, you want your document and
its solution to stand out against the background of competing proposals. What makes your idea
different or unique? How can you better meet the needs of the company that other vendors? What
makes you so special? If the purchase decision is made solely on price, it may leave you little room
to underscore the value of service, but the sale follow-through has value. For example, don’t con-
sider just the cost of the unit but also its maintenance. How can maintenance be a part of your
solution, distinct from the rest? In addition, your proposal may focus on a common product where
you can anticipate several vendors at similar prices. How can you differentiate yourself from the
rest by underscoring long-term relationships, demonstrated ability to deliver, or the ability to antic-
ipate the company’s needs? Business proposals need to have an attractive idea or solution in order
to be effective.
Traditional Categories
You can be creative in many aspects of the business proposal, but follow the traditional categories.
Businesses expect to see information in a specific order, much like a résumé or even a letter. Each
aspect of your proposal has its place and it is to your advantage to respect that tradition and use
the categories effectively to highlight your product or service. Every category is an opportunity to
sell, and should reinforce your credibility, your passion, and the reason why your solution is simply
the best.
TABLE 9.2 Business Proposal Format
Cover Page Title page with name, title, date, and specific ref-
erence to request for proposal if applicable.
Executive Summary Like an abstract in a report, this is a one- or two-
paragraph summary of the product or service and
how it meets the requirements and exceeds
expectations.
Background Discuss the history of your product, service, and/
or company and consider focusing on the rela-
tionship between you and the potential buyer
and/or similar companies.
Proposal The idea. Who, what, where, when, why, and
how. Make it clear and concise. Don’t waste
words, and don’t exaggerate. Use clear, well-
supported reasoning to demonstrate your prod-
uct or service.
Market Analysis What currently exists in the marketplace, includ-

ing competing products or services, and how
does your solution compare?
Benefits How will the potential buyer benefit from the
product or service? Be clear, concise, specific,
and provide a comprehensive list of immediate,
short, and long-term benefits to the company.
Timeline A clear presentation, often with visual aids, of the
process, from start to finish, with specific, dated
benchmarks noted.
Marketing Plan Delivery is often the greatest challenge for Web-
based services—how will people learn about
you? If you are bidding on a gross lot of food ser-
vice supplies, this may not apply to you, but if an
audience is required for success, you will need a
marketing plan.
Finance What are the initial costs, when can revenue be
anticipated, when will there be a return on invest-
ment (if applicable)? Again, the proposal may
involve a one-time fixed cost, but if the product or
service is to be delivered more than once, and
extended financial plan noting costs across time
is required.
Conclusion Like a speech or essay, restate your main points
clearly. Tie them together with a common them
and make your proposal memorable.
Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Ethos refers to credibility, pathos to passion and enthusiasm, and logos to logic or reason. All three
elements are integral parts of your business proposal that require your attention. Who are you and
why should we do business with you? Your credibility may be unknown to the potential client and
it is your job to reference previous clients, demonstrate order fulfillment, and clearly show that
your product or service is offered by a credible organization. By association, if your organization is
credible the product or service is often thought to be more credible.
In the same way, if you are not enthusiastic about the product or service, why should the
potential client get excited? How does your solution stand out in the marketplace? Why should
they consider you? Why should they continue reading? Passion and enthusiasm are not only com-
municated through “!” exclamation points. Your thorough understanding, and your demonstration
of that understanding, communicates dedication and interest.
Each assertion requires substantiation, each point clear support. It is not enough to make base-
less claims about your product or service—you have to show why the claims you make are true,
relevant, and support your central assertion that your product or service is right for this client.
Make sure you cite sources and indicate “according to” when you support your points. Be detailed
and specific.
Professional
A professional document is a base requirement. If it is less than professional, you can count on its
prompt dismissal. There should be no errors in spelling or grammar, and all information should be
concise, accurate, and clearly referenced when appropriate. Information that pertains to credibility
should be easy to find and clearly relevant, including contact information. If the document
exists in a hard copy form, it should be printed on a letterhead. If the document is submitted in an
electronic form, it should be in a file format that presents your document as you intended. Word
processing files may have their formatting changed or adjusted based on factors you cannot con-
trol—like screen size—and information can shift out of place, making it difficult to understand. In
this case, a portable document format (PDF)—a format for electronic documents—may be used to
preserve content location and avoid any inadvertent format changes when it is displayed.
Effective, persuasive proposals are often brief, even limited to one page. “The one-page proposal
has been one of the keys to my business success, and it can be invaluable to you too. Few decision-
makers can ever afford to read more than one page when deciding if they are interested in a deal
or not. This is even more true for people of a different culture or language,” said Adnan Khashoggi,
a successful multibillionaire.[6] Clear and concise proposals serve the audience well and limit the
range of information to prevent confusion.
Two Types of Business Proposals
Solicited
If you have been asked to submit a proposal it is considered solicited. The solicitation may come
in the form of a direct verbal or written request, but normally solicitations are indirect, open-bid to
the public, and formally published for everyone to see. A request for proposal (RFP), request for
quotation (RFQ), and invitation for bid (IFB) are common ways to solicit business proposals for busi-
ness, industry, and the government.
RFPs typically specify the product or service, guidelines for submission, and evaluation crite-
ria. RFQs emphasize cost, though service and maintenance may be part of the solicitation. IRBs are
often job-specific in that they encompass a project that requires a timeline, labor, and materials.
For example, if a local school district announces the construction of a new elementary school, they
normally have the architect and engineering plans on file, but need a licensed contractor to build it.
Unsolicited
Unsolicited proposals are the “cold calls” of business writing. They require a thorough understanding
of the market, product and/or service, and their presentation is typically general rather than customer-
specific. They can, however, be tailored to specific businesses with time and effort, and the
demonstrated knowledge of specific needs or requirement can transform an otherwise generic,
brochure-like proposal into an effective sales message. Getting your tailored message to your target
audience, however, is often a significant challenge if it has not been directly or indirectly solicited.
Unsolicited proposals are often regarded as marketing materials, intended more to stimulate inter-
est for a follow-up contact than make direct sales. Sue Baugh and Robert Hamper encourage you
to resist the temptation to “shoot at every target and hope you hit at least one.”[7] A targeted proposal
is your most effective approach, but recognize the importance of gaining company, service, or brand
awareness as well as its limitations.
Sample Business Proposal

The Writing Help Tools Center is a commercial enterprise, and offers a clear (and free) example of a
business proposal here:
http://www.writinghelptools.com/proposal-sample.html
Key Takeaway
1. Prepare a business proposal in no more than two pages. Follow the guidelines provided in
the sample letter for CPA services on the American Institute of Public Accountants website.
Do not include actual contact information. Just as the example has employees named after
colors, your (imaginary) company should have contact information that does not directly link
to real businesses or you as an individual. Do not respond to point 12.
2. Search for an RFP (request for proposal) or similar call to bid, and post it to your class. Com-
pare the results with your classmates, focusing on what is required to apply or bid.
3. Identify a product or service you would like to produce or offer. List three companies that you
would like to sell your product or service to and learn more about them. Post your findings,
making the link between your product or service and company needs. You may find
completing this exercise.
9.5 Business Report
1. Discuss the main parts of a report.

2. Understand the different types of reports.

3. Write a basic report.
What Is a Report?
FIGURE 9.6
Choose a type of report by its function, and display the information in a vivid way that is easily understood.
Reports are documents designed to record and convey information to the reader. Reports are
part of any business or organization; from credit reports to police reports, they serve to document
Document designed to specific information for specific audiences, goals, or functions. The type of report is often identified
record and convey
information to the reader. by its primary purpose or function, as in an accident report, a laboratory report, a sales report, or
even a book report. Reports are often analytical, or involve the rational analysis of information.
Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still need to communicate the
information in a clear and concise format. Other reports summarize past events, present current
data, and forecast future trends. While a report may have conclusions, propositions, or even a call
to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the primary function. A sales report, for example, is
not designed to make an individual sale. It is, however, supposed to report sales to date, and may
forecast future sales based on previous trends. This chapter is designed to introduce you to the
basics of report writing.
Types of Reports
Reports come in all sizes, but are typically longer than a page and somewhat shorter than a book.
The type of report depends on its function. The function of the report is its essential purpose, often
indicated in the thesis or purpose statement. The function will also influence the types of visual
content or visual aids, representing words, numbers, and their relationships to the central purpose
in graphic, representational ways that are easy for the reader to understand. The function may
also contribute to parameters like report length (page or word count) or word choice and readabil-
ity. “Focusing on the content of your longer business documents is not only natural but necessary
because doing so helps ensure complete, correct information.”[8]
Reports vary by function, and they also vary by style and tradition. Within your organization,
there may be employer-specific expectations that need to be addressed to meet audience expecta-
tions. This chapter discusses reports in general terms, focusing on common elements and points of
distinction, but reference to similar documents where you work or additional examination of spe-
cific sample reports may serve you well as you prepare your own report.
Informational or Analytical Report?

There are two main categories for reports, regardless of their specific function or type. An infor-
mational report informs or instructs and presents details of events, activities, individuals, or condi-
tions without analysis. An example of this type of “just the facts” report is a police accident report.
The report will note the time, date, place, contributing factors like weather, and identification infor-
mation for the drivers involved in an automobile accident. It does not establish fault or include
judgmental statements. You should not see “Driver was falling down drunk” in a police accident
report. Instead, you would see “Driver failed sobriety tests and breathalyzer test and was trans-
ported to the station for a blood sample.” The police officer is not a trained medical doctor and is
therefore not licensed to make definitive diagnoses, but can collect and present relevant informa-
tion that may contribute to that diagnosis.
The second type of report is called an analytical report. An analytical report presents infor-
mation with a comprehensive analysis to solve problems, demonstrate relationships, or make
recommendations. An example of this report may be a field report by a Center for Disease Control
(CDC) physician from the site of an outbreak of the H1N1 virus, noting symptoms, disease pro-
gression, steps taken to arrest the spread of the disease, and to make recommendations on the
treatment and quarantine of subjects.
Table 9.3 includes common reports that, depending on the audience needs, may be informa-
tional or analytical.
TABLE 9.3 Types of Reports and Their Functions
Type Function
1. Laboratory Report Communicate the procedures and results of lab-
oratory activities
2. Research Report Study problems scientifically by developing
hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing data, and
indicating findings or conclusions
3. Field Study Report Describe one-time events, such as trips, confer-
ences, seminars, as well as reports from branch
offices, industrial and manufacturing plants
4. Progress Report Monitor and control production, sales, shipping,
service, or related business process
5. Technical Report Communication process and product from a
technical perspective
6. Financial Report Communication status and trends from a finance
perspective
7. Case Study Represent, analyze, and present lessons learned
from a specific case or example
8. Needs Assessment Report Assess the need for a service or product
9. Comparative Advantage Report Discuss competing products or services with an
analysis of relative advantages and disadvan-
tages
10. Feasibility Study Analyze problems and predict whether current
solutions or alternatives will be practical, advis-
able, or produced the desired outcome(s)
11. Instruction Manuals Communicate step-by-step instructions on the
use of a product or service
12. Compliance Report Document and indicate the extent to which a
product or service is within established compli-
ance parameters or standards
13. Cost-Benefit Analysis Report Communicate costs and benefits of products or
services.
14. Decision Report Make recommendations to management and
become tools to solve problems and make deci-
sions
15. Benchmark Report Establish criteria and evaluate alternatives by
measuring against the establish benchmark crite-
ria
16. Examination Report Report or record data obtained from an examina-
tion of an item or conditions, including accidents
and natural disasters
17. Physical Description report Describe the physical characteristics of a
machine, a device, or object
18. Literature Review Present summaries of the information available on
a given subject
How Are Reports Organized?

Reports vary by size, format, and function. You need to be flexible and adjust to the needs of the
audience while respecting customs and guidelines. Reports are typically organized around six key
elements:
1. Whom the report is about and/or prepared for
2. What was done, what problems were addressed, and the results, including conclusions and/or
recommendations
3. Where the subject studied occurred
4. When the subject studied occurred
5. Why the report was written (function), including under what authority, for what reason, or by
whose request
6. How the subject operated, functioned, or was used
Pay attention to these essential elements when you consider your stakeholders, or those who
have an interest in the report. That may include the person(s) the report is about, whom it is for, and
the larger audience of the business, organization, or industry. Ask yourself who the key decision
makers are who will read your report, who the experts or technicians will be, and how executives
and workers may interpret your words and images. While there is no universal format for a report,
there is a common order to the information. Each element supports the main purpose or function
in its own way, playing an important role in the representation and transmission of information.
TABLE 9.4 Ten Common Elements of a Report

Page Element Function Example
1. Cover Title and image Like the cover of a
book, sometimes a pic-
ture, image, or logo is
featured to introduce
the topic to the reader.
2. Title Fly Title only This page is optional. Feasibility Study of Oil
Recovery from the X
Tarpit Sands Location
3. Title Page Label, report, features Feasibility Study of Oil

title, author, affiliation, Recovery from the X
date, and sometimes Tarpit Sands Location
for whom the report Peak Oilman, X Energy
was prepared Corporation Prepared
for X
4. Table of Contents A list of the main parts • Abstract……1

of the report and their • Introduction……2
respective page num-
• Background……3
bers
5. Abstract • Informational This report presents the

abstract: highlight current status of the X
topic, methods, tarpit sands, the study
data, and results of oil recoverability, and
• Descriptive abstract: the findings of the study
(All of the above with specific recom-
without statements mendations.
of conclusion or rec-
ommendations)
Page Element Function Example

6. Introduction Introduces the topic of Oil sands recovery
the report processes include ways
to extract and separate
the bitumen from the
clay, sand, and water
that make up the tar
sands. This study ana-
lyzes the feasibility of
extraction and separa-
tion, including a
comprehensive cost/
benefits analysis, with
specific recommenda-
tions.
7. Body Key elements of body • Background: History

include: of oil extraction and
separation from
• Background
tarpit sands.
• Methodology
• Methodology: Spe-
• Results cific analysis of the
• Analysis and Rec- site based on
ommendations accepted research
methods.
• Results: Data from
the feasibility study.
• Analysis and Rec-
ommendations:
Analysis of the data
and recommenda-
tions based on that
analysis.
8. Conclusion Concise presentation of This portion clearly indi-

findings cates the main results
and their relation to rec-
ommended action or
outcome.
9. References Bibliography or Works This part contains list of
Cited citations.
10. Appendix Related Supporting This may include maps,
Materials analysis of soil samples,
and field reports.
Here is a checklist for ensuring that a report fulfills its goals.

1. Report considers the audience’s needs
2. Format follows function of report
3. Format reflects institutional norms and expectations
4. Information is accurate, complete, and documented
5. Information is easy to read
6. Terms are clearly defined
7. Figures, tables, and art support written content
8. Figures, tables, and art are clear and correctly labeled
9. Figures, tables, and art are easily understood without text support
10. Words are easy to read (font, arrangement, organization)
11. Results are clear and concise

12. Recommendations are reasonable and well-supported
13. Report represents your best effort
14. Report speaks for itself without your clarification or explanation
Key Takeaway
1. Find an annual report for a business you would like to learn more about. Review it with the
previous reading in mind and provide examples. Share and compare with classmates.
2. Write a report on a trend in business that you’ve observed, and highlight at least the main
to
course content, textbooks are a significant issue for students. Draw from your experience as
you bring together sources of information to illustrate a trend. Share and compare with
classmates.
9.6 Cover Letter, Résumé, and Online

Profiles
1. Describe the differences among functional, reverse chronological, combination, targeted,

and scannable résumés.
2.
3.
The Perfect Resume Cover Letter
A résumé is a document that summarizes your education, skills, talents, employment history,
résumé
and experiences in a clear and concise format for potential employers. The résumé serves three dis-
Document that tinct purposes that define its format, design, and presentation:
summarizes your
education, skills, talents, 1. To represent your professional information in writing
employment history, and
2. To demonstrate the relationship between your professional information and the problem or
concise format for challenge the potential employer hopes to solve or address, often represented in the form of a
potential employers. job description or duties
3. To get you an interview by clearly demonstrating you meet the minimum qualifications and
have the professional background help the organization meet its goals
The Perfect Resume
An online profile page is similar to a résumé in that it represents you, your background and
qualifications, and adds participation to the publication. People network, link, and connect in new
ways via online profiles or professional sites like LinkedIn. In many ways, your online profile is an
online version of your résumé with connections and friends on public display. Your MySpace and
Facebook pages are also often accessible to the public, so never post anything you wouldn’t want
your employer (current or future) to read, see, or hear. This chapter covers a traditional résumé, as
well as the more popular scannable features, but the elements and tips could equally apply to your
online profile.
Main Parts of a Résumé

Regardless of the format, employers have expectations for your résumé. They expect it to be clear,
accurate, and up to date.[9] This document represents you in your absence, and you want it to do the
best job possible. You don’t want to be represented by spelling or grammatical errors, as they may
raise questions about your education and attention to detail. Someone reading your résumé with
errors will only wonder what kind of work you might produce that will poorly reflect on their com-
pany. There is going to be enough competition that you don’t want to provide an easy excuse to toss
your résumé at the start of the process. Do your best work the first time.
Résumés have several basic elements that employers look for, including your contact informa-
tion, objective or goal, education and work experience, and so on. Each résumé format may organize
the information in distinct ways based on the overall design strategy, but all information should be
clear, concise, and accurate.[10]
Contact Information
This section is often located at the top of the document. The first element of the contact infor-
mation is your name. You should use your full, legal name even if you go by your middle name or
use a nickname. There will plenty of time later to clarify what you prefer to be called, but all your
application documents, including those that relate to payroll, your social security number, drug
screenings, background checks, fingerprint records, transcripts, certificates or degrees, should fea-
ture your legal name. Other necessary information includes your address, phone number(s), and e-
mail address. If you maintain two addresses (e.g., a campus and a residential address), make it clear
where you can be contacted by indicating the primary address. For business purposes, do not use an
unprofessional e-mail address like sexiluvr93@hotmale.com or tutifruti@yafoo.com. Create a new
e-mail account if needed with an address suitable for professional use.
FIGURE 9.7 Sample Contact Information
Objective
This is one part of your résumé that is relatively simple to customize for an individual application.
Your objective should reflect the audience’s need to quickly understand how you will help the orga-
nization achieve its goals.
FIGURE 9.8 Sample Objective

Education
You need to list your education in reverse chronological order, with your most recent degree first.
List the school, degree, and grade point average (GPA). If there is a difference between the GPA in
your major courses and your overall GPA, you may want to list them separately to demonstrate
your success in your chosen field. You may also want to highlight relevant coursework that directly
relate to the position.
FIGURE 9.9 Sample Education Field
Work Experience
List in reverse chronological order your employment history, including the positions, companies,
locations, dates, duties and skills demonstrated or acquired. You may choose to use active, descrip-
tive sentences or bullet lists, but be consistent. Emphasize responsibilities that involved budgets,
teamwork, supervision, and customer service when applying for positions in business and industry,
but don’t let emphasis become exaggeration. This document represents you in your absence, and if
information is false, at a minimum you could lose your job.
FIGURE 9.10 Sample Work Experience

TABLE 9.5 Types of Résumés

Type Function Advantage Disadvantage
1. Reverse Chronologi- Reverse chronological Demonstrates a consis- It may be difficult to
cal résumés (also called tent work history highlight skills and
reverse time order) experience.
focus on work history.
2. Functional Functional résumés Demonstrates skills that It is often associated
(also called compe- can clearly link to job with people who have
tency-based résumés) functions or duties gaps in their employ-
focus on skills. ment history.
3. Combination A combination résumé Highlights the skills you Some employers prefer
lists your skills and have that are relevant to a reverse chronological
experience first, then the job and provides a order.
employment history and reverse chronological
education. work history
4. Targeted A targeted résumé is a Points out to the reader Custom documents
custom document that how your qualifications take additional time,
specifically highlights and experience clearly preparation, analysis of
the experience and match the job duties the job announcement,
skills that are relevant to and may not fit the
the job. established guidelines.
5. Scannable A scannable résumé is Increasingly used to Scanners may not read
specifically formatted to facilitate search and the résumé correctly.
be read by a scanner retrieval, and to reduce
and converted to digital physical storage costs
information.
You may choose to include references at the end of your résumé, though “references upon
request” is common. You may also be tempted to extend your résumé to more than one page, but
don’t exceed that limit unless the additional page will feature specific, relevant information that
represents several years of work that directly relates to the position. The person reading your
résumé may be sifting through many applicants and will not spend time reading extra pages. Use
the one-page format to put your best foot forward, remembering that you may never get a second
chance to make a good first impression.
Maximize Scannable Résumé Content
Use Key Words

Just as there are common search terms, and common words in relation to each position, job
description, or description of duties, your scannable résumé needs to mirror these common terms.
Use of nonstandard terms may not stand out, and your indication of “managed employees” may
not get the same attention as the word “supervision” or “management.”
Follow Directions
If a job description uses specific terms, refers to computer programs, skills, or previous experience,
make sure you incorporate that language in your scannable résumé. You know that when given a
class assignment, you are expected to follow directions; similarly, the employer is looking for spe-
cific skills and experience. By mirroring the employer’s language and submitting your application
documents in accord with their instructions, you convey a spirit of cooperation and an understand-
ing of how to follow instructions.
Insert a Key Word Section

Consider a brief section that lists common words associated with the position as a skills summary:
customer service, business communication, sales, or terms and acronyms common to the business
or industry.
Make It Easy to Read

You need to make sure your résumé is easy to read by a computer, including a character recognition
program. That means no italics, underlining, shading, boxes, or lines. Choose a sans serif (without
serif, or decorative end) font like Arial or Tahoma that won’t be misread. Simple, clear fonts that
demonstrate no points at which letters may appear to overlap will increase the probability of the
computer getting it right the first time. In order for the computer to do this, you have to consider
your audience—a computer program that will not be able to interpret your unusual font or odd
word choice. A font size of eleven or twelve is easier to read for most people, and while the com-
puter doesn’t care about font size, the smaller your font, the more likely the computer is to make
the error of combining adjacent letters.
Printing, Packaging and Delivery

Use a laser printer to get crisp letter formation. Inkjet printers can have some “bleed” between char-
acters that may make them overlap, and therefore be misunderstood. Folds can make it hard to scan
your document. E-mail your résumé as an attachment if possible, but if a paper version is required,
don’t fold it. Use a clean, white piece of paper with black ink; colors will only confuse the computer.
Deliver the document in a nine-by-twelve-inch envelope, stiffened with a sheet of card- stock
(heavy paper or cardboard) to help prevent damage to the document.
FIGURE 9.11 Sample Format for Chronological Résumé
FIGURE 9.12 Sample Format for Functional Résumé

FIGURE 9.13 Sample Format for Scannable Résumé

Key Takeaway
A résumé will represent your skills, education, and experience in your absence. Businesses
increasingly scan résumés into searchable databases.
1. Find a job announcement with specific duties that represents a job that you will be prepared
for upon graduation. Choose a type of résumé and prepare your résumé to submit to the
employer as a class assignment. Your instructor may also request a scannable version of
your résumé.
2. Conduct an online search for a functional or chronological résumé. Please post and share
3. Conduct an online search for job advertisements that detail positions you would be inter-
ested in, and note the key job duties and position requirements. Please post one example
and share with your classmates.
4.
5. Conduct an online search for resources to help you prepare your own résumé. Please post
one link and a brief review of the Web site, noting what features you found useful and at least
one recommendation for improvement.
9.7 Sales Message
1.
2.
sales message A sales message is the central persuasive message that intrigues, informs, persuades, calls to action,
and closes the sale. Not every sales message will make a direct sale, but the goal remains. Whether
The central persuasive
message that intrigues,
your sales message is embedded in a letter, represented in a proposal, or broadcast across radio or
television, the purpose stays the same.
to action, and closes the
sale. Sales messages are often discussed in terms of reason versus emotion. Every message has ele-
ments of ethos, or credibility; pathos, or passion and enthusiasm; and logos, or logic and reason. If
your sales message focuses exclusively on reason with cold, hard facts and nothing but the facts,
Credibility.
you may appeal to some audience, but certainly not the majority. Buyers make purchase decisions
on emotion as well as reason, and even if they have researched all the relevant facts about compet-
ing products, the decision may still come down to impulse, emotion, and desire. If your sales
message focuses exclusively on emotion, with little or no substance, it may not be taken seriously.
Finally, if your sales message does not appear to have credibility, the message will be dismissed. In
the case of the sales message, you need to meet the audience’s needs that vary greatly.
Logic and reason. In general, appeals to emotion pique curiosity and get our attention, but some attention to rea-
son and facts should also be included. That doesn’t mean we need to spell out the technical manual
on the product on the opening sale message, but basic information about design or features, in spe-
cific, concrete ways can help an audience make sense of your message and the product or service.
Avoid using too many abstract terms or references, as not everyone will understand these. You
want your sales message to do the work, not the audience.
Format for a Common Sales Message

A sales message has the five main parts of any persuasive message.
TABLE 9.6 Five Main Parts of a Persuasive Message

Attention Statement Use humor, novelty, surprise, or the unusual to
get attention.
Introduction Build interest by appealing to common needs and
wants, and include a purpose statement to set up
expectations.
Body Establish credibility, discuss attractive features,
and compare with competitors, addressing con-
cerns or potential questions before they are even
considered.
Conclusion Sum it up and offer solution steps or calls to
action, motivating the audience to take the next
step. The smaller the step, the more likely the
audience will comply. Set up your audience for an
effective closing.
Residual Message Make the sale, make them remember you, and
make sure your final words relate to the most
important information, like a contact phone num-
ber.
Getting Attention
Your sales message will compete with hundreds of other messages and you want it to stand out.[11]
One effective way to do that is to make sure your attention statement(s) and introduction clearly
state how the reader or listener will benefit.
• Will the product or service save time or money?

• Will it make them look good?
• Will it entertain them?
• Will it satisfy them?
Regardless of the product or service, the audience is going to consider first what is in it for
them. A benefit is what the buyer gains with the purchase and is central to your sales message.
What the buyer gains with They may gain social status, popularity, sex appeal, or even reduce or eliminate something they
the purchase.
don’t want. Your sales message should clearly communicate the benefits of your product or service.[12]
Sales Message Strategies for Success

Your product or service may sell itself, but if you require a sales message, you may want to consider
these strategies for success:
1. Start with your greatest benefit. Use it in the headline, subject line, caption, or attention
statement. Audiences tend to remember the information from the beginning and end of a
message, but have less recall about the middle points. Make your first step count by highlight-
ing the best feature first.
2. Take baby steps. One thing at a time. Promote, inform, and persuade on one product or service
at a time. You want to hear “yes” and make the associated sale, and if you confuse the audience
with too much information, too many options, steps to consider, or related products or service,
you are more likely to hear “no” as a defensive response as the buyer tries not to make a mis-
take. Avoid confusion and keep it simple.
3. Know your audience. The more background research you can do on your buyer, the better you
can anticipate their specific wants and needs and individualize your sales message to meet
them.
4. Lead with emotion, follow with reason. Gain the audience’s attention with drama, humor, or
novelty and follow with specific facts that establish your credibility, provide more information
about the product or service, and lead to your call to action to make the sale.
These four steps can help improve your sales message, and your sales. Invest your time in plan-
ning and preparation, and consider the audience’s needs as you prepare your sales message.
FIGURE 9.14 Sample E-mail Sales Message
Business Sales Letter

Key Takeaway
A sales message combines emotion and reason, and reinforces credibility, to create interest in
a product or service that leads to a sale.
1. Create your own e-mail sales message in a hundred words or less. Share it with the class.
2. Identify one sales message you consider to be effective. Share it with classmates and dis-
cuss why you perceive it to be effective.
3. Please consider one purchase you made recently. What motivated you to buy and why did
you choose to complete the purchase? Share the results with your classmates.
4. Are you more motivated by emotion or reason? Ask ten friends that question and post your
results.

Visit NetLingo for some common texting abbreviations. http://www.netlingo.com/acronyms.php
The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University includes an area on e-mail etiquette. http:/
/owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/636/01
Shea’s Netiquette online is another useful source. http://www.albion.com/netiquette/book/
index.html
The New York Times blog “Gadgetwise: Getting Smart About Personal Technology” discusses
an ever-changing variety of questions related to netiquette. http://gadgetwise.blogs.nytimes.com
The OWL at Purdue also includes pages on memo writing and a sample memo. http://owl.
english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/590/01; http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/590/04
For 642 sample letters, from cover letters to complaints, go to this site. http://www.4hb.com/
letters
Visit this Negotiations.com page for information on writing a request for proposal, quotation,
and information. http://www.negotiations.com/articles/procurement-terms
Visit this site for additional proposal writing tips. http://www.4hb.com/
0350tipwritebizproposal.html
TechSoup offers a sample Request for Proposal. http://www.techsoup.org/support/articles-
and-how-tos/rfp-library
Your online profile counts as much as your résumé. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=105483848&sc=nl&cc=es-20090628
Read a Forbes article on “Ten Ways to Torpedo Your Sales Pitch.” http://www.forbes.com/2007/
08/01/microsoft-ebay-symantec-ent-sales-cx_mf_0801byb07_torpedo.html
Direct mail and other sales copy written by Susanna Hutcheson. http://www.powerwriting.
com/port.html
Visit this site for tips on how to write a public service announcement (PSA). http://www.
essortment.com/all/tiphowtowrite_rjbk.htm
The National Institute of Justice provides guidelines on writing a PSA. http://www.ojp.usdoj.

gov/nij/topics/courts/restorative-justice/marketing-media/psa.htm
The AdCouncil provides a range of examples. http://www.adcouncil.org/Impact/Case-Studies
Endnotes
1. Houston Chronicle. (2009, September 23). Deadly distraction: Texting while driving, twice as risky as drunk driving, should be banned. Houston Chronicle (3
STAR R.O. ed.), p. B8. Retrieved from http://www.chron.com/CDA/archives/archive.mpl?id=2009_4791006
2. Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.
3. Shea, V. (1994). Netiquette. San Francisco, CA: Albion Books.
4. Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/
japan/article5723942.ece
5. Bovee, C., & Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: a skills-based approach to vital business English (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
6. Riley, P. G. (2002). The one-page proposal: How to get your business pitch onto one persuasive page (p. 2). New York, NY: HarperCollins.
7. Baugh, L. S., & Hamper, R. J. (1995). Handbook for writing proposals (p. 3). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
8. Bovee, C., & Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: A skills-based approach to vital business English (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
9. Bennett, S. A. (2005). The elements of résumé style: Essential rules and eye-opening advice for writing résumés and cover letters that work. AMACOM.
10. Simons, W., & Curtis, R. (2004). The Résumé.com guide to writing unbeatable résumés. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
11. Price, D. (2005, October 30). How to communicate your sales message so buyers take action now! Retrieved June 14, 2009, from ezinearticles.com: http://
ezinearticles.com/?How-To-Communicate-Your-Sales-Message-So-Buyers-Take-Action-Now!&id=89569
12. Winston, W., & Granat, J. (1997). Persuasive advertising for entrepreneurs and small business owners: How to create more effective sales messages. New
York, NY: Routledge.
Developing Business
Presentations
It usually takes me more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech.
— Mark Twain
Being in the right does not depend on having a loud voice.

— Chinese Proverb
10.1 Getting Started
Introductory Exercises
1. Complete the following self-inventory by brainstorming as many items as you can for each
category. Think about anything you know, find interesting, or are involved in which relates to the
topics below. Have you traveled to a different city, state, or country? Do you have any projects
in other classes you find interesting? List them in the questions below.
• What do you read?
• What do you play or do for fun?
• What do you watch (visual media)?
• Where do you live or have you lived?
• What places have you visited (travel)?
• Whom do you know?
• What’s important to you?
• If you could change one thing in the world, what would it be?
Choose your three favorite categories from the list above and circle them. Then ask a friend what
they would be most interested in hearing about. Ask more than one friend, and keep score of
which item attracts the most attention. Make sure you keep track of who likes which category.
2. What do you know about the world?
a. What is the most populous country on the planet?
1. United States
2. India
3. China
4. Brazil
b. The United States is home to more foreign-born residents than any other country. Which
country has the next-highest number of foreign-born residents?[1]
1. Russia
2. England
3. India
4. Argentina
c. As of 2008, what percentage of the world’s population lived in an urban setting?
1. 15 percent
2. 30 percent
3. 50 percent
4. 60 percent
d. The world’s population was about 6.5 billion in early 2009. In what year is this figure
expected to double to 13 billion?[2]
1. 2090
2. 2027
3. 2067
4. 2109
Answers: a. 3, b. 1, c. 3, d. 3.
Mark Twain makes a valid point that presentations require preparation. If you have the luxury
of time to prepare, take full advantage of it. Speeches don’t always happen when or how we envi-
sion them. Preparation becomes especially paramount when the element of unknown is present,
forcing us to improvise. One mistake or misquote can and will be quickly rebroadcast, creating
lasting damage. Take full advantage of the time to prepare for what you can anticipate, but also
consider the element of surprise. In this chapter we discuss the planning and preparation neces-
sary to prepare an effective presentation. You will be judged on how well you present yourself, so
take the time when available to prepare.
Now that you are concerned with getting started and preparing a speech for work or class, let’s
consider the first step. It may be that you are part of a team developing a sales presentation, prepar-
ing to meet with a specific client in a one-on-one meeting, or even setting up a teleconference. Your
first response may be that a meeting is not a speech, but your part of the conversation has a lot in
common with a formal presentation. You need to prepare, you need to organize your message, and
you need to consider audience’s expectations, their familiarity with the topic, and even individual
word choices that may improve your effectiveness. Regardless whether your presentation is to one
individual (interpersonal) or many (group), it has as its foundation the act of communication. Com-
munication itself is a dynamic and complex process, and the degree to which you can prepare and
present effectively across a range of settings will enhance your success as a business communica-
tor.
If you have been assigned a topic by the teacher or your supervisor, you may be able to go
straight to the section on narrowing your topic. If not, then the first part of this chapter will help
you. This chapter will help you step by step in preparing for your speech or oral presentation. By
the time you have finished this chapter, you will have chosen a topic for your speech, narrowed the
topic, and analyzed the appropriateness of the topic for yourself as well as the audience. From this
basis, you will have formulated a general purpose statement and specific thesis statement to fur-
ther define the topic of your speech. Building on the general and specific purpose statements you
formulate, you will create an outline for your oral presentation.
Through this chapter, you will become more knowledgeable about the process of creating a
speech and gain confidence in your organizational abilities. Preparation and organization are two
main areas that, when well developed prior to an oral presentation, significantly contribute to
reducing your level of speech anxiety. If you are well prepared, you will be more relaxed when
it is time to give your speech. Effective business communicators have excellent communication
skills that can be learned through experience and practice. In this chapter we will work together to
develop your skills in preparing clear and concise messages to reach your target audience.
10.2 Before You Choose a Topic
1. Describe the steps in the process of planning a speech.
As you begin to think about choosing your topic, there are a few key factors to consider. These
include the purpose of the speech, its projected time length, the appropriateness of the topic for
your audience, and your knowledge or the amount of information you can access on the topic. Let’s
examine each of these factors.
Determine the General and Specific Purpose

It is important for you to have a clear understanding of your purpose, as all the other factors
depend on it. Here’s a brief review of the five general purposes for speaking in public:
1. Speech to inform. Increase the audience’s knowledge, teach about a topic or issue, and share
your expertise.
2. Speech to demonstrate. Show the audience how to use, operate, or do something.
3. Speech to persuade. Influence the audience by presenting arguments intended to change atti-
tudes, beliefs, or values.
4. Speech to entertain. Amuse the audience by engaging them in a relatively light-hearted speech
that may have a serious point or goal.
5. Ceremonial speech. Perform a ritual function, such as give a toast at a wedding reception or a
eulogy at a funeral.
You should be able to choose one of these options. If you find that your speech may fall into
more than one category, you may need to get a better understanding of the assignment or goal.
Starting out with a clear understanding of why you are doing what you are supposed do will go a
long way in helping you organize, focus, prepare, and deliver your oral presentation.
Once you have determined your general purpose—or had it determined for you, if this is an
assigned speech—you will still need to write your specific purpose. What specifically are you going
to inform, persuade, demonstrate, or entertain your audience with? What type of ceremony is your
speech intended for? A clear goal makes it much easier to develop an effective speech. Try to write
in just one sentence exactly what you are going to do.
Examples
To inform the audience about my favorite car, the Ford Mustang
To persuade the audience that global warming is a threat to the environment
Notice that each example includes two pieces of information. The first is the general purpose
(to inform or to persuade) and the second is the specific subject you intend to talk about.
Can I Cover the Topic in Time?

Your next key consideration is the amount of time in which you intend to accomplish your purpose.
Consider the depth, scope, and amount of information available on the topic you have in mind. In
business situations, speeches or presentations vary greatly in length, but most often the speaker
needs to get the message across as quickly as possible—for example, in less than five minutes. If
you are giving a speech in class, it will typically be five to seven minutes; at most it may be up
to ten minutes. In those ten minutes, it would be impossible to tell your audience about the com-
plete history of the Ford Mustang automobile. You could, however, tell them about four key body
style changes since 1965. If your topic is still too broad, narrow it down into something you can rea-
sonably cover in the time allotted. For example, focus on just the classic Mustangs, the individual
differences by year, and how to tell them apart.
You may have been assigned a persuasive speech topic, linking global warming to business,
but have you been given enough time to present a thorough speech on why human growth and
consumption is clearly linked to global warming? Are you supposed to discuss “green” strategies of
energy conservation in business, for example? The topic of global warming is quite complex, and
by definition involves a great deal of information, debate over interpretations of data, and analy-
sis on the diverse global impacts. Rather than try to explore the chemistry, the corporate debates,
or the current government activities that may be involved, you can consider how visual aids may
make the speech vivid for the audience. You might decide to focus on three clear examples of global
warming to capture your audience’s attention and move them closer to your stated position: “green”
and energy-saving strategies are good for business.
Perhaps you’ll start with a brownie on a plate with a big scoop of ice cream
FIGURE 10.1
Visual aids may make this speech vivid for the on top, asking your audience what will happen when the ice cream melts. They will
audience. probably predict that the melted ice cream will spread out over the plate in a puddle,
becoming a deeper puddle as the ice cream continues to melt. Next, you might
display a chart showing that globally, temperatures have risen, followed by a map
of the islands that have lost beaches due to rising tides. To explain how this had
happened, you may show two pictures of Antarctica—one taken in 1993 and the
other in 2003, after it lost over 15 percent of its total mass as the Ross Ice Shelf
melted, cracked, and broke off from the continent. You may then make a transition
to what happens when water evaporates as it goes into the atmosphere. Show
a picture of the hole in the ozone over Chile and much of South America, and hold
up a bottle of sunscreen, saying that even SPF 45 isn’t strong enough to protect you.
Finally, you may show a pie graph that illustrates that customers are aware of the
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation environmental changes and the extent of their pur-
chase decision is based on the perception of a product’s “green” features or support of related
initiatives. In just a few minutes, you’ve given seven visual examples to support your central posi-
tion and meet your stated purpose.
Will My Topic Be Interesting to My Audience?

Remember that communication is a two-way process; even if you are the only one speaking, the
audience is an essential part of your speech. Put yourself in their place and imagine how to make
your topic relevant for them. What information will they actually use once your speech is over?
For example, if you are speaking to a group of auto mechanics who specialize in repairing and
maintaining classic cars, it might make sense to inform them about the body features of the Mus-
tang, but they may already be quite knowledgeable about these features. If you represent a new
rust treatment product used in the restoration process, they may be more interested in how it
works than any specific model of car. However, if your audience belong to a general group of stu-
dents or would-be car buyers, it would be more useful to inform them about how to buy a classic
car and what to look for. General issues of rust may be more relevant, and can still be clearly linked
to your new rust treatment product.
For a persuasive speech, in addition to considering the audience’s interests, you will also want
to gauge their attitudes and beliefs. If you are speaking about global warming to a group of scien-
tists, you can probably assume that they are familiar with the basic facts of melting glaciers, rising
sea levels, and ozone depletion. In that case, you might want to focus on something more specific,
such as strategies for reducing greenhouse gases that can be implemented by business and indus-
try. Your goal might be to persuade this audience to advocate for such strategies, and support or
even endorse the gradual implementation of the cost- and energy-saving methods that may not
solve all the problems at once, but serve as an important first step.
In contrast, for a general audience, you may anticipate skepticism that global warming is even
occurring, or that it poses any threat to the environment. Some audience members may question
the cost savings, while others may assert that the steps are not nearly enough to make a difference.
The clear, visual examples described above will help get your point across, but if you are also pre-
pared to answer questions—for example, “If the earth is heating up, why has it been so cold here
lately?” or “Isn’t this just part of a warming and cooling cycle that’s been happening for millions of
years?”—you may make your speech ultimately more effective. By asking your listeners to consider
what other signs they can observe that global warming is occurring, you might highlight a way for
them to apply your speech beyond the classroom setting. By taking small steps as you introduce
your assertions, rather than advocating a complete overhaul of the system or even revolution, you
will more effectively engage a larger percentage of your audience.
How Much Information about My Topic Is

Readily Available?
For a short speech, especially if it is a speech to entertain, you may be able to rely completely on
your knowledge and ideas. But in most cases you will need to gather information so that you can
make your speech interesting by telling the audience things they don’t already know. Try to choose
a topic that can be researched in your college or university libraries. You may need to do some initial
checking of sources to be sure the material is available.
Putting It All Together

When you have determined your general purpose, the amount of material appropriate to the time
allowed for your speech, and the appropriateness for your audience, then you should be well on
your way to identifying the topic for your speech. As a double-check, you should be able to state
your specific purpose in one sentence. For example, the specific purpose of our “Classic Cars” speech
could be stated as, “By the end of my speech, I want my audience to be more informed about the
three ways in which they can determine whether a classic car is a rust bucket or diamond in the
rough, and be aware of one product solution.”
Key Takeaway
Speech planning begins with knowing your general and specific purpose, your time allotment,
your audience, and the amount of information available.
1. Complete the following sentence for your speech: By the end of my speech, I want the audi-
ence to be more informed (persuaded, have a better understanding of, entertained by) about
.
If you can’t finish the sentence, you need to go back and review the steps in this section.
Make sure you have given them sufficient time and attention. An effective speech requires
planning and preparation, and that takes time. Know your general and specific purpose, and
make sure you can write it in one sentence. If you don’t know your purpose, the audience
won’t either.
2. Make a list of topic that interest you and meet the objectives of the assignment. Trade the
list with a classmate and encircle three topics that you would like to learn more about on their
list. Repeat this exercise. What topic received the most interest and why? Discuss the results
10.3 Choosing a Topic
1. Identify the general purpose and specific purpose of a speech.

Now that you have a clear idea of your general and specific purpose, the allotted time, your audi-
ence’s expectations, and the amount of information available, you are ready to commit to a topic.
We have several strategies you can use to help select and narrow the topic appropriately.
Know Yourself and Your Audience

The first strategy is to identify an area of knowledge or an issue that deeply interests you. If you
have not already completed the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, please work
with it, identifying as many activities, areas of interest, places you’ve traveled to, and things you
find interesting as possible. Once you have completed the exercise, identify three broad subject
areas where you have some knowledge or experience and consider at least one link to business and
industry for each area. Talking about what you know will make you a more credible speaker but
it must clearly connect with your employer’s goals for your presentation as well. If, for example,
you like doing a scrapbook, what kind of glue do you prefer and why? That may make for a natural
speech topic that calls on your previous experience while requiring you to learn more about the
glue and its properties. You may need to compare and contrast several types of glues as part of your
preparation. Your in-depth awareness of scrapbooking and glue as a necessary ingredient will make
you a more credible speaker.
In the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, you were asked to choose three
questions from the list and then survey people you know to find out which of the three they
prefer to hear about. Make sure you keep score by writing down factors like age, gender, and any
other elements you think your audience may have in common. This exercise serves to reinforce the
idea of being audience-centered, or tailoring your message to your specific audience. Our third of
the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter should highlight that our perception of the world is
not always accurate, and there is no substitute for thorough, objective research when preparing a
speech. The more you know, about yourself and your audience, the better you can prepare to meet
their needs and accomplish your goals as a speaker.
You have now utilized the "Introductory Exercises" to help identify some broad topic areas that
might work for you. If you find the topic interesting, your enthusiasm will show and your audience
will become interested, too. Next, you will want to decide which of these areas would work best for
your speech, and how to narrow it down.
Saving Time
Here are some strategies you can use to save yourself time in selecting a speech topic.
First, consider the information you already have close at hand. Do you already have a project
you are working on, perhaps in another course? What are you currently studying in your other
classes? What topics do you want to know more about? Which issues or aspects initially drew you
to this topic or area? Chances are that whatever piqued your interest the first time will also get
your audience interested.
Next, conduct a search (online, in the library, or interview people you know) in your subject
area to get an overview of the subject. Explore topics, issues, places, or people that fascinate you.
Appeal, Appropriateness, and Ability

These are three main factors to consider when choosing a topic. All three factors are related to one
another, but by systematically focusing on each one you will help address the strengths and weak-
nesses of your chosen topic.
Appeal involves the attractive power of arousing a sympathetic, stimulated response from the
Involves the attractive audience. Your audience will have expectations of you as a speaker and of your purpose for speak-
power of arousing a ing. We all tend to seek novelty and find interesting, attractive, or appealing, or something that is
not part of everyday life. A good example is the melting ice cream used in the speech on global
response from the
warming. The elements are nothing new. We’ve all seen plates, brownies, and ice cream before, but
audience.
how many of us have seen a speaker use them together to symbolize the melting ice caps associ-
ated with global warming? There is an inherent novelty present when we adapt something from
its original purpose in order to make it appealing. You will need to consider an appealing way to
start your speech, and will look for ways throughout your speech to reaffirm that appeal to the
audience. When considering a topic, also think about the visual or auditory images that come to
mind, or how you might represent it to an audience in ways other than your words. This can guide
you as you proceed to select your topic, thinking about what you can make appealing to your audi-
ence.
It also follows that appeal applies to the speaker as well as the audience. You may find the
prospect of discussing global warming not very interesting, and if you feel this way, it will come
through in your speech. You need to be attracted, interested or find your topic appealing in order
to convey this appeal to your audience. Find something that catches your interest, and that same
spark is what you will cultivate to develop ways to stimulate the spark of curiosity in your audience.
Appropriateness involves a topic that is especially suitable or compatible with your audience’s
interest, expectations, norms, or customs. Everyone will have expectations about roles and out-
Involves a topic that is
especially suitable or comes associated with your speech. Some may be looking for information, while others may
compatible with your already know something about your topic and want to learn more. You will need to reach both
audience’s interest, groups within the audience. As we saw earlier in the Ford Mustang example, a highly technical
expectations, norms, or speech may lose the more novice members of your audience.
customs.
Appropriateness is important because some topics do not work as well in a classroom setting
as others. Will everyone find a new rust treatment product interesting? Will everyone find a car
speech interesting? Whether you are in the classroom or business office setting, consider your audi-
ence and the appropriateness of your topic.
Regardless where you give a speech, you should always choose topics that will not promote
harmful or illegal actions. It is also important to consider whether your topic might offend mem-
bers of the audience. If this is a possibility, can you find a way to present the topic that will
minimize offense? Similarly, if your topic is controversial and you know that your audience has
strong feelings about it, consider how you can convey your message without alienating or antago-
nizing your listeners. Finally, it is usually wise to avoid topics, which the audience already knows a
lot about.
Ability involves the natural aptitude or acquired proficiency to be able to perform. If you have
a lot of prior information on flying, gained over years of experience being at the controls of an air-
Involves the natural
craft, you may have a natural aptitude and knowledge base to use to your advantage. If, however, aptitude or acquired
you’ve never flown before, you may need to gather information and go visit an airport to be able to proficiency to be able to
approach a proficient level of understanding to discuss the topic. perform.
In addition to your ability to draw on your natural strengths, you’ll also want
FIGURE 10.2
to consider your ability to research a topic where you are located. If you want to Consider your audience and the
develop a speech on a particular topic but you find information hard to come by, appropriateness of your topic, product, or
this will make your job even harder and could possibly have a detrimental impact service for success.
on your speech. You may find that two similar topics interest you but your ability
to gather information from more diverse sources, from places that are more read-
ily available, or from your background and experience make one topic more
attractive than the other.
Consider topics that are,
• new,
• possibly controversial,
• clear,
• supported by information you can find in outside sources, © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
• interesting to you.
Individual course guidelines vary, so make sure that your instructor approves your topic, and
that your topic is appropriate for your audience. At some colleges and universities, broad topics are
designated as part of the curriculum including, for example, environment, diversity, and technol-
ogy. In your class, you may be challenged to link any of those topics to business, and to prepare an
informative or persuasive speech. Some colleges and university instructors may also encourage you
not to choose topics that have been done repeatedly over the years, like abortion or the death
penalty, unless you can connect the issue to a current event or new perspective. Don’t avoid all con-
troversial topics, as they often intrigue your audience and help maintain interest. Just make sure to
consider the pre-existing attitudes of your audience when attempting to create an effective, engag-
ing speech.
In a business setting, you will rarely be given complete freedom to choose your topic. You may
even have a script and visual aids prepared in advance. In the real world the luxury of time for
preparation and topic selection are rare, but in a classroom setting you are often given more of an
opportunity to choose. That choice should not be taken lightly, and should be viewed as an oppor-
tunity. The classroom is a training ground, and your freedom to explore and experiment is designed
to build skills and strengths. When you join an employer, you will be asked to prepare a presenta-
tion as part of the job; more often than not, there are clear guidelines on what is acceptable and
your professionalism is expected.
Use Your Self-Inventory

Choosing a topic can be difficult, but your self-inventory of things you already know should get you
started. By doing a little exploring, you can often help yourself come up with several possible topics.
The topic itself will not exclusively make a “good” or “bad” speech. How you develop that topic and
discuss its points and issues, however, will make a significant impact. Before moving on to the next
step in this chapter, make sure you have a topic in which you are relatively confident. If you have
trouble selecting a topic, take your self-inventory to your instructor or librarian. They may be able
to help guide you to a topic that works for you.
Here are some examples to get you started. Let’s say your self-inventory response from the first
of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter to the question, “What do you play or do for fun?”
is to play sports, and it also happens to be one way you are earning your way through school on
a scholarship. You could consider a topic like the history of your sport for an informative speech,
or how to tell the difference between three classic types of pitches in baseball, and which you can
involve an audience member for a demonstrative speech. You could also consider stereotypes of
athletes in college and some of the common misperceptions and persuade the audience that ath-
letes often handle the issues of time management well, can get good grades (provide statistics as
evidence and ask a coach for examples), and are actively developing both their minds and their
bodies through participation in sports. You might even take on a topic of why basketball is more
interesting than football, or vice versa. You might decide instead to entertain the audience, and tell
stories associated with game travel, buses breaking down, or road trips gone bad. Finally, you might
put together a ceremonial speech honoring an Academic All-American player, recognizing his or her
excellence both in academics and in athletics.
If you are not a student athlete, but a college student, you may have answered that same ques-
tion by indicating you are taking classes for a degree as well as for fun. You could put together an
informative speech on the steps involved in applying for financial aid, or produce a demonstrative
speech on how to gather the information required and complete the application process. You might
persuade the audience to apply for financial aid, even if they think they might not be eligible, and
cover the options within the program. You might entertain the audience with funny stories about
the challenges of registering for classes, completing financial aid, and completing the classes you
need to graduate. (There is always just one more class, right?) You might also draft a ceremonial
speech as if you were presenting the commencement speech at your graduation.
These two scenarios should stimulate some ideas, or you might already have a clear purpose
and topic in mind. It’s important to be clear on both your purpose and your topic as you begin to
put pencil to paper, or keystroke to computer, and begin the process of writing your general pur-
pose and thesis statements.
Writing Your Thesis Statement

Earlier in the chapter you wrote a statement expressing the general and specific purpose of your
speech. Now that you have explored further and identified a definite topic, it’s time to write a thesis
A short, specific sentence
statement. This thesis statement should be a short, specific sentence capturing the central idea of
capturing the central idea
of your speech. your speech. Steven Beebe and Susan Beebe[3] recommend five guiding principles when considering
your thesis statement. The thesis statement should
1. be a declarative statement;
2. be a complete sentence;
3. use specific language, not vague generalities;
4. be a single idea;
5. reflect consideration of the audience.
For example, if you plan to inform a general audience about the Ford Mustang, a good thesis
statement might be, “Ford produced five ‘generations’ of the Mustang, each with a distinctive body
style that audience members can learn to recognize.” If you plan to persuade a group of investors
that a beachfront property could be threatened by rising sea levels, a good thesis statement might
be, “Sea levels are predicted to rise because of global warming, and if these predictions are correct,
the beachfront property my audience is considering investing in may be threatened.”
The thesis statement is key to the success of your speech. If your audience has to work to find
out what exactly you are talking about, or what your stated purpose or goal is, they will be less
likely to listen, be impacted, or recall your speech. By stating your point clearly in your introduction,
and then referring back to it during your speech, you promote the cognitive strategies of empha-
sis, clarity, and conciseness, and help your audience to listen while meeting the expectations of the
rhetorical context.
In this video, criteria is given for choosing a persuasive speech topic for Ms. Price's Speech that
follows Monroe's Motivated Sequence. Types of topics that tend to work well with MMS, as well
as types of topics that tend to NOT work well for this assignment, are also highlighted.
Key Takeaway
and
understanding appeal, appropriateness, and ability. When you have accomplished these steps,
you will be able to write a good thesis statement.
them to remedy their weaknesses.

a. Living in the desert as we do, my listeners and I can grow many beautiful and inter-
esting plants in our gardens without using large amounts of water.
b. To inform patients about how the medical insurance claims process works.
c. Because recent research suggests children develop positive self-esteem through
recognition for their achievements, not from indiscriminate praise, I will persuade the
parents and teachers in my audience to modify their behavior toward children.
d. Tourists can learn a lot from visiting the European battlefields of World War II, and
unexploded land mines from past wars are a serious problem throughout the world.
e. As a student attending this college on an athletic scholarship, I lead a very busy life
because I am responsible for working hard at my sport as well as being held to the
same academic standards as the nonathlete students in my audience.
Answers: Examples a, c, and e are good thesis statements. Example b is not a complete
sentence. Example d contains more than one main idea.
2. From your list of possible topics, write several sample purpose or thesis statements. Share
and compare your results with classmates.
3. Write a general purpose statement and thesis statement for a speech to inform. Now adapt
these statements for a speech to persuade.
10.4 Finding Resources
1.
2.
3.
Now that you know your general purpose, have committed to a topic, and have written your thesis
statement, it’s time to gather information. If you have chosen the topic from your list, you probably
already know a lot about it. But in most cases you will still need information from sources other
than yourself, to establish credibility, create a more comprehensive speech, and to make sure no
important aspect of your topic is left out.
Your time is valuable and you’ll need to plan ahead to avoid a rushed frenzy right before your
due date. You’ll feel more confident if you budget your time wisely and give yourself an opportunity
to reflect on what you have prepared, and this will help you feel more relaxed as you deliver your
speech, reducing your speech anxiety.
Narrow Your Topic and Focus on Key Points

By now you have developed an idea of your topic, but even with your purpose and thesis statement,
you may still have a broad subject that will be a challenge to cover within the allotted time. You
might want to revisit your purpose and thesis statement and ask yourself: how specific is my topic?
If flying an airplane is your topic area and you are going to inform your audience on the experi-
ence, discuss the history and basic equipment, and cover the basic requirements necessary to go on
your first flight. Plus, look at reference information on where your audience could go locally to take
flying lessons, you might find that five to seven minutes simply is not enough time. Rather than
stating that you need more time, or that you’ll just rush through it, consider your audience and
what they might want to learn. How can you narrow your topic to better consider their needs? As
you edit your topic, considering what is essential information and what can be cut, you’ll come to
focus on the key points naturally and reduce the pressure on yourself to cover too much informa-
tion in a short amount of time.
If you haven’t presented many speeches, five to seven minutes may seem like an eternity, but
when you are in front of the audience, the time will pass quickly. Consider how you feel about the
areas of your speech and you’ll soon see how it could easily turn into an hour-long presentation.
You need to work within the time limits, and show your audience respect as you stay within them,
recognizing that they too will be presenting speeches in the same time frame. For yourself and your
audience, narrow your topic to just the key points. Perhaps you will begin with a description and
a visual image of your first flight, followed by a list of the basic equipment and training needed.
Finally, a reference to local flying schools may help you define your speech. While the history of fly-
ing may be fascinating, and may serve as a topic in itself for another speech, it would add too much
information to this particular brief speech.
As you begin this process, keep an open mind for the reference materials available. The access
to information on the Internet is amazing, but not all the information has equal value. Try not to
just go with the first three examples, Web sites or sources you run across but instead skim, rather
than read in-depth, the information at that relates to your topic and what you find of interest. Look
for abstracts, or brief summaries of information, before you commit time to reading an article all
the way through. Look for indexes to identify key terms you might want to cover before eliminat-
ing them as you narrow your topic. Take notes as you search or bookmark pages with your Web
browser in order to go back to a site or source that at first you passed over, but now think may
make a relevant contribution to your speech. Consider the source and their credibility. While a high
school Web page assignment may prove interesting, the link to the research in the field, the author
of a study, or a university source may provide much credible information. Once you have identified
sources you consider to be valuable, you will assemble the information and key points needed to
make your speech more effective.
Plan Your Search for Information

When preparing a speech, it is important to gather information from books, magazines, news-
papers, electronic sources, and interviews from people who know a lot about your topic. With
information from a variety of sources, you will have many possibilities when it comes to developing
your speech. If you keep in mind the key information you need to support your thesis, you will
save yourself time, as you can choose and edit information as you go along. Also, consider your
other responsibilities in other classes or with work and family. You’ll have to schedule time for your
investigation and make it a priority, but it will necessarily compete with other priorities. Perhaps
scheduling for yourself time in the library, a visit to the local flight school to interview a flight
instructor, and some Internet search time in the evenings may help you create a to-do list that you
can use to structure your research. Remember that this investigation will be more fun if your topic
is one in which you are actually interested.
Before you go to the library, look over your information sources. Do you read a magazine that
relates to the topic? Did you read a recent news article that might be relevant? Is there a book, CD-
ROM, or music that has information you can use? Think of what you want your audience to know,
and how you could show it to them. Perhaps cover art from a CD, or line from a poem may make an
important contribution to your speech. You might even know someone who has experience in the
area you want to research.
As you begin to investigate your topic, make sure you consider several sides of an issue. Let’s say
you are going to make an informative speech at a town council meeting about the recent history
of commuter rail service in your town. At first, you may have looked at two sides, rail versus private
cars. Automobile dealers, oil companies, and individual drivers wanted the flexibility of travel by car,
while rail advocates argued that commuter trains would lower costs and energy consumption. If you
take another look, you see that several other perspectives also have bearing on this issue. Many
workers commuted by bus prior to the railroad, so the bus companies would not want the competition.
Property owners objected to the noise of trains and the issue of eminent domain (i.e., taking of private
property by the government). To serve several towns that are sep-
arated by open space, the rail lines cut through wildlife habitat and migration corridors. We now
have five perspectives to the central issue, which makes the topic all the more interesting.
Make sure, as you start your investigation for information, that you always question the cred-
ibility of the information. Sources may have no review by peers or editor, and the information may
be misleading, biased, or even false. Be a wise information consumer.
Ethics, Content Selection, and Avoiding

Plagiarism
An aspect of sifting and sorting information involves how you will ethically present your material.
You may be tempted to omit information that may be perceived as negative or may not be well
received. For example, you may be tempted to omit mention of several train accidents that have
occurred, or of the fact that train fares have risen as service has been cut back. If your purpose
is to inform, you owe it to your audience to give an honest presentation of the available facts. By
omitting information, you are not presenting an accurate picture, and may mislead your audience.
Even if your purpose is to persuade, omitting the opposing points will present a one-sided presen-
tation. The audience will naturally consider what you are not telling them as well as what you are
presenting, and will raise questions. Instead, consider your responsibility as a speaker to present all
the information you understand to be complete, and do it honestly and ethically.
As another example, suppose you work for a swimming pool construction company and are
speaking to inform a neighborhood group about pool safety. You have photos of pools you have
worked on, but they aren’t very exciting. There are many more glamorous swimming pool photos
on free Internet sites. Who can really tell if the pool in the picture is yours or not? Furthermore, the
“Terms of Use” on the site state that photos may be downloaded for personal use. Wouldn’t this
speech to inform be considered personal use? In fact, it probably would not, even if your informa-
tive speech is not a direct sales pitch. And even if you don’t actually tell your audience, “My company
built this pool,” it would be reasonable for them to assume you did unless you specifically tell them
otherwise.
As a student, you are no doubt already aware that failing to cite sources or including a sentence
or paragraph you copied from a blog on the Internet for an English essay is called plagiarism and
is grounds for an F on your paper. At many schools, plagiarism can even be grounds for expulsion.
Similarly, in your professional life it behooves you to be truthful with your audience and give credit
where credit is due for several reasons. First, misrepresenting your employer’s work could be illegal
under statutes related to fraud; it could put not only your job but also your employer’s contractor
license in jeopardy. Second, someone in your audience could recognize one of the photos (after all,
they can browse the Internet as easily as you can) and embarrass you by pointing it out during your
presentation. Third, by using photos that display your company’s actual work you will feel more
confident, reducing your speech anxiety. You have a responsibility to your audience and engaging
in plagiarism fails in that responsibility.
Staying Organized
Before you start browsing on your computer, go to the library, or make the trip for an interview,
make sure you have designated a space where you can keep all your materials in one place. Decide
on a name for the project and use it to set up a subdirectory in your computer as well as a physical
receptacle, such as a cardboard box or a manila folder.
As you gather information online, open a new document in whatever writing program you
use and save it as “Sources.” Every time you find information that may prove useful, copy the Web
address or reference/citation information and paste it into your document. If you are gathering
information from books or periodicals, use one sheet of paper as your “Sources” document. This
will save you a lot of time later when you are polishing your speech.
Plan to use your time effectively. What information do you hope to find in the library? Make
a list. Try to combine tasks and get your investigation completed efficiently. Go to the library once
with a list, rather than three times without one. Ask the research librarian for assistance in group-
ing information and where to find it.
As you search through articles, books, Web sites, and images for your presentation, consider
how each element relates specifically to the key points in your speech. Don’t just look for the first
citation or reference that fits your list. Rushing through the research process can result in leaving
out key areas of support or illustration in your speech, an outcome you may not be happy with.
Instead, enjoy the fun of searching for material for your speech—but be aware that it is easy for
your list under each key point to grow and grow with “must include” information. As we discussed
earlier, narrowing your topic is a key strategy in crafting a good speech. Try not to “commit” to infor-
mation until you have gathered more than you need, then go back and choose the most relevant
and most interesting facts, quotations, and visual aids.
You might think of this as the “accordion phase” of preparing your speech, as the amount of
material first gets bigger and then smaller. You’ll feel a sense of loss as you edit and come to realize
that your time frame simply does not allow for all the great information you found—but remem-
ber that nobody else will know what didn’t go into your speech, they will just appreciate the good
material you did choose. As you sift through information, look for the promising, effective elements
to include and omit the rest. In your English class, you often need to edit and revise a paper to pro-
duce a rough draft before your final draft. This process parallels the production of a rough draft. By
taking notes with your key point in mind, you’ll begin to see your speech come together.
Searching for Information on the Internet

Finding information on the Internet or in electronic databases can decrease your search time, but
you will still need to budget time to accomplish the tasks associated with reviewing, selecting, inter-
preting, and incorporating information to your particular use.
The World Wide Web is an amazing source of information, but for that very reason, it is difficult
to get information you actually need. Let’s look at two issues that can make searching online easier:
where and how to search for information.
Knowing where to go for information is as important as knowing key words and concepts
related to your topic. Do you need general information? Do you need to survey what’s available
quickly? Do you prefer searching only reviewed sites? Is your topic education-related? Depending
on your answer, you may want to consider where to start your search.
Table 10.1 presents a summary of main search engines and how they might work for you.
TABLE 10.1 Some Examples of Internet Search Sites

Description URL
General Web searches that can also be cus- • http://www.google.com

tomized according to categories like news, maps, • http://www.itools.com/research-it
images, video
• http://www.search.com
• http://www.yahoo.com
Dictionaries and encyclopedias • http://www.britannica.com

• http://dictionary.reference.com
• http://www.encyclopedia.com
• http://www.merriam-webster.com
• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
Very basic information on a wide range of topics • http://www.about.com

• http://www.answers.com
To find people or businesses in white pages or • http://www.switchboard.com

yellow pages listings • http://www.anywho.com
• http://www.whitepages.com
• http://www.yellowpages.com
Specialized databases—may be free, require reg- • http://www.apa.org/psycinfo

istration, or require a paid subscription
Search
• http://www.peoplelookup.com
At the end of this chapter under “Additional Resources,” you will find a list of many Web sites
that may be useful for public speaking research.
Evaluating Your Sources

It is important to be aware of how much online information is incomplete, outdated, misleading,
or downright false. Anyone can put up a Web site, and once it is up the owner may or may not
enter updates or corrections on a regular basis. Anyone can write a blog on any subject, whether or
not that person actually knows much about that subject. Anyone who wishes to contribute to a
Wikipedia article can do so—although the postings are moderated by editors who have to register
and submit their qualifications. In the United States, the First Amendment to the Constitution
guarantees freedom of expression. This freedom is restricted by laws against libel (false accusa-
tions against a person) and indecency, especially child pornography, but those laws can be difficult
to enforce. It is always important to look beyond the surface of a site to who sponsors it, where the
information displayed came from, and whether the site owner has a certain agenda.
In gathering information for your speech, you will want to draw on reputable, reliable
sources—printed ones as well as electronic ones—because they reflect on the credibility of the
message, and the messenger. Analyzing and assessing information is an important skill in speech
preparation, and here are six main points to consider when evaluating a document, presentation,
or similar source of information.[4] In general, documents that represent quality reasoning have
• a clearly articulated purpose and goal;

• a question, problem, or issue to address;
• information, data, and evidence that is clearly relevant to the stated purpose and goals;
• inferences or interpretations that lead to conclusions based on the presented information,
data, and evidence;
• a frame of reference or point of view that is clearly articulated;
• assumptions, concepts, and ideas that are clearly articulated
An additional question to ask is how credible the source is. This question can be hard to answer
even with years of training and expertise. Academic researchers have been trained in the objec-
tive, impartial use of the scientific method to determine validity and reliability. But as research is
increasingly dependent on funding, and funding often brings specific points of view and agendas
with it, pure research can be—and has been—compromised. You can no longer simply assume that
“studies show” something without finding out who conducted the study, how it was conducted, and
who funded the effort. This may sound like a lot of investigation and present quite a challenge, but
again it is worth the effort.
Information literacy is an essential skill set in the process of speech preparation. As you learn
to spot key signs of information that will not serve to enhance your credibility and contribute to
your presentation, you can increase your effectiveness as you research and analyze your resources.
For example, suppose you are preparing an informative speech on safety in the workplace. You
might come upon a site owned by a consulting company that specializes in safety analysis. The
site might give many statistics, illustrating the frequency of on-the-job accidents, repetitive motion
injuries, workplace violence, and so on. But the sources of these percentage figures may not be
credited. As an intelligent researcher, you need to ask yourself whether the consulting company
that owns the site performed its own research to get these numbers. Most likely it did not—so
why are the sources not cited? Moreover, such a site would unlikely mention any free workplace
safety resources available and free from sources such as the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA). Less biased sources of information would be the American Management
Association, the U.S. Department of Labor, and other not-for-profit organizations that study work-
place safety.
The Internet also encompasses thousands of interactive sites where readers can ask and
answer questions. Some sites, like Askville by Amazon.com, WikiAnswers, and Yahoo! Answers, are
open to almost any topic. Others, like ParentingQuestions and WebMD, deal with specific topics.
Chat rooms on bridal Web sites allow couples who are planning a wedding to share advice and com-
pare prices for gowns, florists, caterers, and so on. Reader comment sites like Newsvine facilitate
discussions about current events. Customer reviews are available for just about everything imag-
inable, from hotels and restaurants to personal care products, home improvement products, and
sports equipment. These contributors are not experts, nor do they pretend to be. Some may have
extreme opinions that are not based in reality. Then, too, it is always possible for a vendor to “plant”
favorable customer reviews on the Internet to make its product look good. Although the “terms of
use,” which contributors must agree to usually forbid the posting of advertisements, profanity, or
personal attacks, some sites do a better job than others in monitoring and deleting such material.
Nevertheless, if your speech research involves finding out how the “average person” feels about an
issue in the news, or whether a new type of home exercise device really works as advertised, these
comment and customer review sites can be very useful indeed.
It may seem like it’s hard work to assess your sources, to make sure your information is accu-
rate and truthful, but the effort is worth it. Business and industry rely on reputation and trust, just
as we individuals do, in order to maintain healthy relationships. Your speech is an important part
of that reputation and interaction.
Compiling Your Information

When you have investigated and narrowed your topic, it’s time to compile your information.
Compiling involves composing your speech out of materials from the documents and other sources
you have collected. This process has seven major steps, adapted from a model by Anderson, Anderson speech out of materials
and Williams: sensitivity, exposure, assimilation and accommodation, incubation, incorporation, from the documents and
production and revision.[5] other sources you have
collected.
Sensitivity refers to your capacity to respond to stimulation, be excited, be responsive, or be
susceptible to new information. This starts with your self-inventory of what you are interested or
involved in as you did in the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter. If you are
Your capacity to respond
intrigued by a topic or area of interest, your enthusiasm will carry through to your speech and to stimulation, be excited,
make it more stimulating for your audience. You may not have considered, or even noticed, ele- be responsive, or be
ments or ideas associated with your topic, but now that you have begun the process of susceptible to new
information.
investigation, you see them everywhere. For example, have you ever heard someone say a word or
phrase that you never heard before, but now that you are familiar with it, you hear it everywhere?
This same principle applies to your sensitivity to ideas related to your topic. You’ll notice informa-
tion and it will help you as you develop your awareness of your topic and the many directions you
could take the speech. Cognitive psychologist use the term “priming” to refer to this excited state of
awareness.[6]
Exposure involves your condition of being presented views, ideas, experiences, or made known
to you through direct experience. If you are thinking of giving an informative speech on flying an
airplane but have never flown before, your level of exposure may be low. Your level of awareness Involves your condition of
being presented with
may be high, however, in terms of the importance of security on commercial airlines after reading
about, watching on television, or hearing on the radio stories after the events of September 11, 2001. or made known to you
You may decide to expose yourself to more information through a range of sources as you investi-
gate the topic of airline security. The more you become exposed to the issues, processes and goals
of your topic, the more likely you are to see areas of interest, think of new ideas that might fit in
your speech, and form patterns of awareness you did not perceive previously.
Assimilation and accommodation refers to the process by which you integrate (assimilate)
new ideas into your thinking patterns, and adopt (accommodate) or filter out new sources of infor-
mation as they relate to your goal. You may have had preconceived notions or ideas about airline
integrate new ideas into
security before you began your investigation, but new information has changed the way you view your thinking patterns.
your topic. You might also find issues (e.g., right to privacy) that may be points of conflict with your
beliefs as you review information. This stage is important to the overall process of developing your
topic and takes time. You need time to be able to contemplate, review, and reflect on how the new The process by which you
information fits or fails to connect clearly to your chosen topic. adapt or filter out new
sources of information as
Incubation is the process by which you cause an idea or ideas to develop in your mind. This
they relate to your goal.
might not happen all at once, and you might spend time thinking about the new information, direc-
tions, or ways you might develop or focus your topic. Consider the meaning of the word
“incubation” as it relates to chickens and eggs. An egg may look ready to hatch as soon as the hen
lays it, but it needs time and a warm environment to develop. You might have an idea but need to cause an idea or ideas to
create an environment for it to develop. This might involve further investigation and exploration, develop in your mind.
or it may involve removing yourself from active research to “digest” what you have already learned.
If you feel “stuck” on an idea or perceive an inability to move on in the development of your ideas
or topic, giving it a rest may be the best course of action. You may also find that just when you least
expect it, an idea, fully formed, flashes into your mind and you ask yourself, “Why didn’t I see that
before?” Before the idea escapes you, write it down and make sure you can refer to it later.
Incorporation refers to the process by which you bring the information into a whole or com-
plete topic. By now you have investigated, chosen some information over others, and have started
to see how the pieces will come together. Your perceptions of how the elements come together will The process by which you
bring the information into a
whole or complete topic.
form the basis for the organization of your speech. It will contribute to the logic of your message
and help you produce a coherent, organized speech that your audience can follow clearly.
Production involves the act of creating your speech from the elements you have gathered. You
may start to consider what comes first, what goes last, and how you will link your ideas and exam-
Involves the act of creating
your speech from the ples together. You may find that you need additional information, and can go back to your notes
elements you have that you taken to find the source quickly and easily. You may also start to communicate with
gathered; you may start to friends, sharing some of the elements or even practicing the first drafts of your speech, learning
consider what comes first,
where the connections are clear and where they need work.
what goes last, and how
you will link your ideas and Revision is the process by which you look over your speech again in order to correct or improve
examples together.
it. You will notice elements that need further investigation, development, or additional examples
and visual aids as your produce your speech. This is an important step to the overall production of
your speech, much like revising an essay for an English course. The first time you said, thought, or
The process by which you wrote something it may have made sense to you, but upon reflection and after trying an idea out,
look over your speech
again in order to correct or
you need it to be revised in order to work effectively as part of your speech. You may revisit the
improve it. place in which you started, and start all speeches, by reconsidering the rhetorical situation and see
if what you have produces is in line with the expectations of the audience. Your awareness of the
content, audience, and purpose of the rhetorical situation will guide you through the revision
process and contribute to the production of a more effective speech.
Key Takeaway
To find resources for your speech, narrow your topic and plan your search for information. Be
aware of ethics, selecting reliable content, and avoiding plagiarism. Stay organized, and be a
wise consumer of Internet information. Last, compile your information into a coherent series of
main points.
1. Find at least one example of an Internet site that is sponsored by each of the following:
• For-profit corporation that sells a product or service to the general public

• Not-for-profit organization
• Private or public college, university, or other school
2. Describe the type of information available on each of your chosen sites. How do they differ
from one another? What do they have in common? Discuss your findings with your class-
mates.
3. Find a Web site you find particularly useful in terms of information. Write a brief review and
then share with classmates.
4. Find a Web site you find particularly poor in terms of your ability to access information. Write
a brief review and then share with classmates.
5. When creating a speech, is it appropriate to omit certain information? Explain and discuss
your thoughts with a classmate.
6. How can a persuasive speech be ethical? Explain your opinion and give some examples.
Compare and share in class.
10.5 Myths and Realities of Public

Speaking
1. Describe common myths and realities of public speaking.
Now that you have identified your purpose, chosen your topic and thesis statement, gathered and
organized your material, you are almost ready to put your speech into its final form. At this junc-
ture, let’s examine some common public speaking myths and outline the guidelines you’ll need to
consider as you prepare to face your audience. There are a lot of myths associated with public
speaking. In many ways these guidelines dispel common perceptions of public speaking and may
lead you to be more open with yourself and your audience as you prepare and present your speech.
Speaking in Public Is Not Like Killing Lions

From an evolutionary biology perspective, our bodies have developed to respond to stress in advan-
tageous ways. When we needed to run from a bear, hunt a lion, or avoid a snake, our bodies
predictably got us prepared with a surge of adrenaline.[7] Hunters who didn’t respond well to stress
or failed at hunting were less likely to live long enough to reach maturity and reproduce. So we have
the successful hunter to thank for our genes, but people in developed countries today do not need
hunting skills to feed their families.
While food is still an issue in many parts of the world, our need to respond to threats and stress
has shifted from our evolutionary roots to concern over our job, our relationships, and how we
negotiate a modern economy. Communication is a great resource and tool, and we can apply the
principles and lessons to ourselves. We can create the perception that the speech is like defeating
the lion and really get ourselves worked up. Or we can choose to see it as a natural extension of
communication with others.
Speaking in public itself is not inherently stressful, but our response to the stimulus can con-
tribute to or reduce our level of stress. We all will have a stress response to a new, unknown, or
unfamiliar stimulus. Nevertheless, the butterflies in our stomach are a response we can choose to
control by becoming more familiar with the expectations, preparation, and performance associated
with speaking in public.
You Don’t Have to Be Perfect

Letting go of perfection can be the hardest guideline to apply to ourselves. It’s also in our nature to
compare ourselves to others and ourselves. You might forgive a classmate for the occasional “umm”
during a speech, but then turn right around and spend a lot of mental effort chastising yourself for
making the same error in your presentation. We all have distinct strengths and weaknesses. Know-
ing yourself and where you need to improve is an important first step. Recognizing that Rome
wasn’t built in a day, and that you won’t become a world-class speaker overnight, may be easier said
than done.
It may help to recognize that your listeners don’t want to see you fail; on the contrary, they
want you to do well, because when you do, they will be able to relax and enjoy your presentation.
You might be surprised to know that not everyone counts each time you say “umm.” However, if
“umm,” “ahhh,” or “you know what I mean” are phrases that you tend to repeat, they will distract
your audience from your message. Eliminating such distracting habits can become a goal for
improvement. Improvement is a process, not an end in itself; in fact, many people believe that
learning to speak in public is more about the journey than the destination. Each new setting, con-
text, and audience will present new challenges, and your ability to adapt, learned through your
journey of experience, will help you successfully meet each new challenge.
Organization Is Key to Success

Have you ever thought of a great comeback to something someone said a while after they said it?
Wouldn’t it have been nice to be quick and articulate and able to deliver your comeback right then
and there? Speaking in public gives you a distinct advantage over “off the cuff” improvisation and
stumbling for the right comeback. You get to prepare and be organized. You know you’ll be speaking
to an audience in order to persuade them to do, think, or consider an idea or action.
What issues might they think of while you are speaking? What comebacks or arguments might
they say if it were a debate? You get to anticipate what the audience will want to know, say, or hear.
You get to prepare your statements and visual aids to support your speech and create the timing,
organization, and presentation of each point. Many times in life we are asked to take a position and
feel unprepared to respond. Speaking in public gives you the distinct opportunity to prepare and
organize your ideas or points in order to make an impact and respond effectively.
Speaking in Public Is Like Participating in a

Conversation
This may sound odd at first, but consider the idea of an “enlarged conversation” described by Julia T.
Wood.[8] She expresses a clear connection between everyday speech and public dialogue. Sometimes
we take a speech turn, while at other times we remain silent while others take their turn. We do this
all day long and think nothing of it. We are often the focus of attention from friends and colleagues
and it hardly ever makes us nervous. When we get on a stage, however, some people perceive that
the whole game has changed. It hasn’t. We still take turns, and the speaker will take a longer turn as
part of an enlarged conversation. People in the audience will still communicate feedback and the
speaker will still negotiate his or her turn just the way they would in an everyday conversation. The
difference is all about how we, as the speaker, perceive the context.
Some people feel that the level of expectations, the need for perfection, or the idealistic qual-
ities we perceive in eloquent speakers are required, and then focus on deficiencies, fears, and the
possibility of failing to measure up. By letting go of this ideal, we can approach the challenge with a
more pragmatic frame of mind. The rules we play comfortably by in conversation every day are the
same as we shift to a larger conversation within the context of public speaking. This viewpoint can
offer an alternative as you address your apprehensions, and help you let go of unrealistic expecta-
tions.
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Key Takeaway
Public speaking does not have to be a “fright or flight” experience; it can be like holding a half of
a friendly conversation. This will especially be true if you do a good job of preparing and orga-
nizing your presentation ahead of time.
1. Have you ever done a creative visualization exercise? Try this one and see how it helps you
prepare your speech. Choose a quiet place, sit in a comfortable position, and close your
and
consider the merit of your points. When you are finished, they will applaud and express
appreciation for the good job you have done.
2. Write out a series of goal statements, one for each part or point of your presentation. What
do you want to accomplish with each section, visual aid, or statement? Share your results
with classmates.
3. Consider the elements of a speech to inform and adapt them for a speech to persuade. In
what ways would you adjust key points or issues?
10.6 Overcoming Obstacles in Your

Presentation
1. Overcome common obstacles in public speaking.
We have examined steps to help you investigate and build an effective speech, and discussed some
myths, and realities, associated with public speaking. In order to prepare you for success, let’s revisit
some obstacles you’ll want to avoid in order to make your content as accessible to your audience
as possible. To build on what we covered, let’s examine three key barriers to an effective speech:
language, perception, and ethnocentrism. As a speaker, you will need to make an effort to consider
each one and how you will create a bridge, rather than contribute to a barrier, with your audience.
Language
Language serves both to bring us together and to help us reinforce our group status. Language can
include established languages, like Spanish or French; dialects; or even subtle in-group language
styles within a larger language context. Have you ever been part of a group that has its own words
or phrases, expressions that have meanings understood only by the members of your group? It is
not unusual for families, groups of close friends, classmates, and romantic couples to develop these
kinds of “private language.” When a group communicates in its own way, it can create a sense of
belonging, reinforcing your membership and place in that group.
People often tell each other stories, which often communicate a value or meaning in the
culture. Perhaps you have heard the saying, “The early bird gets the worm,” with its underlying
meaning that the one who is prepared and ready gets the reward. In North America, this saying
is common, and reflects a cultural value about promptness and competition. Diverse cultures have
diverse sayings that reflect differences in values, customs, and traditions
Judy Pearson, Paul Nelson,[9] and Joseph DeVito[10] describe two key areas of language that
co-
serve to bring us together, but because they involve a specialized knowledge unique to the group or
community, they can create barriers to outsiders. These are often called co-languages, because they Language systems that
exist and interact with
exist and interact with a dominant language but are nonetheless distinct from it. Jargon is an occu- dominant language but are
pation-specific language used by people in a given profession. Think of the way medical caregivers nonetheless distinct from
speak to one another, frequently using abbreviations for procedures and medications. Slang is the it.
use of existing or newly invented words to take the place of standard or traditional words with the
intent of adding an unconventional, nonstandard, humorous, or rebellious effect. Think of how the
words “cool,” “glitzy,” or “scam” are used in casual conversation. In addition to language-based barri- An occupation-specific
ers, there are also several factors, many of which we have visited in previous chapters, which can language used by people
in a given profession.
act as barriers to effective intercultural communication.
The use of existing or
Nature of Perception newly invented words to

take the place of standard
or traditional words with
the intent of adding an
Perception is an important part of the communication process, and it is important to recognize that unconventional,
other people’s perceptions may be different from our own in several ways. nonstandard, humorous,
or rebellious effect.
Your cultural value system, what you value and pay attention to, will significantly affect your
speech and how your listeners perceive it. North American culture places an emphasis on space,
with an “appropriate” distance while shaking hands, for example. If a North American travels to What you value and pay
France, Spain, or Chile, he or she will find that a much smaller sense of personal space is the norm, attention to.
and may receive a kiss on the cheek as a greeting from a new acquaintance. If the North American
is uncomfortable, the person from France may not attribute his or her discomfort to personal space,
and they may have a miscommunication. Learning about other cultures can help you adapt your
speech in diverse settings, and make you more comfortable as you enter new situations where oth-
ers’ perceptions are different from your own.
Role identities, which involve expected social behavior, are another aspect of intercultural
communication that can act as a barrier to effective communication. How does your culture expect
men and women to act and behave? How about children, or elders, and older citizens? The word Another aspect of
“role” implies an expectation of how one is supposed to act in certain settings and scenes; just like intercultural
in a play or a movie, each person has a culturally bound set of role expectations. Who works as a communication that can
doctor, a lawyer, a nurse, or a welder? As times and cultures change, so do role identities. Business act as a barrier to effective
communication.
management was once perceived as a profession dominated by men, but in recent decades women
have become actively involved in starting, developing, and facilitating the growth of businesses. As
a speaker, your role will necessarily involve preparation and practice, and to a degree an element of
leadership as you present your content and guide your audience through it. Your audience also has
a role, which involves active listening and displays of interest. Your overlapping roles of interest in
the topic are keys to an effective speech.
Goals reflect what we value and are willing to work for and vary widely
FIGURE 10.3 across cultures. In some cultures, an afternoon lunch is the main meal of the day,
In our diverse world, awareness of difference in
a time with the family, which is followed by a siesta or resting period. In the
values is key to success.
United States and northern Europe, people often have a quick lunch or even a
“working lunch,” with the emphasis on continuing productivity and the goal of
personal and organizational achievement. The differences in values, such as fam-
ily time versus work time, establish themselves in how we lead our lives. To a
European who is accustomed to a full month of vacation each year, the thought
of someone from the United States spending a few intense, three-day power
weekends hiking, skiing, or sailing might seem stressful. To a goal-oriented North
American, the power weekend may be just the rejuvenation required to get “back
in the game.” Time, and limits on it, will be an important goal in your speech.
Geert Hofstede has spent decades researching the concepts of individualism
versus collectivism across diverse cultures. He characterized U.S. culture as
strongly individualistic: people perceive things primarily from their own view-
point, see themselves as individuals capable of making his or her own decisions,
and feel responsible for their actions and solving their own problems.[11] He also
found many countries in Asia and South America to be much more collectivistic,
focusing on the needs of the family, community, or larger group. In this context,
cultural background can become a barrier to an effective speech if your fail to
consider your audience and their needs.
In addition, there are other cultural dimensions that influence how we relate
to the world that impact our intercultural communication. Carley Dodd dis-
cusses the degree to which cultures communicate rules explicitly or implicitly.[12]
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation In an explicit context, the rules are discussed before we hold a meeting, negotiate
a contract, or even play a game. In the United States, we want to make sure everyone knows the
What we value and are rules beforehand and get frustrated if people do not follow the rules. In the Middle East and Latin
willing to work for, and
varies widely across
America, the rules are generally understood by everyone, and people from these cultures tend to be
cultures. more accommodating to small differences and are less concerned about whether or not everyone
plays by the same rules. Our ability to adapt to contexts that are explicit or implicit is related to our
ability to tolerate uncertainty.[13]
In the United States, we often look to guiding principles rather than rules for every circum-
stance, and believe that with hard work, we can achieve our goals even though we do not know the
outcome. In Peru, Chile, and Argentina, however, people prefer to reduce ambiguity and uncer-
tainty, and like to know exactly what is expected and what the probable outcome will be.[14]
TABLE 10.2 Cultural Dimensions
Individualistic Cultures. People value individual Collectivistic Cultures. People value the family
freedom and personal independence. or community over the needs of the individual.
Explicit-Rule Cultures. People discuss rules and Implicit-Rule Cultures. People’s customs are
expectations clearly to make sure the rules are implied and known by everyone, but not always
known. clearly stated.
Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures. People often Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures. People often
focus on principles, rather than having rules for focus on rules for every circumstance and do not
every circumstance, and accept that the outcome like ambiguity or not knowing what the outcome
is not always known. will be.
When we consider whether a culture as a whole places more emphasis on the individual or the
community, we must be careful to recognize that individual members of the culture may hold
Generalizations about a beliefs or customs that do not follow a cultural norm. Stereotypes, defined as generalizations about
group of people that
a group of people that oversimplify their culture,[15] can be one significant barrier to effective inter-
cultural communication. Gordon Allport, a pioneer in the field of communication research,
examined how and when we formulate or use stereotypes to characterize distinct groups or com-
munities. He found that we tend to stereotype people and cultures with which we have little con-
tact.[16]
In addition, your first-hand experience will provide you with an increased understanding of
prejudice. Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or
social behavior. Within the United States, can you make a list of people or groups that may be judgment or opinion that
treated with prejudice by the majority group? Your list may include specific ethnic, racial, or cul- guides conduct or social
tural groups that are stereotyped in the media, but it could also include socioeconomic groups or behavior.
even different regions of the United States. For example, Native Americans were long treated with
prejudice in early Western films. Can you imagine, in other countries they may also treat groups
with prejudice? In many parts of South America, indigenous people are treated poorly and their
rights as citizens are sometimes not respected. Has treatment of Native Americans changed in
North America? It has also changed, and continues to change in North and South America.
People who treat other with prejudice often make judgments about the group or communities.
As Allport illustrated for us, we often assume characteristics about groups with which we have little
contact. By extension, we can sometimes assume similarity that people are all basically similar, in
effect denying cultural, racial, or ethnic differences. We sometimes describe the United States as a
“melting pot,” where individual and cultural differences blend to become a homogeneous culture.
This “melting pot” often denies cultural differences. The metaphor of a “salad bowl,” where com-
munities and cultures retain their distinctive characteristics or “flavor,” serves as more equitable
model. In this “salad bowl,” we value the differences and what they contribute to the whole.
We can also run the risk of assuming familiarity with cultures when we attribute characteris-
tics of one group to everyone who has connections to the larger culture. For example, people may
assume that we are familiar with all Native Americans if we know one tribe in our community,
forgetting the distinct differences that exist between tribes and even between individual Native
Americans who live either in urban areas or on reservations.
Ethnocentrism
Finally, your experience may help you to not view the world and its diversity of cultures in an eth-
nocentric way. Ethnocentrism means you go beyond pride in your culture, heritage or background
The tendency to view
and hold the “conviction that (you) know more and are better than those of different cultures.”[17]
other cultures as inferior to
This belief in the superiority of one’s own group can guide individual and group behavior. If you one’s own.
visit a new country where people do things differently, you would be considered ethnocentric if
you viewed their way as wrong because it is not the same way you were taught. Groups are consid-
ered ethnocentric if they prejudge individuals or other groups of people based on negative
preconceptions.
Del Foit, a successful entrepreneur and award-winning business school instructor, discusses the
keys to developing an effective business plan and presentation. Del has coached dozens of new
ventures and hundreds of business school students thorough this process.
Key Takeaway
For a successful oral presentation, do your best to avoid obstacles to understanding, such as
1. Are
there slang expressions that you often use? Is there a jargon related to your career or major
field of study? Make a list of slang and jargon words that you might want to use in a speech.
Now, consider whether you can substitute standard English words that will be better
understood by all your listeners, remembering that in a business context it is often best to
avoid slang and jargon.
2. Pretend you were going to invite someone from a completely different culture to come home
with you for a break or holiday. Make a list of ideas, words, or places you would want to
share with them to gain insight of you, your family, or your community.
3.
examples. Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
4. Observe someone presenting a speech. Given the discussion in this chapter, what elements
of their speech could you use in your speech? What elements would you not want to use?
Why? Compare with a classmate.

Oral communication skill is key to success in politics. Visit the C-SPAN Web site to watch and
listen to speeches, interviews, and other public speaking events. http://www.c-span.org/search/
?searchtype=All&query=politics
Schooltube.com offers a video archive of student government speeches. http://www.
schooltube.com/video/27713/2009-Student-Government-Campaign-Speeches
The Nation’s Forum Collection of the Library of Congress consists of recordings of dozens of
speeches from the period 1918 to 1920. http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/nfhtml
The Copyright Office of the Library of Congress offers a wide variety of resources for under-
standing copyright law and how to avoid plagiarism. http://www.copyright.gov
Thunderbird School of Global Management operates Thunderbird Knowledge Network, an
interactive forum on contemporary business issues delivered in stories, columns, videos, podcasts,
and blogs. http://knowledgenetwork.thunderbird.edu/research
The U.S. Department of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) sets
the standards and conducts inspections to ensure safety and prevent accidents in the workplace.
http://www.osha.gov
Watch an informative speech on “Avoiding Stereotypes in Public Speaking” on eHow.com. http:/
/www.ehow.com/video_4401072_avoiding-stereotypes-public-speaking.html
Endnotes
1. Bremner, J., Haub, C., Lee, M., Mather, M., & Zuehlke, E. (2009, September). World population highlights: Key findings from PRB’s 2009 world population
data sheet. Population Bulletin, 64(3). Retrieved from http://www.prb.org/pdf09/64.3highlights.pdf
2. Rosenberg, M. (2009, October 15). Population growth rates and doubling time. About.com Guide. Retrieved from http://geography.about.com/od/
populationgeography/a/populationgrow.htm
3. Beebe, S. [Steven], & Beebe, S. [Susan]. (1997). Public speaking: An audience-centered approach (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
5. Andrews, P., Andrews, J., & Williams, G. (1999). Public speaking: Connecting you and your audience. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company.
6. Yaniv, I., & Meyer, D. (1987). Activation and metacognition of inaccesible stored information: Potential bases for incubation effects in problem loving. Journal
of Experimental Psychology Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 13, 187–205.
7. Burnham, T., & Phelan, J. (2000). Mean genes: From sex to money to food: Taming our primal instincts. Cambridge, MA: Perseus.
8. Woods, J. (2001). Communication mosaics: An introduction to the field of communication (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
10. DeVito, J. (1986). The communication handbook: A dictionary. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
11. Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
12. Dodd, C. (1998). Dynamics of intercultural communication (5th ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
14. Samovar, L., Porter, R., & Stefani, L. (1998). Communication between cultures (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
15. Rogers, E., & Steinfatt, T. (1999). Intercultural communication. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
16. Allport, G. (1958). The nature of prejudice. New York, NY: Doubleday.
Nonverbal Delivery
The most important thing in communication is hearing what isn’t said.

— Peter F. Drucker
But behavior in the human being is sometimes a defense, a way of concealing motives and
thoughts.
— Abraham Maslow
Electric communication will never be a substitute for the face of someone who with their soul
encourages another person to be brave and true.
— Charles Dickens
1. It’s not just what you say but how you say it. Choose a speech to watch. Examples may
current elected officials, or perhaps candidates for local and state office that may be tele-
vised. Other examples could be from a poetry slam, a rap performance, or a movie. Watch
the presentation without sound and see what you observe. Does the speaker seem comfort-
able and confident? Aggressive or timid? If possible, repeat the speech a second time with
the sound on. Do your perceptions change? What patterns do you observe?
2. Invasion of space. When someone “invades” your space, how do you feel? Threatened, sur-
prised, interested, or repulsed? We can learn a lot from each other as we come to be more
aware of the normative space expectations and boundaries. Set aside ten minutes where
you can “people watch” in a public setting. Make a conscious effort to notice how far apart
they stand from people they communicate. Record your results. Your best estimate is fine
and there is no need to interrupt people, just watch and record. Consider noting if they are
male or female, or focus only on same-sex conversations. When you have approximate dis-
tances for at least twenty conversations or ten minutes have passed, add up the results and
look for a pattern. Compare your findings with those of a classmate.
In the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, we focus on how a speaker presents
ideas, not the ideas themselves. Have you ever been in class and found it hard to listen to the pro-
fessor, not because he or she wasn’t well informed or the topic wasn’t interesting or important to
you, but because the style of presentation didn’t engage you as a listener? If your answer is yes,
then you know that you want to avoid making the same mistake when you give a presentation. It’s
not always what you say, but how you say it that makes a difference. We sometimes call this “body
language,” or “nonverbal communication,” and it is a key aspect of effective business communica-
tion.
How do you know when your boss or instructors are pleased with your progress (or not)? You
might know from the smiles on their faces, from the time and attention they give you, or perhaps
in other nonverbal ways, like a raise, a bonus, or a good grade. Whether the interaction takes place
face-to-face, or at a distance, you can still experience and interpret nonverbal responses.
Sometimes we place more emphasis on nonverbal aspects of communication that they war-
rant. Suppose you have just gotten home from your first date with Amanda and you feel it went
very well. How soon should afterward should you call Amanda? There are lots of advice columns,
informal rules and customs, and friends with opinions to offer you suggestions, but you know what
is right for you. You also know that texting her at five o’clock the next morning might be a bit early.
You may choose to wait until a coffee break around 10 a.m. to send a short text message, and realize
that you might not get a response until later that afternoon.
Does the lack of an immediate response have any meaning? Does it mean Amanda is less inter-
ested in you than you are in her? While you might give it more attention than it deserves, and
maybe let it weigh on your mind and distract you from other tasks, the time interval for respond-
ing may not have as much intentional meaning as you think. It might mean that Amanda has a
different sense of time urgency than you do, or that she simply didn’t receive your message until
later.
Timing is an important aspect of nonverbal communication, but trying to understand what a
single example of timing means is challenging. Context may make a difference. For example, if you
have known someone for years who has always responded promptly to your e-mails or texts, but
now that person hasn’t responded in over a day, you may have reason for concern. That person’s
behavior doesn’t match what you are familiar with, and this sudden, unexplained change in the
established pattern may mean that you need to follow up.
11.2 Principles of Nonverbal

Communication
1.
2.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fluid

Chances are you have had many experiences where words were misunderstood, or where the
meaning of words was unclear. When it comes to nonverbal communication, meaning is even
harder to discern. We can sometimes tell what people are communicating through their nonverbal
The process of conveying
a message without the use communication, but there is no foolproof “dictionary” of how to interpret nonverbal messages.
of words. Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words. It can
include gestures and facial expressions, tone of voice, timing, posture and where you stand as you
communicate. It can help or hinder the clear understanding of your message, but it doesn’t reveal
(and can even mask) what you are really thinking. Nonverbal communication is far from simple,
and its complexity makes our study and our understanding a worthy but challenging goal.
Where does a wink start and a nod end? Nonverbal communication involves the entire body,
the space it occupies and dominates, the time it interacts, and not only what is not said, but how
it is not said. Confused? Try to focus on just one element of nonverbal communication and it will
soon get lost among all the other stimuli. Let’s consider eye contact. What does it mean by itself
without context, chin position, or eyebrows to flag interest or signal a threat? Nonverbal action
flows almost seamlessly from one to the next, making it a challenge to interpret one element, or
even a series of elements.
We perceive time as linear, flowing along in a straight line. We did one task, we’re doing another
task now, and we are planning on doing something else all the time. Sometimes we place more
emphasis on the future, or the past, forgetting that we are actually living in the present moment
whether we focus on “the now” or not. Nonverbal communication is always in motion, as long as
we are, and is never the same twice.
Nonverbal communication is irreversible. In written communication, you can write a clarifica-
tion, correction, or retraction. While it never makes the original statement go completely away, it
does allow for correction. Unlike written communication, oral communication may allow “do-overs”
on the spot: you can explain and restate, hoping to clarify your point. You can also dig the hole
you are in just a little bit deeper. The old sayings “when you find yourself in a hole, stop digging”
and “open mouth, insert foot” can sometimes apply to oral communications. We’ve all said some-
thing we would give anything to take back, but we all know we can’t. Oral communication, like
written communication, allows for some correction, but it still doesn’t erase the original message
or its impact. Nonverbal communication takes it one step further. You can’t separate one nonverbal
action from the context of all the other verbal and nonverbal communication acts, and you can’t
take it back.
In a speech, nonverbal communication is continuous in the sense that it is always occurring,
and because it is so fluid, it can be hard to determine where one nonverbal message starts and
another stops. Words can be easily identified and isolated, but if we try to single out a speaker’s ges-
tures, smile, or stance without looking at how they all come together in context, we may miss the
point and draw the wrong conclusion. You need to be conscious of this aspect of public speaking
because, to quote another old saying, “Actions speak louder than words.” This is true in the sense
that people often pay more attention to your nonverbal expressions more than your words. As a
result, nonverbal communication is a powerful way to contribute to (or detract from) your success
in communicating your message to the audience.
Nonverbal Communication Is Fast

Let’s pretend you are at your computer at work. You see that an e-mail has arrived, but you are right
in the middle of tallying a spreadsheet whose numbers just don’t add up. You see that the e-mail is
from a coworker and you click on it. The subject line reads “pink slips.” You could interpret this to
mean a suggestion for a Halloween costume, or a challenge to race for each other’s car ownership,
but in the context of the workplace you may assume it means layoffs.
Your emotional response is immediate. If the author of the e-mail could see your face, they
would know that your response was one of disbelief and frustration, even anger, all via your non-
verbal communication. Yes, when a tree falls in the forest it makes a sound, even if no one is there
to hear it. In the same way, you express yourself via nonverbal communication all the time without
much conscious thought at all. You may think about how to share the news with your partner, and
try to display a smile and a sense of calm when you feel like anything but smiling.
Nonverbal communication gives our thoughts and feelings away before we are even aware of
what we are thinking or how we feel. People may see and hear more than you ever anticipated.
Your nonverbal communication includes both intentional and unintentional messages, but since it
all happens so fast, the unintentional ones can contradict what you know you are supposed to say
or how you are supposed to react.
Nonverbal Communication Can Add to or

Replace Verbal Communication
People tend to pay more attention to how you say it than what you actually say. In presenting a
speech this is particularly true. We communicate nonverbally more than we engage in verbal com-
reinforces a verbal munication, and often use nonverbal expressions to add to, or even replace, words we might
message. otherwise say. We use a nonverbal gesture called an illustrator to communicate our message effec-
tively and reinforce our point. Your coworker Andrew may ask you, “Barney’s Bar after work?” as he
walks by, and you simply nod and say “yeah.” Andrew may respond with a nonverbal gesture, called
Nonverbal gesture that an emblem, by signaling with the “OK” sign as he walks away.
and can replace or In addition to illustrators or emblematic nonverbal communication, we also use regulators.
reinforce words. “Regulators are nonverbal messages which control, maintain or discourage interaction.”[1] For exam-
ple, if someone is telling you a message that is confusing or upsetting, you may hold up your hand,
a commonly recognized regulator that asks the speaker to stop talking.
controls, encourages, or Let’s say you are in a meeting presenting a speech that introduces your company’s latest prod-
discourages interaction. uct. If your audience members nod their heads in agreement on important points and maintain
good eye contact, it is a good sign. Nonverbally, they are using regulators encouraging you to con-
tinue with your presentation. In contrast, if they look away, tap their feet, and begin drawing in the
margins of their notebook, these are regulators suggesting that you better think of a way to regain
their interest or else wrap up your presentation quickly.
“Affect displays are nonverbal communication that express emotions or feelings.”[2] An affect
display that might accompany holding up your hand for silence would be to frown and shake your
An expression of emotion
or mood.
head from side to side. When you and Andrew are at Barney’s Bar, smiling and waving at coworkers
who arrive lets them know where you are seated and welcomes them.
FIGURE 11.1
Combing your hair would be
an example of a purposeful
action, unlike a self-adaptive
behavior.
Corporation
“Adaptors are displays of nonverbal communication that help you adapt to your environment
and each context, helping you feel comfortable and secure.”[3] A self-adaptor involves you meeting
your need for security, by playing with your hair for example, by adapting something about your- Something that helps us
feel comfortable or
self in way for which it was not designed or for no apparent purpose. Combing your hair would be indicates emotions or
an example of a purposeful action, unlike a self-adaptive behavior. An object-adaptor involves the moods.
use of an object in a way for which it was not designed. You may see audience members tapping
their pencils, chewing on them, or playing with them, while ignoring you and your presentation. Or
perhaps someone pulls out a comb and repeatedly rubs a thumbnail against the comb’s teeth. They Adapting something about
are using the comb or the pencil in a way other than its intended design, an object-adaptor that yourself in way for which it
communicates a lack of engagement or enthusiasm in your speech. was not designed or for no
apparent purpose.
Intentional nonverbal communication can complement, repeat, replace, mask, or contradict
what we say. When Andrew invited you to Barney’s, you said, “Yeah” and nodded, complementing
and repeating the message. You could have simply nodded, effectively replacing the “yes” with a Use of an object for a
nonverbal response. You could also have decided to say no, but did not want to hurt Andrew’s feel- purpose other than its
ings. Shaking your head “no” while pointing to your watch, communicating work and time issues, intended design.
may mask your real thoughts or feelings. Masking involves the substitution of appropriate nonver-
bal communication for nonverbal communication you may want to display.[4] Finally, nonverbal
messages that conflict with verbal communication can confuse the listener. Table 11.1 summarizes
these concepts.
TABLE 11.1 Some Nonverbal Expressions

Term Definition
Adaptors Help us feel comfortable or indicate emotions or
moods
Affect Displays Express emotions or feelings
Complementing Reinforcing verbal communication
Contradicting Contradicting verbal communication
Emblems Nonverbal gestures that carry a specific meaning,

and can replace or reinforce words
Illustrators Reinforce a verbal message
Masking Substituting more appropriate displays for less

appropriate displays
Object-Adaptors Using an object for a purpose other than its
intended design
Regulators Control, encourage or discourage interaction
Repeating Repeating verbal communication
Replacing Replacing verbal communication
Self-Adaptors Adapting something about yourself in a way for

which it was not designed or for no apparent pur-
pose
Nonverbal Communication Is Universal

Consider the many contexts in which interaction occurs during your day. In the morning, at work,
after work, at home, with friends, with family, and our list could go on for quite awhile. Now con-
sider the differences in nonverbal communication across these many contexts. When you are at
work, do you jump up and down and say whatever you want? Why or why not? You may not engage
in that behavior because of expectations at work, but the fact remains that from the moment you
wake until you sleep, you are surrounded by nonverbal communication.
If you had been born in a different country, to different parents, and perhaps as a member of
the opposite sex, your whole world would be quite different. Yet nonverbal communication would
remain a universal constant. It may not look the same, or get used in the same way, but it will still
be nonverbal communication in its many functions and displays.
Nonverbal Communication Is Confusing and

Contextual
Nonverbal communication can be confusing. We need contextual clues to help us understand, or
begin to understand, what a movement, gesture, or lack of display means. Then we have to figure
it all out based on our prior knowledge (or lack thereof) of the person and hope to get it right.
Talk about a challenge. Nonverbal communication is everywhere, and we all use it, but that doesn’t
make it simple or independent of when, where, why, or how we communicate.
Nonverbal Communication Can Be Intentional

or Unintentional
Suppose you are working as a salesclerk in a retail store, and a customer communicated frustration
to you. Would the nonverbal aspects of your response be intentional or unintentional? Your job is
to be pleasant and courteous at all times, yet your wrinkled eyebrows or wide eyes may have been
unintentional. They clearly communicate your negative feelings at that moment. Restating your
wish to be helpful and displaying nonverbal gestures may communicate “no big deal,” but the stress
of the moment is still “written” on your face.
Can we tell when people are intentionally or unintentionally communicating nonverbally? Ask
ten people this question and compare their responses. You may be surprised. It is clearly a challenge
to understand nonverbal communication in action. We often assign intentional motives to nonver-
bal communication when in fact their display is unintentional, and often hard to interpret.
Nonverbal Messages Communicate Feelings

and Attitudes
Steven Beebe, Susan Beebe, and Mark Redmond offer us three additional principals of interper-
sonal nonverbal communication that serve our discussion. One is that you often react faster than
you think. Your nonverbal responses communicate your initial reaction before you can process
it through language or formulate an appropriate response. If your appropriate, spoken response
doesn’t match your nonverbal reaction, you may give away your true feelings and attitudes.[5]
Albert Mehrabian asserts that we rarely communicate emotional messages through the spo-
ken word. According to Mehrabian, 93 percent of the time we communicate our emotions non-
verbally, with at least 55 percent associated with facial gestures. Vocal cues, body position and
movement, and normative space between speaker and receiver can also be clues to feelings and atti-
tudes.[6]
Is your first emotional response always an accurate and true representation of your feelings
and attitudes, or does your emotional response change across time? We are all changing all the
time, and sometimes a moment of frustration or a flash of anger can signal to the receiver a feeling
or emotion that existed for a moment, but has since passed. Their response to your communication
will be based on that perception, even though you might already be over the issue. This is where
the spoken word serves us well. You may need to articulate clearly that you were frustrated, but not
anymore. The words spoken out loud can serve to clarify and invite additional discussion.
We Believe Nonverbal Communication More

than Verbal
Building on the example of responding to a situation with facial gestures associated with frustra-
tion before you even have time to think of an appropriate verbal response, let’s ask the question:
what would you believe, someone’s actions or their words? According to William Seiler and Melissa
Beall, most people tend to believe the nonverbal message over the verbal message. People will often
answer that “actions speak louder than words” and place a disproportionate emphasis on the non-
verbal response.[7] Humans aren’t logical all the time, and they do experience feelings and attitudes
that change. Still, we place more confidence in nonverbal communication, particularly when it
comes to lying behaviors. According to Miron Zuckerman, Bella DePaulo, and Robert Rosenthal,
there are several behaviors people often display when they are being deceptive:[8]
• Reduction in eye contact while engaged in a conversation
• Awkward pauses in conversation
• Higher pitch in voice
• Deliberate pronunciation and articulation of words
• Increased delay in response time to a question
• Increased body movements like changes in posture
• Decreased smiling
• Decreased rate of speech
If you notice one of more of the behaviors, you may want to take a closer look. Over time we
learn people’s patterns of speech and behavior, and form a set of expectations. Variation from their
established patterns, combined with the clues above, can serve to alert you to the possibility that
something deserves closer attention.
Our nonverbal responses have a connection to our physiological responses to stress, such as
heart rate, blood pressure, and skin conductivity. Polygraph machines (popularly referred to as “lie
detectors”) focus on these physiological responses and demonstrate anomalies, or variations. While
movies and TV crime shows may make polygraphs look foolproof, there is significant debate about
whether they measure dishonesty with any degree of accuracy.
Can you train yourself to detect lies? It is unlikely. Our purpose in studying nonverbal commu-
nication is not to uncover dishonesty in others, but rather to help you understand how to use the
nonverbal aspects of communication to increase understanding.
Nonverbal Communication Is Key in the

Speaker/Audience Relationship
When we first see each other, before anyone says a word, we are already sizing each other up.
Within the first few seconds we have made judgments about each other based on what we wear,
our physical characteristics, even our posture. Are these judgments accurate? That is hard to know
without context, but we can say that nonverbal communication certainly affects first impressions,
for better or worse. When a speaker and the audience first meet, nonverbal communication in terms
of space, dress, and even personal characteristics can contribute to assumed expectations. The
expectations might not be accurate or even fair, but it is important to recognize that they will be
present. There is truth in the saying, “You never get a second chance to make a first impression.”
Since beginnings are fragile times, your attention to aspects you can control, both verbal and non-
verbal, will help contribute to the first step of forming a relationship with your audience. Your eye
contact with audience members, use of space, and degree of formality will continue to contribute
to that relationship.
As a speaker, your nonverbal communication is part of the message and can contribute to, or
detract from, your overall goals. By being aware of them, and practicing with a live audience, you
can learn to be more aware and in control.
Non-verbal communication can predict anybody's success or failure. Research of Patryk &
Kasia Wezowski has proven that decoding somebody's "Body Language Code™" can predict
the outcome of presidential elections or your inborn potential to have an advantage in
negotiations. Knowing how to read "micro expressions" is probably the most effective way to
connect more with people and the most crucial skill to prevent the increasing social autism
caused by today's technological innovations.
Key Takeaways
Nonverbal communication is the process of conveying a message without the use of words;
it relates to the dynamic process of communication, the perception process and listening,
and verbal communication.
• Nonverbal communication is fluid and fast, universal, confusing, and contextual. It can add
to or replace verbal communication and can be intentional or unintentional.
• Nonverbal communication communicates feelings and attitudes, and people tend to believe
nonverbal messages more than verbal ones.
1. Does it limit or enhance our understanding of communication to view nonverbal communi-

cation as that which is not verbal communication? Explain your answer and discuss with the
class.
2. Choose a television personality you admire. What do you like about this person? Watch
several minutes of this person with the sound turned off, and make notes of the nonverbal
expressions you observe. Turn the sound back on and make notes of their tone of voice,
timing, and other audible expressions. Discuss your results with a classmate.
3. Find a program that focuses on microexpressions and write a brief summary of how they
play a role in the program. Share and compare with classmates.
4. Create a survey that addresses the issue of which people trust more, nonverbal or verbal
messages. Ask an equal number of men and women and compare your results with those
of your classmates.
5. Search for information on the reliability and admissibility of results from polygraph (lie detec-
tor) tests. Share your findings with classmates.
6. See how long and how much you can get done during the day without the use of verbal
messages.
11.3 Types of Nonverbal

Communication
1. Describe the similarities and differences among eight general types of nonverbal communi-
cation.
Now that we have discussed the general principles that apply to nonverbal communication, let’s
examine eight types of nonverbal communication to further understand this challenging aspect of
communication:
1. Space
2. Time
3. Physical characteristics
4. Body movements
5. Touch
6. Paralanguage
7. Artifacts
8. Environment
Body language, behavior and business communication expert Mark Bowden speaks at the fifth
annual TEDxToronto. For more help go to www.truthplane.com
Space
When we discuss space in a nonverbal context, we mean the space between objects and people.
Space is often associated with social rank and is an important part of business communication.
Who gets the corner office? Why is the head of the table important and who gets to sit there?
People from diverse cultures may have different normative space expectations. If you are from
a large urban area, having people stand close to you may be normal. If you are from a rural area or a
culture where people expect more space, someone may be standing “too close” for comfort and not
know it.
Edward T. Hall, serving in the European and South Pacific Regions in the Corps of Engineers
during World War II, traveled around the globe. As he moved from one place to another, he noticed
The study of the human
use of space and distance that people in different countries kept different distances from each other. In France, they stood
in communication. closer to each other than they did in England. Hall wondered why that was and began to study
what he called proxemics, or the study of the human use of space and distance in communication.[9]
In The Hidden Dimension, he indicated there are two main aspects of space: territory and per-
sonal space. Hall drew on anthropology to address the concepts of dominance and submission, and
noted that the more powerful person often claims more space. This plays an important role in mod-
ern society, from who gets the corner office to how we negotiate space between vehicles. Road rage
is increasingly common where overcrowding occurs, and as more vehicles occupy the same roads,
tensions over space are predictable.
Territory is related to control. As a way of establishing control over your own room, maybe you
painted it your favorite color, or put up posters that represent your interests or things you consider
The space you claim as
your own, are responsible
unique about yourself. Families or households often mark their space by putting up fences or walls
for, or are willing to around their houses. This sense of a right to control your space is implicit in territory. Territory
defend. means the space you claim as your own, are responsible for, or are willing to defend.
The second aspect Hall highlights is personal space, or the “bubble” of space surrounding each
individual. As you walk down a flight of stairs, which side do you choose? We may choose the right
side because we’ve learned that is what is expected, and people coming up the same stair choose The “bubble” of space
surrounding each
their right. The right choice insures that personal space is not compromised. But what happens individual.
when some comes up the wrong side? They violate the understood rules of movement and often
correct themselves. But what happens if they don’t change lanes as people move up and down the
stairs? They may get dirty looks or even get bumped as people in the crowd handle the invasion of
“their” space. There are no lane markers, and bubbles of space around each person move with them,
allowing for the possibility of collision.
We recognize the basic need for personal space, but the normative expectations for space vary
greatly by culture. You may perceive that in your home people sleep one to each bed, but in many
cultures people sleep two or more to a bed and it is considered normal. If you were to share that
bed, you might feel uncomfortable, while someone raised with group sleeping norms might feel
uncomfortable sleeping alone. From where you stand in an aerobics class in relation to others, to
where you place your book bag in class, your personal expectations of space are often at variance
with others.
As the context of a staircase has norms for nonverbal behavior, so does the public speaking
context. In North America, eye contact with the audience is expected. Big movements and gestures
are not generally expected and can be distracting. The speaker occupies a space on the “stage,” even
if it’s in front of the class. When you occupy that space, the audience will expect to behave in cer-
tain ways. If you talk to the screen behind you while displaying a PowerPoint presentation, the
audience may perceive that you are not paying attention to them. Speakers are expected to pay
attention to, and interact with, the audience, even if in the feedback is primarily nonverbal. Your
movements should coordinate with the tone, rhythm, and content of your speech. Pacing back and
forth, keeping your hands in your pockets, or crossing your arms may communicate nervousness,
or even defensiveness, and detract from your speech.
As a general rule, try to act naturally, as if you were telling a friend a story, so
FIGURE 11.2 Space: Four Main
that your body will relax and your nonverbal gestures will come more naturally. Categories of Distance
Practice is key to your level of comfort; the more practice you get, the more com-
fortable and less intimidating it will seem to you.
Hall articulated four main categories of distance used in communication as
shown in Figure 11.2.[10]
Time
Do you know what time it is? How aware you are of time varies by culture and
normative expectations of adherence (or ignorance) of time. Some people, and the communities
and cultures they represent, are very time-oriented. The Euro Railways trains in Germany are
famous for departing and arriving according to the schedule. In contrast, if you take the train in
Argentina, you’ll find that the schedule is more of an approximation of when the train will leave or
arrive.
“Time is money” is a common saying across many cultures, and reveals a high value for time. In
social contexts, it often reveals social status and power. Who are you willing to wait for? A doctor for
an office visit when you are sick? A potential employer for a job interview? Your significant other
or children? Sometimes we get impatient, and our impatience underscores our value for time.
When you give a presentation, does your audience have to wait for you? Time is a relevant fac-
tor of the communication process in your speech. The best way to show your audience respect is
to honor the time expectation associated with your speech. Always try to stop speaking before the
audience stops listening; if the audience perceives that you have “gone over time,” they will be less
willing to listen. This in turn will have a negative impact on your ability to communicate your mes-
sage.
Suppose you are presenting a speech that has three main points. Your audience expects you to
regulate the time and attention to each point, but if you spend all your time on the first two points
and rush through the third, your speech won’t be balanced and will lose rhythm. The speaker occu-
pies a position of some power, but it is the audience that gives them that position. By displaying
respect and maintaining balance, you will move through your points more effectively.
Chronemics is the study of how we refer to and perceive time. Tom Bruneau at Radford Uni- versity
has spent a lifetime investigating how time interacts in communication and culture.[11][12][13] As he
The study of how we refer
to and perceive time. notes, across Western society, time is often considered the equivalent of money. The value of speed is
highly prized in some societies.[14] In others, there is a great respect for slowing down and taking a
long-term view of time.
When you order a meal at a fast food restaurant, what are your expectations for how long you
will have to wait? When you order a pizza online for delivery, when do you expect it will arrive? If
you order cable service for your home, when do you expect it might be delivered? In the first case,
you might measure the delivery of a hamburger in a matter of seconds or minutes, and perhaps
thirty minutes for pizza delivery, but you may measure the time from your order to working cable
in days or even weeks. You may even have to be at your home from 8 a.m. to noon, waiting for its
installation. The expectations vary by context, and we often grow frustrated in a time-sensitive cul-
ture when the delivery does not match our expectations.
In the same way, how long should it take to respond to a customer’s request for assistance or
information? If they call on the phone, how long should they be on hold? How soon should they
expect a response to an e-mail? As a skilled business communicator, you will know to anticipate
normative expectations and do your best to meet those expectations more quickly than antici-
pated. Your prompt reply or offer of help in response to a request, even if you cannot solve the issue
on the spot, is often regarded positively, contributing to the formation of positive communication
interactions.
Across cultures the value of time may vary. Some Mexican American friends may invite you
to a barbecue at 8 p.m., but when you arrive you are the first guest, because it is understood that
the gathering actually doesn’t start until after 9 p.m. Similarly in France, an 8 p.m. party invita-
tion would be understood to indicate you should arrive around 8:30, but in Sweden 8 p.m. means
8 p.m., and latecomers may not be welcome. Some Native Americans, particularly elders, speak in
well-measured phrases and take long pauses between phrases. They do not hurry their speech or
compete for their turn, knowing no one will interrupt them.[15] Some Orthodox Jews observe reli-
gious days when they do not work, cook, drive, or use electricity. People around the world have
different ways of expressing value for time.
Physical Characteristics
You didn’t choose your birth, your eye color, the natural color of your hair, or your height, but people
spend millions every year trying to change their physical characteristics. You can get colored con-
tacts; dye your hair; and if you are shorter than you’d like to be, buy shoes to raise your stature a
couple of inches. You won’t be able to change your birth, and no matter how much you stoop to
appear shorter, you won’t change your height until time and age gradually makes itself apparent.
If you are tall, you might find the correct shoe size, pant length, or even the length of mattress a
challenge, but there are rewards. Have you ever heard that taller people get paid more?[16] There is
some truth to that idea. There is also some truth to the notion that people prefer symmetrical faces
(where both sides are equal) over asymmetrical faces (with unequal sides; like a crooked nose or
having one eye or ear slightly higher than the other).[17]
We often make judgments about a person’s personality or behavior based on physical charac-
teristics, and researchers are quick to note that those judgments are often inaccurate.[18][19] Regard-
less of your eye or hair color, or even how tall you are, being comfortable with yourself is an
important part of your presentation. Act naturally and consider aspects of your presentation you
can control in order to maximize a positive image for the audience.
Body Movements
The study of body movements, called kinesics, is key to understanding nonverbal communication.
Since your actions will significantly contribute to the effectiveness of your business interactions,
The study of body
let’s examine four distinct ways body movements that complement, repeat, regulate, or replace
movements.
your verbal messages.
Body movements can complement the verbal message by reinforcing the main idea. For exam-
ple, you may be providing an orientation presentation to a customer about a software program. As
you say, “Click on this tab,” you may also initiate that action. Your verbal and nonverbal messages
reinforce each other. You can also reinforce the message by repeating it. If you first say, “Click on
the tab,” and then motion with your hand to the right, indicating that the customer should move
the cursor arrow with the mouse to the tab, your repetition can help the listener understand the
message.
In addition to repeating your message, body movements can also regulate conversations. Nod-
ding your head to indicate that you are listening may encourage the customer to continue asking
questions. Holding your hand up, palm out, may signal them to stop and provide a pause where you
can start to answer.
Body movements also substitute or replace verbal messages. Ekman and Friesen found that
facial features communicate to others our feelings, but our body movements often reveal how
intensely we experience those feelings.[20] For example, if the customer makes a face of frustration
while trying to use the software program, they may need assistance. If they push away from the
computer and separate themselves physically from interacting with it, they may be extremely frus-
trated. Learning to gauge feelings and their intensity as expressed by customers takes time and
patience, and your attention to them will improve your ability to facilitate positive interactions.
Touch
Touch in communication interaction is called haptics, and William Seiler and Meliss Beall[21] iden-
tify five distinct types of touch, from impersonal to intimate, as listed in Table 11.2
Touch in communication
interaction.
TABLE 11.2 Types of Touch
Term Definition
1. Functional-Professional Touch Medical examination, physical therapy, sports
coach, music teacher
2. Social-Polite Touch Handshake
3. Friendship-Warmth Touch Hug
4. Love-Intimacy Touch Kiss between family members or romantic part-
ners
5. Sexual-Arousal Touch Sexual caressing and intercourse
Before giving your presentation, you may interact with people by shaking hands and making
casual conversation. This interaction can help establish trust before you take the stage. While
speaking in public we do not often touch people in the audience, but we do interact with visual
aids, our note cards, and other objects. How we handle them can communicate our comfort level.
It’s always a good idea to practice using the technology, visual aids, or note cards you will use in a
speech during a practice session. Using the technology correctly by clicking the right button on the
mouse or pressing the right switch on the overhead projector can contribute to your credibility.
Paralanguage
Paralanguage is the exception to the definition of nonverbal communication. You may recall that
we defined nonverbal communication as not involving words, but paralanguage exists when we are
Involves verbal and
speaking, using words. Paralanguage involves verbal and nonverbal aspects of speech that influ-
nonverbal aspects of
speech that influence ence meaning, including tone, intensity, pausing, and even silence.
intensity, pausing, and

Perhaps you’ve also heard of a pregnant pause, a silence between verbal messages that is full
silence. of meaning. The meaning itself may be hard to understand or decipher, but it is there nonetheless.
For example, your coworker Jan comes back from a sales meeting speechless and with a ghost-
white complexion. You may ask if the meeting went all right. “Well, ahh…” may be the only response
you get. The pause speaks volumes. Something happened, though you may not know what. It could
messages that is full of be personal if Jan’s report was not well received, or it could be more systemic, like the news that
meaning. sales figures are off by 40 percent and pink slips may not be far behind.
Silence or vocal pauses can communicate hesitation, indicate the need to gather thought, or
serve as a sign of respect. Keith Basso quotes an anonymous source as stating, “It is not the case
that a man who is silent says nothing.”[22] Sometimes we learn just as much, or even more, from
what a person does not say as what they do say. In addition, both Basso and Susan Philips found
that traditional speech among Native Americans places a special emphasis on silence.[23]
Artifacts
Do you cover your tattoos when you are at work? Do you know someone who does? Or perhaps
you know someone who has a tattoo and does not need to cover it up on their job? Expectations
vary a great deal, but body art or tattoos are still controversial in the workplace. According to the
San Diego Union-Tribune,[24]
• 20 percent of workers indicated their body art had been held against them on the job.
• 42 percent of employers said the presence of visible body art lowered their opinion of workers.
• 44 percent of managers surveyed have body art.
• 52 percent of workers surveyed have body art.
• 67 percent of workers who have body art or piercings cover or remove them during work
hours.
In your line of work, a tattoo might be an important visual aid, or it might detract from your
effectiveness as a business communicator. Body piercings may express individuality, but you need
to consider how they will be interpreted by employers and customers.
Artifacts are forms of decorative ornamentation that are chosen to represent self-concept.
They can include rings and tattoos, but may also include brand names and logos. From clothes to
of communication. cars, watches, briefcases, purses, and even eyeglasses, what we choose to surround ourselves with
communicates something about our sense of self. They may project gender, role or position, class
or status, personality, and group membership or affiliation. Paying attention to a customer’s arti-
facts can give you a sense of the self they want to communicate, and may allow you to more accu-
rately adapt your message to meet their needs.
Environment
Environment involves the physical and psychological aspects of the communication context. More
than the tables and chairs in an office, environment is an important part of the dynamic communi-
cation process. The perception of one’s environment influences one’s reaction to it. For example, psychological aspects of
Google is famous for its work environment, with spaces created for physical activity and even in- the communication
house food service around the clock. The expense is no doubt considerable, but Google’s actions context.
speak volumes. The results produced in the environment, designed to facilitate creativity, interac-
tion, and collaboration, are worth the effort.
http://www.ted.com On any given day we're lied to from 10 to 200 times, and the clues to
detect those lie can be subtle and counter-intuitive. Pamela Meyer, author of Liespotting, shows
the manners and "hotspots" used by those trained to recognize deception—and she argues
honesty is a value worth preserving.
Key Takeaway
Nonverbal communication can be categorized into eight types: space, time, physical character-
istics, body movements, touch, paralanguage, artifacts, and environment.
Exercise
1. Do a Google search on space and culture. Share your findings with your classmates.
2. Note where people sit on the first day of class, and each class session thereafter. Do stu-
dents return to the same seat? If they do not attend class, do the classmates leave their seat
vacant? Compare your results.
3. What kind of value do you have for time, and what is truly important to you? Make a list of
what you spend your time on, and what you value most. Do the lists match? Are you spend-
ing time on what is truly important to you? Relationships take time, and if you want them to
succeed in a personal or business context, you have to make them a priority.
4. To what degree is time a relevant factor in communication in the information age? Give some
examples. Discuss your ideas with a classmate.
5. How many people do you know who have chosen tattoos or piercings as a representation of
self and statement of individuality? Survey your friends and share your findings with your
classmates.
11.4 Movement in Your Speech
1. Demonstrate how to use movement to increase the effectiveness of your presentation.
At some point in your business career you will be called upon to give a speech. It may be to an audi-
ence of one on a sales floor, or to a large audience at a national meeting. You already know you need
to make a positive first impression, but do you know how to use movement in your presentation?
In this section we’ll examine several strategies for movement and their relative advantages and dis-
advantages.
Customers and audiences respond well to speakers who are comfortable with themselves.
Comfortable doesn’t mean overconfident or cocky, and it doesn’t mean shy or timid. It means that
an audience is far more likely to forgive the occasional “umm” or “ahh,” or the nonverbal equivalent
of a misstep, if the speaker is comfortable with themselves and their message.
front of groups. Clearly demonstrating the correct use of gestures, facial expressions and
professional movement during presentations, Deborah's video will help even the most
experienced public speaker learn a few new speaking techniques.
Let’s start with behaviors to avoid. Who would you rather listen to: a speaker who moves
confidently across the stage or one who hides behind the podium; one who expresses herself non-
verbally with purpose and meaning or one who crosses his arms or clings to the lectern?
Audiences are most likely to respond positively to open, dynamic speakers who convey the feel-
ing of being at ease with their bodies. The setting, combined with audience expectations, will give a
range of movement. If you are speaking at a formal event, or if you are being covered by a station-
ary camera, you may be expected to stay in one spot. If the stage allows you to explore, closing the
distance between yourself and your audience may prove effective. Rather than focus on a list of
behaviors and their relationship to environment and context, give emphasis to what your audience
expects and what you yourself would find more engaging instead.
Novice speakers are often told to keep their arms at their sides, or to restrict their movement to
only that which is absolutely necessary. If you are in formal training for a military presentation, or a
forensics (speech and debate) competition, this may hold true. But in business and industry, “what-
ever works” rules the day. You can’t say that expressive gestures—common among many cultural
groups, like arm movement while speaking—are not appropriate when they are, in fact, expected.
The questions are, again, what does your audience consider appropriate and what do you feel
comfortable doing during your presentation? Since the emphasis is always on meeting the needs
of the customer, whether it is an audience of one on a sales floor or a large national gathering, you
may need to stretch outside your comfort zone. On that same note, don’t stretch too far and move
yourself into the uncomfortable range. Finding balance is a challenge, but no one ever said giving a
speech was easy.
Movement is an important aspect of your speech and requires planning, the same as the words
you choose and the visual aids you design. Be natural, but do not naturally shuffle your feet, pace
back and forth, or rock on your heels through your entire speech. These behaviors distract your
audience from your message and can communicate nervousness, undermining your credibility.
Positions on the Stage

In a classical speech presentation, positions on the stage serve to guide both the
speaker and the audience through transitions. The speaker’s triangle (see Figure FIGURE 11.3 Speaker’s Triangle
11.3) indicates where the speaker starts in the introduction, moves to the second
position for the first point, across for the second point, then returns to the origi-
nal position to make the third point and conclusion. This movement technique
can be quite effective to help you remember each of your main points. It allows
you to break down your speech into manageable parts, and putting tape on the
floor to indicate position is a common presentation trick. Your movement will
demonstrate purpose and reinforce your credibility.
Gestures
Gestures involve using your arms and hands while communicating. Gestures provide a way to
channel your nervous energy into a positive activity that benefits your speech and gives you some-
thing to do with your hands. For example, watch people in normal, everyday conversations. They
frequently use their hands to express themselves. Do you think they think about how they use their
hands? Most people do not. Their arm and hand gestures come naturally as part of their expression,
often reflecting what they have learned within their community.
For professional speakers this is also true, but deliberate movement can reinforce, repeat, and
even regulate an audience’s response to their verbal and nonverbal messages. You want to come
across as comfortable and natural, and your use of your arms and hands contributes to your pre-
sentation. We can easily recognize that a well-chosen gesture can help make a point memorable or
lead the audience to the next point.
As professional speakers lead up to a main point, they raise their hand slightly, perhaps waist
high, often called an anticipation step. The gesture clearly shows the audience your anticipation of
signal a nonverbal an upcoming point, serving as a nonverbal form of foreshadowing.
foreshadowing.
The implementation step, which comes next, involves using your arms and hands above your
waist. By holding one hand at waist level pointing outward, and raising it up with your palm for-
ward, as in the “stop” gesture, you signal the point. The nonverbal gesture complements the spoken
Holding one hand at waist
word, and as students of speech have noted across time, audiences respond to this nonverbal rein-
level pointing outward, and
raising it up with your palm forcement. You then slowly lower your hand down past your waistline and away from your body,
forward, as in the “stop” letting go of the gesture, and signaling your transition.
gesture.
The relaxation step, where the letting go motion complements your residual message, con-
cludes the motion.
Lowering your hand past

your waistline and away
from your body.
Facial Gestures
As you progress as a speaker from gestures and movement, you will need to turn your attention to
facial gestures and expressions. Facial gestures involve using your face to display feelings and atti-
Using your face to display
tudes nonverbally. They may reinforce, or contradict, the spoken word, and their impact cannot be
feelings and attitudes
nonverbally. underestimated. As we have discussed, people often focus more on how we say something than
what we actually say, and place more importance on our nonverbal gestures.[25] As in other body
movements, your facial gestures should come naturally, but giving them due thought and consid-
eration can keep you aware of how you are communicating the nonverbal message.
Facial gestures should reflect the tone and emotion of your verbal communication. If you
are using humor in your speech, you will likely smile and wink to complement the amusement
expressed in your words. Smiling will be much less appropriate if your presentation involves a
serious subject such as cancer or car accidents. Consider how you want your audience to feel in
response to your message, and identify the facial gestures you can use to promote those feelings.
Then practice in front of a mirror so that the gestures come naturally.
The single most important facial gesture (in mainstream U.S. culture) is eye contact.[26] Eye
contact refers to the speaker’s gaze that engages the audience members. It can vary in degree and
The speaker’s gaze that
engages the audience
length, and in many cases, is culturally influenced. Both in the speaker’s expectations and the audi-
members. ence member’s notion of what is appropriate will influence normative expectations for eye contact.
In some cultures, there are understood behavioral expectations for male gaze directed toward
females, and vice versa. In a similar way, children may have expectations of when to look their
elders in the eye, and when to gaze down. Depending on the culture, both may be nonverbal signals
of listening. Understanding your audience is critical when it comes to nonverbal expectations.
When giving a presentation, avoid looking over people’s heads, staring at a point on the wall,
or letting your eyes dart all over the place. The audience will find these mannerisms unnerving.
They will not feel as connected, or receptive, to your message and you will reduce your effective-
ness. Move your eyes gradually and naturally across the audience, both close to you and toward the
back of the room. Try to look for faces that look interested and engaged in your message. Do not
to focus on only one or two audience members, as audiences may respond negatively to perceived
favoritism. Instead, try to give as much eye contact as possible across the audience. Keep it natural,
but give it deliberate thought.
Top tips from presentation expert Steve Bavister, who is a trainer with communication skills
company Speak First. Just what do you do with your hands when you're giving a presentation?
Steve demonstrates the best (and worst!) options for holding your hands and gesturing, so that
you look confident and professional and get your message across clearly.
Key Takeaway
To use movement strategically in your presentation, keep it natural and consider using the
speaker’s triangle, the three-step sequence, facial gestures, and eye contact.
1. Think of a message you want to convey to a listener. If you were to dance your message,
what would the dance look like? Practice in front of a mirror.
2. Ask a friend to record you while you are having a typical conversation with another friend or
family member. Watch the video and observe your movements and facial gestures. What
would you do differently if you were making a presentation? Discuss your thoughts with a
classmate.
3. Play “Lie to Me,” a game in which each person creates three statements (one is a lie) and
tells all three statements to a classmate or group. The listeners have to guess which state-
ment is a lie.
11.5 Visual Aids
1. Demonstrate how to use visual aids effectively in your presentation.

Almost all presentations can be enhanced by the effective use of visual aids. These can include
handouts, overhead transparencies, drawings on the whiteboard, PowerPoint slides, and many other
types of props. Visual aids are an important nonverbal aspect of your speech that you can control.
Once you have chosen a topic, you need to consider how you are going to show your audience what
you are talking about.
Have you ever asked for driving directions and not understood someone’s response? Did the
person say, “Turn right at Sam’s Grocery Store, the new one” or “I think you will turn at the second
light, but it might be the third one”? Chances are that unless you know the town well or have a map
handy, the visual cue of a grocery store or a traffic light might be insufficient to let you know where
to turn. Your audience experiences the same frustration, or sense of accomplishment, when they get
lost or find their way during your speech. Consider how you can express yourself visually, providing
common references, illustrations, and images that lead the audience to understand your point or
issue.
Visual aids accomplish several goals:
• Make your speech more interesting
• Enhance your credibility as a speaker
• Serve as guides to transitions, helping the audience stay on track
• Communicate complex or intriguing information in a short period of time
• Reinforce your verbal message
• Help the audience use and retain the information
Purpose, Emphasis, Support, and Clarity

When you look at your own presentation from an audience member’s perspective, you might con-
sider how to distinguish the main points from the rest of the information. You might also consider
the relationships being presented between ideas or concepts, or how other aspects of the presenta-
tion can complement the oral message.
Your audience naturally will want to know why you are presenting the visual aid. The purpose
for each visual aid should be clear, and almost speak for itself. If you can’t quickly grasp the purpose
of a visual aid in a speech, you have to honestly consider whether it should be used in the first place.
Visual aids can significantly develop the message of a speech, but they must be used for a specific
purpose the audience can easily recognize.
Perhaps you want to highlight a trend between two related issues, such as socioeconomic sta-
tus and educational attainment. A line graph might show effectively how, as socioeconomic status
rises, educational attainment also rises. This use of a visual aid can provide emphasis, effectively
highlighting key words, ideas, or relationships for the audience.
Visual aids can also provide necessary support for your position. Audience members may ques-
tion your assertion of the relationship between socioeconomic status and educational attainment.
To support your argument, you might include on the slide, “According to the U.S. Department of
Education Study no. 12345,” or even use an image of the Department of Education Web page pro-
jected on a large screen. You might consider showing similar studies in graphic form, illustrating
similarities across a wide range of research.
Clarity is key in the use of visual aids. One way to improve clarity is to limit
FIGURE 11.4
the number of words on a PowerPoint slide. No more than ten words per slide, Visual aids provide necessary support for your
with a font large enough to be read at the back of the room or auditorium, is a position, illustrate relationships, and
good rule of thumb. Key images that have a clear relationship to the verbal mes- demonstrate trends.
sage can also improve clarity. You may also choose to illustrate the same data
successively in two distinct formats, perhaps a line graph followed by two pie
graphs. Your central goal is to ensure your visual aid is clear.
Methods and Materials

If you have been asked to give a presentation on a new product idea that a team
within your organization is considering, how might you approach the challenge?
You may consider a chronological organization pattern, starting with back-
ground, current market, and a trend analysis of what is to come—fair enough, but how will you
make it vivid for your audience? How to represent information visually is a significant challenge,
and you have several options.
You may choose to use a chart or diagram to show a timeline of events to date, from the first
meeting about the proposed product to the results from the latest focus group. This timeline may
A visual depiction of how
work for you, but let’s say you would like to get into the actual decision-making process that moti- variables relate to each
vated your team to design the product with specific features in the first place. You may decide to other or how something
use decision trees (or tree diagrams) showing the variables and products in place at the beginning works.
of your discussions, and how each decision led to the next, bringing you to the decision-making
point where you are today.
To complement this comprehensive guide and help make a transition to cur-
FIGURE 11.5
rent content areas of questions, you may use a bar or pie graph to show the Visual aids make it vivid for your audience.
percentage of competing products in the market. If you have access to the Inter-
net and a projector, you may use a topographical map showing a three-
dimensional rendering of the local areas most likely to find your product
attractive. If actual hills and valleys have nothing to do with your project, you can
still represent the data you have collected in three dimensions. Then you may
show a comparable graph illustrating the distribution of products and their rela-
tive degree of market penetration.

Finally, you may move to the issue of results, and present the audience with
FIGURE 11.6 a model of your product and one from a competitor, asking which they prefer.
Bar and pie graphs can clearly demonstrate
The object may be just the visual aid you need to make your point and reinforce
results.
the residual message. When we can see, feel, touch, or be in close proximity to an
object it often has a greater impact. In a world of digital images and special
effects, objects presented in real time can still make a positive effect on the audi-
ence.
Additional visual aids you may choose include—but are not limited to—
sound and music, video, and even yourself. If your speech is about how to use
the product, your demonstration may just be the best visual aid.
You will want to give some thought to how to portray your chart, graph, or
object when it’s time to use your visual aids. The chalk or white board is common
way of presenting visual aids, but it can get messy. Your instructor may write key
words or diagrams on the boards while discussing a textbook chapter, but can
you read his or her writing? The same lesson holds true for you. If you are going to use a white
board and have a series of words on it, write them out clearly before you start your presentation.
Flip charts on a pedestal can also serve to show a series of steps or break a chart down into its
basic components. A poster board is another common way of organizing your visual aids before a
speech, but given its often one-time use, it is losing out to the computer screen. It is, however,
portable and allows you a large “blank page” with which to express your ideas.
Handouts may also serve to communicate complex or detailed information to the audience,
but be careful never to break handout rule number one: never give handouts to the audience at
the beginning of your speech. Where do you want the audience to look—at you or at the handout?
Many novice speakers might be tempted to say the handout, but you will no doubt recognize how
that diverts and divides the audience’s attention. People will listen to the words from the hand-
out in their minds and tune you out. They will read at their own pace and have questions. They
may even be impolite enough to use them as fans or paper airplanes. Handouts can be your worst
enemy. If you need to use one, state at the beginning of the speech that you will be providing one
at the conclusion of your presentation. This will alleviate the audience’s worry about capturing all
your content by taking notes, and keep their attention focused on you while you speak.
Transparencies and slides have been replaced by computer-generated slide show programs like
PowerPoint by Microsoft, which we will discuss in greater detail later in this section. These pro-
grams can be very helpful in presenting visual information, but because computers and projectors
sometimes break down and fail to work as planned, you need a plan B. You may need a poster board,
or to write on the whiteboard or to have a handout in reserve, but a Plan B is always a good idea
when it comes to presentations that integrate technology. You may arrive at your destination and
find the equipment is no longer available, is incompatible with your media storage device, or is sim-
ply not working, but the show must go on.
Video clips, such as those you might find on YouTube, can also be effective visual aids. However,
as with handouts, there is one concern: You don’t want the audience to want to watch the video
more than they want to tune into your presentation. How do you prevent this? Keep the clip short
and make sure it reinforces the central message of your presentation. Always stop speaking before
the audience stops listening, and the same holds true for the mesmerizing force of moving images
on a screen. People are naturally attracted to them and will get “sucked into” your video example
rather quickly. Be a good editor, introduce the clip and state what will happen out loud, point out
a key aspect of it to the audience while it plays (overlap), and then make a clear transitional state-
ment as you turn it off. Transitions are often the hardest part of any speech as the audience can
get off track, and video clips are one of the most challenging visual aids you can choose because of
their power to attract attention. Use that power wisely.
Preparing Visual Aids

Get started early so that you have time to create or research visual aids that will truly support your
presentation, not just provide “fluff.” Make sure you use a font or image large enough to be legible
for those in the back of the room, and that you actually test your visual aids before the day of your
presentation. Ask a friend to stand at the back of the room and read or interpret your visual aid. If
you are using computer-generated slides, try them out in a practice setting, not just on your com-
puter screen. The slides will look different when projected. Allow time for revision based on what
you learn.
Your visual aids should meet the following criteria:
• Big. They should be legible for everyone, and should be “back row certified.”
• Clear. Your audience should “get it” the first time they see it.
• Simple. They should serve to simplify the concepts they illustrate.
• Consistent. They should reinforce continuity by using the same visual style.
Using Visual Aids

Here are three general guidelines to follow when using visual aids.[27] Here are some dos and don’ts:
1. Do make a clear connection between your words and the visual aid for the audience.
2. Do not distract the audience with your visual aid, blocking their view of you or adjusting the
visual aid repeatedly while trying to speak.
3. Do speak to your audience—not to the whiteboard, the video, or other visual aids.
The timing of your presentation, and of your visual aids, can also have good or bad conse-
quences. According to a popular joke, a good way to get your boss to approve just about anything
is to schedule a meeting after lunch, turn the lights down, and present some boring PowerPoint
slides. While the idea of a drowsy boss signing off on a harebrained project is amusing, in reality
you will want to use visual aids not as a sleeping potion but as a strategy to keep your presentation
lively and interesting.
Becoming proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice, and the more you practice
before your speech, the more comfortable you will be with your visual aids and the role they serve
in illustrating your points. Planning ahead before speaking will help, but when it comes time to
actually give your speech, make sure they work for the audience as they should. Speaking to a
visual aid (or reading it with your back to the audience) is not an effective strategy. You should
know your material well enough that you refer to a visual aid, not rely on it.
Using PowerPoint as a Visual Aid

PowerPoint and similar visual representation programs can be an effective tool to help audiences
remember your message, but they can also be an annoying distraction to your speech. How you
prepare your slides and use the tool will determine your effectiveness.
PowerPoint is a slideware program that you have no doubt seen used in class, presentation at
work, or perhaps used yourself to support a presentation. PowerPoint and similar slideware pro-
Images created from grams provide templates for creating electronic slides to present visual information to the audience,
templates in a slideware
program such as reinforcing the verbal message. You’ll be able to import, or cut and paste, words from text files,
images, or video clips to create slides to represent your ideas. You can even incorporate Web links.
visual information to the When using any software program, it’s always a good idea to experiment with it long before you
audience.
intend to use it, explore its many options and functions, and see how it can be an effective tool for
you.
At first, you might be overwhelmed by the possibilities, and you might be tempted to use all
the bells, whistles, and sound effects, not to mention the tumbling, flying, and animated graphics.
If used wisely, a dissolve or key transition can be like a well-executed scene from a major motion
picture film and lead your audience to the next point. But if used indiscriminately, it can annoy the
audience to the point where they cringe in anticipation of the sound effect at the start of each slide.
This danger is inherent in the tool, but you are in charge of it and can make wise choices that enhance
the understanding and retention of your information.
The first point to consider is what is the most important visual aid? The answer is you, the
speaker. You will facilitate the discussion, give life to the information, and help the audience corre-
late the content to your goal or purpose. You don’t want to be in a position where the PowerPoint
presentation is the main focus and you are on the side of the stage, simply helping the audience
follow along. It should support you in your presentation, rather than the other way around. Just as
there is a number one rule for handouts, there is also one for PowerPoints: do not use PowerPoints
as a read-aloud script for your speech. The PowerPoints should amplify and illustrate your main
points, not reproduce everything you are going to say.
Your pictures are the second area of emphasis you’ll want to consider. The tool will allow you to
show graphs, charts and illustrate relationships that words may only approach in terms of commu-
nication, but your verbal support of the visual images will make all the difference. Dense pictures
or complicated graphics will confuse more than clarify. Choose clear images that have an immedi-
ate connection to both your content and the audience, tailored to their specific needs. After images,
consider only key words that can be easily read to accompany your pictures. The fewer words the
better: try to keep each slide to a total word count of less than ten words. Do not use full sentences.
Using key words provides support for your verbal discussion, guiding you as well as your audience.
The key words can serve as signposts or signal words related to key ideas.
A natural question at this point is, “How do I communicate complex information simply?” The
answer comes with several options. The visual representation on the screen is for support and illus-
tration. Should you need to communicate more technical, complex, or in-depth information in a
visual way, consider preparing a handout to distribute at the conclusion of your speech. You may
also consider using a printout of your slide show with a “notes” section, but if you distribute it at
the beginning of your speech, you run the risk of turning your presentation into a guided reading
exercise and possibly distracting or losing members of the audience. Everyone reads at a different
pace and takes notes in their own way. You don’t want to be in the position of going back and forth
between slides to help people follow along.
Another point to consider is how you want to use the tool to support your speech and how
your audience will interpret its presentation. Most audiences wouldn’t want to read a page of
text—as you might see in this book—on the big screen. They’ll be far more likely to glance at the
screen and assess the information you present in relation to your discussion. Therefore, it is key to
consider one main idea, relationship, or point per slide. The use of the tool should be guided with
the idea that its presentation is for the audience’s benefit, not yours. People often understand pic-
tures and images more quickly and easily than text, and you can use this to your advantage, using
the knowledge that a picture is worth a thousand words.
Use of Color
People love color, and understandably your audience will appreciate the visual stimulation of a col-
orful presentation. If you have ever seen a car painted a custom color that just didn’t attract you, or
seen colors put together in ways that made you wonder what people were thinking when they did
that, you will recognize that color can also distract and turn off an audience.
Color is a powerful way to present information, and the power should be used wisely. You
will be selecting which color you want to use for headers or key words, and how they relate the
colors in the visual images. Together, your images, key words, and the use of color in fonts, back-
grounds, table, and graphs can have a significant impact on your audience. You will need to give
some thought and consideration to what type of impact you want to make, how it will contribute
or possibly distract, and what will work well for you to produce an effective and impressive presen-
tation.
There are inherent relationships between colors, and while you may have covered some of this
information in art classes you have taken, it is valuable to review here. According to the standard
color wheel, colors are grouped into primary, secondary, and tertiary categories. Primary colors are
the colors from which other colors are made through various combinations. Secondary colors rep-
resent a combination of two primary colors, while tertiary colors are made from combinations of
primary and secondary colors.
• Primary colors. Red, blue and yellow
FIGURE 11.7 Color Wheel
• Secondary colors. Green, violet, and orange
• Tertiary colors. Red-orange, red-violet, blue-violet, blue-green, yellow-orange,
and yellow-green
Colors have relationships depending on their location on the wheel. Colors
that are opposite each other are called complementary and they contrast, creat-
ing a dynamic effect. Analogous colors are located next to each other and
promote harmony, continuity, and sense of unity.
Your audience comes first: when considering your choice of colors to use, leg-
ibility must be your priority. Contrast can help the audience read your key terms
more easily. Also, focus on the background color and its relation to the images
you plan to incorporate to insure they complement each other. Consider repeti-
tion of color, from your graphics to your text, to help unify each slide. To reduce
visual noise, try not to use more than two or three additional colors. Use colors
sparingly to make a better impact, and consider the use of texture and reverse © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
color fonts (the same as a background or white) as an option.
Be aware that many people are blue-green colorblind, and that red-green colorblindness is also
fairly common. With this in mind, choose colors that most audience members will be able to differ-
entiate. If you are using a pie chart, for example, avoid putting a blue segment next to a green one.
Use labeling so that even if someone is totally colorblind they will be able to tell the relative sizes of
the pie segments and what they signify.
Color is also a matter of culture. Some colors may be perceived as formal or informal, or mas-
culine or feminine. Recognize that red is usually associated with danger, while green signals “go.”
Make sure the color associated with the word is reflected in your choice. If you have a key word about
nature, but the color is metallic, the contrast may not contribute to the rhetorical situation and
confuse the audience.
Seeking a balance between professionalism and attractiveness may seem to be a challenge, but
experiment and test your drafts with friends to see what works for you. Also consider examining
other examples, commonly available on the Internet, but retain the viewpoint that not everything
online is effective nor should it be imitated. There are predetermined color schemes already incor-
porated into PowerPoint that you can rely on for your presentation.
We’ve given consideration to color in relation to fonts and the representation of key words, but
we also need to consider font size and selection. PowerPoint will have default settings for head-
lines and text, but you will need to consider what is most appropriate for your rhetorical situation.
Always think about the person sitting in the back of the room. The title size should be at least forty
points, and the body text (used sparingly) should be at least thirty-two points.
In Designing Visual Language: Strategies for Professional Communicators,[28]
FIGURE 11.8
Visual aids should be clear from the back of the Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts provide a valuable discussion of fonts, font
room. styles, and what to choose to make an impact depending on your rhetorical situ-
ation. One good principle they highlight is that sans serif fonts such as Arial work
better than serif fonts like Times New Roman for images projected onto a screen.
The thin lines and extra aspects to serif the font may not portray themselves well
on a large screen or contribute to clarity. To you this may mean that you choose
Arial or a similar font to enhance clarity and ease of reading. Kostelnick and
Roberts also discuss the use of grouping strategies to improve the communica-
tion of information.[29] Bullets, the use of space, similarity, and proximity all
pertain to the process of perception, which differs from one person to another.
Helpful Hints for Visual Aids

As we’ve discussed, visual aids can be a powerful tool when used effectively, but can also run the
risk of dominating your presentation. As a speaker, you will need to consider your audience and
how the portrayal of images, text, graphic, animated sequences, or sound files will contribute or
detract from your presentation. Here is a brief list of hints to keep in mind as you prepare your pre-
sentation.
• Keep visual aids simple.
• Use one key idea per slide.
• Avoid clutter, noise, and overwhelming slides.
• Use large, bold fonts that the audience can read from at least twenty feet from the screen.
• Use contrasting colors to create a dynamic effect.
• Use analogous colors to unify your presentation.
• Use clip art with permission and sparingly.
• Edit and proofread each slide with care and caution.
• Use copies of your visuals available as handouts after your presentation.
• Check the presentation room beforehand.
• With a PowerPoint presentation, or any presentation involving technology, have a backup
plan, such as your visuals printed on transparencies, should unexpected equipment or inter-
face compatibility problems arise
Becoming proficient at using visual aids takes time and practice. The more you practice before
your speech, the more comfortable you will be with your visual aids and the role they serve in illus-
trating your message. Giving thought to where to place visual aids before speaking helps, but when
the time comes to actually give your speech, make sure you reassess your plans and ensure that
they work for the audience as they should. Speaking to a visual aid (or reading it to the audience)
is not an effective strategy. Know your material well enough that you refer to your visual aids, not
rely on them.
Key Takeaway
Strategically chosen visual aids will serve to illustrate, complement, and reinforce your verbal
message.
1. Look at the picture of the blankets above. Write copy for the left part of the slide and decide
what colors would best complement the message. Share your results with the class.
2. Create your own presentation of three to five slides with no less than three images and three
words per slide. Share the results with the class.
3. Explore PowerPoint or a similar slideware program and find your favorite feature. Write a
series of steps on how to access and use it. Share your results with the class.
4.
include at least one point on its advantage for the audience. Share the results with the class.
11.6 Nonverbal Strategies for Success

with Your Audience
Nonverbal communication is an important aspect of business communication, from the context

of an interpersonal interaction to a public presentation. It is a dynamic, complex, and challenging
aspect of communication. We are never done learning and adapting to our environment and con-
text, and improving our understanding of nonverbal communication comes with the territory.
When your audience first sees you, they begin to make judgments and predictions about you
and your potential, just as an employer might do when you arrive for a job interview. If you are
well dressed and every crease is ironed, your audience may notice your attention to detail. Wearing
jeans with holes, a torn T-shirt, and a baseball cap would send a different message. Neither style of
dress is “good” or “bad, but simply appropriate or inappropriate depending on the environment and
context. Your skills as an effective business communicator will be called upon when you contem-
plate your appearance. As a speaker, your goal is to create common ground and reduce the distance
between the audience and yourself. You want your appearance to help establish and reinforce your
credibility.
In order to be a successful business communicator, you will need to continually learn about
nonverbal communication and its impact on your interactions. Below are three ways to examine
nonverbal communication.
Winning Body Language free chapter http://www.truthplane.com Control the Conversation,

Command Attention, and Convey the Right Message without Saying a Word.
Watch Reactions
Market research is fundamental to success in business and industry. So, too, you will need to do a
bit of field research to observe how, when, and why people communicate the way they do. If you
want to be able to communicate effectively with customers, you will need to anticipate not only
their needs, but also how they communicate. They are far more likely to communicate with
someone whom they perceive as being like them, than with a perceived stranger. From dress to
mannerisms and speech patterns, you can learn from your audience how to be a more effective
business communicator.
Enroll an Observer
Most communication in business and industry involves groups and teams, even if the interpersonal
context is a common element. Enroll a coworker or colleague in your effort to learn more about
your audience, or even yourself. They can observe your presentation and note areas you may not
have noticed that could benefit from revision. Perhaps the gestures you make while speaking tend
to distract rather than enhance your presentations. You can also record a video of your perfor-
mance and play it for them, and yourself, to get a sense of how your nonverbal communication
complements or detracts from the delivery of your message.
Focus on a Specific Type of Nonverbal

Communication
What is the norm for eye contact where you work? Does this change or differ based on gender, age,
ethnicity, cultural background, context, environment? Observation will help you learn more about
how people communicate; looking for trends across a specific type of nonverbal communication
can be an effective strategy. Focus on one behavior you exhibit on your videotape, like pacing, body
movements across the stage, hand gestures as you are making a point, or eye contact with the audi-
ence.
Follow Mark at http://www.twitter/truthplane/ for more expert help on communication for

business leaders.Visit http://www.truthplane.com for training and keynotes for business people
who want to stand out, win trust and profit every time they speak.
Key Takeaway
To use nonverbal communication to enhance your message, watch reactions and consider
receives nonverbal messages.
1. Watch a television program without the sound. Can you understand the program? Write a
description of the program and include what you found easy to understand, and what pre-
sented a challenge, and present it to the class.
2. Observe communication in your environment. Focus on specific actions like face touching,
blink rate, or head nodding and write a brief description of what you observe. Share with
classmates.
3. In a group, play charades. Pull words from a hat or envelope and act out the words without
verbal communication.
4. Interview someone from a different culture than your own and ask them to share a specific
used in polite company. Write a brief description and present it to the class.
5. What do you think are the assumptions (explicit or underlying) about nonverbal communica-
tion in this chapter? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.

Visit this site for a library of University of California videotapes on nonverbal communication pro-
duced by Dane Archer of the University of California at Santa Cruz. http://nonverbal.ucsc.edu
Read “Listen With Your Eyes: Tips for Understanding Nonverbal Communication,” an
About.com article by Susan Heathfield. http://humanresources.about.com/od/
interpersonalcommunicatio1/a/nonverbal_com.htm
Presentation Magazine offers a wealth of ideas, tips, and templates for designing effective
visual aids. http://www.presentationmagazine.com
The National Center for Education Statistics offers an easy-to-use “Create a Graph” tutorial
including bar, line, area, pie, and other types of graphs. The site is made for kids, but it’s worthwhile
for adults too. http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/graphing/classic
Read “The Seven Sins of Visual Presentations” from Presentation Magazine. http://www.
presentationmagazine.com/7sinsvisual.htm
Yale emeritus professor Edward Tufte is one of the top authorities on the visual presentation
of data. Learn about his books on data presentation and a one-day course he teaches. http://www.
edwardtufte.com/tufte/courses
Greg Conley has produced an excellent discussion of color, contrast, and tips for the use of
color on his Web site and has gracefully allowed it to be included here for your benefit. Check out
his site for more in-depth information and consider taking an art course to further develop your
awareness of color. http://www.watercolorpainting.com/color.htm
The American Psychological Association provides guidelines for making presentations accessi-
ble for persons with disabilities. http://www.apa.org/pi/disability/resources/convention/index.aspx
Read “Using Visual Aids and Props for Giving More Powerful Presentations” by Larry M.
Lynch. http://ezinearticles.com/?Using-Visual-Aids-and-Props-for-Giving-More-Powerful-
Presentations&id=100871
Is “how you say it” really more important than what you say? Read an article by communica-
tions expert Dana Bristol-Smith that debunks a popular myth. http://www.sideroad.com/Public_
Speaking/how-you-say-not-more-important-what-you-say.html
Endnotes
5. Beebe, S. [Steven], Beebe, S. [Susan], & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
6. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago, IL: Aldine Atherton.
8. Zuckerman, M., DePaulo, B., & Rosenthal, R. (1981). Verbal and nonverbal communication of deception. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 14,
1–59.
9. Hall, E. T. (1963). Proxemics: The study of man’s spacial relations and boundaries. In Iago Galdston (Ed.), Man’s image in medicine and anthropology (pp.
422–445). New York, NY: International Universities Press.
10. Hall, E. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York, NY: Doubleday.
11. Bruneau, T. (1974). Time and nonverbal communication. Journal of Poplular Culture, 8, 658–666.
12. Bruneau, T. (1990). Chronemics: The study of time in human interaction. In J. DeVito & M. Hecht (Eds.), The nonverbal reader (pp. 301–311). Prospect
Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
13. Bruneau, T., & Ishii, S. (1988). Communicative silence: East and west. World Communication, 17, 1–33.
14. Schwartz, T. (1989, January/February). Acceleration syndrome: Does everyone live in the fast lane? Utne Reader, 31, 36–43.
15. McLean, S. (1998). Turn-taking and the extended pause: A study of interpersonal communication styles across generations on the Warm Springs Indian
reservation. In K. S. Sitaram & M. Prosser (Eds.), Civic discourse: Multiculturalsim, cultural diversity, and global communication (pp. 213–227). Stamford, CT:
Ablex Publishing Company.
18. Wells, W., & Siegel, B. (1961). Stereotypes somatypes. Psychological Reports, 8, 77–78.
19. Cash, T., & Kilcullen, R. (1985). The eye of the beholder: Susceptibility to sexism and beautyism in the evaluation of managerial applicants. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 15, 591–605.
20. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1967). Head and body cures in the judgment of emotions: A reformulation. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 24, 711–724.
22. Basso, K. A. (1970). To give up on words: Silence in western Apache culture. In D. Carbaugh (Ed.), Cultural communication and intercultural contact (pp.
301–318). Hillsdale, NJ: Laurence Erlbaum.
23. Philips, S. (1983). The invisible culture: Communication in the classroom and community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Chicago, IL: Waveland
Press.
24. Kinsman, M. (2001, August 20). Tattoos and nose rings. San Diego Union-Tribune, p. C1.
25. Mehrabian, A. (1981). Silent messages: Implicit communication of emotions and attitudes (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Organization and Outlines
Speech is power; speech is to persuade, to convert, to compel.

— Ralph Waldo Emerson
1.
A. I saw “The Day After Tomorrow” recently. B. The Northern Seas got very cold, very
quickly. C. People in the United States fled to Mexico. D. Have you ever seen a movie you
just couldn’t forget? E. Soon it was hailing, snowing, and raining all around the world. F. In
the movie there was a scientist who forecast a sudden change in the climate. G. They were
declared illegal aliens and not allowed in the country. H. The film made me think about global
warming and global politics. I. The U.S. president forgave their debts, and the Mexican pres-
ident allowed U.S. citizens to cross the border.
2. Consider the following words and find at least two ways to organize the words into groups.
Knife
Fork
Spoon
Answers
1. D, A, F, B, E, C, G, I, H
2. Table service (knife, fork, spoon), sharp implements (knife, fork, corkscrew), Tools (all). Can
you think of any other organizational principles by which to group these items?
In earlier stages of preparation for a speech, you have gained a good idea of who your audience
is and what information you want to focus on. This chapter will help you consider how to organize
the information to cover your topic. You may be tempted to think that you know enough about
your topic that you can just “wing it” or go “freestyling.” Your organization might be something
like this: “First, I’ll talk about this, then I’ll give this example, and I’ll wrap it up with this.” While
knowledge on your topic is key to an effective speech, do not underestimate the importance of orga-
nization. You may start to give your speech thinking you’ll follow the “outline” in your mind, and
then suddenly your mind will go blank. If it doesn’t go blank, you may finish what was planned as
a five-minute speech with three minutes remaining, sit down, and then start to remember all the
things you intended to say but didn’t. To your listeners, your presentation may have sounded like
the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter—a bunch of related ideas that were scat-
tered and unorganized.
Organization in your speech is helpful both to you and to your audience. Your audience will
appreciate hearing the information presented in an organized way, and being well organized will
make the speaking situation much less stressful for you. You might forget a point and be able to
glance at your outline and get back on track. Your listeners will see that you took your responsibil-
ity as a speaker seriously and will be able to listen more attentively. They’ll be able to link your key
points in their minds, and the result will be a more effective speech.
An extemporaneous speech involves flexibility and organization. You know your material. You
are prepared and follow an outline. You do not read a script or PowerPoint presentation, you do
not memorize every single word in order (though some parts may be memorized), but you also do
not make it up as you go along. Your presentation is scripted in the sense that it is completely
planned from start to finish, yet every word is not explicitly planned, allowing for some spontane-
ity and adaptation to the audience’s needs in the moment. This extemporaneous approach is the
most common form used in business and industry today.
Your organization plan will serve you and your audience as a guide, and help you present a
more effective speech. If you are concerned with grades, it will no doubt help you improve your
score as well. If you work in a career where your “grades” are sales, and a sales increase means get-
ting an “A,” then your ability to organize will help you make the grade. Just as there is no substitute
for practice and preparation, there is no substitute for organization and an outline when you need
it the most: on stage. Do yourself and the audience a favor and create an outline with an organiza-
tion pattern that best meets your needs.
In the 1991 film What about Bob? a psychiatrist presents the simple idea to the patient, played
by actor Bill Murray. If the patient takes whatever he needs to do step by step, the process he once
perceived as complex becomes simple. In this same way, your understanding of giving business pre-
sentations will develop step by step, as the process and its important elements unfold. Read and
reflect on how each area might influence your speech, how it might involve or impact your audi-
ence, and how your purpose guides your strategies as you plan your speech.
If you take it step by step, presenting a speech can be an exhilarating experience not unlike
winning a marathon or climbing a high peak. Every journey begins with a first step, and in terms of
communication, you’ve already taken countless steps in your lifetime. Now we’ll take the next step
and begin to analyze the process of public speaking.
12.2 Rhetorical Situation
1. Label and discuss the three main components of the rhetorical situation.
In the classical tradition, the art of public speaking is called rhetoric; the circumstances in which
you give your speech or presentation are the rhetorical situation. By understanding the rhetorical
situation, you can gauge the best ways to reach your listeners and get your points across. In so
doing, you’ll make the transition from your viewpoint to that of your audience members. Remem-
ber that without an audience to listen and respond to you, it’s really not much of a speech. The
audience gives you the space and time as a speaker to fulfill your role and, hopefully, their expec-
tations. Just as a group makes a leader, an audience makes a speaker. By looking to your audience,
you shift your attention from an internal focus (you) to an external (them/others) emphasis. This
“other-orientation” is key to your success as an effective speaker.
Several of the first questions any audience member asks himself or herself are, “Why should I
listen to you?” “What does what you are saying have to do with me?” and “How does this help me?”
We communicate through the lens of personal experience and it’s only natural that we would relate
what others say to our own needs and wants, but by recognizing that we share in our humanity
many of the same basic motivations, we can find common ground of mutual interest. Generating
interest in your speech is only the first step as you guide perception through selection, organiza-
tion, and interpretation of content and ways to communicate your point. Your understanding of
the rhetorical situation will guide you as you plan how to employ various strategies to guide your
listeners as they perceive and interpret your message. Your awareness of the overall process of
building a speech will allow you to take it step by step and focus on the immediate task at hand.
The rhetorical situation involves three elements: the set of expectations
inherent in the context, audience, and the purpose of your speech or presenta- FIGURE 12.1
The rhetorical situation involves where we are,
tion. This means you need to consider, in essence, the “who, what, where, when,
[1]
who we are with, and why we are
why, and how” of your speech from the audience’s perspective. communicating.
Context
As we consider the rhetorical situation, we need to explore the concept in depth.
Your speech is not given in a space that has no connection to the rest of the
world. If you are going to be presenting a speech in class, your context will be the
familiar space of your classroom. Other contexts might include a business con-
ference room, a restaurant where you are the featured speaker for a dinner
meeting, or a podium that has been set up outdoors for a sports award ceremony.
The time of your speech will relate to people’s natural patterns of behavior. If
you give a speech right after lunch, you can expect people to be a bit sleepy.
Knowing this, you can take steps to counter this element of the context by mak-
ing your presentation especially dynamic, such as having your audience get up
from their seats or calling on them to answer questions at various points in your
speech.
You can also place your topic within the frame of reference of current events.
If you are presenting a speech on the importance of access to health care for
everyone, and you are presenting it in October of an election year, the current
events that exist outside your speech may be used to enhance it. Your listeners © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
might be very aware of the political climate, and relating your topic to a larger
context may effectively take into consideration the circumstances in which your readers will use, Involves three elements:
apply, or contemplate your information. the set of expectations
inherent in the context, the
audience, and the purpose
of your speech or
presentation.
Audience
The receiver (i.e., listener or audience) is one of the basic components of communication. Without
a receiver, the source (i.e., the speaker) has only himself or herself in which to send the message. By
extension, without an audience you can’t have a speech. Your audience comes to you with expecta-
tions, prior knowledge, and experience. They have a purpose that makes them part of the audience
instead of outside playing golf. They have a wide range of characteristics like social class, gender,
age, race and ethnicity, cultural background, and language that make them unique and diverse.
What kind of audience will you be speaking to? What do you know about their expectations, prior
knowledge or backgrounds, and how they plan to use your information? Giving attention to this
aspect of the rhetorical situation will allow you to gain insight into how to craft your message
before you present it.
Purpose
A speech or oral presentation may be designed to inform, demonstrate, persuade, motivate, or even
entertain. You may also overlap by design and both inform and persuade. The purpose of your
speech is central to its formation. You should be able to state your purpose in one sentence or less,
much like an effective thesis statement in an essay. You also need to consider alternate perspectives,
as we’ve seen previously in this chapter. Your purpose may be to persuade, but the audience after
lunch may want to be entertained, and your ability to adapt can make use of a little entertainment
that leads to persuasion.
How To Organize Your Presentation
Key Takeaway
The rhetorical situation has three components: the context, the audience, and the purpose of
the speech.
1. Is it important to consider the rhetorical situation? Why or why not? Discuss your opinion
with a classmate.
2. Think of an example (real or hypothetical) of a speech, a sales presentation, a news broad-
cast or television program. Using the elements listed in this section of the chapter, describe
the rhetorical situation present in your example. Present your example to the class.
3. Let’s take the topic of tattoos. Imagine you are going to present two informative speeches
about tattoos: one to a group of middle school children, and the other to a group of college
students. How would you adapt your topic for each audience and why? Write your results,
provide an example or explanation, and discuss with classmates.
4. Examine a communication interaction and identify the context, the audience, and the pur-
pose of the exchange. Write a brief description and share with classmates.
5. You’ve been assigned the task of arranging a meeting for your class to discuss an important
topic. How do context, audience, and purpose influence your decisions? Write a brief state-
ment of what you would want in terms of time, location, setting, and scene and why. Please
share your results with classmates.
12.3 Strategies for Success
1. Identify and provide examples of at least five of the nine basic cognate strategies in commu-
nication.
Given the diverse nature of audiences, the complexity of the communication process, and the
countless options and choices to make when preparing your speech, you may feel overwhelmed.
One effective way to address this is to focus on ways to reach, interact, or stimulate your audience.
Humans share many of the same basic needs, and meeting those needs provides various strategies
for action.
Charles Kostelnick and David Roberts outline several cognate strategies, or ways of framing,
expressing, and representing a message to an audience, in Designing Visual Language: Strategies Ways of framing,
for Professional Communicators.[2] The word “cognate” refers to knowledge, and these strategies are expressing and
techniques to impart knowledge to your audience. Kostelnick and Roberts’s strategies are cross-dis-
an audience.
ciplinary in that they can be applied to writing, graphic design, and verbal communication. They
help the writer, designer, or speaker answer questions like “Does the audience understand how I’m
arranging my information?” “Am I emphasizing my key points effectively?” and “How does my
expression and representation of information contribute to a relationship with the audience?” They
can serve you to better anticipate and meet your audience’s basic needs.
Aristotle outlined three main forms of rhetorical proof: ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos involves
the speaker’s character and expertise. Logos is the logic of the speaker’s presentation—something
that will be greatly enhanced by a good organizational plan. Aristotle discussed pathos as the use of
emotion as a persuasive element in the speech,[3] or “the arousing of emotions in the audience.” We
don’t always make decisions based on clear thinking. Sometimes we are moved by words, by a scene
in a movie, or by other mediated forms of communication. As the speaker, you may create a mes-
sage by selecting some aspects and rejecting others. A close-up picture of a child starving to death
can capture attention and arouse emotions. If you use pathos in a strategic way, you are following
Aristotle’s notion of rhetorical proof as the available means of persuasion. If logic and expertise
don’t move the audience, a tragic picture may do so.
The cognate strategies are in many ways expressions of these three elements, but by focusing
on individual characteristics, can work towards being more effective in their preparation and pre-
sentation. Many of these strategies build on basic ideas of communication, such as verbal and
nonverbal delivery. By keeping that in mind, you’ll be more likely to see the connections and help
yourself organize your presentation effectively.
Here we adapt and extend Kostelnick and Roberts’ strategies in order to highlight ways to
approach the preparation and presentation of your message. Across the cognate strategies, we can
see Aristotle’s rhetorical elements through a range of strategies to communicate better with our
audience. There is a degree of overlap, and many of the strategies draw on related elements, but by
examining each strategy as a technique for engaging your audience, you can better craft your mes-
sage to meet their expectations.
Tone
From the choice of your words, to the choice of your dress, you contribute to the tone of the speech.
Tone, or the general manner of expression of the message, will contribute to the context of the pre-
expression of the sentation. First, consider your voice. Is it relaxed, or shaky and nervous? Your voice is like a musical
message. instrument that, when played expressively, fulfills a central role in your ability to communicate
your message to your audience. Next consider how your tone is expressed through your body lan-
guage. Are your arms straight down at your sides, or crossed in front of you, or are they moving in
a natural flow to the rhythm and cadence of your speech? Your dress, your use of space, and the
degree to which you are comfortable with yourself will all play a part in the expression of your
message.
Emphasis
If everyone speaks at the same time, it’s hard for anyone to listen. In the same way, if all your points
are equally presented, it can be hard to distinguish one from another, or to focus on the points that
are most important. As the speaker, you need to consider how you place emphasis—stress, impor-
tance, or prominence—on some aspects of your speech, and how you lessen the impact of others.
Perhaps you have a visual aid to support your speech in the form of a visually arresting picture.
Imagine that you want to present a persuasive speech on preventing skin cancer and you start
with a photo of two people wearing very little clothing. While the image may capture attention,
clearly placing emphasis on skin, it may prove to be more of a distraction than an addition. Empha-
sis as a cognate strategy asks you to consider relevance, and the degree to which your focal point of
attention contributes to or detracts from your speech. You will need to consider how you link ideas
through transitions, how you repeat and rephrase, and how you place your points in hierarchical
order to address the strategy of emphasis in your presentation.
Engagement
Before you start thinking about weddings, consider what key element is necessary for one to occur?
If you guessed a relationship you were correct. Just as a couple forms an interpersonal relation-
ship, the speaker forms a relationship with the audience members. Eye contact can be an engaging
aspect of this strategy, and can help you form a connection—an engagement—with individual
audience members. Looking at the floor or ceiling may not display interest to the audience. Engage-
ment strategies develop the relationship with the audience, and you will need to consider how your
words, visuals, and other relevant elements of your speech help this relationship grow.
Clarity
As a speaker, you may have excellent ideas to present, but if they are not made clear to the audience, Dense graphics that are not
your speech will be a failure. “Clarity strategies help the receiver (audience) to decode the message, legible from the back of the
to understand it quickly and completely, and when necessary, to react without ambivalence.”[4] Your room can sabotage your
word choices, how you say them, and in what order all relate to clarity. If you use euphemisms, or presentation.
indirect expressions, to communicate a delicate idea, your audience may not follow you. If you use
a story, or an arresting image, and fail to connect it clearly to your main point or idea, your audience
will also fail to see the connection. Depending on the rhetorical situation, the use of jargon may
clarify your message or confuse your audience. You’ll also need to consider the visual elements of
your presentation and how they clarify your information. Is the font sufficiently large on your
PowerPoint slide to be read in the back of the room? Is your slide so packed with words that they
key ideas are lost in a noise of text? Will it be clear to your listeners how your pictures, motion clips,
or audio files relate to topic?
Conciseness
Being clear is part of being concise. Conciseness refers to being brief and direct in the visual and Corporation
verbal delivery of your message, and avoiding unnecessary intricacy. It involves using as many
words as necessary to get your message across, and no more. If you only have five to seven minutes,
how will you budget your time? Being economical with your time is a pragmatic approach to insur- Strategies that help the
ing that your attention, and the attention of your audience, is focused on the point at hand. receiver (audience) to
decode the message, to
understand it quickly and
completely, and when
Arrangement necessary, to react without

ambivalence.
As the speaker, you will gather and present information in some form. How that form follows the
Being brief and direct in
function of communicating your message involves strategically grouping information. the visual and verbal
“Arrangement means order, the organization of visual (and verbal) elements[5] “in ways that allow
the audience to correctly interpret the structure, hierarchy, and relationships among points of focus avoiding unnecessary
intricacy.
in your presentation. We will discuss the importance of hierarchy, and which point comes first and
last, as we explore arguments and their impact on the perception of your message.
visual (and verbal)

elements.
Credibility
Here we can clearly see Aristotle’s ethos—character and expertise. You will naturally develop a rela-
tionship with your audience, and the need to make trust an element is key to that development. The
power to elicit from the word “credibility” comes from the word “credence,” or belief. Credibility involves your qualities,
audience belief in one’s capabilities, or power to elicit from the audience belief in your character. Cultivating a sense of your
character. character and credibility may involve displaying your sense of humor, your ability to laugh at your-
self, your academic or profession-specific credentials, or your personal insight into the topic you
are discussing.
For example, if you are going to present a persuasive speech on the dangers of drinking and dri-
ving, and start with a short story about how you helped implement a “designated driver” program,
the audience will understand your relationship to the message, and form a positive perception of
your credibility. If you are going to persuade the audience to give blood, practice safe sex, or get
an HIV test, your credibility on the subject may come from your studies in the medical or public
health field, from having volunteered at a blood drive, or perhaps from having had a loved one who
needed a blood transfusion. Consider persuasive strategies that will appeal to your audience, build
trust, and convey your understanding of the rhetorical situation.
Expectation
Your audience, as we’ve addressed previously, will have inherent expectations of themselves and of
you depending on the rhetorical situation. Expectations involve the often unstated, eager anticipa-
Anticipation of the norms,
tion of the norms, roles and outcomes of the speaker and the speech. If you are giving an after-
roles and outcomes of the
speaker and the speech. dinner speech at a meeting where the audience members will have had plenty to eat and drink
immediately before you get up to speak, you know that your audience’s attention may be influ-
enced by their state of mind. The “after-dinner speech” often incorporates humor for this very
reason, and the anticipation that you will be positive, lighthearted and funny is implicit in the
rhetorical situation. If, on the other hand, you are going to address a high school assembly on the
importance of graduating from high school and pursuing a college education, you may also be
motivational, funny, and lighthearted, but there will be an expectation that you will also discuss
some serious issues as a part of your speech.
Reference
No one person knows everything all the time at any given moment, and no two people have expe-
rienced life in the same way. For this reason, use references carefully. Reference involves attention
Attention to the source
to the source and way you present your information. If you are a licensed pilot and want to inform
and way you present your
information. your audience about the mistaken belief that flying is more dangerous than driving, your credibil-
ity will play a role. You might also say “according to the Federal Aviation Administration” as you cite
mortality statistics associated with aviation accidents in a given year. The audience won’t expect
you to personally gather statistics and publish a study, but they will expect you to state where you
got your information. If you are talking to a group of children who have never flown before, and
lack a frame of reference to the experience of flying, you will need to consider how to reference key
ideas within their scope of experience.
A good way to visualize this is as a frame, where some information you display to the audience
is within the frame, and other information (that you do not display) lies outside the frame. You
focus the information to improve clarity and conciseness, and the audience will want to know why
the information you chose is included and where you got it. That same frame may also be related
to experience, and your choice of terms, order or reliance on visual aids to communicate ideas. If
you are giving a speech on harvesting crops on an incline, and your audience is made up of rural
Bolivians who farm manually, talking about a combine may not be as effective as showing one in
action in order to establish a frame of reference.
Table 12.1 summarizes the nine cognate strategies in relation to Aristotle’s forms of rhetorical
proof; it also provides areas on which to focus your attention as you design your message.
TABLE 12.1 Nine Cognate Strategies

Aristotle’s Forms of Rhetorical Cognate Strategies Focus
Proof
Pathos • Tone • Expression

• Emphasis • Relevance
• Engagement • Relationship
Logos • Clarity • Clear understanding

• Conciseness • Key points
• Arrangement • Order, hierarchy, placement
Ethos • Credibility • Character, trust

• Expectation • Norms and anticipated out-
• Reference comes
• Sources and frames of refer-
ence
You’ll want to consider the cognate strategies and how to address each area to make your
speech as effective as possible, given your understanding of the rhetorical situation.
Professional speaker and presentation skills coach Gilda Bonanno explains how to create a
focused message for your presentation and organize your content around it. Get more public
speaking and networking strategies from Gilda's e-newsletter: http://www.gildabonanno.com/
Pages/new...
Key Takeaway
The nine cognate strategies all contribute to your success in conveying the speech to the audi-
ence.
1. Make a copy of the following table and use it to help get yourself organized as you start to
prepare your speech. Fill in the far right column according to how each rhetorical element,
cognate strategy, and focus will apply to the specific speech you are preparing.
Aristotle’s Forms of Cognate Strategies Focus My speech will

Rhetorical Proof address each
element and
strategy by (verbal
and visual)
Pathos • Tone • Expression

• Emphasis • Relevance
• Engagement • Relationship
Logos • Clarity • Clear under-

standing
• Conciseness
• Key points
• Arrangement
• Order, hierarchy,
placement
Ethos • Credibility • Character, trust

• Expectation • Norms and antici-
• Reference pated outcomes
• Sources and
frames of refer-
ence
2. In a group with your classmates, complete exercise no. 1 using the table above and demon-
strate your results.
3. of
the presentation, and make at least one suggestion for improvement. Compare your results
with classmates.
4.
class.
12.4 Building a Sample Speech
1. Demonstrate how to build a sample speech by expanding on the main points you wish to
convey.
2. Demonstrate how to use the five structural parts of any speech.
As you begin to investigate your topic, make sure you consider several sides of an issue. Let’s say
you are going to do a speech to inform on the history of the First Transcontinental Railroad. At first
you may have looked at just two sides, railroaders versus local merchants. Railroad tycoons wanted
to bring the country together—moving people, goods, and services in a more efficient way—and to
make money. Local merchants wanted to keep out competition and retain control of their individ-
ual markets.
Take another look at this issue and you see that several other perspectives have bearing on this
issue. Shipping was done primarily by boat prior to the railroad, so shippers would not want the
competition. Recent Chinese immigrants were in need of work. Native Americans did not want to
lose their culture or way of life, and a railroad that crossed the country would cut right through the
buffalo’s migration patterns. We now have five perspectives to the central issue, which makes the
topic all the more interesting.
The general purpose is to inform the audience on the First Transcontinental Railroad and its
impact on a young but developing United States. The thesis statement focuses on shipping, com-
munication, and cultures across America.
• Topic. First Transcontinental Railroad
• General purpose statement. I want the audience to be more informed about the impact of the
First Transcontinental Railroad.
• Thesis statement. The First Transcontinental Railroad changed shipping, communication, and
cultures across America.
With the information we have so far, we can now list three main points:
1. Change in shipping
2. Change in communication
3. Change in cultures
Think of each one of these main points as a separate but shorter speech. The point is to develop
each of these main points like you have developed your overall speech. What do you want to focus
on? The major types of shipping at the time of the First Transcontinental Railroad? One aspect you
may want consider is to what degree is your audience familiar with this time in history. If they are
not very familiar, a little background and context can help make your speech more meaningful and
enhance its relevance to your thesis statement. By taking time to consider what you want to accom-
plish with each point, you will help yourself begin to address how you need to approach each point.
Once you have thought about what you want to focus on for each point, list each subheading next
to the main points. For example,
1. Change in shipping
A. Navigating the waterways via barges and boats
B. Overland stagecoaches
C. Timetables for modes of travel
2. Change in communication
A. Letters in the days of the Pony Express
B. How the Morse Code telegraph system followed railroad lines
C. Bringing people together across distances
3. Change in cultures
A. Prerailroad immigration
B. Impact on Native Americans
C. Territories become States
By now you’ve identified your key points and are ready to start planning your speech in more
detail. While your organizational structure will vary from speech to speech, there are nonetheless
five main parts of any speech: attention statement, introduction, body, conclusion, and residual
message. These are basic to the rhetorical process and you will see time and time again, regardless
of audience or culture, these same elements in some form utilized to communicate in public. They
will serve to guide you, and possibly even save you should you get a last minute request to do a
speech or presentation.
Place your hand on the table or desk and you’ll more likely see a thumb and four fingers. Asso-
ciate your hand with these five elements. Each digit is independently quite weak, but together they
make a powerful fist. Your thumb is quite versatile and your most important digit. It’s a lot like your
attention statement. If you don’t gain the audience’s attention, the rest of the speech will be ineffec-
tive.
Each successive digit can represent the remaining four parts of any speech. One day you will
be asked to speak with little or no time for preparation. By focusing on this organizational model,
Consists of the attention and looking down at your hand, you can quickly and accurately prepare your speech. With the lux-
statement, introduction, ury of time for preparation, each step can even be further developed. Remember the five-finger
model of public speaking, as summarized in Table 12.3, and you will always stand out as a more
message.
effective speaker.
TABLE 12.3 Five-Finger Model of Public Speaking

The way you focus the
audience’s attention on Attention Statement The attention statement is the way you focus
you and your speech. the audience’s attention on you and your speech.
Introduction Your introduction introduces you and your topic,
and should establish a relationship with your
Part of a speech that audience and state your topic clearly.
with your audience and Body In the body, or main content area of your
clearly states your topic. speech, you will naturally turn to one of the orga-
nizational patterns.
Conclusion You conclusion should provide the audience
Main content area of a with a sense of closure by summarizing the main
speech. points and relating the points to the overall topic.
Residual Message The residual message is an idea or thought that
stays with your audience well after the speech.
provides the audience with
a sense of closure by
summarizing the main
points and relating the
points to the overall topic.
Idea or thought that stays

with your audience well
after the speech.
Here are some Script Writing tips that will show you how to write a video script or business
presentation. It provides guidance and practical information and the advice in this video can also
be applied to writing a script for a live presentation.
Key Takeaway
Speeches are built by identifying the main points to be communicated and by following five
1. By visiting the library or doing an Internet search, find a speech given by someone you
admire. The speech may be published in a book or newspaper, recorded in an audio file, or
recorded on video. It may be a political speech, a business speech, or even a commercial
sales pitch. Read or listen to the speech and identify the five structural elements as this
speaker has used them. Post your results, discuss with classmates, and if a link to the
speech is available, please be sure to include it.
2. By visiting the library or doing an Internet search, find a speech that would benefit from sig-
nificant improvement. The speech may be published in a book or newspaper, recorded in an
audio file, or recorded on video. It may be a political speech, a business speech, or even a
commercial sales pitch. Read or listen to the speech and identify the five structural elements
as this speaker has used them, noting specifically where they could improve their perfor-
mance. Post your results, discuss with classmates, and if a link to the speech is available,
please be sure to include it.
3.
audience? Explain your response and position.
12.5 Sample Speech Outlines
1. Understand how to create two different styles of outlines for a speech.
Chances are you have learned the basic principles of outlining in English writing courses: an
outline is a framework that organizes main ideas and subordinate ideas in a hierarchical series of
A framework that
roman numerals and alphabetical letters. The center column of Table 12.4 presents a generic outline
subordinate ideas in a in a classical style. In the left column, the five main structural elements of a speech are tied to the
hierarchical series. outline. Your task is to fill in the center column outline with the actual ideas and points you are
making in your speech. Feel free to adapt it and tailor it to your needs, depending on the specifics
of your speech. Next, fill in the right column with the verbal and visual delivery features of your
speech.
TABLE 12.4 Speech Outline A

Attention Statement Device Verbal and Visual Delivery
Introduction • Main idea

• Common ground
Body • I. Main idea: Point 1

• Subpoint 1
• A.1 specific information 1
• A.2 specific information 2
• II. Main idea: Point 2
• Subpoint 1
• B.1 specific information 1
• B.2 specific information 2
• III. Main idea: Point 3
• Subpoint 1
• C.1 specific information 1
• C.2 specific information 2
Conclusion Summary, main points 1–3
Residual Message Main idea
There is no law that says a speech outline has to follow a classical outline format, however.
Table 12.5 is an alternate outline form you may want to use to develop your speech. As you can see,
this outline is similar to the one above in that it begins with the five basic structural elements of
a speech. In this case, those elements are tied to the speech’s device, thesis, main points, summary,
and recap of the thesis. In the right column, this outline allows you to fill in the cognate strategies
you will use to get your points across to your audience. You may use this format as a model or mod-
ify it as needed.
TABLE 12.5 Speech Outline B

Attention Statement Device Cognate Strategies, Verbal
and Visual
Introduction • General purpose statement

or thesis statement
• Common ground
Body • Point 1:
• Point 2:
• Point 3:
Conclusion Summarize main points and

reinforce common ground
Residual Message Reiterate thesis
Key Takeaway
An outline is a framework that helps the speaker to organize ideas and tie them to the main
structural elements of the speech.
1. The next time you attend a class lecture, try to take notes in outline form, using the sample
outlines in this chapter as a guide. You may want to do this as a class project: have all your
classmates put their notes into outline form and then compare the different student outlines
with the outline your professor began with in planning the lecture.
2. Create an outline of your day, with main headings and detail points for your main tasks of the
day. At the end of the day, review the outline and write a brief summary of your experience.
Share with classmates.
3. Diagram or create an outline from a sample speech. Do you notice any patterns? Share and
compare your results with classmates.
12.6 Organizing Principles for Your

Speech
There are many different ways to organize a speech, and none is “better” or “more correct” than the
others. The choice of an organizing principle, or a core assumption around which everything else
is arranged, depends on the subject matter, the rhetorical situation, and many other factors, includ- A core assumption around
which everything else is
ing your preference as speaker. arranged.
The left column of Table 12.6 presents seventeen different organizing principles to consider.
The center column explains how the principle works, and the right column provides an applied
example based on our sample speech about the First Transcontinental Railroad. For example, using
a biographical organizing principle, you might describe the journey of the Lewis and Clark expedi-
tion in 1804; the signing of the Pacific Railroad Act in 1862, and the completion of the first
Transcontinental Express train trip in 1876. As another example, using a spatial organizing princi-
ple, you might describe the mechanics of how a steam locomotive engine works to turn the train
wheels, which move on a track to travel across distances.
As you read each organizational structure, consider how the main points and subheadings
might change or be adapted to meet each pattern.
TABLE 12.6 Sample Organizing Principles for a Speech
Organizing Principle Explanation Applied Example

1. Time (Chronological) Structuring your speech by time Before the First Transcontinental
shows a series of events or Railroad, the events that led to
steps in a process, which typi- its construction, and its impact
cally has a beginning, middle, on early America…
and end. “Once upon a time
stories” follow a chronological
pattern.
2. Comparison Structuring your speech by A comparison of pre– and
comparison focuses on the simi- post–First Transcontinental Rail-
larities and/or differences road North America, showing
between points or concepts. how health and life expectancy
remained the same.
3. Contrast Structure your speech by using A contrast of pre– and post–
contrasting points highlights the First Transcontinental Rail- road
differences between items and North America, by shipping
concepts. times, time it took to communi-
cate via letter, or how long it
took to move out West.
4. Cause and Effect Structuring your speech by The movement of people and
cause and effect establishes a goods out West grew consider-
relationship between two events ably from 1750 to 1850. With
or situations, making the con- the availability of a new and
nection clear. faster way to go West, people
generally supported its con-
struction.
5. Problem and Solution Structuring your speech by Manufacturers were producing
problem and solution means you better goods for less money at
state the problem and detail the start of the Industrial Revolu-
how it was solved. This tion, but they lack a fast,
approach is effective for persua- effective method of getting their
sive speeches. goods to growing markets. The
First Transcontinental Railroad
gave them speed, economy,
and access to new markets.
6. Classification (Categorical) Structuring your speech by clas- At the time the nation consid-
sification establishes categories. ered the First Transcontinental
Railroad, there were three main
types of transportation: by
water, by horse, and by foot.
7. Biographical Structuring your speech by • 1804: Lewis and Clark travel

biography means examining 4,000 miles in over two
specific people as they relate to years across America
the central topic. • 1862: President Lincoln
signs the Pacific Railroad Act
• 1876: The Transcontinental
Express from New York
arrives in San Francisco with
a record-breaking time of 83
hours and 39 minutes
• 2009: President Obama can
cross America by plane in
less than 5 hours
8. Space (Spatial) Structuring your speech by A train uses a heat source to

space involves the parts of heat water, create stream, and
something and how they fit to turn a turbine, which moves a
form the whole. lever that causes a wheel to
move on a track.
9. Ascending and Descending Structuring your speech by A day in the life of a traveler in
ascending or descending order 1800. Incremental develop-
involves focusing on quantity ments in transportation to the
and quality. One good story present, expressed through sta-
(quality) leads to the larger pic- tistics, graphs, maps and
ture, or the reverse. charts.
10. Psychological It is also called “Monroe’s Moti- When families in the year 1800
vated Sequence.”[6] Structuring went out West, they rarely
your speech on the psychologi- returned to see family and
cal aspects of the audience friends. The country as a whole
involves focusing on their inher- was an extension of this dis-
ent needs and wants. See tended family, separated by time
Maslow[7] and Shutz.[8] The and distance. The railroad
speaker calls attention to a brought families and the country
need, then focuses on the satis- together.
faction of the need, visualization
of the solution, and ends with a
proposed or historical action.
This is useful for a persuasive
speech.
11. Elimination Structuring your speech using The First Transcontinental Rail-
the process of elimination road helped pave the way for
involves outlining all the possibil- the destruction of the Native
ities. American way of life in 1870.
After examining treaties, reloca-
tion and reservations, loss of the
buffalo, disease and war, the
railroad can be accurately con-
sidered the catalyst for the end
of an era.

12. Ceremonial: Events, Cere- Structure your speech by focus- Thanking the representatives,
monies, or Celebrations ing on the following: builders, and everyone involved
with the construction of the
1. Thank dignitaries and repre-
sentatives. Transcontinental Railroad. The
railroad will unite America, and
2. Mention the importance of bring us closer in terms of trade,
the event. communication and family.
3. Mention the relationship of Thank you for participating in
the event to the audience. today’s dedication.
4. Thank the audience for their
participation in the event,
ceremony, or celebration.
13. Awards Structure your speech by focus- >Thank everyone for coming
ing on the following: together. The Golden Spike
Award was created in honor of
1. Thank everyone for coming
together. all the great men and women
that made today possible. The
2. Discuss the history and person receiving this award
importance of the award. needs no introduction. His/her
3. Give a brief biography of the tireless efforts to build partner-
person who will receive the ships, coalitions, and raise
award (often nonspecific to support for the railroad have
keep people guessing and to been unwavering. (Name),
build suspense). please come and receive the
4. Announce the name of the Golden Spike Award. (Speech/
award recipient. no speech.) Thank you, every-
one, for coming.
5. Present the award (present
award with left hand, shake
with right).
6. Award recipient may give a
speech.
7. Transition to the next item or
thank everyone for partici-
pating.
14. Toast: Weddings or Similar Structure your speech by focus- Thank everyone for coming
Gatherings ing on the following: together. I’ve know the groom
since he played with toy trains
together. and only now, with (partner’s
name), can I see how far his
2. Discuss the importance of involvement in our new cross-
the event (wedding). country train got him. “All the
3. Mention the relationship of best of healthy and happiness.”
the couple to the audience Thank you everyone for joining
or the speaker to the person us in this celebration of (name)
being celebrated. and (name) (point 5 is optional).
4. Add one short sentence.
5. Optional: Conclude, thanking
the audience for participation
in the event, ceremony, or
celebration.

15. Speaker Introductions Structure your speech by focus- Thank everyone for coming
ing on the following: together. Today’s speaker has a
long history in the development
together. of the train, including engineer-
ing technical aspects of steam
2. Provide a brief biography of locomotion. Today he/she will
the person who will speak or address the steps that lead to
establish their credibility. our very own cross-country rail-
3. Discuss the speaker and his road. Please help me welcome
or her topic. (name). (Optional after speech:
4. Announce the name of the Thank you, everyone. Next we
speaker, and possibly once have…)
their speech has concluded.
5. Transition to the next item or
thank everyone for partici-
pating.
16. After-Dinner Speech Structure your speech by focus- Thank you for coming together
ing on the following: to celebrate the driving of the
Golden Spike. There have been
together. many challenging moments
along the way that I would like
2. Provide a fun or humorous to share tonight (stories, anec-
attention statement. dotes, or even a joke). While it’s
3. Discuss the topic in a light- been a long journey, we’ve
hearted manner with made it. Thank you for coming
connected stories, anec- tonight.
dotes, or even a joke or two.
4. Connect the humor to the
topic of importance
5. Thank everyone for partici-
pating.
17. Oral Interpretation Structure your speech by focus- Today I would like to share with
ing on the following: you the proclamation that led to
the railroad you see before you
1. Draw attention to the piece
of literature. today. (Interpret the proclama-
tion, using your voice to bring
2. Explain its significance, con- the written word alive.) Without
text, and background. the foresight, vision and leader-
3. Interpret the manuscript for ship we can now see, this
the audience. railroad might still be a dream.
4. Conclude with key points
from the reading.
5. Reiterate the main point of
the piece of literature.
Key Takeaway
1. Choose at least three different organizing principles from the left column of Table 12.6. Take
the thesis of a speech you are preparing and write an applied example, similar to the ones
provided about the First Transcontinental Railroad that shows how you would apply each of
your chosen organizing principles to your speech.
2. two
organizing principles and create two sample outlines for speeches about your topic. Share
12.7 Transitions
By now you have identified your main points, chosen your organizational model, and are ready to
begin putting your speech together. If you were going to build a house, you would need a strong
foundation. Could the columns and beams hold your roof in place without anything to keep them
from falling down? Of course not. In the same way, the columns or beams are like the main ideas
of your speech, and identifying them is one important step. Another is to consider how to position
them securely to rest on a solid foundation, have sufficient connection to each other that they
become interdependent, and to make sure they stay where you want them to so your house, or your
speech, doesn’t come crashing down.
Delivery is important in speeches. Get tips for using a transitional statement in speeches with
this free video clip about public speaking workshops.Expert: Tracy Goodwin
Transitions are words, phrases, or visual devices that help the audience follow the speaker’s
ideas, connect the main points to each other, and see the relationships you’ve created in the infor-
Bridges between ideas, mation you are presenting. They are often described as bridges between ideas, thought or concepts,
thoughts or concepts;
words, phrases, or visual providing some sense of where you’ve been and where you are going with your speech. Transitions
devices that help the are used by the speaker to guide the audience in the progression from one significant idea, concept
audience follow the or point to the next issue. They can also show the relationship between the main point and the
speaker’s ideas, connect support the speaker uses to illustrate, provide examples for, or reference outside sources. Depend-
the main points to each
other, and see the ing your purpose, transitions can serve different roles as you help create the glue that will connect
your points together in a way the audience can easily follow.
Creating Transitions (Tutorial 2)
This tutorial will teach you how and where to put effective transitions into your speech.
TABLE 12.7 Types of Transitions in Speeches

1. Internal Previews An internal preview is a brief If we look ahead to, next we’ll
statement referring to a point examine, now we can focus our
you are going to make. It can attention on, first we’ll look at,
forecast or foreshadow a main then we’ll examine
point coming in your speech.
2. Signposts A signpost alerts the audience Stop and consider, we can now
that you are moving from one address, next I’d like to explain,
topic to the next. Signposts or turning from/to, another, this
signal words draw attention to reminds me of, I would like to
themselves and focus the audi- emphasize
ence’s attention.
3. Internal Summaries An internal summary briefly cov- As I have said, as we have seen,
ers information or alludes to as mentioned earlier, in any
information introduced previ- event, in other words, in short,
ously. It can remind an audience on the whole, therefore, to sum-
of a previous point and reinforce marize, as a result, as I’ve noted
information covered in your previously, in conclusion
speech.
4. Sequence Transition A sequence transition outlines a First…second…third, further-
hierarchical order or series of more, next, last, still, also, and
steps in your speech. It can then, besides, finally
illustrate order or steps in a logi-
cal process.
5. Time A time transition focuses on the Before, earlier, immediately, in
chronological aspects of your the meantime, in the past, lately,
speech order. Particularly useful later, meanwhile, now,
in a speech utilizing a story, this presently, shortly, simultane-
transition can illustrate for the ously, since, so far, soon as
audience progression of time. long as, as soon as, at last, at
length, at that time, then, until,
afterward
6. Addition An addition or additive transition In addition to, furthermore,
contributes to a previous point. either, neither, besides, more-
This transition can build on a over, in fact, as a matter of fact,
previous point and extend the actually, not only, but also, as
discussion. well as, not to mention
7. Similarity A transition by similarity draws a In the same way, by the same
parallel between two ideas, con- token, equally, similarly, just as
cepts, or examples. It can indi- we have seen, in the same vein
cate a common area between
points for the audience.
8. Comparison A transition by comparison Like, in relation to, bigger than,
draws a distinction between two smaller than, the fastest, than
ideas, concepts, or examples. It any other, is greater than, both,
can indicate a common or diver- either…or, likewise, even more
gent area between points for the important
audience.
9. Contrast A transition by contrast draws a But, neither…nor, however, on
distinction of difference, opposi- the other hand, although, even
tion, or irregularity between two though, in contrast, in spite of,
ideas, concepts, or examples. despite, on the contrary, con-
This transition can indicate a key versely, unlike, while, instead,
distinction between points for nevertheless, nonetheless,
the audience. regardless, still, though, yet

10. Cause and Effect or Result A transition by cause and effect As a result, because, conse-
or result illustrates a relationship quently, for this purpose,
between two ideas, concepts, accordingly, so, then, therefore,
or examples and may focus on thereupon, thus, to this end, for
the outcome or result. It can this reason, as a result,
illustrate a relationship between because, therefore, conse-
points for the audience. quently, as a consequence, and
the outcome was
11. Examples A transition by example illus- In fact, as we can see, after all,
trates a connection between a even, for example, for instance,
point and an example or exam- of course, specifically, such as,
ples. You may find visual aids in the following example, to illus-
work well with this type of tran- trate my point
sition.
12. Place A place transition refers to a Opposite to, there, to the left, to
location, often in a spatially the right, above, below, adja-
organized speech, of one point cent to, elsewhere, far, farther
of emphasis to another. Again, on, beyond, closer to, here,
visual aids work well when dis- near, nearby, next to
cussing physical location with an
audience.
13. Clarification A clarification transition restates To clarify, that is, I mean, in
or further develops a main idea other words, to put it another
or point. It can also serve as a way, that is to say, to rephrase
signal to a key point. it, in order to explain, this means
14. Concession A concession transition indi- We can see that while, although
cates knowledge of contrary it is true that, granted that, while
information. It can address a it may appear that, naturally, of
perception the audience may course, I can see that, I admit
hold and allow for clarification. that even though
Table 12.7 is a summary of fourteen distinct types of transitions. As you contemplate how to
bring together your information, consider how you will use various transitions, and note them on
your outline.
Speech transitions tell the audience where they've been and where they're going. Learn how to
evaluate the transitional statements in speeches from a professional speaker and
communication instructor in this free public speaking video series.
Key Takeaway
A speech or business presentation needs transitions to help the audience understand how the
speaker’s main ideas are connected to one another.
1. By visiting the library or doing an Internet search, find a speech that teaches you one new
skill or idea. The speech may be published in a book or newspaper, recorded in an audio file,
or recorded on video. Read or listen to the speech and identify the transitions the speaker
has used.
2. Listen to your favorite comedian. Write a brief summary of how they transition from topic to
topic. Share and compare with classmates.
3. Listen to a conversation with friends and observe how they transition from topic to topic.
Write a brief summary. Share and compare with classmates.

The commercial site from Inc. magazine presents an article on organizing your speech by Patricia
Fripp, former president of the National Speakers Association. http://www.inc.com/articles/2000/10/
20844.html
Read a straightforward tutorial on speech organization by Robert Gwynne on this University
of Central Florida site. http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~rbrokaw/organizing.html
Read a straightforward Toastmaster’s tutorial on speech organization: http://sixminutes.
dlugan.com/toastmasters-speech-2-organize-your-speech/
View an eHow video on how to organize a speech. How does the advice in this video differ from
organizing advice given in this chapter? http://www.ehow.com/video_4401082_organizing-speech-
parts.html
Read more about how to outline a speech on this site from John Jay College of Criminal Jus-
tice. http://www.lib.jjay.cuny.edu/research/outlining.html
Learn more about how to outline a speech from the Six Minutes public speaking and presen-
tation skills blog. http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/2008/02/29/speech-preparation-3-outline-examples
Endnotes
3. Wisse, J. (1989). Ethos and pathos: From Aristotle to Cicero. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Adolph M. Hakkert.
6. Ayres, J., & Miller, J. (1994). Effective public speaking (4th ed., p 274). Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
8. Shutz, W. (1966). The interpersonal underworld. Palo Alto, CA: Science and Behavior Books.
Presentations to Inform
After all, the ultimate goal of all research is not objectivity, but truth.
— Helene Deutsch
1. Please make a list of five activities you have participated in recently. Choose one and create
a time order list, from start to finish, of at least five major steps involved in accomplishing the
activity.
2. From the list of five activities above, please consider which of the activities the audience (or
your class) has probably had the least experience with. Now make a list from that activity of
at least three things you would explain to them so that they could better understand it. From
that new list, consider how you might show those three things, including visual aids.
Storytelling is a basic part of human communication. You’ve probably told several short stories
just today to relate to friends what the drive to school was like, how your partner has been acting,
what your boss said to a customer, or even what your speech teacher did in class. With each story
you were sharing information, but is sharing the same as informing? At first you might be tempted
to say “sure,” but consider whether you had a purpose for telling a friend about another friend’s
actions, or if the words you used to discuss your boss communicated any attitude.
At some point in your business career you will be called upon to teach someone something. It
may be a customer, coworker, or supervisor, and in each case you are performing an informative
speech. It is distinct from a sales speech, or persuasive speech, in that your goal is to communicate
the information so that your listener understands. For example, let’s say you have the task of teach-
ing a customer how to use a remote control (which button does what) to program a DVD/R to
record. Easy, you say? Sure, it’s easy for you. But for them it is new, so take a moment and consider
their perspective. You may recommend this unit versus that unit, and aim for a sale, but that goal is
separate from first teaching them to be successful at a task they want to learn to perform. You may
need to repeat yourself several times, and they may not catch on as fast as you expect, but their
mastery of the skill or task they want to learn can directly lead to a sale. They will have more confi-
dence in you and in themselves once they’ve mastered the task, and will be more receptive to your
advice about the competing products available.
While your end goal may be a sale, the relationship you form has more long-term value. That
customer may tell a friend about the experience, show their family what they learned, and before
you know it someone else comes in asking for you by name. Communicating respect and focusing
on their needs is a positive first step. The informative speech is one performance you’ll give many
times across your career, whether your audience is one person, a small group, or a large auditorium
full of listeners. Once you master the art of the informative speech, you may mix and match it with
other styles and techniques.
13.2 Functions of the Presentation to

Inform
1. Describe the functions of the speech to inform.

2.
Informative presentations focus on helping the audience to understand a topic, issue, or technique
more clearly. You might say, “Is that all?” and the answer is both yes and no. An affirmative response
underscores the idea that informative speeches do not seek to motivate the audience to change their
minds, adopt a new idea, start a new habit, or get out there and vote. They may, however, inform
audiences on issues that may be under consideration in an election or referendum. On the other
hand, a negative response reaffirms the idea that to communicate a topic, issue, or subject clearly
is a challenge in itself and shouldn’t be viewed as a simplistic process. There are distinct functions
inherent in a speech to inform, and you may choose to use one or more of these functions in your
speech. Let’s take a look at the functions and see how they relate to the central objective of
facilitating audience understanding.
Share
The basic definition of communication highlights the process of understanding and sharing mean-
ing. An informative speech follows this definition in the aspect of sharing content and information
with an audience. You won’t be asking the audience to actually do anything in terms of offering
a response or solving a problem. Instead you’ll be offering to share with the audience some of
the information you have gathered relating to a topic. This act of sharing will reduce ignorance,
increase learning, and facilitate understanding of your chosen topic.
Increase Understanding
How well does your audience grasp the information? This should be a guiding question to you on
two levels. The first involves what they already know—or don’t know—about your topic, and what
key terms or ideas might be necessary for someone completely unfamiliar with your topic to grasp
the ideas you are presenting. The second involves your presentation and the illustration of ideas. A
bar chart, a pie graph, and a video clip may all serve you and the audience well, but how will each
ingredient in your speech contribute to their understanding? The audience will respond to your
attention statement and hopefully maintain interest, but how will you take your speech beyond
superficial coverage of content and effectively communicate key relationships that increase under-
standing? These questions should serve as a challenge for your informative speech, and by looking
at your speech from an audience-oriented perspective, you will increase your ability to increase the
audience’s understanding.
Change Perceptions
How you perceive stimuli has everything to do with a range of factors that are unique to you. We all
want to make sense of our world, share our experiences, and learn that many people face the same
challenges we do. Many people perceive the process of speaking in public as a significant challenge,
and in this text, we have broken down the process into several manageable steps. In so doing, we
have to some degree changed your perception of public speaking. When you present your speech to
inform, you may want to change the audience member’s perceptions of your topic. You may present
an informative speech on air pollution and want to change common perceptions such as the idea
that most of North America’s air pollution comes from private cars, or that nuclear power plants
are a major source of air pollution. You won’t be asking people to go out and vote, or change their
choice of automobiles, but you will help your audience change their perceptions of your topic.
Gain Skills
Just as you want to increase the audience’s understanding, you may want to help the audience
members gain skills. If you are presenting a speech on how to make salsa from fresh ingredients,
your audience may thank you for not only the knowledge of the key ingredients and their prepara-
tion but also the product available at the conclusion. If your audience members have never made
their own salsa, they may gain a new skill from your speech. In the same way, perhaps you decide to
inform your audience about eBay, a person-to-person marketplace much like a garage sale in which
items are auctioned or available for purchase over the Internet. You may project onto a screen in
class the main Web site and take the audience through a step-by-step process on how to sell an
item. The audience may learn an important skill, clean out the old items in their garage, and buy
new things for the house with their newfound skills. Your intentions, of course, are not to argue
that salsa is better than ketchup or that eBay is better than Amazon, but to inform the audience,
increasing their understanding of the subject, and in this case, gaining new skills.
Exposition versus Interpretation

When we share information informally, we often provide our own perspective and attitude for our
own reasons. But when we set out to inform an audience, taking sides or using sarcasm to commu-
nicate attitude may divide the audience into groups that agree or disagree with the speaker. The
speech to inform the audience on a topic, idea, or area of content is not intended to be a display of
attitude and opinion. Consider the expectations of people who attend a formal dinner. Will they use
whatever fork or spoon they want, or are there expectations of protocol and decorum? In any given
communication context there are expectations, both implicit and explicit. If you attend a rally on
campus for health care reform, you may expect the speaker to motivate you to urge the university
to stop investing in pharmaceutical companies, for example. On the other hand, if you enroll in a
biochemistry course, you expect a teacher to inform you about the discipline of biochemistry—not
to convince you that pharmaceutical companies are a good or bad influence on our health care sys-
tem.
The speech to inform is like the classroom setting in that the goal is to inform, not to persuade,
entertain, display attitude, or create comedy. If you have analyzed your audience, you’ll be better
prepared to develop appropriate ways to gain their attention and inform them on your topic. You
want to communicate thoughts, ideas, and relationships and allow each listener specifically, and
the audience generally, to draw their own conclusions. The speech to inform is all about sharing
information to meet the audience’s needs, not your own. While you might want to inform them
about your views on politics in the Middle East, you’ll need to consider what they are here to learn
from you and let your audience-oriented perspective guide you as you prepare.
Exposition
This relationship between informing as opposed to persuading your audience is often expressed in
terms of exposition versus interpretation. Exposition means a public exhibition or display, often
A public exhibition or expressing a complex topic in a way that makes the relationships and content clear. Expository
complex topic in a way prose is writing to inform; you may have been asked to write an expository essay in an English
that makes the course or an expository report in a journalism course. The goal is to communicate the topic and
relationships and content content to your audience in ways that illustrate, explain, and reinforce the overall content to make
clear.
your topic more accessible to the audience. The audience wants to learn about your topic and may
have some knowledge on it as you do. It is your responsibility to consider ways to display the infor-
mation effectively.
Interpretation and Bias

Interpretation involves adapting the information to communicate a message, perspective, or
agenda. Your insights and attitudes will guide your selection of material, what you focus on, and
Adapting the information what you delete (choosing what not to present to the audience). Your interpretation will involve
to communicate a
personal bias. Bias is an unreasoned or not-well-thought-out judgment. Bias involves beliefs or
agenda. ideas held on the basis of conviction rather than current evidence. Beliefs are often called “habits
of the mind” because we come to rely on them to make decisions. Which is the better, cheapest,
most expensive, or the middle-priced product? People often choose the middle-priced product and
An unreasoned or use the belief “if it costs more it must be better” (and the opposite: “if it is cheap it must not be very
not-well-thought-out good”). The middle-priced item, regardless of actual price, is often perceived as “good enough.” All
judgment.
these perceptions are based on beliefs, and they may not apply to the given decision or even be
based on any evidence or rational thinking.
By extension, marketing students learn to facilitate the customer “relationship” with the brand.
If you come to believe a brand stands for excellence, and a new product comes out under that brand
label, you are more likely to choose it over an unknown or lesser-known competitor. Again, your
choice of the new product is based on a belief rather than evidence or rational thinking. We take
mental shortcuts all day long, but in our speech to inform, we have to be careful not to reinforce
bias.
Bias is like a filter on your perceptions, thoughts, and ideas. Bias encourages you to accept pos-
itive evidence that supports your existing beliefs (regardless of whether they are true) and reject
negative evidence that does not support your beliefs. Furthermore, bias makes you likely to reject
positive support for opposing beliefs and accept negative evidence (again, regardless of whether the
evidence is true). So what is positive and what is negative? In a biased frame of mind, that which
supports your existing beliefs is positive and likely to be accepted, while that which challenges
your beliefs is likely to be viewed as negative and rejected. There is the clear danger in bias. You are
inclined to tune out or ignore information, regardless of how valuable, useful, or relevant it may be,
simply because it doesn’t agree with or support what you already believe.
Point of View
Let’s say you are going to present an informative speech on a controversial topic like same-sex
marriage. Without advocating or condemning same-sex marriage, you could inform your audience
about current laws in various states, recent and proposed changes in laws, the number of same-sex
couples who have gotten married in various places, the implications of being married or not being
able to marry, and so on. But as you prepare and research your topic, do you only read or exam-
ine information that supports your existing view? If you only choose to present information that
agrees with your prior view, you’ve incorporated bias into your speech. Now let’s say the audience
members have different points of view, even biased ones, and as you present your information you
see many people start to fidget in their seats. You can probably anticipate that if they were to speak,
the first word they would say is “but” and then present their question or assertion. In effect, they
will be having a debate with themselves and hardly listening to you.
You can anticipate the effects of bias and mitigate them to some degree. First, know the differ-
ence between your point of view or perspective and your bias. Your point of view is your
perception of an idea or concept from your previous experience and understanding. It is unique to Your perception of an idea
or concept from your
you and is influenced by your experiences and also factors like gender, race, ethnicity, physical char-
previous experience and
acteristics, and social class. Everyone has a point of view, as hard as they may try to be open- understanding.
minded. But bias, as we’ve discussed previously, involves actively selecting information that
supports or agrees with your current belief and takes away from any competing belief. To make
sure you are not presenting a biased speech, frame your discussion to inform from a neutral stance
and consider alternative points of view to present, compare and contrast, and diversify your speech.
The goal of the speech to inform is to present an expository speech that reduces or tries to be free
from overt interpretation.
This relates to our previous discussion on changing perceptions. Clearly no one can be com-
pletely objective and remove themselves from their own perceptual process. People are not modern
works of minimalist art, where form and function are paramount and the artist is completely
removed from the expression. People express themselves and naturally relate what is happening
now to what has happened to them in the past. You are your own artist, but you also control your
creations.
Objectivity involves expressions and perceptions of facts that are free from distortion by your
prejudices, bias, feelings or interpretations. For example, is the post office box blue? An objective
response would be yes or no, but a subjective response might sound like “Well, it’s not really blue as
much as it is navy, even a bit of purple, kind of like the color of my ex-boyfriend’s car, remember? I
don’t care for the color myself.” Subjectivity involves expressions or perceptions that are modified,
altered, or impacted by your personal bias, experiences, and background. In an informative speech,
your audience will expect you to present the information in a relatively objective form. The speech
should meet the audience’s need as they learn about the content, not your feelings, attitudes, or
commentary on the content.
Here are five suggestions to help you present a neutral speech:
1. Keep your language neutral and not very positive for some issues while very negative for oth-
ers.
2. Keep your sources credible and not from biased organizations. The National Rifle Association
(NRA) will have a biased view of the Second Amendment, for example, as will the American
Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) on civil rights.
3. Keep your presentation balanced. If you use a source that supports one clear side of an issue,
include an alternative source and view. Give each equal time and respectful consideration.
4. Keep your audience in mind. Not everyone will agree with every point or source of evidence,
but diversity in your speech will have more to offer everyone.
5. Keep who you represent in mind: Your business and yourself.
Key Takeaways
The purpose of an informative speech is to share ideas with the audience, increase their
understanding, change their perceptions, or help them gain new skills.
An informative speech incorporates the speaker’s point of view but not attitude or interpre-
tation.
1. Consider the courses you have taken in the past year or two, and the extent to which each
class session involved an informative presentation or one that was more persuasive. Do
some disciplines lend themselves more to informing rather than interpretation and attitude?
Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Visit a major network news Web site and view a video of a commentator such as Rachel
commentator’s point of view. If you were giving a presentation to inform, would you express
your point of view in a similar style?
3. On the same network news website you used for Exercise no. 2, view a video reporting a
news event (as opposed to a commentator’s commentary). Do you feel that the reporter’s
approach conveys a point of view, or is it neutral? Explain your feelings and discuss with your
classmates.
4. What is the difference between an informative presentation and a persuasive one? Provide
an example in your response.
5. Consider a sample speech to inform on a topic where you have a strong opinion. In what
ways would you adjust your key points so as not to persuade your listeners? Discuss your
ideas with a classmate.
13.3 Types of Presentations to Inform
1. Provide examples of four main types of speech to inform.
Speaking to inform may fall into one of several categories. The presentation to inform may be
• an explanation,
• a report, An explanation, a report, a
description, or a
• a description, or demonstration of how to
• a demonstration of how to do something. do something.
Let’s explore each of these types of informative speech.
Explanation
Have you ever listened to a lecture or speech where you just didn’t get it? It wasn’t that you weren’t
interested, at least not at first. Perhaps the professor used language and jargon, or gave a confus-
ing example, or omitted something that would have linked facts or concepts together. Soon you
probably lost interest and sat there, attending the speech or lecture in body but certainly not in
mind. An effective speech to inform will take a complex topic or issue and explain it to the audi-
ence in ways that increase audience understanding. Perhaps the speech where you felt lost lacked
definitions upfront, or a clear foundation in the introduction. You certainly didn’t learn much, and
that’s exactly what you want to avoid when you address your audience. Consider how you felt and
then find ways to explain your topic—visually, using definitions and examples, providing a case
study—that can lay a foundation on common ground with your audience and build on it.
No one likes to feel left out. As the speaker, it’s your responsibility to ensure that this doesn’t
happen. Also know that to teach someone something new—perhaps a skill that they did not posses
or a perspective that allows them to see new connections—is a real gift, both to you and the audi-
ence members. You will feel rewarded because you made a difference and they will perceive the
gain in their own understanding.
Report
As a business communicator, you may be called upon to give an informative report where you com-
municate status, trends, or relationships that pertain to a specific topic. You might have only a few
moments to speak, and you may have to prepare within a tight time frame. Your listeners may want
“just the highlights,” only to ask pointed questions that require significant depth and preparation
on your part. The informative report is a speech where you organize your information around key
events, discoveries, or technical data and provide context and illustration for your audience. They
may naturally wonder, “Why are sales up (or down)?” or “What is the product leader in your lineup?”
and you need to anticipate their perspective and present the key information that relates to your
topic. If everyone in the room knows the product line, you may not need much information about
your best seller, but instead place emphasis on marketing research that seems to indicate why it is
the best seller.
Perhaps you are asked to be the scout and examine a new market, developing strategies to pen-
etrate it. You’ll need to orient your audience and provide key information about the market and
demonstrate leadership as you articulate your strategies. You have a perspective gained by time and
research, and your audience wants to know why you see things the way you do, as well as learn
what you learned. A status report may be short or long, and may be an update that requires little
background, but always consider the audience and what common ground you are building your
speech on.
Description
Have you ever listened to a friend tell you about their recent trip somewhere and found the details
fascinating, making you want to travel there or visit a similar place? Or perhaps you listened
to your chemistry teacher describe a chemical reaction you were going to perform in class and you
understood the process and could reasonably anticipate the outcome. Describing information
requires emphasis on language that is vivid, captures attention, and excites the imagination. Your
audience will be drawn to your effective use of color, descriptive language, and visual aids. An infor-
mative speech that focuses description will be visual in many ways. You may choose to illustrate
with images, video and audio clips, and maps. Your first-person experience combined with your
content will allow the audience to come to know a topic, area, or place through you, or secondhand.
Their imagination is your ally, and you should aim to stimulate it with attention-getting devices
and clear visual aids. Use your imagination to place yourself in their perspective: how would you
like to have someone describe the topic to you?
Demonstration
You want to teach the audience how to throw a fast pitch in softball or a curveball in baseball. You
want to demonstrate how to make salsa or how to program the applications on a smartphone. Each
of these topics will call on your kindergarten experience of “show and tell.” A demonstrative speech
focuses on clearly showing a process and telling the audience important details about each step so
that they can imitate, repeat, or do the action themselves. If the topic is complicated, think of ways
to simplify each step.
Consider the visual aids or supplies you will need. You may have noticed that cooking shows
on television rarely show the chef chopping and measuring ingredients during the demonstration.
Instead, the ingredients are chopped and measured ahead of time and the chef simply adds each
item to the dish with a brief comment like, “Now we’ll stir in half a cup of chicken stock.” If you
want to present a demonstration speech on the ways to make a paper airplane, one that will turn
left or right, go up, down or in loops, consider how best to present your topic. Perhaps by illustrat-
ing the process of making one airplane followed by example on how to make adjustments to the
plane to allow for different flight patterns would be effective. Would you need additional paper air-
planes made in advance of your speech? Would an example of the paper airplane in each of the key
stages of production be helpful to have ready before the speech? Having all your preparation done
ahead of time can make a world of difference, and your audience will appreciate your thoughtful
approach.
By considering each step and focusing on how to simplify it, you can understand how the audi-
ence might grasp the new information and how you can best help them. Also, consider the desired
outcome; for example, will your listeners be able to actually do the task themselves or will they gain
an appreciation of the complexities of a difficult skill like piloting an airplane to a safe landing?
Regardless of the sequence or pattern you will illustrate or demonstrate, consider how people from
your anticipated audience will respond, and budget additional time for repetition and clarification.
Informative presentations come in all sizes, shapes, and forms. You may need to create an
“elevator speech” style presentation with the emphasis on brevity, or produce a comprehensive
summary of several points that require multiple visual aids to communicate complex processes or
trends. The main goal in an informative presentation is to inform, not to persuade, and that requires
an emphasis on credibility, for the speaker and the data or information presented. Extra attention
to sources is required and you’ll need to indicate what reports, texts, or Web sites were sources for
your analysis and conclusions.
Here are additional, more specific types of informative presentations:
• Biographical information
• Case study results
• Comparative advantage results
• Cost-benefit analysis results
• Feasibility studies
• Field study results
• Financial trends analysis
• Health, safety, and accident rates
• Instruction guidelines
• Laboratory results
• Product or service orientations
• Progress reports
• Research results
• Technical specifications
Depending on the rhetorical situation, the audience, and the specific information to be pre-
sented, any of these types of presentation may be given as an explanation, a report, a description,
or a demonstration.
Key Takeaway
An informative speech may explain, report, describe, or demonstrate how to do something.
1. Watch a “how-to” television show, such as one about cooking, home improvement, dog
training, or crime solving. What informative techniques and visual aids are used in the show
to help viewers learn the skills that are being demonstrated?
2. Prepare a simple “how-to” presentation for the class. Present and compare your results.
3. Compare and contrast two television programs, noting how each communicates the mean-
ing via visual communication rather than words or dialogue. Share and compare with
classmates.
13.4 Adapting Your Presentation to

Teach
1.
2.
Successfully delivering an informative speech requires adopting an audience-centered perspective.

Imagine that you are in the audience. What would it take for the speaker to capture and maintain
your attention? What would encourage you to listen? In this section we present several techniques
for achieving this, including motivating your audience to listen, framing your information in mean-
ingful ways, and designing your presentation to appeal to diverse learning styles.
Motivating the Listener

In an ideal world, every audience member would be interested in your topic. Unfortunately, how-
ever, not everyone will be equally interested in your informative speech. The range of interest
might extend from not at all interested to very interested, with individual audience members all
across this continuum. So what is a speaker to do in order to motivate the listener?
The perception process involves selection or choice, and you want your audience to choose to
listen to you. You can have all the “bells and whistles” of a dramatic, entertaining or engaging speech
and still not capture everyone’s attention. You can, however, use what you know to increase their
chances of paying attention to you. Begin with your attention statement at the beginning of your
speech and make sure it is dynamic and arresting. Remember what active listening involves, and
look for opportunities throughout your speech to encourage active listening.
Let’s highlight seven strategies by posing questions that audience members may think, but not
actually say out loud, when deciding whether to listen to your speech. By considering each ques-
tion, you will take a more audience-centered approach to developing your speech, increasing your
effectiveness.
How Is Your Topic Relevant to Me?

A natural question audience members will ask themselves is, what does the topic have to do with
me? Why should I care about it? Your first response might be because it’s your turn to speak, so the
least they can do is be respectful. Instead, consider the idea that you can lead a horse to water but Means that the information
applies, relates, or has
you can’t make her drink. If you are in a class, the audience is part of the class and they may be significance to the listener.
present in body, but they may arrive wishing they were somewhere else. You can put a stop to that
wish by making your topic relevant for your audience. Relevance means that the information
applies, relates, or has significance to the listener. Find areas of common ground and build on them.
If you are going to present an informative speech about the drinking and driving laws in your
state, you can be assured that many people in the audience drive automobiles, some may consume
alcohol, and according to psychologist Abraham Maslow,[1] everyone needs safety. You may also con-
sider that some of your listeners have had experiences with people who have consumed too much
alcohol or people who have driven under the influence; they may have even had a loved one injured
by an intoxicated driver. You may use the issue of safety to underscore relevance. You might con-
sider briefly alluding to the effects of alcohol, asking rhetorically if audience members have ever
seen someone try to walk, talk, or even drive after a drinking binge. All these strategies will rein-
force the relevance of your topic and highlight connections across common ground.
What Will I Learn from You?

This question involves several issues. How much does the audience already know about your sub-
ject? What areas do you think they might not know? If you know that many people are aware of
the laws in your state that pertain to intoxicated driving, you may consider informing them about
proposed changes to these laws in your state legislature. Another approach might be to describe
the impact of the laws on families and individuals. The consequences can be discussed in terms of
annual statistics of motor vehicle accidents involving alcohol, the age and gender distribution of
those involved, and the individual consequences in terms of financial penalties, impact on employ-
ment, and a criminal record. By building on the information the audience knows, briefly reviewing
it and then extending it, illustrating it, and demonstrating the impact, you inform them of things
they didn’t already know.
Why Are You Interested in This Topic?

Your interest in your topic is an excellent way to encourage your audience to listen. Interest
involves qualities that arouse attention, stimulate curiosity, or move an individual to a more excited
Qualities that arouse state of mind. You probably selected your topic with your audience in mind, but also considered
attention, stimulate
curiosity, or move an your interest in the topic. Why did you choose it over other topics? What about your topic aroused
individual to a more your attention? Did it stimulate your curiosity? Did it make you excited about researching and
excited state of mind. preparing a speech on it? These questions will help you clarify your interest, and by sharing the
answers with your listeners, you will stimulate excitement on their part.
How Can I Use the Knowledge or Skills You Present to Me?

In an informative speech you are not asking your listeners to go out and vote, or to quit smoking
tomorrow, as you would in a persuasive speech. Nevertheless, you need to consider how they will
apply their new understanding. Application involves the individual’s capacity for practical use of
the information, skill, or knowledge. As a result of your speech, will your listeners be able to do
something new like set up an auction on eBay? Will they better understand the importance of sav-
ing money and know three new ways to save for retirement?
For example, as a result of your informative speech on drunk driving laws, they may reflect on
what a conviction would mean to them financially, think about how they would get to work if their
driver’s license was suspended, or imagine the grief of a family when an innocent person is killed
in a drunk driving accident. Although your goal is not to persuade but inform, the new knowledge
gained by your audience may motivate them to make new decisions about their lives.
When you prepare your presentation, consider ways you can actively show application of your
material or content. Incorporate messages into your speech to highlight the practical use of the
knowledge or skill. A couple of helpful comments about how the audience will actually use the
information will go a long way toward encouraging listening and gaining attention.
What Is New about What You Propose to Present?

Sometimes humans seem like a mass of contradictions. We are naturally attracted to novelty, yet
we appreciate predictability. We like clear organization, yet there are times when we enjoy a little
Quality of being new, controlled chaos. Novelty involves something new, unusual, or unfamiliar. As a speaker, how do
you meet the two contrasting needs for familiarity and novelty?
Address both. You may want to start by forming a clear foundation on what you have in com-
mon with the audience. Present the known elements of your topic and then extend into areas
where less is known, increasing the novelty or new information as you progress. People will feel
comfortable with the familiar, and be intrigued by the unfamiliar.
You might also invert this process, starting from a relatively unfamiliar stance and working
your way back to the familiar. This is a technique often used in cinema, where the opening shot is
an extreme close-up of something and you can’t guess what it is for lack of perspective. As the cam-
era pulls back or pans left or right, you get more clues and eventually are able to see what it is. It is
intriguing, yet familiar. Consider ways to reinforce the novelty of your material to your audience to
encourage listening.
Are You Going to Bore Me?

You have probably sat through your fair share of boring lectures where the speaker, teacher, or pro-
fessor talks at length in a relatively monotone voice, fails to alternate his or her pace, incorporates
few visual aids or just reads from a PowerPoint show for an hour in a dimly lighted room. Recall
how you felt. Trapped? Tired? Did you wonder why you had to be there? Then you know what you
need to avoid.
Being bored means the speaker failed to stimulate you as the listener, probably increased your
resistance to listening or participating, and became tiresome. To avoid boring your audience, speak
with enthusiasm, and consider ways to gain, and keep gaining, their attention. You don’t have to
be a standup comedian, however, to avoid being a boring speaker. Consider the rhetorical situation,
and let the audience’s needs guide you as you prepare. Adjust and adapt as they give you feedback,
nonverbal or verbal. Consider the question, “What’s in it for me?” from the audience’s perspective
and plan to answer it specifically with vivid examples. If your presentation meets their expecta-
tions and meets their needs, listeners are more likely to give you their attention.
You may also give some thought and consideration to the organizational
FIGURE 13.1
principle and choose a strategy that promises success. By organizing the infor- If your presentation meets their expectations
mation in interesting ways within the time frame, you can increase your and meets their needs, listeners are more likely
effectiveness. The opposite of boring is not necessarily entertaining. Variety in to give you their attention.
your speech, from your voice to your visual aids, will help stimulate interest.
Is This Topic Really as Important as You Say It

Is?
No one wants to feel like his or her time is being wasted. That trapped, tired, or
bored feeling is often related to a perception that the topic is not relevant or
important. What is important to you and what is important to your audience © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
may be two different things. Take time and plan to reinforce in your speech how
the topic is important to your audience. Importance involves perceptions of worth, value, and use-
fulness. worth, value, and
usefulness.
How can you express that the topic is worthy of their attention? We’ve discussed the impor-
tance of considering why you chose the topic in the first place as a strategy to engage your audience.
They will want to know why the topic was worthy of your time, and by extension, their time.
Consider how to express through images, examples, or statistics the depth, breadth, and
impact of your topic. Tell the audience how many drivers under the age of twenty-one lose their
lives each year in alcohol-related accidents, or what percentage of all under-twenty-one deaths in
your state are related to a combination of drinking and driving. Remember, too, that because statis-
tics may sound impersonal or overwhelming, focusing on a specific case may provide more depth.
As a final tip, be careful not to exaggerate the importance of your topic, as you may run the risk
of having the audience mentally call your bluff. If this happens, you will lose some credibility and
attention.
Framing
The presentation of information shapes attitudes and behavior. This is done through framing and
content. Framing involves placing an imaginary set of boundaries, much like a frame around a pic-
boundaries, much like a ture or a window, around a story, of what is included and omitted, influencing the story itself. What
frame around a picture or lies within the frame that we can see? What lies outside the frame that we cannot see? Which way
a window, around a story, does the window face? All these variables impact our perspective, and by the acts of gatekeeping
of what is included and and agenda setting, the media frames the stories we see and information we learn.
omitted, influencing the
story itself. Suppose you are presenting an informative speech about media effects on viewers. You might
cite the case of the 1993 movie The Program about college football players.[2] In one scene, to demon-
strate their “courage,” the football players lie on the divider line of a busy highway at night as cars
rush past. After viewing the film, several teenagers imitated the scene; some were seriously injured
and one died as a result.[3] How will you frame this incident in the context of your speech? You
might mention that the production studio subsequently deleted the highway sequence from the
film, that the sequence clearly indicated the actors were stunt men, or that The Program ultimately
argues that such behavior is destructive and unwarranted. Or you might cite additional incidents
where people have been injured or killed by trying a stunt they saw in the media.
One form of framing is gatekeeping. Gatekeeping, according to Pearson and Nelson, is “a
process of determining what news, information, or entertainment will reach a mass audience.”[4]
“A process of determining The term “gatekeeping” was originally used by psychologist Kurt Lewin as a metaphor, featuring a
what news, information, or
entertainment will reach a series of gates that information must pass through before ever reaching the audience.[5] In the con-
mass audience.” text of journalism and mass media, gates and gatekeepers may include media owners, editors, or
even the individual reporter in the context of mass communication. In the context of public speak-
ing, you as the speaker are the gatekeeper to the information.
Another function of gatekeeping is agenda setting. Setting the agenda, just like the agenda of
a meeting, means selecting what the audience will see and hear and in what order. Who decides
Selecting what the
what is the number one story on the evening news? Throughout the twentieth century, profes-
and in what order. sional communicators working in the media industry set the agenda for readers, listeners, and
viewers; today widespread Internet access has greatly broadened the number of people who can
become agenda setters. In giving a speech, you select the information and set the agenda. You may
choose to inform the audience on a topic that gets little press coverage, or use a popular story
widely covered in a new way, with a case example and local statistics.
Another aspect of framing your message is culture. According to Pearson and Nelson, culture
within the context of communication is “a set of beliefs and understandings a society has about the
“A set of beliefs and
world, its place in it, and the various activities used to celebrate and reinforce those beliefs.”[6]
understandings a society
has about the world, its Themes of independence, overcoming challenging circumstances, and hard-fought victory are seen
place in it, and the various repeatedly in American programming and national speeches. They reflect an aspect of American
culture. In the case of football, it is sometimes viewed as the quintessentially male American sport,
and reinforce those
beliefs.”
and its importance on Thanksgiving Day is nothing short of a ritual for many Americans. If you
went to a country in Latin America, you would probably find the television set tuned to a soccer
game, where soccer is the revered sport. What do these sports say about culture?
One might argue that American football is aggressive and that, while the
team is important, the individual’s effort and record are celebrated in all the time FIGURE 13.2
Cultural values are expressed through
between plays. Significant attention is given to the salary each individual player interaction, including sports.
makes. In South American football, or soccer, the announcer’s emphasis is on the
team and at breaks, some discussion of key players is present, but not to the same
degree, though this is changing.
What do these differences tell us? Our interpretation of these differences
may point toward ways in which the media reinforces national culture and its
values. However, since you are speaking to inform, take care not to overgeneral-
ize. To state that American football is a male-viewer-dominated sport may be an
accurate observation, but to exclude women when discussing the sport would
lead to a generalization that is not accurate, and may even perpetuate a stereo-
type.
The media and its public communication is an active participant in the per-
petuation of stereotypes in many ways. In the mid-1990s, Julia Wood[7] made an
interesting observation of the world according to television: “It is a world in
which males make up two-thirds of the population. The women are fewer in
number perhaps because less than 10 percent live beyond 35. Those who do, like
their male counterparts and the younger females, are nearly all white and hetero-
sexual. In addition to being young, the majority of women are beautiful, very
thin, passive, and primarily concerned with relationships and getting rings out of
collars and commodes.”[8]
This limited view, itself a product of gatekeeping, agenda setting, and the
profit motive, has little connection to the “real world.” Most people in the world
are not white, and the majority of U.S. adults are either overweight or obese.
There are more women than men in the adult populations of most countries. Women do not tend
to die off at age thirty-five, in fact women on average live longer than men. Many people, particu-
larly in a diverse country that is undergoing dramatic demographic changes, are not members of
just one racial, ethnic, or cultural group but rather a member of many groups. Consider culture
when selecting content and note that diversity of information and sources will strengthen your
speech and relate to more members of your audience.
Additional Tips
Andrews, Andrews, and Williams[9] offer eight ways to help listeners learn that are adapted and aug-
mented here.
Limit the Number of Details

While it may be tempting to include many of the facts you’ve found in your research, choose only
those that clearly inform your audience. Try to group the information and then choose the best
example to reduce your list of details. You don’t want the audience focusing on a long list of facts
and details only to miss your main points.
Focus on Clear Main Points

Your audience should be able to discern your main points clearly the first time. You’ll outline them
in your introduction and they will listen for them as you proceed. Connect supporting information
to your clear main points to reinforce them, and provide verbal cues of points covered and points
to come.
Use internal summaries, where you state, “Now that we’ve discussed X point, let’s examine its
relationship to Y point. This will help your audience follow your logic and organization and differ-
entiate between supporting material and main points. You may also want to foreshadow points by
stating, “We’ll examine Z point in a moment but first let’s consider Y point.”
Pace Yourself Carefully

Talking too fast is a common expression of speech anxiety. One way to reduce your anxiety level is
to practice and know your information well. As you practice, note where you are in terms of time
at the completion of each point. After a few practice rounds, you should begin to see some consis-
tency in your speed. Use these benchmarks of time to pace yourself. When you deliver your speech,
knowing you have time, are well prepared, and are familiar with your speech patterns will help you
to pace yourself more effectively.
Speak with Concern for Clarity

Not everyone speaks English as his or her first language, and even among English speakers, there is
a wide discrepancy in speaking style and language use. When you choose your language, consider
challenging terms and jargon, and define them accordingly. You may assume that everyone knows
“NIH” stands for “National Institutes of Health,” but make sure you explain the acronym the first
time you use it, just as you would if you were writing a formal article. Also pay attention to enun-
ciation and articulation. As your rate of speech picks up, you may tend to slur words together and
drop or de-emphasize consonants, especially at the ends of words. Doing this will make you harder
to understand, discouraging listening.
Use Restatement and Repetition

There is nothing wrong with restating main points or repeating key phrases. The landmark speech
titled “I have a dream,” which Martin Luther King Jr. delivered on August 28, 1963, on the steps of
the Lincoln Memorial, used that phrase multiple times to reinforce the main message effectively.
Provide Visual Reinforcement

We’ve discussed the importance of visual aids to support and illustrate your content. As a speaker
giving a prepared presentation, you have the luxury of preparing your visual aids with your audi-
ence in mind. In an impromptu speech, or a media interview, you may lack this luxury and find
the effort challenging to appropriately reinforce your content. Take advantage of the known time
frame before your speech to prepare effective visual aids and your speech will be more effective.
Include Time for Questions

You can’t possibly cover all the information about a topic that every audience member would
want to know in the normal five to seven minutes of a speech. You may do an excellent job of
supporting and reinforcing your points, but many listeners may have questions. Take this as a com-
pliment—after all, if you hadn’t piqued their interest, they wouldn’t have any questions to ask.
Answering questions is an opportunity to elaborate on a point, reinforcing what you presented and
relying on your thorough preparation to illustrate the point with more depth.
In some situations, the speaker will accept and answer questions during the body of the pre-
sentations, but it is more typical to ask listeners to hold their questions until the end. Depending on
your instructor’s guidelines, you may advise the class at the beginning of your presentation which
of these formats you will follow.
Look for Ways to Involve Listeners Actively

Instead of letting your audience sit passively, motivate them to get involved in your presentation.
You might ask for a show of hands as you raise a question like, “How many of you have wondered
about…?” You might point out the window, encouraging your audience to notice a weather pattern
or an example of air pollution. Even stepping away from the podium for a moment can provide
variety and increase active listening.
Assess Learning, If Possible

Questions during a speech can help assess understanding, but also run the risk of derailing your
speech as the audience pursues one point while you have two more to present. Make time for
dialogue after the conclusion of your speech and encourage your audience to write down their
questions and ask them at that time. Perhaps asking your audience to reflect on a point, and then to
write a few sentences at the conclusion of your speech, might reinforce your central message.
Key Takeaway
To present a successful informative speech, motivate your audience by making your material
relevant and useful, finding interesting ways to frame your topic, and emphasizing new aspects
if the topic is a familiar one.
1. Visit an online news Web site such as CNN, MSNBC, or PBS NewsHour. Select a news
video on a topic that interests you and watch it a few times. Identify the ways in which the
with
your classmates.
2. Watch a news program and write down the words that could be considered to communicate
values, bias, or opinion. Share and compare with the class.
3. Watch a news program and find an example that you consider to be objective, “just the facts,”
and share it with the class.
4. Note how television programs (or other media) use novelty to get your attention. Find at least
three headlines, teaser advertisements for television programs, or similar attempts to get
attention and share with the class.
5. How can an audience’s prior knowledge affect a speech? What percentage of an informative
presentation do you expect an audience to remember? Why?
13.5 Diverse Types of Intelligence and

Learning Styles
1. Define the concepts of multiple intelligences and learning styles, and identify different types
of intelligence and learning styles that audience members may have.
Psychologist Howard Gardner[10] is known for developing the theory of multiple intelligences in
which he proposes that different people are intelligent in different domains. For example, some
people may excel in interpersonal intelligence, or the ability to form and maintain relationships.
Other people may excel in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, or physical coordination and control.
Still others have a high degree of musical intelligence or of logico-mathematical intelligence. While
some psychologists argue that these are actually talents or aptitudes rather than forms of intel-
ligence, the point remains that individual audience members will receive information differently,
depending on the types of intelligence (or talent) they possess.
An outgrowth of the theory of multiple intelligences is the theory of learning styles, the idea
that people learn better if the message is presented in a strategy that fits with the types of intelli-
gence in which they are strongest. Consider each style when preparing your speech. What styles
might work best with your particular audience? better if the message is
For example, suppose you work for a do-it-yourself home improvement store and part of your presented in a strategy
that fits with the types of
job is to give an informative seminar once a month on how to renovate a previously wallpapered intelligence in which they
wall. Your topic is specified for you, and you are very familiar with your subject matter, having are strongest.
worked in a variety of homes where old wallpaper needed to be removed or replaced. However, you
never know from one month to the next how many people will come to your seminar or what their
interests and level of prior knowledge are.
If you begin by going around the room and asking each person to describe the wallpaper sit-
uation they plan to work on, this will help you determine what kinds of questions your audience
hopes to have answered, but it won’t tell you anything about their learning styles. Suppose instead
that you ask them to state why they decided to attend and what their career or occupation is. Now
you can gauge your presentation according to the likely learning styles of your audience. For exam-
ple, if you have ten attendees and five of them work in the banking or information technology field,
it is probably safe to assume they are fairly strong in the logical or mathematical area. This will
help you decide how to talk about measuring the wall, calculating product quantities, and estimat-
ing cost. If another attendee is a psychologist, he or she may be able to relate on the intrapersonal
and interpersonal level. You may decide to strengthen your remarks about the importance of being
comfortable with one’s choices for renovating the room, seeking consensus from family members,
and considering how the finished room will be suitable for guests. If some attendees work in the
arts, they may be especially attentive to your advice about the aesthetic qualities of a well-executed
wall surface renovation.
Table 13.1 provides a summary of the seven styles and some suggested strategies to help you
design your speech to align with each learning style.
TABLE 13.1 Diverse Learning Styles and Strategies
Learning Style Examples Strategies

Linguistic Language, reading, verbal Reading, oral presentations
expression, speaking, writing, such as debates, reports, or
memorizing words (names, storytelling
places, and dates)
Logical/Mathematical Use of numbers, perceiving rela- Problem solving, graphic orga-
tionships, reasoning (sequential, nizers, categorizing, classifying,
deductive, inductive), computa- working with patterns and rela-
tion tionships
Spatial Think in three dimensions, men- Maps, charts, graphic organiz-
tal imagery, design color, form ers, painting or drawing, visual
and line within space aids, working with pictures or
colors
Musical Discern rhythm, pitch and tone, Rhythmic patterns and exer-
interpret music, identify tonal cises, singing, music perfor-
patterns, compose music mance
Bodily/Kinesthetic Sense of timing and balance, Drama, role playing, touching
athletics, dance, work that takes and manipulating objects,
physical skill demonstrating
Interpersonal Organizing, leading others, com- Group projects, interaction,
municating, collaboration, nego- debates, discussions, coopera-
tiating, mediating tive learning, sharing ideas
Intrapersonal Reflection, thinking strategies, Individual projects, self-paced
focusing/concentration instruction, note-taking, reflec-
tion
Key Takeaway
An informative speech can be more effective when the learning styles of the audience members
are addressed.
1. Make a list of several people you know well, including family members, lifelong friends, or
current roommates. Opposite each person’s name, write the types of intelligence or the
learning styles in which you believe that person is especially strong. Consider making this a
reciprocal exercise by listing your strongest learning styles and asking family and friends to
guess what is on your list.
2. How do you learn best? What works for you? Write a short paragraph and share with the
class.
3. Write a review of your best teacher, noting why you think they were effective. Share with the
class.
4. Write a review of your worst teacher, noting why you think they were ineffective. Share with
the class.
13.6 Preparing Your Speech to Inform
1. Discuss and provide examples of ways to incorporate ethics in a speech.

2. Construct an effective speech to inform.
Now that we’ve covered issues central to the success of your informative speech, there’s no doubt
you want to get down to work. Here are five final suggestions to help you succeed.
Start with What You Know

Are you taking other classes right now that are fresh in your memory? Are you working on a chal-
lenging chemistry problem that might lend itself to your informative speech? Are you reading a
novel by Gabriel García Márquez that might inspire you to present a biographical speech, informing
your audience about the author? Perhaps you have a hobby or outside interest that you are excited
about that would serve well. Regardless of where you draw the inspiration, it’s a good strategy to
start with what you know and work from there. You’ll be more enthusiastic, helping your audience
to listen intently, and you’ll save yourself time. Consider the audience’s needs, not just your need
to cross a speech off your “to-do” list. This speech will be an opportunity for you to take prepared
material and present it, gaining experience and important feedback. In the “real world,” you often
lack time and the consequences of a less than effective speech can be serious. Look forward to the
opportunity and use what you know to perform an effective, engaging speech.
Learn how to prepare a speech from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast public speaking
training video.
Consider Your Audience’s Prior Knowledge

You don’t want to present a speech on the harmful effects of smoking when no one in the audience
smokes. You may be more effective addressing the issue of secondhand smoke, underscoring the
relationship to relevance and addressing the issue of importance with your audience. The audience
will want to learn something from you, not hear everything they have heard before. It’s a challenge
to assess what they’ve heard before, and often a class activity is conducted to allow audience mem-
bers to come to know each other. You can also use their speeches and topic selection as points to
consider. Think about age, gender, and socioeconomic status, as well as your listeners’ culture or
language. Survey the audience if possible, or ask a couple of classmates what they think of the top-
ics you are considering.
In the same way, when you prepare a speech in a business situation, do your homework. Access
the company Web site, visit the location and get to know people, and even call members of the com-
pany to discuss your topic. The more information you can gather about your audience, the better
you will be able to adapt and present an effective speech.
Adapting Jargon and Technical Terms

You may have a topic in mind from another class or an outside activity, but chances are that there
are terms specific to the area or activity. From wakeboarding to rugby to a chemical process that
contributes to global warming, there will be jargon and technical terms. Define and describe the key
terms for your audience as part of your speech and substitute common terms where appropriate.
Your audience will enjoy learning more about the topic and appreciate your consideration as you
present your speech.
Using Outside Information

Even if you think you know everything there is to know about your topic, using outside sources
will contribute depth to your speech, provide support for your main points, and even enhance your
credibility as a speaker. “According to ” is a normal way of attributing information to a
source, and you should give credit where credit is due. There is nothing wrong with using outside
information as long as you clearly cite your sources and do not present someone else’s information
as your own.
Presenting Information Ethically

A central but often unspoken expectation of the speaker is that we will be ethical. This means,
fundamentally, that we perceive one another as human beings with common interests and needs,
and that we attend to the needs of others as well as our own. An ethical informative speaker
expresses respect for listeners by avoiding prejudiced comments against any group, and by being
honest about the information presented, including information that may contradict the speaker’s
personal biases. The ethical speaker also admits it when he or she does not know something. The
best salespersons recognize that ethical communication is the key to success, as it builds a healthy
relationship where the customer’s needs are met, thereby meeting the salesperson’s own needs.
Reciprocity
Tyler[11] discusses ethical communication and specifically indicates reciprocity as a key principle.
Reciprocity, or a relationship of mutual exchange and interdependence, is an important characteristic
The mutual expectation for of a relationship, particularly between a speaker and the audience. We’ve examined previously the
exchange of value or
service. transactional nature of communication, and it is important to reinforce this aspect here. We exchange
meaning with one another in conversation, and much like a game, it takes more than one person to play.
This leads to interdependence, or the dependence of the conversational partners on one another.
Inequality in the levels of dependence can negatively impact the communication and, as a result, the
relationship. You as the speaker will have certain expectations and roles, but dominating your
audience will not encourage them to fulfill their roles in terms of participation and active listening.
Communication involves give and take, and in a public speaking setting, where the
communication may be perceived as “all to one,” don’t forget that the audience is also communicat-
ing in terms of feedback with you. You have a responsibility to attend to that feedback, and develop
reciprocity with your audience. Without them, you don’t have a speech.
Mutuality
Mutuality means that you search for common ground and understanding with the audience,
establishing this space and building on it throughout the speech. This involves examining view-
points other than your own, and taking steps to insure the speech integrates an inclusive, accessible Searching for common
ground and understanding
format rather than an ethnocentric one. with the audience.
Nonjudgmentalism
Nonjudgmentalism underlines the need to be open-minded, an expression of one’s willingness to
examine diverse perspectives. Your audience expects you to state the truth as you perceive it, with
supporting and clarifying information to support your position, and to speak honestly. They also to examine diverse
expect you to be open to their point of view and be able to negotiate meaning and understanding perspectives.
in a constructive way. Nonjudgmentalism may include taking the perspective that being different
is not inherently bad and that there is common ground to be found with each other.
While this characteristic should be understood, we can see evidence of breakdowns in com-
munication when audiences perceive they are not being told the whole truth. This does not mean
that the relationship with the audience requires honesty and excessive self-disclosure. The use of
euphemisms and displays of sensitivity are key components of effective communication, and your
emphasis on the content of your speech and not yourself will be appreciated. Nonjudgmentalism
does underscore the importance of approaching communication from an honest perspective where
you value and respect your audience.
Honesty
Honesty, or truthfulness, directly relates to trust, a cornerstone in the foundation of a relationship
with your audience. Without it, the building (the relationship) would fall down. Without trust, a
relationship will not open and develop the possibility of mutual understanding. You want to share ingredient in trust.
information and the audience hopefully wants to learn from you. If you “cherry-pick” your data,
only choosing the best information to support only your point and ignore contrary or related issues,
you may turn your informative speech into a persuasive one with bias as a central feature.
Look at the debate over the U.S. conflict with Iraq. There has been considerable discussion
concerning the cherry-picking of issues and facts to create a case for armed intervention. To what
degree the information at the time was accurate or inaccurate will continue to be a hotly debated
issue, but the example holds in terms on an audience’s response to a perceived dishonestly. Partial
truths are incomplete and often misleading, and you don’t want your audience to turn against you
because they suspect you are being less than forthright and honest.
Respect
Respect should be present throughout a speech, demonstrating the speaker’s high esteem for the
audience. Respect can be defined as an act of giving and displaying particular attention to the value
Giving and displaying you associate with someone or a group. This definition involves two key components. You need to
particular attention to the
value you associate with give respect in order to earn from others, and you need to show it. Displays of respect include mak-
someone or a group. ing time for conversation, not interrupting, and even giving appropriate eye contact during
conversations.
Trust
Communication involves sharing and that requires trust. Trust means the ability to rely on the
character or truth of someone, that what you say you mean and your audience knows it. Trust is a
The ability to rely on the process, not a thing. It builds over time, through increased interaction and the reduction of uncer-
character or truth of
someone. tainty. It can be lost, but it can also be regained. It should be noted that it takes a long time to build
trust in a relationship and can be lost in a much shorter amount of time. If your audience suspects
you mislead them this time, how will they approach your next presentation? Acknowledging trust
and its importance in your relationship with the audience is the first step in focusing on this key
characteristic.
Avoid Exploitation
Finally, when we speak ethically, we do not intentionally exploit one another. Exploitation means
taking advantage, using someone else for one’s own purposes. Perceiving a relationship with an
Taking advantage of audience as a means to an end and only focusing on what you get out of it, will lead you to treat
someone or something;
using someone else for people as objects. The temptation to exploit others can be great in business situations, where a pro-
one’s own purposes. motion, a bonus, or even one’s livelihood are at stake.
Suppose you are a bank loan officer. Whenever a customer contacts the bank to inquire about
applying for a loan, your job is to provide an informative presentation about the types of loans
available, their rates and terms. If you are paid a commission based on the number of loans you
make and their amounts and rates, wouldn’t you be tempted to encourage them to borrow the max-
imum amount they can qualify for? Or perhaps to take a loan with confusing terms that will end
up costing much more in fees and interest than the customer realizes? After all, these practices are
within the law; aren’t they just part of the way business is done? If you are an ethical loan officer,
you realize you would be exploiting customers if you treated them this way. You know it is more
valuable to uphold your long-term relationships with customers than to exploit them so that you
can earn a bigger commission.
Consider these ethical principles when preparing and presenting your speech, and you will
help address many of these natural expectations of others and develop healthier, more effective
speeches.
Learn how to prepare for public speaking engagements in this free video lesson from a
professional public speaker.Expert: Scott Ginsberg
Sample Informative Presentation

Here is a generic sample speech in outline form with notes and suggestions.
Attention Statement
Show a picture of a goldfish and a tomato and ask the audience, “What do these have in common?”
Introduction
1. Briefly introduce genetically modified foods.
2. State your topic and specific purpose: “My speech today will inform you on genetically modi-
fied foods that are increasingly part of our food supply.”
3. Introduce your credibility and the topic: “My research on this topic has shown me that our
food supply has changed but many people are unaware of the changes.”
4. State your main points: “Today I will define genes, DNA, genome engineering and genetic
manipulation, discuss how the technology applies to foods, and provide common examples.”
Body
1. Information. Provide a simple explanation of the genes, DNA and genetic modification in case
there are people who do not know about it. Provide clear definitions of key terms.
2. Genes and DNA. Provide arguments by generalization and authority.
3. Genome engineering and genetic manipulation. Provide arguments by analogy, cause, and
principle.
4. Case study. In one early experiment, GM (genetically modified) tomatoes were developed with
fish genes to make them resistant to cold weather, although this type of tomato was never
marketed.
5. Highlight other examples.
Conclusion
Reiterate your main points and provide synthesis, but do not introduce new content.
Residual Message
“Genetically modified foods are more common in our food supply than ever before.”
Key Takeaway
In preparing an informative speech, use your knowledge and consider the audience’s knowl-
edge, avoid unnecessary jargon, give credit to your sources, and present the information
ethically.
1. Identify an event or issue in the news that interests you. On at least three different news net-
works or Web sites, find and watch video reports about this issue. Compare and contrast the
coverage of the issue. Do the networks or Web sites differ in their assumptions about
viewers’ prior knowledge? Do they give credit to any sources of information? To what extent
do they each measure up to the ethical principles described in this section? Discuss your
findings with your classmates.
2. Find an example of reciprocity in a television program and write two to three paragraphs
describing it. Share and compare with your classmates.
3. Find an example of honesty in a television program and write two to three paragraphs
describing it. Share and compare with your classmates.
4. Find an example of exploitation depicted in the media. Describe how the exploitation is com-
municated with words and images and share with the class.
5. Compose a general purpose statement and thesis statement for a speech to inform. Now
create a sample outline. Share with a classmate and see if he or she offers additional points
to consider.
13.7 Creating an Informative

Presentation
1.
2. Understand the five parts of any presentation.
An informational presentation is common request in business and industry. It’s the verbal and
visual equivalent of a written report. Information sharing is part of any business or organization.
Informative presentations serve to present specific information for specific audiences for specific
goals or functions. The type of presentation is often identified by its primary purpose or function.
Informative presentations are often analytical or involve the rational analysis of information.
Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still need to communicate the
information in a clear and concise format. While a presentation may have conclusions, proposi-
tions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the primary function.
A sales report presentation, for example, is not designed to make a sale. It is, however, supposed
to report sales to date and may forecast future sales based on previous trends.
An informative presentation does not have to be a formal event, though it can be. It can be
generic and nonspecific to the audience or listener, but the more you know about your audience,
the better. When you tailor your message to that audience, you zero in on your target and increase Zeroing in on your target
your effectiveness. The emphasis is on clear and concise communication, but it may address several audience.
key questions:
• Topic: Product or Service?
• Who are you?
• Who is the target market?
• What is the revenue model?
• What are the specifications?
• How was the information gathered?
• How does the unit work?
• How does current information compare to previous information? Table
13.2 lists the five main parts or components of any presentation.[12]
TABLE 13.2 Presentation Components and Their Functions
Component Function
Attention Statement Raise interest and motivate the listener
Introduction Communicate a point and common ground

Body Address key points
Conclusion Summarize key points
Residual Message Communicate central theme, moral of story, or

main point
You will need to address the questions to establish relevance and meet the audience’s needs.
The five parts of any speech will serve to help you get organized.
Sample Speech Guidelines

Imagine that you have been assigned to give an informative presentation lasting five to seven min-
utes. Follow the guidelines in Table 13.3 and apply them to your presentation.
TABLE 13.3 Sample Speech Guidelines
1. Topic Choose a product or service that interests you,

research it, and report your findings in your
speech.
2. Purpose Your general purpose, of course, is to inform. But
you need to formulate a more specific purpose
statement that expresses a point you have to
make about your topic—what you hope to
accomplish in your speech.
3. Audience Think about what your audience might already
know about your topic and what they may not
know, and perhaps any attitudes toward or con-
cerns about it. Consider how this may affect the
way that you will present your information.
4. Supporting Materials Using the information gathered in your search for

information, determine what is most worthwhile,
interesting, and important to include in your
speech. Time limits will require that you be selec-
tive about what you use. Use visual aids!
5. Organization a. Write a central idea statement that expresses

the message, or point, that you hope to get
across to your listeners in the speech.
b. Determine the two to three main points that
will be needed to support your central idea.
c. Finally, prepare a complete sentence outline
of the body of the speech.
6. Introduction Develop an opening that will

1. get the attention and interest of your listeners,
2. express your central idea or message,
3. lead into the body of your speech.
7. Conclusion The conclusion should review and/or summarize

the important ideas in your speech and bring it to
a smooth close.
8. Delivery The speech should be delivered extemporane-
ously (not reading but speaking), using speaking
notes and not reading from the manuscript. Work
on maximum eye contact with your listeners. Use
any visual aids or handouts that may be helpful.
Key Takeaway
Informative presentations illustrate, explain, describe, and instruct the audience on topics and
processes.
1. Write a brief summary of a class or presentation you personally observed recently; include
what you learned. Compare with classmates.
2. Search online for an informative speech or presentation that applies to business or industry.
Indicate one part or aspect of the presentation that you thought was effective and one you
would improve. Provide the link to the presentation in your post or assignment.
3. Pick a product or service and come up with a list of five points that you could address in a
two-minute informative speech. Place them in rank order and indicate why.
4. With the points discussed in this chapter in mind, observe someone presenting a speech.
What elements of their speech could you use in your speech? What elements would you not
want to use? Why? Compare with a classmate.

To listen to speeches from great figures in history, visit the History Channel’s audio speech archive.
http://www.history.com/speeches
What were the greatest speeches of the twentieth century? Find out here. http://gos.sbc.edu/
top100.html
Visit this eHow link for a great video demonstrating how to remove ink stains from clothing.
http://www.ehow.com/video_2598_remove-ink-stains.html
To improve your enunciation, try these exercises from the Mount Holyoke College site. http://
www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/speech/enunciation.htm
The Merriam-Webster dictionary site provides a wealth of resources on words, their meanings,
their origins, and audio files of how to pronounce them. http://www.merriam-webster.com
For information on adapting your speech for an audience or audience members with special
needs, explore this index of resources compiled by Ithaca College. http://www.ithaca.edu/wise/
topics/speech_language.htm
Dr. Richard Felder of North Carolina State University presents this questionnaire to assess
your learning styles. http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/ilsweb.html
The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association offers an array of Web resources on
ethics. http://www.asha.org/practice/ethics
Visit this site for a list of informative topics for a speech. http://www.presentationmagazine.
com/informative-speech-topic-6824.htm
Visit this eHow site to get ideas for an audience-oriented informative speech topic. http://www.
ehow.com/how_2239702_choose-topic-informative-speech.html
Endnotes
2. James, C. (1993, October 24). If Simon says, ‘Lie down in the road,’ should you? New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/24/
weekinreview/the-nation-if-simon-says-lie-down-in-the-road-should-you.html
3. Wilson, J., & Wilson, S. (1998). Mass media/mass culture (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
5. Wilson, J., & Wilson, S. (1998). Mass media/mass culture (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
7. Wood, J. (1994). Gendered lives: Communication, gender, and culture (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Random House.
8. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (2000). An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing (p.136). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
10. Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.
11. Tyler, V. (1978). Report of the working groups of the second SCA summer conference on intercultural communication. In N. C. Asuncio-Lande (Ed.), Ethical
Perspectives and Critical Issues in Intercultural Communication (pp. 170–177). Falls Church, VA: SCA.
12. McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Presentations to Persuade
We are more easily persuaded, in general, by the reasons that we ourselves discovers than by
those which are given to us by others.
— Pascal
For every sale you miss because you’re too enthusiastic, you will miss a hundred because you’re
not enthusiastic enough.
— Zig Ziglar
1. Please list three things that you recently purchased, preferably in the last twenty-four hours—
the things can be items or services. Decide which purchase on your list stands out as most
important to you and consider why you made that purchase decision. See if you can list three
reasons. Now pretend you are going to sell that same item or service to a
to consider?
Compare your results with a classmate.
2.
item
(e.g., a car), did you notice similar cars on the roads? Did you pay attention to details like
color, modifications, or reports in the popular press about quality? Did you talk to your friends
about it? What kind of information did you pay attention to—information that reinforced your
purchase decision, or information that detracted from your appreciation of your newly
acquired possession? Discuss your responses with classmates.
No doubt there has been a time when you wanted something from your parents, your supervi-
sor, or your friends, and you thought about how you were going to present your request. But do you
think about how often people—including people you have never met and never will meet—want
something from you? When you watch television, advertisements reach out for your attention,
whether you watch them or not. When you use the Internet, pop-up advertisements often appear.
Living in the United States, and many parts of the world, means that you have been surrounded,
even inundated, by persuasive messages. Mass media in general and television in particular make a
significant impact you will certainly recognize.
Consider these facts:
• The average person sees between four hundred and six hundred ads per day—that is forty mil-
lion to fifty million by the time he or she is sixty years old. One of every eleven commercials
has a direct message about beauty.[1]
• By age eighteen, the average American teenager will have spent more time watching televi-
sion—25,000 hours—than learning in a classroom.[2]
• An analysis of music videos found that nearly one-fourth of all MTV videos portray overt
violence, with attractive role models being aggressors in more than 80 percent of the violent
videos.[3]
• Forty percent of nine- and ten-year-old girls have tried to lose weight, according to an ongoing
study funded by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute.[4]
• A 1996 study found that the amount of time an adolescent watches soaps, movies, and music
videos is associated with their degree of body dissatisfaction and desire to be thin.[5]
• Identification with television stars (for girls and boys), models (girls), or athletes (boys) posi-
tively correlated with body dissatisfaction.[6]
• At age thirteen, 53 percent of American girls are “unhappy with their bodies.” This grows to 78
percent by the time they reach seventeen.[7]
• By age eighteen, the average American teenager will witness on television 200,000 acts of vio-
lence, including 40,000 murders.[8]
Mass communication contains persuasive messages, often called propaganda, in narrative
form, in stories and even in presidential speeches. When President Bush made his case for invading
Iraq, his speeches incorporated many of the techniques we’ll cover in this chapter. Your local city
council often involves dialogue, and persuasive speeches, to determine zoning issues, resource allo-
cation, and even spending priorities. You yourself have learned many of the techniques by trial and
error and through imitation. If you ever wanted the keys to your parents’ car for a special occasion,
you used the principles of persuasion to reach your goal.
14.2 What Is Persuasion?
1.
2.
Persuasion is an act or process of presenting arguments to move, motivate, or change your audi-
ence. Aristotle taught that rhetoric, or the art of public speaking, involves the faculty of observing
in any given case the available means of persuasion.[9] In the case of President Obama, he may have
An act or process of
presenting arguments to appealed to your sense of duty and national values. In persuading your parents to lend you the car
move, motivate, or change keys, you may have asked one parent instead of the other, calculating the probable response of each
your audience. parent and electing to approach the one who was more likely to adopt your position (and give you
the keys). Persuasion can be implicit or explicit and can have both positive and negative effects. In
this chapter we’ll discuss the importance of ethics, as we have in previous chapters, when present-
ing your audience with arguments in order to motivate them to adopt your view, consider your
points, or change their behavior.
of the world's greatest violin players, and you decide to conduct an experiment: play inside a
subway station and see if anyone stops to appreciate when you are stripped of a concert hall
and name recognition. Joshua Bell did this, and Conor Neill channels Aristotle to understand
why the context mattered.Lesson by Conor Neill, animation by Animationhaus.
Motivation is distinct from persuasion in that it involves the force, stimulus, or influence to
bring about change. Persuasion is the process, and motivation is the compelling stimulus that
encourages your audience to change their beliefs or behavior, to adopt your position, or to consider Involves the force,
stimulus, or influence to
your arguments. Why think of yourself as fat or thin? Why should you choose to spay or neuter bring about change.
your pet? Messages about what is beautiful, or what is the right thing to do in terms of your pet,
involve persuasion, and the motivation compels you to do something.
Another way to relate to motivation also can be drawn from the mass media. Perhaps you have
watched programs like Law and Order, Cold Case, or CSI where the police detectives have many of
the facts of the case, but they search for motive. They want to establish motive in the case to pro-
vide the proverbial “missing piece of the puzzle.” They want to know why someone would act in
a certain manner. You’ll be asking your audience to consider your position and provide both per-
suasive arguments and motivation for them to contemplate. You may have heard a speech where
the speaker tried to persuade you, tried to motivate you to change, and you resisted the message.
Use this perspective to your advantage and consider why an audience should be motivated, and
you may find the most compelling examples or points. Relying on positions like “I believe it, so you
should too,” “Trust me, I know what is right,” or “It’s the right thing to do” may not be explicitly
stated but may be used with limited effectiveness. Why should the audience believe, trust, or con-
sider the position “right?” Keep an audience-centered perspective as you consider your persuasive
speech to increase your effectiveness.
You may think initially that many people in your audience would naturally support your posi-
tion in favor of spaying or neutering your pet. After careful consideration and audience analysis,
however, you may find that people are more divergent in their views. Some audience members may
already agree with your view, but others may be hostile to the idea for various reasons. Some peo-
ple may be neutral on the topic and look to you to consider the salient arguments. Your audience
will have a range of opinions, attitudes, and beliefs across a range from hostile to agreement.
Rather than view this speech as a means to get everyone to agree with you, look at the concept
of measurable gain, a system of assessing the extent to which audience members respond to a per-
A system of assessing the suasive message. You may reinforce existing beliefs in the members of the audience that agree with
extent to which audience
members respond to a you and do a fine job of persuasion. You may also get hostile members of the audience to consider
persuasive message. one of your arguments, and move from a hostile position to one that is more neutral or ambivalent.
The goal in each case is to move the audience members toward your position. Some change may be
small but measurable, and that is considered gain. The next time a hostile audience member con-
siders the issue, they may be more open to it. Figure 14.1 is a useful diagram to illustrate this
concept.
Edward Hall[10] also underlines this point when discussing the importance of
FIGURE 14.1 Measurable Gain
context. The situation in which a conversation occurs provides a lot of meaning
and understanding for the participants in some cultures. In Japan, for example,
the context, such as a business setting, says a great deal about the conversation
and the meaning to the words and expressions within that context. In the United
States, however, the concept of a workplace or a business meeting is less struc-
tured, and the context offers less meaning and understanding.
Cultures that value context highly are aptly called high-context cultures.
Those that value context to a lesser degree are called low-context cultures. These
divergent perspectives influence the process of persuasion and are worthy of your consideration
when planning your speech. If your audience is primarily high-context, you may be able to rely on
many cultural norms as you proceed, but in a low-context culture, like the United States, you’ll be
expected to provide structure and clearly outline your position and expectations. This ability to
understand motivation and context is key to good communication, and one we will examine
throughout this chapter.
TMP UCSB Persuasion & Communication
As one of the nation's most respected communication strategists, John Davies clearly
understands the business of persuasion. He is constantly searching for trends and methods to
utilize on behalf of his firm's clients, and applies his lifelong study of human behavior and
effective communications strategies to teach them how to earn attention and gain influence in
the complex information saturated decision-making process of today. Series: Technology
Management Program [8/2010] [Business] [Show ID: 18583]
Key Takeaway
Persuasion is the act of presenting arguments for change, while motivation involves the force to
bring about change. The concept of measurable gain assesses audience response to a persua-
sive message.
1. Select an online advertisement that you find particularly effective or ineffective. Why does it
succeed, or fail, in persuading you to want to buy the advertised product? Discuss your ideas
2. Think of a social issue, widely held belief, or political position where change has occurred in
your lifetime, or where you would like to see change happen. What kinds of persuasion and
motivation were involved—or would need to happen—to produce measurable gain? Explain
your thoughts to a classmate.
3. Think of a time when someone tried to persuade you to do something you did not want to
do. Did their persuasion succeed? Why or why not? Discuss the event with a classmate.
14.3 Principles of Persuasion
1. Identify and demonstrate how to use six principles of persuasion.
What is the best way to succeed in persuading your listeners? There is no one “correct” answer, but
many experts have studied persuasion and observed what works and what doesn’t. Social psychol-
ogist Robert Cialdini[11] offers us six principles of persuasion that are powerful and effective:
1. Reciprocity
2. Scarcity
3. Authority
4. Commitment and consistency
5. Consensus
6. Liking
You will find these principles both universal and adaptable to a myriad of contexts and envi-
ronments. Recognizing when each principle is in operation will allow you to leverage the inherent
social norms and expectations to your advantage, and enhance your sales position.
Principle of Reciprocity
Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for exchange of value or service. In all cultures, when one
person gives something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if only by saying “thank you.”
The mutual expectation for
There is a moment when the giver has power and influence over the receiver, and if the exchange
exchange of value or
service. is dismissed as irrelevant by the giver the moment is lost. In business this principle has several
applications. If you are in customer service and go out of your way to meet the customer’s need,
you are appealing to the principle of reciprocity with the knowledge that all humans perceive the
need to reciprocate—in this case, by increasing the likelihood of making a purchase from you
because you were especially helpful. Reciprocity builds trust and the relationship develops, rein-
forcing everything from personal to brand loyalty. By taking the lead and giving, you build in a
moment where people will feel compelled from social norms and customs to give back.
Principle of Scarcity
You want what you can’t have, and it’s universal. People are naturally attracted to the exclusive, the
rare, the unusual, and the unique. If they are convinced that they need to act now or it will disap-
The perception of
pear, they are motivated to action. Scarcity is the perception of inadequate supply or a limited
inadequate supply or a
limited resource. resource. For a sales representative, scarcity may be a key selling point—the particular car, or the-
ater tickets, or pair of shoes you are considering may be sold to someone else if you delay making a
decision. By reminding customers not only of what they stand to gain but also of what they stand
to lose, the representative increases the chances that the customer will make the shift from con-
templation to action and decide to close the sale.
Principle of Authority
Trust is central to the purchase decision. Whom does a customer turn to? A salesperson may be
part of the process, but an endorsement by an authority holds credibility that no one with a vested
interest can ever attain. Knowledge of a product, field, trends in the field, and even research can
make a salesperson more effective by the appeal to the principle of authority. It may seem like extra
work to educate your customers, but you need to reveal your expertise to gain credibility. We can
borrow a measure of credibility by relating what experts have indicated about a product, service,
market, or trend, and our awareness of competing viewpoints allows us insight that is valuable to
the customer. Reading the manual of a product is not sufficient to gain expertise—you have to do
extra homework. The principal of authority involves referencing experts and expertise.
Principle of Commitment and Consistency

Oral communication can be slippery in memory. What we said at one moment or another, unless
recorded, can be hard to recall. Even a handshake, once the symbol of agreement across almost
every culture, has lost some of its symbolic meaning and social regard. In many cultures, the writ-
ten word holds special meaning. If we write it down, or if we sign something, we are more likely to
follow through. By extension, even if the customer won’t be writing anything down, if you do so in
front of them, it can appeal to the principle of commitment and consistency and bring the social
norm of honoring one’s word to bear at the moment of purchase.
Principle of Consensus
Testimonials, or first person reports on experience with a product or service, can be highly persua-
sive. People often look to each other when making a purchase decision, and the herd mentality is
a powerful force across humanity: if “everybody else” thinks this product is great, it must be great.
We often choose the path of the herd, particularly when we lack adequate information. Leverage
testimonials from clients to attract more clients by making them part of your team. The principle
of consensus involves the tendency of the individual to follow the lead of the group or peers.
Principle of Liking
Safety is the twin of trust as a foundation element for effective communication. If we feel safe, we
are more likely to interact and communicate. We tend to be attracted to people who communicate
to us that they like us, and who make us feel good about ourselves. Given a choice, these are the
people with whom we are likely to associate. Physical attractiveness has long been known to be
persuasive, but similarity is also quite effective. We are drawn to people who are like us, or who
we perceive ourselves to be, and often make those judgments based on external characteristics like
dress, age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. The principle of liking
involves the perception of safety and belonging in communication.
Science Of Persuasion
Key Takeaway
A persuasive message can succeed through the principles of reciprocity, scarcity, authority,
commitment and consistency, consensus, and liking.
1. Think of a real-life example of the principle of scarcity being used in a persuasive message.
Were you the one trying to persuade someone, or were you the receiver of the scarcity mes-
sage? Was the message effective? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
2. Do you think the principle of consensus often works—are people often persuaded to buy
things because other people own that item, or are going to buy it? Are you susceptible to this
kind of persuasion? Think of some examples and discuss them with classmates.
3. Do people always use reason to make decisions? Support your opinion and discuss it with
classmates.
4. Make a list of five or six people you choose to associate with—friends, neighbors, and
coworkers, for example. Next to each person’s name, write the characteristics you have in
common with that person. Do you find that the principle of liking holds true in your choice of
associates? Why or why not? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
14.4 Functions of the Presentation to

Persuade
1. Identify and demonstrate the effective use of five functions of speaking to persuade.
What does a presentation to persuade do? There is a range of functions to consider, and they may
overlap or you may incorporate more than one as you present. We will discuss how to
• stimulate,
• convince,
• call to action,
• increase consideration, and
• develop tolerance of alternate perspectives.
We will also examine how each of these functions influences the process of persuasion.
Learn how to give an effective sales presentation from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast
public speaking video.
Stimulate
When you focus on stimulation as the goal or operational function of your speech, you want to
reinforce existing beliefs, intensify them, and bring them to the forefront. Perhaps you’ve been con-
cerned with global warming for quite some time. Many people in the audience may not know about
the melting polar ice caps and the loss of significant ice shelves in Antarctica, including part of the
Ross Ice Shelf, an iceberg almost 20 miles wide and 124 miles long, more than twice the size of Rhode
Island. They may be unaware of how many ice shelves have broken off, the 6 percent drop in global
phytoplankton (the basis of many food chains), and the effects of the introduction of fresh water to
the oceans. By presenting these facts, you will reinforce existing beliefs, intensify them, and bring
the issue to the surface. You might consider the foundation of common ground and commonly held
beliefs, and then introduce information that a mainstream audience may not be aware of that sup-
ports that common ground as a strategy to stimulate.
Convince
In a persuasive speech, the goal is to change the attitudes, beliefs, values, or judgments of your audi-
ence. If we look back at the idea of motive, in this speech the prosecuting attorney would try to
convince the jury members that the defendant is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. He or she may
discuss motive, present facts, all with the goal to convince the jury to believe or find that his or her
position is true. In the film The Day After Tomorrow, Dennis Quaid stars as a paleoclimatologist
who unsuccessfully tries to convince the U.S. vice president that a sudden climate change is about
to occur. In the film, much like real life, the vice president listens to Quaid’s position with his own
bias in mind, listening for only points that reinforce his point of view while rejecting points that do
not.
Audience members will also hold beliefs and are likely to involve their own personal bias. Your
goal is to get them to agree with your position, so you will need to plan a range of points and exam-
ples to get audience members to consider your topic. Perhaps you present Dennis Quaid’s argument
that loss of the North Atlantic Current will drastically change our climate, clearly establishing the
problem for the audience. You might cite the review by a professor, for example, who states in rep-
utable science magazine that the film’s depiction of a climate change has a chance of happening,
but that the timetable is more on the order of ten years, not seven days as depicted in the film. You
then describe a range of possible solutions. If the audience comes to a mental agreement that a
problem exists, they will look to you asking, “What are the options?” Then you may indicate a solu-
tion that is a better alternative, recommending future action.
Call to Action
In this speech, you are calling your audience to action. You are stating that it’s not about stimulat-
FIGURE 14.2
A call to action features a ing interest to reinforce and accentuate beliefs, or convincing an audience of a viewpoint that you
clear response for the hold, but instead that you want to see your listeners change their behavior. If you were in sales at
audience. Toyota, you might incorporate our previous example on global warming to reinforce, and then
make a call to action (make a purchase decision), when presenting the Prius hybrid (gas-electric)
automobile. The economics, even at current gas prices, might not completely justify the difference
in price between a hybrid and a nonhybrid car. However, if you as the salesperson can make a con-
vincing argument that choosing a hybrid car is the right and responsible decision, you may be more
likely to get the customer to act. The persuasive speech that focuses on action often generates
curiosity, clarifies a problem, and as we have seen, proposes a range of solutions. They key differ-
ence here is there is a clear link to action associated with the solutions.
Solutions lead us to considering the goals of action. These goals address the question, “What
do I want the audience to do as a result of being engaged by my speech?” The goals of action include
adoption, discontinuance, deterrence, and continuance.
Corporation
Adoption means the speaker wants to persuade the audience to take on a new way of thinking,
or adopt a new idea. Examples could include buying a new product, voting for a new candidate, or
to take on a new way of deciding to donate blood. The key is that the audience member adopts, or takes on, a new view,
thinking or adopt a new action, or habit.
idea.
Discontinuance involves the speaker persuading the audience to stop doing something what
they have been doing, such as smoking. Rather than take on a new habit or action, the speaker is
asking the audience member to stop an existing behavior or idea. As such, discontinuance is in
Persuading the audience
some ways the opposite of adoption.
to stop doing something
that they have been doing. Deterrence is a call action that focuses on persuading audience not to start something if they
haven’t already started. Perhaps many people in the audience have never tried illicit drugs, or have
not gotten behind the wheel of a car while intoxicated. The goal of action in this case would be to
deter, or encourage the audience members to refrain from starting or initiating the behavior.
to start something if they
haven’t already started. Finally, with continuance, the speaker aims to persuade the audience to continue doing what
they have been doing, such as reelect a candidate, keep buying product, or staying in school to get
an education.
A speaker may choose to address more than one of these goals of action, depending on the
to continue doing what
they have been doing. audience analysis. If the audience is largely agreeable and supportive, you may find continuance to
be one goal, while adoption is secondary.
These goals serve to guide you in the development of solution steps. Solution steps involve sug-
gestions or ways the audience can take action after your speech. They often proceed from national
to personal level, or the inverse. Audience members appreciate a clear discussion of the problem
in a persuasive speech, but they also appreciate solutions. You might offer a national solution that
may be viewed as unworkable, but your solution on a personal level may be more realistic, such as
considering an alternate point of view or making a small donation to a worthy cause.
Increase Consideration
Perhaps you know that your audience is not open to emotional appeals that involve the fear of
global warming, so you choose to base your persuasive speech on something they are more open to:
the economic argument and the relative cost of car ownership. In this speech, you want to increase
consideration on the part of the audience whose members either hold hostile views or perhaps are
neutral and simply curious. You might be able to compare and contrast competing cars and show
that the costs over ten years are quite similar, but that the Prius has additional features that are
the equivalent of a bonus, including high gas mileage. You might describe tax incentives for own-
ership, maintenance schedules and costs, and resale value. Your arguments and their support aim
at increasing the audience’s consideration of your position. You won’t be asking for action in this
presentation, but a corresponding increase of consideration may lead the customer to that point at
a later date.
Develop Tolerance of Alternate Perspectives

Finally, you may want to help your audience develop tolerance of alternate perspectives and view-
points. Perhaps your audience, as in the previous example, is interested in purchasing a car and you
are the lead salesperson on that model. As you listen, and do your informal audience analysis, you
may learn that horsepower and speed are important values to this customer. You might raise the
issue of torque versus horsepower and indicate that the “uumph” you feel as you start a car off the
line is torque. Many hybrid and even electric vehicles have great torque, as their systems involve
fewer parts and less friction than a corresponding internal combustion-transaxle system. You goal
is to help your audience develop tolerance, but not necessarily acceptance, of alternate perspectives.
A traditional way of measuring speed has always been how fast a car can go from zero to sixty miles
per hour.
You are essentially indicating that there are two relevant factors to consider when discussing
speed (horsepower and torque), and asking the customer to consider the alternate perspective. Lots
of horsepower might be all right for high speeds, but by raising the issue of their normal driving,
they might learn that what counts day in and day out for driving is torque, not horsepower. By
starting from common ground, and introducing a related idea, you are persuading your audience
to consider an alternate perspective.
Key Takeaway
A persuasive speech may stimulate thought, convince, call to action, increase consideration, or
develop tolerance of alternate perspectives.
1. the
commercial according to the principles of persuasion described in this section. Does it
could
change the commercial to increase its persuasive appeal to yourself as a customer, what
changes would you make? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Which do you think is a more difficult challenge, discontinuance or deterrence? Why? Give
some examples and discuss them with your classmates.
3. Do you think persuasion by continuance is necessary? Or would people continue a given
behavior regardless of any persuasive messages? Think of an example and discuss it with
your classmates.
14.5 Meeting the Listener’s Basic

Needs
In this section we will examine why we communicate, illustrating how meeting the listener’s basic
needs is central to effective communication. It’s normal for the audience to consider why you are
persuading them, and there is significant support for the notion that by meeting the audience’s basic
needs, whether they are a customer, colleague, or supervisor, you will more effectively persuade
them to consider your position.
Not all oral presentations involve taking a position, or overt persuasion, but all focus on the
inherent relationships and basic needs within the business context. Getting someone to listen to
what you have to say involves a measure of persuasion, and getting that person to act on it might
require considerable skill. Whether you are persuading a customer to try a new product or service,
or informing a supplier that you need additional merchandise, the relationship is central to your
communication. The emphasis inherent in our next two discussions is that we all share this com-
mon ground, and by understanding that we share basic needs, we can better negotiate meaning and
achieve understanding.
Table 14.1 presents some reasons for engaging in communication. As you can see, the final item
in the table indicates that we communicate in order to meet our needs. What are those needs? We
will discuss them next.
TABLE 14.1 Reasons for Engaging in Communication

Review Why We Engage in Communication
Gain Information We engage in communication to gain information.
This information can involve directions to an
unknown location, or a better understanding
about another person through observation or
self-disclosure.
Understand Communication Contexts We also want to understand the context in which
we communication, discerning the range
between impersonal and intimate, to better antici-
pate how to communicate effectively in each set-
ting.
Understand Our Identity Through engaging in communication, we come to
perceive ourselves, our roles, and our relation-
ships with others.
Meet Our Needs We meet our needs through communication.
Maslow’s Hierarchy
If you have taken courses in anthropology, philosophy, psychology, or perhaps sociology in the past,
you may have seen Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Figure 14.3). Psychologist Abraham Maslow[12] pro-
vides seven basic categories for human needs, and arranges them in order of priority, from the most
basic to the most advanced.
FIGURE 14.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy[13]
In this figure, we can see that we need energy, water, and air to live. Without any of these three
basic elements, which meet our physiological needs (1), we cannot survive. We need to meet them
before anything else, and will often sacrifice everything else to get them. Once we have what we
need to live, we seek safety (2). A defensible place, protecting your supply lines for your most basic
needs, could be your home. For some, however, home is a dangerous place that compromises their
safety. Children and victims of domestic violence need shelter to meet this need. In order to leave
a hostile living environment, people may place the well-being and safety of another over their own
needs, in effect placing themselves at risk. An animal would fight for its own survival above all else,
but humans can and do acts of heroism that directly contradict their own self-interest. Our own
basic needs motivate us, but sometimes the basic needs of others are more important to us than our
own.
We seek affection from others once we have the basics to live and feel safe from immediate
danger. We look for a sense of love and belonging (3). All needs in Maslow’s model build on the
foundation of the previous needs, and the third level reinforces our need to be a part of a family,
community, or group. This is an important step that directly relates to business communication. If
a person feels safe at your place of business, they are more likely to be open to communication.
Communication is the foundation of the business relationship, and without it, you will fail. If they
feel on edge, or that they might be pushed around, made to feel stupid, or even unwanted, they will
leave and your business will disappear. On the other hand, if you make them feel welcome, provide
multiple ways for them to learn, educate themselves, and ask questions in a safe environment, you
will form relationships that transcend business and invite success.
Once we have been integrated in a group, we begin to assert our sense of self and self-respect,
addressing our need for self-esteem (4). Self-esteem is essentially how we feel about ourselves. Let’s
say you are a male, but you weren’t born with a “fix-it” gene. It’s nothing to be ashamed of, but for
many men it can be hard to admit. We no longer live in a time when we have to build our own
houses or learn about electricity and plumbing as we grow up, and if it is not part of your learning
experience, it is unreasonable to expect that you’ll be handy with a wrench from the first turn.
The do-it-yourself chain Home Depot may have recognized how this interest in home repair is
paired with many men’s reluctance to admit their lack of experience. They certainly turned it into
an opportunity. Each Saturday around the country, home repair clinics on all sorts of tasks, from
cutting and laying tile to building a bird house, are available free to customers at Home Depot stores.
You can participate, learn, gain mastery of a skill set, and walk out of the store with all the supplies
you need to get the job done. You will also now know someone (the instructor, a Home Depot
employee) whom you can return to for follow-up questions. Ultimately, if you don’t succeed in
getting the job done right, they will help you arrange for professional installation. This model
reinforces safety and familiarity, belonging to a group or perceiving a trustworthy support system,
and the freedom to make mistakes. It’s an interactive program that squarely addresses one of cus-
tomers’ basic of human needs.
Maslow discusses the next level of needs in terms of how we feel about ourselves and our abil-
ity to assert control and influence over our lives. Once we are part of a group and have begun to
assert ourselves, we start to feel as if we have reached our potential and are actively making a dif- Involves reaching your full
potential, feeling accepted
ference in our own world. Maslow calls this self-actualization (5). Self-actualization can involve for who you are, and
reaching your full potential, feeling accepted for who you are, and perceiving a degree of control or perceiving a degree of
empowerment in your environment. It may mean the freedom to go beyond building the bird house control or empowerment in
to the tree house, and to design it yourself as an example of self-expression. your environment.
As we progress beyond these levels, our basic human curiosity about the world around us
emerges. When we have our basic needs met, we do not need to fear losing our place in a group or
access to resources. We are free to explore and play, discovering the world around us. Our need to
know (6) motivates us to grow and learn. You may have taken an elective art class that sparked your
interest in a new area, or your started a new sport or hobby, like woodworking. If you worked at
low-paying jobs that earned you barely enough to meet your basic needs, you may not be able to
explore all your interests. You might be too exhausted after sixty or seventy hours a week on a com-
bination of the night shift and the early morning shift across two jobs. If you didn’t have to work as
many hours to meet your more basic needs, you’d have time to explore your curiosity and address
the need to learn. Want to read a good book? You’d have the time. Want to take a watercolor class?
Sounds interesting. If, however, we are too busy hunting and gathering food, there is little time for
contemplating beauty.
Beyond curiosity lies the aesthetic need to experience beauty (7). Form is freed from function,
so that a wine bottle opener can be appreciated for its clever design that resembles a rabbit’s head
instead of simply how well it works to remove the cork. The appreciation of beauty transcends the
everyday, the usual; it becomes exceptional. You may have walked in a building or church and
become captivated by the light, the stained-glass windows, or the design. That moment that
transcends the mundane, that stops you in your tracks, comes close to describing the human appre-
ciation for the aesthetic, but it’s really up to you.
We can see in Maslow’s hierarchy how our most basic needs are quite specific, and as we
progress through the levels, the level of abstraction increases until ultimately we are freed from
the daily grind to contemplate the meaning of a modern painting. As we increase our degree of
interconnectedness with others, we become interdependent and, at the same time, begin to express
independence and individuality. As a speaker, you may seek the safety of the familiar, only to
progress with time and practice to a point where you make words your own.
Your audience will share with you a need for control. You can help meet this need by construct-
ing your speech with an effective introduction, references to points you’ve discussed, and a clear
conclusion. The introduction will set up audience expectations of points you will consider, and
allow the audience to see briefly what is coming. Your internal summaries, signposts, and support
of your main points all serve to remind the audience what you’ve discussed and what you will dis-
cuss. Finally, your conclusion answers the inherent question, “Did the speaker actually talk about
what they said they were going to talk about?” and affirms to the audience that you have fulfilled
your objectives.
Social Penetration Theory

The field of communication draws from many disciplines, and in this case, draws lessons from two
prominent social psychologists. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor articulated the social
penetration theory, which describes how we move from superficial talk to intimate and revealing
Theory by Irwin Altman
and Dalmas Taylor which talk.[14] Altman and Taylor discuss how we attempt to learn about others so that we can better
describes how we move understand how to interact.[15] With a better understanding of others and with more information,
from superficial talk to we are in a better position to predict how they may behave, what they may value, or what they
might feel in specific situations. We usually gain this understanding of others without thinking
about it through observation or self-disclosure. In this model, often called the “onion model,” we see
how we start out on superficial level, but as we peel away the layers, we gain knowledge about the
other person that encompasses both breadth and depth.
FIGURE 14.4 Altman and Taylor’s Social Penetration Model
Adapted from Altman and Taylor’s social penetration model.Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of
interpersonal relationships. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
We come to know more about the way a person perceives a situation (breadth), but also gain
perspective into how they see the situation through an understanding of their previous experi-
ences (depth). Imagine these two spheres, which represent people, coming together. What touches
first? The superficial level. As the two start to overlap, the personal levels may touch, then the inti-
mate level, and finally the core levels may even touch. Have you ever known a couple—perhaps
your parents or grandparents—who have been together for a very long time? They know each
other’s stories and finish each other’s sentences. They might represent the near overlap, where their
core values, attitudes, and beliefs are similar through a lifetime of shared experiences.
We move from public to private information as we progress from small talk
FIGURE 14.5 American Foreign Service
to intimate conversations. Imagine an onion. The outer surface can be peeled Manual Iceberg Model
away, and each new layer reveals another until you arrive at the heart of the
onion. People interact on the surface, and only remove layers as trust and confi-
dence grows.
Another way to look at it is to imagine an iceberg. How much of the total ice-
berg can you see from the surface of the ocean? Not much. But once you start to
look under the water, you gain an understanding of the large size of the iceberg,
and the extent of its depth. We have to go beyond superficial understanding to
know each other, and progress through the process of self-disclosure to come to
know and understand one another. See Figure 14.5 for an illustration of an “ice-
berg model” adapted from the American Foreign Service Manual.[16] This model
has existed in several forms since the 1960s, and serves as a useful illustration of
how little we perceive of each other with our first impressions and general
assumptions.

Key Takeaway
We are motivated to communicate in order to gain information, get to know one another, better
understand our situation or context, come to know ourselves and our role or identity, and meet
our fundamental interpersonal needs.
1. Consider your life in relation to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. To what degree do you feel you
have attained the different levels in the hierarchy? Two or three years ago, were you at the
same level where you currently are, or has your position in the hierarchy changed? In what
ways do you expect it to change in the future? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Think of someone you have met but do not know very well. What kinds of conversations
have you had with this person? How might you expect your conversations to change if you
have more opportunities to get better acquainted? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. Think of a conversation you have had within the past day. What were the reasons for having
that conversation? Can you relate it to the reasons for engaging in conversation listed in
Table 14.1? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
4. Write a brief paragraph about getting to know someone. Discuss whether, in your experi-
ence, it followed the social penetration theory. Share and compare with classmates.
14.6 Making an Argument
1. Label and discuss three components of an argument.

2.
According to the famous satirist Jonathan Swift, “Argument is the worst sort of conversation.” You
may be inclined to agree. When people argue, they are engaged in conflict and it’s usually not pretty.
It sometimes appears that way because people resort to fallacious arguments or false statements,
or they simply do not treat each other with respect. They get defensive, try to prove their own
points, and fail to listen to each other.
But this should not be what happens in persuasive argument. Instead, when you make an
argument in a persuasive speech, you will want to present your position with logical points, sup-
porting each point with appropriate sources. You will want to give your audience every reason to
perceive you as an ethical and trustworthy speaker. Your audience will expect you to treat them
with respect, and to present your argument in way that does not make them defensive. Contribute
to your credibility by building sound arguments and using strategic arguments with skill and plan-
ning.
In this section, we will briefly discuss the classic form of an argument, a more modern inter-
pretation, and finally seven basic arguments you may choose to use. Imagine that each is a tool in
your toolbox, and that you want to know how to use each effectively. Know that people who try to
persuade you, from telemarketers to politics, usually have these tools at hand.
Persuasive speeches are all about arguments. Get tips for using arguments in speeches with
this free video clip about tips for persuasive speaking.Expert: Tracy Goodwin
Let’s start with a classical rhetorical strategy, as shown in Table 14.2. It asks the rhetorician,
speaker, or author to frame arguments in six steps.
TABLE 14.2 Classical Rhetorical Strategy
1. Exordium Prepares the audience to consider your argument
2. Narration Provides the audience with the necessary back-

ground or context for your argument
3. Proposition Introduces your claim being argued in the speech
4. Confirmation Offers the audience evidence to support your

argument
5. Refutation Introduces to the audience and then discounts or
refutes the counterarguments or objections
6. Peroration Your conclusion of your argument
The classical rhetorical strategy is a standard pattern and you will probably see it in both
speech and English courses. The pattern is useful to guide you in your preparation of your speech
and can serve as a valuable checklist to ensure that you are prepared. While this formal pattern has
distinct advantages, you may not see it used exactly as indicated here on a daily basis. What may
be more familiar to you is Stephen Toulmin’s[17] rhetorical strategy that focuses on three main ele-
ments, shown in Table 14.3.
TABLE 14.3 Toulmin’s Three-Part Rhetorical Strategy

Element Description Example
1. Claim Your statement of belief or truth It is important to spay or neuter
your pet.
2. Data Your supporting reasons for the Millions of unwanted pets are
claim euthanized annually.
3. Warrant You create the connection Pets that are spayed or
between the claim and the sup- neutered do not reproduce, pre-
porting reasons venting the production of
unwanted animals.
Toulmin’s rhetorical strategy is useful in that it makes the claim explicit, clearly illustrating the
relationship between the claim and the data, and allows the listener to follow the speaker’s reason-
ing. You may have a good idea or point, but your audience will be curious and want to know how
you arrived at that claim or viewpoint. The warrant often addresses the inherent and often unspo-
ken question, “Why is this data so important to your topic?” and helps you illustrate relationships
between information for your audience. This model can help you clearly articulate it for your audi-
ence.
Argumentation Strategies: GASCAP/T

Here is useful way of organizing and remembering seven key argumentative strategies:
1. Argument by Generalization
2. Argument by Analogy
3. Argument by Sign
4. Argument by Consequence
5. Argument by Authority
6. Argument by Principle
7. Argument by Testimony
Richard Fulkerson[18] notes that a single strategy is sufficient to make an argument some of the
time, but more common is an effort to combine two or more strategies to increase your powers
of persuasion. He organized the argumentative strategies in this way to compare the differences,
highlight the similarities, and allow for their discussion. This model, often called by its acronym
GASCAP, is a useful strategy to summarize six key arguments and is easy to remember. In Table 14.4
we have adapted it, adding one more argument that is often used in today’s speeches and presenta-
tions: the argument by testimony. This table presents each argument, provides a definition of the
strategy and an example, and examines ways to evaluate each approach.
TABLE 14.4 GASCAP/T Strategies

G Generalization Whatever is true of If you can vote, STAR System: For
a good example or drive, and die for it to be reliable, we
sample will be true your country, you need a (S) suffi-
of everything like it should also be cient number of (T)
or the population it allowed to buy typical, (A) accu-
came from. alcohol. rate, and (R) reli-
able examples.
A Analogy Two situations, Alcohol is a drug. Watch for adverbs
things or ideas are So is tobacco. that end in “ly,” as
alike in observable They both alter they qualify, or
ways and will tend perceptions, have lessen the relation-
to be alike in many an impact physio- ship between the
other ways logical and psy- examples. Words
chological sys- like “probably,”
tems, and are fed- “maybe,” “could,
erally regulated “may,” or “usually”
substances. all weaken the
relationship.
S Sign Statistics, facts or Motor vehicle acci- Evaluate the rela-
cases indicate dents involving tionship between
meaning, much alcohol occur at the sign and look
like a stop sign significant rates for correlation,
means “stop.” among adults of all where the presen-
ages in the United ter says what a
States facts “means.”
Does the sign say
that? Does is say
more, or what is
not said? Is it rele-
vant?
Argument Claim Example Evaluation

by
C Cause If two The U.S. insurance industry has Watch out for “after the fact, therefore
conditions been significantly involved in because of the fact” (post hoc, ergo
always state and national legislation propter hoc) thinking. There might not
appear requiring proof of insurance, be a clear connection, and it might not
together, changes in graduated driver’s be the whole picture. Mothers Against
they are licenses, and the national Drunk Driving might have also been
causally change in the drinking age from involved with each example of
related. age 18 to age 21. legislation.
A Authority What a According to the National Is the source legitimate and is their
credible Transportation and Safety information trustworthy? Institutes,
source Board, older drivers are boards and people often have agendas
indicates increasingly involved in motor and distinct points of view.
is vehicle accidents.
probably
true.
Argument Claim Example Evaluation

by
P Principle An The change in the drinking age Is the principle being invoked generally
accepted was never put to a vote. It’s not accepted? Is the claim, data or warrant
or proper about alcohol, it’s about our actually related to the principle stated?
truth freedom of speech in a Are there common exceptions to the
democratic society. principle? What are the practical
consequences of following the principle
in this case?
T Testimony Personal I’ve lost friends from age 18 to Is the testimony authentic? Is it
experience 67 to alcohol. It impacts all relevant? Is it representative of other’s
ages, and its effects are experiences? Use the STAR system to
cumulative. Let me tell you help evaluate the use of testimony.
about two friends in particular.
Evidence
Now that we’ve clearly outlined several argument strategies, how do you support your position
with evidence or warrants? If your premise or the background from which you start is valid, and
your claim is clear and clearly related, the audience will naturally turn their attention to “prove it.”
This is where the relevance of evidence becomes particularly important. Here are three guidelines
to consider in order to insure your evidence passes the “so what?” test of relevance in relation to
your claim. Make sure your evidence is:
1. Supportive Examples are clearly representative, statistics accurate testimony authoritative,
and information reliable.
2. Relevant Examples clearly relate to the claim or topic, and you are not comparing “apples to
oranges.”
3. Effective Examples are clearly the best available to support the claim, quality is preferred to
quantity, there are only a few well-chosen statistics, facts or data.
Appealing to Emotions
While we’ve highlighted several points to consider when selecting information to support your
claim, know that Aristotle[19] strongly preferred an argument based in logic over emotion. Can the
same be said for your audience, and to what degree is emotion and your appeal to it in your audi-
ence a part of modern life?
Emotions are a psychological and physical reaction, such as fear or anger, to stimuli that we
A psychological and experience as a feeling. Our feelings or emotions directly impact our own point of view and readi-
physical reaction, such as ness to communicate, but also influence how, why, and when we say things. Emotions influence not
fear or anger, to stimuli only how you say what you say, but also how you hear and what you hear. At times, emotions can
that we experience as a be challenging to control. Emotions will move your audience, and possibly even move you, to
feeling.
change or act in certain ways. Marketing experts are famous for creating a need or associating an
emotion with a brand or label in order to sell it. You will speak the language of your audience in
your document, and may choose to appeal to emotion, but you need to consider the strategic use as
a tool that has two edges.
Aristotle indicated the best, and most preferable, way to persuade an audience was through the
use of logic, free of emotion. He also recognized that people are often motivated, even manipulated,
by the exploitation of their emotions. In our modern context, we still engage this debate, demand-
ing to know the facts separate from personal opinion or agenda, but see the use of emotion used
to sell products. If we think of the appeal to emotion as a knife, we can see it has two edges. One
edge can cut your audience, and the other can cut you. If you advance an appeal to emotion in your
document on spaying and neutering pets, and discuss the millions of unwanted pets that are killed
each year, you may elicit an emotional response. If you use this approach repeatedly, your audience
may grow weary of it, and it will lose its effectiveness. If you change your topic to the use of animals
in research, the same strategy may apply, but repeated attempts at engaging an emotional response
may backfire on you, in essence “cutting” you, and produce a negative response, called emotional
resistance.
Emotional resistance involves getting tired, often to the point of rejection, of hearing mes-
sages that attempt to elicit an emotional response. Emotional appeals can wear out the audience’s
Occurs when the audience
capacity to receive the message. As Aristotle outlined, ethos (credibility), logos (logic) and pathos
gets tired, often to the
(passion, enthusiasm and emotional response) constitute the building blocks of any document. It’s point of rejection, of
up to you to create a balanced document, where you may appeal to emotion, but choose to use it hearing messages that
judiciously. attempt to elicit an
emotional response.
On a related point, the use of an emotional appeal may also impair your ability to write persua-
sively or effectively. If you choose to present an article to persuade on the topic of suicide, and start
with a photo of your brother or sister that you lost to suicide, your emotional response may cloud
your judgment and get in the way of your thinking. Never use a personal story, or even a story of
someone you do not know, if the inclusion of that story causes you to lose control. While it’s impor-
tant to discuss relevant topics, including suicide, you need to assess you own relationship to the
message. Your documents should not be an exercise in therapy and you will sacrifice ethos and
credibility, even your effectiveness, if you “lose it” because you are really not ready to discuss the
issue.
As we saw in our discussion of Altman and Taylor,[20] most relationships form from superficial
discussions and grow into more personal conversations. Consider these levels of self-disclosure
when planning your speech to persuade in order to not violate conversational and relational norms.
Now that we’ve outlined emotions and their role in a speech in general and a speech to per-
suade specifically, it’s important recognize the principles about emotions in communication that
serve us well when speaking in public. DeVito[21] offers us five key principles to acknowledge the role
emotions play in communication and offer guidelines for their expression.
Emotions Are Universal

Emotions are a part of every conversation or interaction that we have. Whether or not you con-
sciously experience them while communicating with yourself or others, they influence how you
communicate. By recognizing that emotions are a component in all communication interactions,
we can place emphasis on understanding both the content of the message and the emotions that
influence how, why, and when the content is communicated.
The context, which includes your psychological state of mind, is one of the eight basic com-
ponents of communication. Expression of emotions is important, but requires the three Ts: tact,
timing, and trust. If you find you are upset and at risk of being less than diplomatic, or the timing
is not right, or you are unsure about the level of trust, then consider whether you can effectively
communicate your emotions. By considering these three Ts, you can help yourself express your
emotions more effectively.
Emotional Feelings and Emotional Expression Are Not the

Same
Experiencing feelings and actually letting someone know you are experiencing them are two dif-
FIGURE 14.6
Emotions are often ferent things. We experience feeling in terms of our psychological state, or state of mind, and in
communicated through terms of our physiological state, or state of our body. If we experience anxiety and apprehension
nonverbal gestures and before a test, we may have thoughts that correspond to our nervousness. We may also have an
actions.
increase in our pulse, perspiration, and respiration (breathing) rate. Our expression of feelings by
our body influences our nonverbal communication, but we can complement, repeat, replace, mask,
or even contradict our verbal messages. Remember that we can’t tell with any degree of accuracy
what other people are feeling simply through observation, and neither can they tell what we are
feeling. We need to ask clarifying questions to improve understanding. With this in mind, plan for
a time to provide responses and open dialogue after the conclusion of your speech.
Emotions Are Communicated Verbally and Nonverbally

You communicate emotions not only through your choice of words but also through the manner in
which you say those words. The words themselves communicate part of your message, but the
nonverbal cues, including inflection, timing, space, and paralanguage can modify or contradict your
spoken message. Be aware that emotions are expressed in both ways and pay attention to how ver-
bal and nonverbal messages reinforce and complement each other.
Corporation
Emotional Expression Can Be Good and Bad

Expressing emotions can be a healthy activity for a relationship and build trust. It can also break
down trust if expression is not combined with judgment. We’re all different, and we all experience
emotions, but how we express our emotions to ourselves and others can have a significant impact
on our relationships. Expressing frustrations may help the audience realize your point of view and
see things as they have never seen them before. However, expressing frustrations combined with
blaming can generate defensiveness and decrease effective listening. When you’re expressing your-
self, consider the audience’s point of view, be specific about your concerns, and emphasize that your
relationship with your listeners is important to you.
Emotions Are Often Contagious

Have you ever felt that being around certain people made you feel better, while hanging out with
others brought you down? When we interact with each other, some of our emotions can be consid-
ered contagious. If your friends decide to celebrate, you may get caught up in the energy of their
enthusiasm. Thomas Joiner noted that when one college roommate was depressed, it took less than
three weeks for the depression to spread to the other roommate.[22] It is important to recognize
that we influence each other with our emotions, positively and negatively. Your emotions as the
speaker can be contagious, so use your enthusiasm to raise the level of interest in your topic. Con-
versely, you may be subject to “catching” emotions from your audience. Your listeners may have just
come from a large lunch and feel sleepy, or the speaker who gave a speech right before you may
have addressed a serious issue like suicide. Considering the two-way contagious action of emotions
means that you’ll need to attend to the emotions that are present as you prepare to address your
audience.
In any argument, it's important to know how to communicate persuasively. Learn how to
change people's beliefs with persuasive speaking in this free video clip about writing a great
persuasive speech for public speaking.
Key Takeaway
Everyone experiences emotions, and as a persuasive speaker, you can choose how to express
emotion and appeal to the audience’s emotions.
1. Think of a time when you have experienced emotional resistance. Write two or three para-
graphs about your experience. Share your notes with the class.
2. Which is the more powerful, appeal to reason or emotion? Discuss your response with an
example.
3. Select a commercial or public service announcement that uses an emotional appeal. Using
the information in this section, how would you characterize the way it persuades listeners
with emotion? Is it effective in persuading you as a listener? Why or why not? Discuss your
findings with your classmates.
4. Find an example of an appeal to emotion in the media. Review and describe it in two to three
paragraphs and share with your classmates.
14.7 Speaking Ethically and Avoiding

Fallacies
1. Demonstrate the importance of ethics as part of the persuasion process.

2.
What comes to mind when you think of speaking to persuade? Perhaps the idea of persuasion may
bring to mind propaganda and issues of manipulation, deception, intentional bias, bribery, and even
coercion. Each element relates to persuasion, but in distinct ways. In a democratic society, we would
hope that our Bill of Rights is intact and validated, and that we would support the exercise of free-
dom to discuss, consider and debate issues when considering change. We can recognize that each of
these elements in some ways has a negative connotation associated with it. Why do you think that
deceiving your audience, bribing a judge, or coercing people to do something against their wishes is
wrong? These tactics violate our sense of fairness, freedom, and ethics.
Want to give a great public speech? Get tips for building your credibility in persuasive speaking
with this free video clip about writing a great persuasive speech for public speaking.
Manipulation involves the management of facts, ideas or points of view to play upon inherent
insecurities or emotional appeals to one’s own advantage. Your audience expects you to treat them
with respect, and deliberately manipulating them by means of fear, guilt, duty, or a relationship is
unethical. In the same way, deception involves the use of lies, partial truths, or the omission of rele-
vant information to deceive your audience. No one likes to be lied to, or made to believe something
that is not true. Deception can involve intentional bias, or the selection of information to support
your position while framing negatively any information that might challenge your belief.
Bribery involves the giving of something in return for an expected favor, consideration, or priv-
ilege. It circumvents the normal protocol for personal gain, and again is a strategy that misleads
your audience. Coercion is the use of power to compel action. You make someone do something
they would not choose to do freely. You might threaten punishment, and people may go along with
you while the “stick” is present, but once the threat is removed, they will revert to their previous
position, often with new antagonism toward the person or agency that coerced them. While you
may raise the issue that the ends justify the means, and you are “doing it for the audience’s own
good,” recognize the unethical nature of coercion.
As Martin Luther King Jr. stated in his advocacy of nonviolent resistance, two wrongs do not
make a right. They are just two wrongs and violate the ethics that contribute to community and
healthy relationships. Each issue certainly relates to persuasion, but you as the speaker should be
aware of each in order to present an ethical persuasive speech. Learn to recognize when others try
to use these tactics on you, and know that your audience will be watching to see if you try any of
these strategies on them.
Eleven Points for Speaking Ethically

In his book Ethics in Human Communication,[23] Richard Johannesen offers eleven points to con-
sider when speaking to persuade. His main points reiterate many of the points across this chapter
and should be kept in mind as you prepare, and present, your persuasive message.
Do not:
• use false, fabricated, misrepresented, distorted or irrelevant evidence to support arguments or
claims.
• intentionally use unsupported, misleading, or illogical reasoning.
• represent yourself as informed or an “expert” on a subject when you are not.
• use irrelevant appeals to divert attention from the issue at hand.
• ask your audience to link your idea or proposal to emotion-laden values, motives, or goals to
which it is actually not related.
• deceive your audience by concealing your real purpose, by concealing self-interest, by conceal-
ing the group you represent, or by concealing your position as an advocate of a viewpoint.
• distort, hide, or misrepresent the number, scope, intensity, or undesirable features of conse-
quences or effects.
• use “emotional appeals” that lack a supporting basis of evidence or reasoning.
• oversimplify complex, gradation-laden situations into simplistic, two-valued, either-or, polar
views or choices.
• pretend certainty where tentativeness and degrees of probability would be more accurate.
• advocate something which you yourself do not believe in.
Aristotle said the mark of a good person, well spoken was a clear command of the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. He discussed the idea of perceiving
the many points of view related to a topic, and their thoughtful consideration. While it’s important
to be able to perceive the complexity of a case, you are not asked to be a lawyer defending a client.
In your speech to persuade, consider honesty and integrity as you assemble your arguments.
Your audience will appreciate your thoughtful consideration of more than one view, your under-
standing of the complexity, and you will build your ethos, or credibility, as you present your
document. Be careful not to stretch the facts, or assemble them only to prove yourself, and instead
prove the argument on its own merits. Deception, coercion, intentional bias, manipulation and
bribery should have no place in your speech to persuade.
Your ethic is the most important part of public speaking. Get tips for understanding ethics in
persuasive arguments in this free video clip about writing a great persuasive speech for public
speaking.
Avoiding Fallacies
Fallacies are another way of saying false logic. These rhetorical tricks deceive your audience with
their style, drama, or pattern, but add little to your speech in terms of substance and can actually
detract from your effectiveness. There are several techniques or “tricks” that allow the speaker to
rely on style without offering substantive argument, to obscure the central message, or twist the
facts to their own gain. Here we will examine the eight classical fallacies. You may note that some
of them relate to the ethical cautions listed earlier in this section. Eight common fallacies are pre-
sented in Table 14.5. Learn to recognize these fallacies so they can’t be used against you, and so that
you can avoid using them with your audience.
TABLE 14.5 Fallacies

1. Red Herring Any diversion intended to dis- It’s not just about the death
tract attention from the main penalty; it’s about the victims
issue, particularly by relating the and their rights. You wouldn’t
issue to a common fear. want to be a victim, but if you
were, you’d want justice.
2. Straw Man A weak argument set up to be What if we released criminals
easily refuted, distracting atten- who commit murder after just a
tion from stronger arguments few years of rehabilitation? Think
of how unsafe our streets would
be then!
3. Begging the Question Claiming the truth of the very We know that they will be
matter in question, as if it were released and unleashed on soci-
already an obvious conclusion. ety to repeat their crimes again
and again.

4. Circular Argument The proposition is used to prove Once a killer, always a killer.
itself. Assumes the very thing it
aims to prove. Related to beg-
ging the question.
5. Ad Populum Appeals to a common belief of Most people would prefer to get
some people, often prejudicial, rid of a few “bad apples” and
and states everyone holds this keep our streets safe.
belief. Also called the Band-
wagon Fallacy, as people “jump
on the bandwagon” of a per-
ceived popular view.
6. Ad Hominem “Argument against the man” Our representative is a drunk
instead of against his message. and philanderer. How can we
Stating that someone’s argu- trust him on the issues of safety
ment is wrong solely because of and family?
something about the person
rather than about the argument
itself.
7. Non Sequitur “It does not follow.” The conclu- Since the liberal antiwar demon-
sion does not follow from the strations of the 1960s, we’ve
premises. They are not related. seen an increase in convicts
who got let off death row.
8. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc “After this, therefore because of Violent death rates went down
this,” also called a coincidental once they started publicizing
correlation. It tries to establish a executions.
cause-and-effect relationship
where only a correlation exists.
Avoid false logic and make a strong case or argument for your proposition. Finally, here is a
five-step motivational checklist to keep in mind as you bring it all together:
1. Get their attention
2. Identify the need
3. Satisfy the need
4. Present a vision or solution
5. Take action
This simple organizational pattern can help you focus on the basic elements of a persuasive
message when time is short and your performance is critical.
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Key Takeaway
Speaking to persuade should not involve manipulation, coercion, false logic, or other unethical
techniques.
1. Can persuasion be ethical? Why or why not? Discuss your opinion with a classmate.
2. Select a persuasive article or video from a Web site that you feel uses unethical techniques
to persuade the audience. What techniques are being used? What makes them unethical?
Discuss your findings with your classmates.
3.
program is persuaded to believe or do something. Write a two- to three-paragraph descrip-
tion of the scene and why it was effective. Share and compare with classmates.
4.
program is not persuaded to believe or do something. Write a two- to three-paragraph
description of the scene and why it was ineffective. Share and compare with classmates.
5.
6.
7. Write a two- to three-paragraph description of a persuasive message that caused you to
believe or do something. Share and compare your description with classmates.
14.8 Sample Persuasive Speech
1. Understand the structural parts of a persuasive speech.
Attention Statement
Show a picture of a person on death row and ask the audience: does an innocent man deserve to
die?
Trying to find an introduction for persuasive speeches? Watch a sample persuasive introduction
in this free video clip about writing a great persuasive speech for public speaking.
Introduction
Briefly introduce the man in an Illinois prison and explain that he was released only days before his
impending death because DNA evidence (not available when he was convicted), clearly established
his innocence.
A statement of your topic and your specific stand on the topic:
“My speech today is about the death penalty, and I am against it.”
Introduce your credibility and the topic: “My research on this controversial topic has shown
me that deterrence and retribution are central arguments for the death penalty, and today I will
address each of these issues in turn.”
State your main points.

“Today I will address the two main arguments for the death penalty, deterrence and retribu-
tion, and examine how the governor of one state decided that since some cases were found to be
faulty, all cases would be stayed until proven otherwise.”
Learn how to use your voice, characteristics, and gestures to be the best public speaker in this
free video lesson.
Body
Information: Provide a simple explanation of the death penalty in case there are people who do not
know about it. Provide clear definitions of key terms.
Deterrence: Provide arguments by generalization, sign, and authority.
Retribution: Provide arguments by analogy, cause, and principle.
Case study: State of Illinois, Gov. George Ryan. Provide an argument by testimony and author-
ity by quoting: “You have a system right now…that’s fraught with error and has innumerable
opportunities for innocent people to be executed,” Dennis Culloton, spokesman for the Governor,
told the Chicago Tribune. “He is determined not to make that mistake.”
Solution steps:
1. National level. “Stay all executions until the problem that exists in Illinois, and perhaps the
nation, is addressed.”
2. Local level. “We need to encourage our own governor to examine the system we have for simi-
lar errors and opportunities for innocent people to be executed.”
3. Personal level. “Vote, write your representatives, and help bring this issue to the forefront in
your community.”
Conclusion
Reiterate your main points and provide synthesis; do not introduce new content.
Residual Message
Imagine that you have been assigned to give a persuasive presentation lasting five to seven min-
utes. Follow the guidelines in Table 14.6 and apply them to your presentation.
TABLE 14.6 Sample Speech Guidelines
1.Topic Choose a product or service that interests you so

much that you would like to influence the audi-
ence’s attitudes and behavior toward it.
2. Purpose Persuasive speakers may plan to secure behav-
ioral changes, influence thinking, or motivate
action in their audience. They may state a propo-
sition of fact, value, definition, or policy. They may
incorporate appeals to reason, emotion, and/or
basic needs.
3. Audience Think about what your audience might already
know about your topic and what they may not
know, and perhaps any attitudes toward or con-
cerns about it. Consider how this may affect the
way that you will present your information. You
won’t be able to convert everyone in the audi-
ence from a “no” to a “yes,” but you might
encourage a couple to consider “maybe.” Audi-
ences are more likely to change their behavior if it
meets their needs, saves them money, involves a
small change, or if the proposed change is
approached gradually in the presentation.
4. Supporting Materials Using the information gathered in your search for
information, determine what is most worthwhile,
interesting, and important to include in your
speech. Time limits will require that you be selec-
tive about what you use. Consider information
that the audience might want to know that con-
tradicts or challenges your claims and be pre-
pared for questions. Use visual aids to illustrate
your message.
5. Organization 1. Write a central idea statement, which

expresses the message, or point, that you
hope to get across to your listeners in the
speech.
2. Determine the two to three main points that
will be needed to support your central idea.
3. Prepare a complete sentence outline of the
body of the speech, including solution steps
or action items.
6. Introduction Develop an opening that will

1. get the attention and interest of your listeners,
2. express your central idea/message, and
3. lead into the body of your speech.
7. Conclusion The conclusion should review and/or summarize

the important ideas in your speech and bring it to
a smooth close.
8. Delivery The speech should be delivered extemporane-
ously, using speaking notes and not reading from
the manuscript. Work on maximum eye contact
with your listeners. Use any visual aids or hand-
outs that may be helpful.
People remember the end of your speeches. Get tips for writing a great conclusion in this free
video clip about writing a great persuasive speech for public speaking.
Key Takeaway
A speech to persuade presents an attention statement, an introduction, the body of the speech
with main points and supporting information, a conclusion, and a residual message.
1.
2. Prepare a three- to five-minute presentation to persuade and present it to the class.
3.
4.
14.9 Elevator Speech
1. Discuss the basic parts of an elevator speech.

2.
An elevator speech is to oral communication what a Twitter message (limited to 140 characters) is to
written communication. It has to engage and interest the listener, inform and/or persuade, and be
A presentation that
memorable.[24] An elevator speech is a presentation that persuades the listener in less than thirty
seconds, or around a hundred words. It takes its name from the idea that in a short elevator ride (of
perhaps ten floors), carefully chosen words can make a difference. In addition to actual conversa-
tions taking place during elevator rides, other common examples include the following:
• An entrepreneur making a brief presentation to a venture capitalist or investor
• A conversation at the water cooler
• Comments during intermission at a basketball game
• A conversation as you stroll across the parking lot
Creating an Elevator Speech

An elevator speech does not have to be a formal event, though it can be. An elevator speech is not
a full sales pitch and should not get bloated with too much information. The idea is not to rattle off
as much information as possible in a short time, nor to present a “canned” thirty-second advertising
message, but rather to give a relaxed and genuine “nutshell” summary of one main idea. The speech
can be generic and nonspecific to the audience or listener, but the more you know about your
audience, the better. When you tailor your message to that audience, you zero in on your target
and increase your effectiveness.[25] The emphasis is on brevity, but a good elevator speech will
address several key questions:
1. What is the topic, product or service?

2. Who are you?
3. Who is the target market? (if applicable)
4. What is the revenue model? (if applicable)
5. What or who is the competition and what are your advantages?
Whether you're attending a speed-networking event, competing for venture capital or trying to
get the attention of the press, you may only have 60-seconds to deliver your all-important pitch.
JJ Ramberg from MSNBC's 'Your Business' provides tips to help you get started. Find more
Your Business videos and additional small business tips at http://openforum.com, an online
community to help you power your small business success.
Table 14.7 adapts the five parts of a speech to the format of the elevator speech.
TABLE 14.7 Essential Parts of an Elevator Speech

Speech Component Adapted to Elevator Speech
Attention Statement Hook + information about you
Introduction What you offer
Body Benefits; what’s in it for the listener
Conclusion Example that sums it up
Residual Message Call for action
Example:
1. How are you doing?
2. Great! Glad you asked. I’m with (X Company) and we just received this new (product x)—it is
amazing. It beats the competition hands down for a third of the price. Smaller, faster, and less
expensive make it a winner. It’s already a sales leader. Hey, if you know anyone who might be
interested, call me! (Hands business card to the listener as visual aid)
Key Takeaway
You often don’t know when opportunity to inform or persuade will present itself, but with an ele-
vator speech, you are prepared!
1. Pick a product or service and prepare an elevator speech (less than a hundred words, no
more than thirty seconds). Rehearse the draft out loud to see how it sounds and post or
present it in class.
2.
3.

Just Think Foundation promotes critical thinking skills and awareness of the impact of images in
the media among young people. http://www.change.org/organizations/just_think_foundation
Watch a YouTube video of a persuasive speech on becoming a hero. http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=KYtm8uEo5vU
Watch a YouTube video of a persuasive speech on same-sex marriage. http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=cR4N8oEQR3c&feature=related
Visit this site for a video and other resources about Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. http://www.
abraham-maslow.com/m_motivation/Hierarchy_of_Needs.asp
Read an informative article on negotiating face-to-face across cultures called “Cross-Cultural
Face-Negotiation: An Analytical Overview” by Stella Ting-Toomey, presented on April 15, 1992, at
Simon Fraser University, Vancouver. http://www.cic.sfu.ca/forum/ting-too.html
Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab (OWL) provides a guide to persuasive speaking strate-
gies. http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/04
Visit the Web site of talk show host Sean Hannity and assess his persuasive speaking tech-
niques. http://www.hannity.com
Visit the Web site of National Public Radio and assess the persuasive message of various radio
programs. http://www.npr.org
This site from Western Washington University provides information about persuasive tech-
niques and fallacies. http://faculty.wwu.edu/gmyers/esssa/rhetoric.html
Endnotes
1. Raimondo, M. (2010). About-face facts on the media. About-face. Retrieved from http://www.about-face.org/r/facts/media.shtml
2. Ship, J. (2005, December). Entertain. Inspire. Empower. How to speak a teen’s language, even if you’re not one. ChangeThis. Retrieved from http://www.
changethis.com/pdf/20.02.TeensLanguage.pdf
3. DuRant, R. H. (1997). Tobacco and alcohol use behaviors portrayed in music videos: Content analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1131–1135.
4. Body image and nutrition: Fast facts. (2009). Teen Health and the Media. Retrieved from http://depts.washington.edu/thmedia/view.
cgi?section=bodyimage&page=fastfacts
5. Tiggemann, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women’s body: Dissatisfaction and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating
Disorders, 20, 199–203.
6. Hofschire, L. J., & Greenberg, B. S. (2002). Media’s impact on adolescent’s body dissatisfaction. In D. Brown, J. R. Steele, & K. Walsh-Childers (Eds.), Sex-
ual Teens, Sexual Media. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
7. Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls. New York, NY: Random House.
8. Huston, A. C., et al. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
9. Covino, W. A., & Jolliffe, D. A. (1995). Rhetoric: Concepts, definitions, boundaries. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
11. Cialdini, R. (1993). Influence. New York, NY: Quill.
14. Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.
16. American Foreign Service Manual. (1975).
17. Toulmin, S. (1958). The uses of argument. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
18. Fulkerson, R. (1996). The Toulmin model of argument and the teaching of composition. In B. Emmel, P. Resch, & D. Tenney (Eds.), Argument revisited: Argu-
ment redefined: Negotiating meaning the composition classroom (pp. 45–72). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
19. Aristotle. (1991). On rhetoric (G. A. Kennedy, Trans.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
21. DeVito, J. (2003). Messages: Building interpersonal skills. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
22. Joiner, T. (1994). Contagious depression: Existence, specificity to depressed symptoms, and the role or reassuracne seeking. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 67, 287.
23. Johannesen, R. (1996). Ethics in human communication (4th ed.). Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
24. Howell, L. (2006). Give your elevator speech a lift. Bothell, WA: Publishers Network.
25. Albertson, E. (2008). How to open doors with a brilliant elevator speech. New Providence, NJ: R. R. Bowker.
Business Presentations in
Action
Personnel directors have described their needs in prospective employers as follows:
“Send me people who know how to speak, listen, and think, and I’ll do the rest. I can train
people in their specific job responsibilities, as long as they listen well, know how to think, and
can express themselves well.”[1]
“For better or worse, our culture relies on quotations—literary passages, Bible verses,
movie lines, song lyrics, catchphrases, proverbs—to transmit the wit and wisdom of the
past and the present and to lend resonance to our everyday discourse. Perhaps the most
important are the political quotes, the sound bites, slogans, zingers and bloopers that can
win or lose elections and shape our arguments and opinions.” —Fred R. Shapiro[2]
1. Prepare a short summary of your experience in public speaking. Include one example and
one goal you would like to set for yourself for improvement. Share and compare with class-
mates.
2. Who is your favorite speaker? Write a brief introduction for them and include why you find
them particularly talented. Share and compare with classmates.
No matter what career you pursue or what level of success you achieve, on some occasions you
will certainly find it necessary to introduce yourself or another speaker, accept an award, serve as
master of ceremonies at a meeting, or make a comment to the media. Each task requires prepa-
ration and practice, and a solid understanding of the roles and responsibilities associated with
the many activities you may perform as a successful business communicator. We can learn from
experience, and the experience of others. For example, in the Inc. article, “20 Public Speaking Tips
from the Best TED Talks,” Jeff Haden offers us key lessons from others and their experiences in
public speaking (available at http://www.businessinsider.com/public-speaking-tips-from-best-ted-
talks-2014-6). In this chapter we explore many of these common activities with brief discussions
and activities to prepare you for the day when the responsibility falls to you.
15.2 Sound Bites and Quotables
1.
2. Choose a sound bite or quote from a written or verbal message.
3. Prepare a quote that is memorable.
Sometimes the words with the most impact are succinct, memorable statements. Sound bites, brief
Brief statements that zero
statements that zero in on the point of a larger or longer message, are often excised from interviews
in on the point of a larger and articles, and presented apart from the context in which they were originally written or spoken.
or longer message. Slogans are phrases that express the goals, aims or nature of a product, service, person, or company.
Quotes are memorable sayings extracted from written or verbal messages. Some move armies,
while others make armies laugh. All are memorable and quickly become part of our cultural liter-
Phrases that express the acy, expressing a common sentiment or perception, and reinforcing our image of the speaker,
goals, aims or nature of a business, product, or service.[3]
product, service, person,
or company.
Memorable sayings
Common Elements of Effective Sound Bites
extracted from written or
verbal messages.
Whether you are writing a document, preparing a presentation, or both, you will want to consider
how others will summarize your main point. If you can provide a clear sound bite or quote, it is
more likely to get picked up and repeated, reinforcing your message. By preparing your sound bites,
you help control the interpretation of your message.[4] Here are four characteristics of effective
sound bites:
1. Clear and concise
2. Use vivid, dynamic language
3. Easy to repeat
4. Memorable
Your goal when writing a sound bite or quote is to make sure your idea represents all four char-
acteristics. You won’t always be creating the message; in some cases you may be asked to summarize
someone else’s written or verbal message, such as an interview, with a quote or a sound bite. Look
for one or more sentences or phrases that capture these elements and test them out on your class-
mates or colleagues. Can the sound bite, slogan, or quote be delivered without stumbling? Is it easy
to read? Does it get the job done?
Learn how to speak in sound bites from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast public speaking
video.
Key Takeaway
Sound bites are brief statements that are often quoted.
1. Choose a product or service that you find appealing. Try to come up with several sound
bites, slogans, or quotes that meet all four criteria. You may look to company sales materials
or interviews as a source for this exercise, and if you pull a quote from an online interview,
please post the link when you complete your assignment. Discuss how the sound bite, slo-
gan, or quote meets all four criteria in your response.
2. Match these phrases with their sources.
Product, Business Sound Bite, Slogan, or Memorable Quote

or Person
A. Nike 1. Where’s the beef?
B. Barack Obama 2. Ask not what your country can do for you, but what you
can do for your country.
C. Homer Simpson 3. Huge. That’s huge, or huge.
D. Wendy’s 4. Just do it!
E. John F. Kennedy 5. It’s amazing how much you can get done when you’re not
trying to take credit for it.
F. Neil Armstrong 6. D’oh!
G. Paris Hilton 7. That’s one small step for a man; one giant leap for
mankind.
Product, Business Sound Bite, Slogan, or Memorable Quote

or Person
H. Franklin D. 8. A diamond is forever.
Roosevelt
I. De Beers 9. The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.
Consolidated
Answers: A-4, B-5, C-6, D-1, E-2, F-7, G-3, H-9, I-8
3. Indicate at least one sound bite or memorable quote and who said it. Please share your
results with classmates and compare your results.
15.3 Telephone/VoIP Communication
1.
2.
Talking on the phone or producing an audio recording lacks an interpersonal context with the
accompanying nonverbal messages. Unless you use vivid language, crisp, and clear descriptions,
your audience will be left to sort it out for themselves. They may create mental images that don’t
reflect your intention that lead to miscommunication. Conversations follow predictable patterns
and have main parts or stages we can clearly identify. While not every conversation is the same,
many will follow a variation of a standard pattern composed by David Taylor and Alyse Terhune:[5]
1. Opening
2. Feedforward
3. Business
4. Feedback
5. Closing
Effective communications over the phone require clarity of speech, knowing what you want to
convey, and a willingness to engage with someone using good listening skills and prompts. This
article provides some of the basics required to effectively communicate during a phone call.
Table 15.1[6] provides an example of how a conversation might go according to these five stages.
TABLE 15.1 A Five-Stage Telephone Conversation
Stage Subevents Example
Opening • Both parties identify them- • [phone rings]

selves • Ken: Hello, Ken Reilly.
• Greetings are reciprocated • Val: Hi, Ken. This is Val Mar-
tin from [company or
department]. How are you?
• Ken: Fine, and you?
• Val: Fine, I’m doing great.
Feedforward • Purpose and tone of conver- • Val: I hate to bother you, but
sation are established I wonder if you have five min-
• Permission is given to con- utes to give me some
tinue (or not) advice.
• Ken: Sure, Val. What’s hap-
pening?
• [or: I’m tied up right now.
Can I call you back in an
hour?]
Stage Subevents Example
Business • Substance of conversation • Val: Here’s the situation.

• Parties exchange roles [explains] I know you are
good at resolving these
kinds of issues, so I was
wondering what you think I
should do.
• Ken: Wow, I can understand
how this has you concerned.
Considering what you’ve told
me, here’s what I think I
would do. [explains]
Feedback • Signal that business is con- • Val: Hmm, that makes

cluded sense. I’ll certainly keep your
ideas in mind. Thank you so
much, Ken!
• Ken: Hey, you’re welcome.
Let me know how it turns
out.
Closing • Both parties say goodbye • Val: Yes, I will. Have a good
weekend, Ken.
• Ken: You too, Val. Bye.
• Val: Bye.
• [they hang up]
Cell phones are a part of many, if not most, people’s lives in the industrialized world and,
increasingly, in developing nations as well. Computer users can also utilize voice interaction and
exchange through voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) programs like Skype. With the availability of
VoIP, both audio and visual images are available to the conversation participants. But in our discus-
sion, we’ll focus primarily on voice exchanges.
Since you lack the nonverbal context, you need to make sure that your voice
FIGURE 15.1
Telephone conversations in business require accurately communicates your message. Your choice of words and how you say
skill and preparation. them, including spacing or pausing, pace, rhythm, articulation, and pronuncia-
tion are relevant factors in effective delivery. Here are five main points to
consider:
1. Speak slowly and articulate your words clearly.
2. Use vivid terms to create interest and communicate descriptions.
3. Be specific.
4. Show consideration for others by keeping your phone conversations private.
5. Silence cell phones, pagers, and other devices when you are in a meeting or shar-
ing a meal with colleagues.
© 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation You don’t have to slow down your normal pattern of speech by a large degree,
but each word needs time and space to be understood or the listener may hear
words that run together, losing meaning and creating opportunities for misunderstanding. Don’t
assume that they will catch your specific information the first time and repeat any as necessary,
such as an address or a phone number.
Feedback, the response from the receiver to the sender, is also an essential element of phone
conversations. Taking turns in the conversation can sometimes be awkward, especially if there is
The verbal and/or
nonverbal response to a an echo or background noise on the line. With time and practice, each “speaker’s own natural, com-
message. fortable, expressive repertoire will surface.”[7]
Add personality to a public speech by emphasizing vocal inflections. Avoid speaking in a

monotone voice with tips from a communications specialist in this free public speaking video.
Key Takeaway
A telephone conversation typically includes five stages: opening, feedforward, business, feed-
back, and closing. Because telephone conversations lack nonverbal cues, they require addi-
tional attention to feedback.
1. Write an outline of a script for a telephone conversation that introduces a new product or
service to an existing client. Partner with a classmate to role-play the conversation and note
points that could use improvement. Compare your results with classmates.
2. Think of a phone conversation you had recently. Write a brief summary and include at least
one example of what worked or what did not. Share and compare with classmates.
3. Take notes during a telephone conversation and write a brief description, labeling the parts
of the conversation and providing examples. Share and compare with classmates.
15.4 Meetings
1.
2. Describe the main parts of an agenda.
3.
A meeting is a group communication in action around a defined agenda, at a

FIGURE 15.2 set time, for an established duration. Meetings can be effective, ineffective, or a
Meetings are group communications in action
complete waste of time. If time is money and effectiveness and efficiency are
around a defined agenda, at a set time, for an
established duration. your goals, then if you arrange a meeting, lead a meeting, or participate in one,
you want it to be worth your time.[8]
Meetings can occur face-to-face, but increasingly business and industry are
turning to teleconferencing and videoconferencing options as the technology
improves, the cost to participate is reduced, and the cost of travel including time
is considered. Regardless how you come together as a team, group, or committee,
you will need to define your purpose in advance with an agenda.[9] The main parts
of an agenda for a standard meeting are listed in Table 15.2.
TABLE 15.2 Meeting Agenda Elements
Term Definition
Group communication in Title Header Title, time, date, location, phone number, e-mail
action around a defined contact, and any other information necessary to
agenda, at a set time, for
get all participants together.
an established duration.
Participants Expected participants
Subject Line Purpose statement
Call to Order Who will call the meeting to order?
Introductions If everyone is new, this is optional. If even one
person is new, everyone should briefly introduce
themselves with their name and respective roles.
Roll Call This may quietly take place while introductions
are made.
Reading of the minutes Notes from the last meeting are read (if applica-
ble) with an opportunity to correct. These are
often sent out before the meeting so participants
have the opportunity to review them and note any
needed corrections.
Old Business List any unresolved issues from last time or
issues that were “tabled,” or left until this meet-
ing.
New Business This is a list of items for discussion and action.
Reports This is optional and applies if there are subcom-
mittees or groups working on specific, individual
action items that require reports to the group or
committee.
Good of the Order This is the time for people to offer any news that
relates to the topic of the meeting that was other-
wise not shared or discussed.
Adjournment Note time, date, place meeting adjourned and
indicate when the next meeting is scheduled.
In this video, especially for meeting Chairs, Susan Leahy M.A. teaches how to make powerful
interventions to handle difficult meeting situations.
Strategies for Effective Meetings

You want an efficient and effective meeting, but recognize that group communication by definition
can be chaotic and unpredictable. To stay on track, consider the following strategies:
• Send out the last meeting’s minutes one week before the next meeting.
• Send out the agenda for the current meeting at least one week in advance.
• Send out reminders for the meeting the day before and the day of the meeting.
• Schedule the meeting in Outlook or a similar program so everyone receives a reminder.
• Start and end your meetings on time.
• Make sure the participants know their role and requirements prior to the meeting.
• Make sure all participants know one another before discussion starts.
• Formal communication styles and reference to the agenda can help reinforce the time frame
and tasks.
• Follow Robert’s Rules of Order when applicable, or at least be familiar with them.
• Make sure notes taken at the meeting are legible and can be converted to minutes for distrib-
ution later.
• Keep the discussion on track, and if you are the chair, or leader of a meeting, don’t hesitate to
restate a point to interject and redirect the attention back to the next agenda point.
• If you are the chair, draw a clear distinction between on-topic discussions and those that are
more personal, individual, or off topic.
• Communicate your respect and appreciation for everyone’s time and effort.
• Clearly communicate the time, date, and location or means of contact for the next meeting.
Key Takeaway
Exercise
1. Create a sample agenda for a business meeting to discuss the quarterly sales report and
results from the latest marketing campaign. Decide what information is needed, and what
position might normally be expected to produce that information. Note in your agenda all the
elements listed above, even if some elements (such as “good of the order”) only serve as a
placeholder for the discussion that will take place.
2. Write a brief description of a meeting you recently attended and indicate one way you per-
ceived it as being effective. Compare with classmates.
3. Write a brief description of a meeting you recently attended and indicate one way you per-
ceived it as being ineffective. Compare with classmates.
15.5 Celebrations: Toasts and Roasts
1. Discuss the role, function, and importance of a toast.

2.
Toasts are formal expressions of goodwill, appreciation, or calls for group attention to an issue or
person in a public setting, often followed by synchronous consumption of beverages. Examples
often include a toast at a wedding congratulating the couple, toasts at a bar after a tournament win Formal expressions of
goodwill, appreciation, or
to congratulate the team or an individual player, or a general toast to health for everyone on a holi- calls for group attention to
day or other special occasion. an issue or person in a
public setting, often
Toasts serve to unify the group, acknowledge a person or event, mark a special occasion, or followed by synchronous
simply to encourage the consumption of alcohol. These can range from serious to silly but are nor- consumption of
mally words that point out something that is commonly known. For example, a toast to the most beverages.
valuable player in a game may serve to publicly acknowledge him or her for achievements that are
already known by the community. The verbal recognition, followed by ritualistic drinking, serves as
a public acknowledgement. Belonging is a basic human need that requires reinforcement, and a
toast can be characterized as a reinforcement ritual, acknowledging respect for the individual or
team, and also reinforcing group affiliation, common symbols and terms, beliefs and values, goals
and aspirations.[10]
Toasts, while common in many societies, are relatively rare in daily life. They are normally asso-
ciated with informal and formal gatherings of the group, team, or community. Since you may only
perform a couple of toasts in your lifetime, you no doubt want to get them right the first time. We
will address toasts and one variation in particular, the roast.
Learn how to make a toast from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast public speaking video.
Proposing a Toast
One proposes a toast, rather than “making” a toast or simply “toasting,” because for it to truly be a
toast, everyone in the group, team, or community must participate. If you propose a toast to some-
one and no one responds, even if you raise your glass to them as a nonverbal sign or respect and
take a sip, it doesn’t count as a toast. Only the community can publicly acknowledge someone with
a toast, but it takes an individual to make the proposition.
Sometimes the person who is supposed to make that proposition is already known by function
or role. The best man and maid of honor at a wedding, the host of a party, and the highest-ranking
manager at a business meal are common roles that are associated with ritualistic toasts.
Standing with proper posture to address the group is normally associated with acts of public
speaking, including toasts. If you are understood to be a person who will be proposing a toast, you
A conventional social may not need to say anything to get the group’s attention. As you rise and raise your glass, the room
custom or rule for polite
behavior. will grow quiet in anticipation of your words. If the group does not expect you to propose a toast,
you may need to say, “May I propose a toast?” in a voice above the level of the group. Nonverbal dis-
plays also work to capture attention,[11] such as standing on a chair. While that may be nonstandard,
your context will give you clues about how best to focus attention. Striking a glass with spoon to
produce a ring, while common, is sometimes considered less than educated and a poor reflection of
etiquette. The group norms determine what is expected and accepted, and it may be a custom that
is considered normal. Etiquette is a conventional social custom or rule for behavior, but social cus-
toms and rules for behavior vary across communities and cultures.
You will raise your glass, raise your voice, and make a brief statement complimenting the per-
son being honored. Your toast should be brief. If you write it out in advance, use thirty words as
your upper limit. Common mistakes are for toast-givers to ramble on too long and to talk about
themselves instead of the honoree. The toast is not as much about the words you use, though they
carry weight and importance, but it’s about the toast ritual as a group expression of acknowledge-
ment and respect. People then raise their glasses to indicate agreement, often repeating “hear, hear!”
or a word or phrase from the toast, such as “to success!” They then sip from their cup, possibly
touching glasses first.
One common toast that always serves to unify the group is the toast to health. To propose a
toast to health is common, well understood, and serves both the role and function of a toast. “Live
long and prosper” is a common variation of “to your health” in English. Table 15.3 lists toasts to
health in other languages.
TABLE 15.3 Toasts to Health
Language Toast
Chinese Wen lie
French A votre santé

Gaelic Sláinte
German Zum Wohl
Greek Stin ygia sou
Hebrew L’chiam
Italian Alla salute
Japanese Kanpai
Polish Na zdrowie
Portuguese Saúde
Spanish Salud
Sometimes a best man at a wedding will be expected to tell a short story as part of their toast.
A common story is how the couple met from the best man’s perspective. While this may be your
choice, remember to keep it quite brief, positive, and focused on the honorees, not on yourself.
Important occasions require you to play your part like everyone else, and your role is to focus atten-
tion on the individual, team, couple, or group as you honor them.
Alcohol is not a requirement for a toast, nor is draining one’s glass. The beverage and the
quantity to be swallowed are a reflection of group norms and customs. Often alternatives, such as
nonalcoholic sparkling cider, are served. If you are expected to perform a toast, one that requires
tact, grace, and a clear presence of mind, you should refrain from drinking alcohol until after you’ve
completed your obligation. Your role has responsibilities, and you have a duty to perform.
Roasts
Roasts are public proclamations that ridicule or criticize someone to honor them. That may sound
awkward at first, but consider the targets most commonly associated with roasts: those in positions
Public proclamations that
of power or prestige. Knocking someone off their pedestal is a special delight for the group or com-
honor someone by
munity, but it requires special care and attention to social dynamics, sensitivities, rank, and roles. ridiculing or criticizing
A common context for a round of roasts, or a series or public statements intended to poke fun them.
at someone, is at a retirement party. Individuals in the room tell brief stories that may have some
basis in truth, but which through word choice and clear communication of exaggeration, allow
everyone to look back upon the episode with light humor and laughter. Time has passed and the
absurd is worthy of group laughter.
A roast is not an opportunity to say something mean. If you don’t think the target will laugh it
off, don’t say it. Roasts can hurt feelings, and that misses the point. A roast honors someone in a
position of power or influence by allowing them to demonstrate they can take a joke at their own
expense gracefully. It is not intended to do harm to the individual or create divisions in the commu-
nity. Ritual public speaking is supposed to unify groups, teams, and communities, and not create
division or rival internal groups.
The birthday roast is a speech given that jibes or teases the subject in a manner that still shows
respect. Learn to give a great birthday speech from an award-winning public speaker in this free
video.
Key Takeaway
Toasts and roasts honor a member of the community.
1. You are called upon to propose a toast to your team leader after your group has just com-
pleted a large contract. Work on this project wasn’t always easy, but now is the time for
celebration and recognition. Write a sample toast in no more than thirty words. Compare
your results with your classmates.
2. What should someone propose a toast to? How should they propose it? Write your response
and include an example. Compare with classmates.
3. If you were the subject of a roast, what would you feel comfortable having people say, do, or
show to make fun of you in public? Write your response and include an example. Compare
with classmates.
15.6 Media Interviews
1. Discuss the purpose of the media interview.

2. Understand ways to prepare for the media interview.
At some point in your business career it’s likely that you will be interviewed by a representative of
the media. It may be a camera and microphone in your face as you leave a building, or a scheduled
interview where you have an opportunity to prepare. A press interview is both a challenge and an
opportunity. Like a speech, it may make you nervous, but you have the advantage of being the cen-
ter of attention and having the opportunity to have your say. This chapter addresses the basics for
preparing and participating in a press interview.
A media interview is a discussion involving questions and answers for the purpose of broad-
A discussion involving cast. It is distinct from an informational interview,[12] where you might be asked questions to learn
questions and answers for background on a story, but you will still need to observe the three hallmark rules of interviews:
the purpose of broadcast
1. Anything you say can and often will be used against you.
or publication.
2. Never say anything you would not feel comfortable hearing quoted out of context on the
evening news.
3. Be prepared for the unexpected as well as the expected.
At first, those rules may sound extreme, but let’s examine them in the context of today’s media
realities. In a press interview setting you will be recorded in some fashion, whether audio, video,
or handwritten notes on a reporter’s notepad. With all the probability for errors and misinterpreta-
tion, you want your words and gestures to project the best possible image to the press. There was a
time when news programs didn’t have to justify themselves with advertising dollars, but today all
news is news entertainment and has to pay its own way. That means your interview will be used to
attract viewers. You also have to consider the possibility that the person interviewing you is not a
trained professional journalist, but rather an aspiring actor or writer who happened to land a job
with the media. From their perspective, your quote in an audio, video, or print content package is
dinner. It may also serve the public good, and inform, or highlight an important cause, but news
has a bottom line just like business.
Because of these factors, you need to be proactive in seeing the press interview as part of the
overall spectacle that is media, devoted to revenue. The six-second quote that is taken from the
interview may not represent the tone, range, or even substance of your comments, but it will have
been chosen to grab attention. It will also go viral if it catches on. Your interviewer may ask you a
question that is off-the-wall, inappropriate, outside the scope of the interview, or unusual just to
catch you off guard and get that attention-worthy quote. Independent journalism with a nonprofit,
inform-the-public orientation still exists in some forms, but even those media outlets have to sup-
port themselves with an audience. So consider your role in the interview: to provide information
and represent your business or organization with honor and respect. In sports, business, and press
interviews, a good defense is required.
That said, a press interview is a positive opportunity, whether it is planned in advance or
catches you off guard in public. You are the focus of the interview, and many people believe that if
you are on television, for example, that you have something to say, that you have special insight, or
that you are different from the viewing audience. That can give you an edge of credibility that can
serve your business or company as you share your knowledge and experience.
When asked to give an interview, before you agree, learn as much as you can about the topic,
the timing, the format, and the background. Table 15.4 summarizes how to approach these factors.
TABLE 15.4 Interview Preparation Factors

Topic What will be the range or scope of the interview?
How can you prepare yourself so you are better
able to address specific questions? Ask for the
list of questions in advance, and anticipate that
you will be asked questions that are not listed.
Prepare for the unexpected and you won’t be
caught off guard.
Time What’s the time frame or limit? A 15-minute inter-
view may not require as much depth as one that
lasts an hour or more.
Format How will you be interviewed? Will it be through
audio or video, over the Internet, over the tele-
phone, or in person?
Background What’s the backstory on the interview? Is there a
specific issue or incident? Is there a known
agenda? Why is the interview now and not earlier
or not at all? Why is it important?
These four areas will serve you well as you begin to define the range and content of the inter-
view for yourself. You will also need to pay attention to the setting and scene, how you want to
present yourself (dress or suit?), and how well you answer anticipated questions. Mock interviews
with colleagues can help, and a comprehensive knowledge of your talking points is essential.
You want to be well rested, if at all possible, on the day of the interview. With a clear mind
you will be agile and responsive, and you will be able to present yourself well. You’ll be calm in
the knowledge of your preparation, and not be thrown if an unexpected question comes your way.
You’ll be ready on time, understanding that most journalists have to package the story as quickly
as possible, demonstrating respect for the interviewer. You’ll also know that it is not just about
what you say but how you say it. Audiences respond to emotional cues, and you want to project an
image of credibility and integrity. You’ll anticipate the question-and-answer pattern and limit your
responses to ones that are clear and concise. You’ll have visual aids ready if needed to make a point.
Naturally, however, you may not have the luxury of time to prepare. Press interviews are often
requested at the last minute, and you may not be the first person this reporter asked for an inter-
view that day. They have a story in mind, and they are looking for you to be part of that story. If
the opportunity to be interviewed arises on the spur of the moment, you will need to make a quick
judgment on whether to agree or decline. Your decision will rest on a multitude of factors, such as
how much you know about the topic, whether someone else in your organization is better qualified
to answer, whether your employer would appreciate your agreeing to speak to the media, and so
on. If something newsworthy occurs at your workplace, start thinking about how you would make
this decision before you are put on the spot. Finally, if the topic of the media inquiry is not time
urgent, remember that you can always ask to postpone the interview to allow time to prepare.
Learn how to prepare for a media interview from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast public
speaking video.
Key Takeaway
A press interview is both a challenge and an opportunity.
1. How does the press interview serve the business or organization? List two ways and provide
examples. Discuss your ideas with classmates.
2. Consider the following scenario. Your large company is opening a new office in a new town
and you have been designated to be part of the team that will be on the front lines. You want to
establish goodwill, but also recognize that, being an outsider, you and your company may not
be welcomed with open arms by the local business community. Your company produces a
product and provides a service (feel free to choose; a coffee shop for example) that is currently
offered in the town, but your organization perceives room for market growth as well as market
share. Describe how you would handle relations with the local media. Compare your ideas with
those of a classmate.
3.
play the role of interviewee and the other the interviewer. Record your exchange and post as a
file attachment in your class (if applicable), or post to YouTube or a similar Web hosting site and
post the link. Write a report of your experience in no less than two hundred words.
4. Observe a press interview. How do they take turns? Does the interviewee ever look nervous?
What could he or she have done to improve their performance? Write a brief suggestion and
provide the link to the interview.
5. Find a sample press interview on a video website such as YouTube and evaluate it based on
the guidelines in this chapter. Was it effective? Why or why not? Present your findings to the
class.
6. of
frustration or anger, or even an interview cut short. What happened? Provide a brief summary and
provide the link to the interview.
15.7 Introducing a Speaker
1. Understand how to introduce a speaker in a courteous and professional manner.
A speaker introduction involves establishing the person’s credibility, motivating audience interest,
and saying what the speaker could not say. Not many speakers will jump to the stage and share
their list of accomplishments, as this would appear arrogant and could quickly turn off an audi- credibility, motivates
ence. At the same time, if you are able to share that they have turned two companies around and audience interest, and
would like to share lessons learned, your audience may see the value in giving their attention. Being says what the speaker
could not say.
designated to introduce a speaker is an honor and an important duty that requires planning and
preparation.
Scot Ober states, “Remarks should be directed at welcoming the speaker and establishing his
or her qualifications to speak on the topic.”[13] You may start with a quote from their work, or a quote
from a publication or colleague describing them. You may decide to use humor. All these options
are available, but whatever you choose, let respect and dignity be your overriding goal. The function
and role of the introduction is to focus the spotlight squarely on the speaker. You should not distract
the audience from that task with your dress, gestures, antics, or by talking about yourself.
How to Make a Great Introduction Speech | Public Speaking
Learn how to make a great introduction speech from media coach TJ Walker in this Howcast
public speaking video.
The person you are introducing may already be well known to the audience, but you can
always find some new information to share. You may need to consider the unusual, or the little
known, when introducing someone who is famous. You may also consider mentioning their most
recent work or activity as it relates to the topic of the presentation. Avoid the “laundry list”
approach to a summary of their education and experience, as this may bore the audience. Instead,
focus on something specific and relevant. Your range of options is almost limitless, but your time
frame and overall function are not. You need to be brief, and you need to establish the speaker’s
credibility while motivating interest.
According to Bonnie Devet, “Performing the role of introducer also reinforces the rhetorical
principles seminal to any business writing course: the need for ethos (credibility of both speakers
and introducers), for audience-based discourse, and for accuracy.”[14] Think of an introduction as a
speech in miniature. Your purpose is to inform, your time frame is (typically) one to three minutes,
and your specific purpose is to inform the audience about the speaker’s qualifications, credibility,
and enthusiasm for the topic he or she will cover.
Key Takeaway
1. Introduce a classmate who is about to present a report, document, or speech to the class.
You can draw information from the Web (LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter), the person’s résumé,
or even a personal interview. You will need to prepare your introduction in advance and may
want to consider incorporating a quote from the document they will discuss. Keep your
remarks to thirty seconds and your written introduction to no more than a hundred words.
2. Watch an introduction of a speaker—televised award ceremonies offer plenty of exam-
ples—and note one example that you consider effective, and one that you consider ineffec-
tive. Explain why you rated them this way. Report your response and the Web links.
3. List five facts, points, or things about yourself and your career that you would want an audi-
ence to know. Post your results and compare with classmates.
15.8 Presenting or Accepting an

Award
1. Discuss the purpose of an award.

2.
3. Describe the process of accepting an award.
There is nothing more gratifying than recognition from your peers and colleagues for a job well
done. We all strive for acceptance, and recognition is a reflection of belonging, a basic human
need.[15] In this chapter we will discuss how to present or accept an award tactfully, graciously, and
professionally.
First, make sure that you have all the information correct before you get up to speak: the hon-
oree’s correct name and how it is pronounced, the correct title of the award, and the details about
the honoree’s accomplishments that you are about to share. The spotlight will be on you, and your
accurate delivery will be crucial to the happiness of the occasion.
When presenting an award, the key is to focus attention on the honor and the person receiving
it—not on yourself. You may have been part of the committee that chose the winner, or involved in
some other way, but your role should never upstage that of the person being honored.
You can focus the attention on the recipient in two ways: surprise or direct acknowledgement.
In the surprise approach, you mention characteristics of the person receiving the award without
initially mentioning their name—allowing the audience to start guessing who it might be. You may
mention a list of accomplishments, or perhaps a positive story. With the surprise approach, you
share the information that is sure to reveal the recipient’s identity right before you present the
award.
You may prefer, however, a direct acknowledgement of the honoree’s performance or service
and simply announce his or her name. The direct acknowledgement approach is typically followed
by the reasons for choosing this person to receive the award, or include his or her past accomplish-
ments. This direct strategy may be preferred if the audience is not familiar with the recipient.
Table 15.5 summarizes the process of presenting an award.
TABLE 15.5 Presenting an Award
Preparation Verify the recipient’s name, the correct title of the

award, and details about the recipient.
Focus Keep the focus on the honoree, not on yourself
or the awards committee.
Surprise Approach Build suspense by listing the winner’s accom-
plishments from general to more and more spe-
cific; end by disclosing a unique accomplishment
that identifies the winner, and finally announcing
his or her name.
Direct Approach Announce the award winner and follow with a list
of his or her accomplishments.
Exit Step aside and let the honoree have the spotlight.
If you are the award recipient, be aware that the acceptance of an award often provides a
moment of influence on the audience that can serve to advance your position or cause. Use of the
limelight is an important skill, and much like any speech or presentation, it requires planning and
preparation. You don’t want to be caught speechless, and you want to project a professional pres-
ence that corresponds to the award or recognition.
If you know you are being considered for an award, first consider what the award recognizes
within your professional community. An award is a symbol of approval, recognition, or distinction
A symbol of approval,
recognition, or distinction
that honors the recipient in public. As the recipient, it is your role to convey recognition of that
that honors the recipient in honor with your gracious acceptance.
public.
Perhaps you have seen an awards ceremony on television, where a producer, composer, actor,
or musician has received public recognition. Sometimes the acceptance unifies the community and
serves as an inspiration to others. Other times the recipient stumbles, talks as fast as they can to
list all the people who helped them reach their goal (often forgetting several, which can hurt feel-
ings), or they use the spotlight to address an unrelated issue, like a political protest. They may
mumble, and their nervousness may be so obvious that it impacts their credibility. Accepting an
award is an honor, an opportunity, and a challenge.
The first step in accepting an award is to say thank you. You can connect with the audience
with your heartfelt emotional displays and enthusiasm. Raised arms, clasped hands, and a bow are
universal symbols of respect and gratitude. Note that rambunctious displays of emotion such as
jumping up and down or large, sweeping gestures are better left for the athletic fields. An award
ceremony is a formal event, and your professionalism will be on display for all to see.
Next, you should consider giving credit where credit is due, noting its relevance to your field or
community. If you name one person, you have to be sure to not leave anyone out, or you run the
risk of hurting feelings and perhaps even making professional enemies. If you confine your credit
list to a couple of key people, it is wise to extend the credit beyond the individual mentions by say-
ing something like, “There are so many people who made this possible. Thank you all!” You should
link your response to the award organization and your field, industry, or business. Don’t apologize
or use terms that can be interpreted as negative. The acceptance of an award is a joyous, uplifting
affair, and your role is to maintain and perpetuate that perception.
You may also consider linking your award to a motivational anecdote. A brief, personal story
about how a teacher or neighbor in your community motivated you to do better than you thought
you could and how you hope this can serve to motivate up-and-coming members to strive for their
very best, can often stimulate an audience. Don’t exaggerate or stretch the story. The simple facts
speak for themselves and the award serves as a powerful visual aid.
Say “thank you again” as you leave the stage, facilitating the transition to the next part of the
ceremony while acknowledging the honor. You may need to take note where previous recipients
have exited the stage to proceed without error, or simply return to your seat. Your brief comments
combined with a graceful entrance and exit will communicate professionalism. Table 15.6 summa-
rizes the steps we have outlined.
TABLE 15.6 Accepting an Award
Acceptance Say “thank you.”

Relevance Indicate where credit is due, what the award
means to you, and how it relates to the awarding
organization or your community.
Acknowledgment Show your honor with dignity and respect as you
say “thank you” again and exit the stage.
How to Give a Great Acceptance Speech | Public Speaking Training
Key Takeaway
Awards are public recognitions of success, and tact and grace are required both in presenting
and receiving them.
1. Who needs to be prepared to present an award in a business and why? Discuss your ideas
with the class.
2. This can be a fun two-minute oral communication exercise. In the exercise, you will alternate
between the role of the award announcer and the recipient. You will be paired up into teams
where you will need to create a business or industry award, prepare a brief script and notes
on acceptance, and then demonstrate your results for your class. The introduction of the
speaker should last no more than thirty seconds and the acceptance should also be com-
pleted in less than a minute. If you are at a distance from your class, you may be assigned a
particular role that fits your situation. Record your performance and post it in class.
3.
Indicate why and share the link. Compare with your classmates.
4. Find one example of an award acceptance speech that you perceive as particularly ineffec-
tive. Indicate why and share the link. Compare with classmates.
15.9 Serving as Master of Ceremonies
1. Discuss the role of master of ceremonies.

2.
A master of ceremonies is the conductor of ritual gatherings. The master of ceremonies (or MC for
ceremonies short, often written as “emcee”) has the poise and stage presence to start, conduct, and conclude a
Person designated to
formal ceremony for a group or community. Typically emcees will be full members of the commu-
conduct a ritual gathering. nity, recognized for their credibility, integrity, service, and sense of humor. The emcee sets the
intellectual and emotional tone for the event.
At a conference or other business function, the master of ceremonies is often the first person to
take the stage and the last one to leave it. They come completely prepared to make sure the agenda
is followed, nothing is forgotten, all transitions go smoothly, and the event starts and ends on time.
While many business conferences are not humorous affairs, a sense of humor can go a long way in
helping defuse tension when unavoidable delays, problems, or errors occur. The emcee is required
to help an unprepared speaker accept an award, move to their conclusion, and exit the stage. While
a shepherd’s crook might seem like an attractive tool for that role, often eye contact and a nonver-
bal gesture, such as a couple of steps toward the podium, will do the trick. If not, a gentle hand on
a shoulder might be required, or even an interjected word about the schedule. The speaker knows
and the audience expects the master of ceremonies to keep the ceremony on track with honor and
respect.
If you are assigned to act as emcee for an event, you should have an agenda that includes all
the components of the event, from start to finish, with estimations of time, roles, functions, and
notes concerning responsibility. If this is not provided for you, you will need to compile it your-
self. In either case, make sure the agenda is available far enough in advance that you can study it,
become familiar with the key components and transitions, and anticipate any challenges that are
likely to arise. If possible, you should also communicate with the people who will be joining you on
stage: featured speakers, award presenters, and the like. You need to confirm their availability and
understanding of their roles, with special attention to reinforcing time commitments.
Tips and Advice on becoming a Better MC and Growing your MC Business - Episode 1
Introductions
One trick of the trade is to incorporate time as transitions. If you have a one-hour ceremony
involving several awards and one featured speaker, indicate on the agenda that the speaker has
seven minutes for their presentation. Communicate this to them before the event so they can pre-
pare their remarks around this time frame. Then budget three minutes as a transition to the next
event. It won’t take you three minutes to make the transition, but by building this time window
into the schedule you allow for a degree of overlap that may be required to keep the event on track
in case the speaker speaks for nine minutes.
It is especially important to observe the schedule if you are emceeing a multipart event with
breakout sessions and/or segments on different topics of interest to different audiences. Imagine
an all-day conference for which some attendees registered only for the afternoon session and some
only for the morning. Now imagine that the morning speaker was delayed due to a travel mishap.
As emcee, would you decide to postpone the morning topic and have the afternoon speaker give
his presentation in the morning? If so, you would need to be prepared to give refunds to afternoon
attendees who missed the speaker they signed up to hear—and even if their registration fees were
refunded, they might still be upset about having spent time and money traveling to the event. The
solution? Have a “Plan B,” such as a substitute speaker who is qualified to present on the topic of
the “top billed” speaker.
A professional master of ceremonies is expected to keep the event running on time while “mak-
ing it look easy.” The audience will appreciate the seamless progression as the event proceeds.
Key Takeaway
Serving as the master of ceremonies is an honor that involves a great deal of responsibility and
preparation.
1. Create a sample awards ceremony that incorporates the acceptance speech assignment as
well as the introducing a speaker assignment. This assignment then combines three func-
tions into one, where each person plays their role. One person will need to serve as master
of ceremonies. If the class is large enough, you may be able to subdivide into groups and
hold separate ceremonies in more than one classroom. Planning and preparing a ceremony
takes time and attention to detail. It also never goes as planned. Remain calm and relaxed
as you perform your awards ceremony.
2.
15.10 Viral Messages
1.
2.
What was once called “word of mouth” advertising has gone viral with the introduction of social
marketing via the Internet. What was once called a “telephone chain,” where one person called
another in order to pass along news or a request in a linear model, has now gone global. One tweet
from Twitter gets passed along and the message is transmitted exponentially. The post to the Face-
book page is seen before the nightly news on television. Text messages are often real time. Radio
once beat print media to the news, and then television trumped both. Now person-to-person, com-
puter-mediated communication trumps them all at the speed of light—if the message is attractive,
relevant, dramatic, sudden, or novel. If no one bothers to pass along the message, or the tweet isn’t
very interesting, it will get lost in the noise. What, then, makes a communication message viral?
Let’s look at the June 2009 death of Michael Jackson for an example of a viral message and see
what we can learn. According to Jocelyn Noveck, news of his death spread via Twitter, text mes-
sages, and Facebook before the traditional media could get the message out. People knew about the
911 call from Jackson’s home before it hit the mainstream media. By the time the story broke, it was
already old.[16]
People may not have had all the facts, but the news was out. Communities, represented by fam-
ilies, groups of friends, employees at organizations, had been mobilized to spread the news. They
were motivated to share the news, but why?
Effective Viral Messages

Viral messages are words, sounds, or images that compel the audience to pass them along. They
prompt people to act, and mobilize communities. Community mobilization has been studied in
Words, sounds, or images
many ways and forms.[17] We mobilize communities to leave areas of disaster, or to get out and walk
that compel the audience
more as part of an exercise program. If we want people to consider and act on a communication to pass them along.
message, we first have to gain the audience’s attention. In our example, communities were mobi-
lized to share word of Jacksons’ passing. Attention statements require sparks and triggers. A spark
topic “has an appeal to emotion, a broad base of impact and subsequent concern, and results in
motivating a consensus about issues, planning, and action.”[18]
In the example of Michael Jackson, the consensus may be that he died under suspicious cir-
cumstances, but in other examples, it could be that the product or service being discussed is the
next cool thing. The message in social marketing and viral messages does not exist apart from indi-
viduals or communities. They give it life and attention, or ignore it.
If you want to design a message to go viral, you have to consider three factors:
1. Does it have an emotional appeal that people will feel compelled to share?
2. Does it have a trigger (does it challenge, provide novelty, or incorporate humor to motivate
interest)?
3. Is it relevant to the audience?
An appeal to emotion is a word, sound, or image that arouses an emotional response in the
audience. Radio stations fill the airwaves with the sounds of the 1980s to provoke an emotional
response and gain a specific demographic within the listening audience. The day after the A word, sound, or image
announcement of Michael Jackson’s death broke, you could hear his music everywhere. Many peo-
ple felt compelled to share the news because of an emotional association to his music, the music’s
association to a time in their lives, and the fact that it was a sudden, unanticipated, and perhaps
suspicious death.
A trigger is a word, sound, or image that causes an activity, precipitates an event or interaction,
or provokes a reaction between two or more people. In the case of Michael Jackson, the triggers
A word, sound, or image
included all three factors and provoked an observable response that other forms of media will not
that causes an activity,
soon forget. His death at a young age challenged the status quo. In the same way, videos on precipitates an event or
YouTube have earned instant fame (wanted or unwanted) for a few with hilarious antics, displays interaction, or provokes a
of emotion, or surprising news. reaction between two or
more people.
The final ingredient to a viral message is relevance. It must be immediately accessible to the
audience, salient, and important. If you want someone to stop smoking, graphs and charts may not
motivate them to action. Show them someone like them with postsurgery scars across their throat
and it will get attention. Attention is the first step toward precontemplation in a change model
that[19] may lead to action.
| lynda.com
This tutorial offers advice for those who want to spread an idea: stop selling and start
storytelling. Explore how storytelling can help you market a product or idea.
Key Takeaway
1. Design a viral message about a hypothetical product or service you would like to promote.
Incorporate the elements listed above in no more than a hundred words. Post your viral mes-
sage in class and compare with classmates.
2. Identify a company that is relevant to your major or interests and locate an example of their
marketing material about a specific product or service. Write a viral message as if you were
an employee presenting to a potential client. Share and compare with classmates.
3. sion
on why you passed it along.
4. What motivates you to pay attention? Make a list of five ideas, images, or words that attract
your attention. Post and compare with classmates.

Visit this site for an “elevator speech” outline. http://sfp.ucdavis.edu/files/163926.pdf
Entertonement provides videos of “Sound Clips sorted by Popularity.” http://www.hark.com/

clips
“Good quotes/sound bites are the salsa on the nacho chip of our narrative.” http://
knightpoliticalreporting.syr.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/Choosing-Good-Quotes-Soundbites.
pdf
“Getting Maximum Value From The Six Touch Points Of Communications” by Nancy Friedman.
http://networkingtodayarchives.blogspot.com/2004/06/getting-maximum-value-from-six-touch.
html
Visit this University of Chicago site for information on succeeding in an employment inter-
view. https://caps.uchicago.edu/resourcecenter/handouts/interviews.pdf
LEAD: Leadership for environment and sustainability. http://www.lead.org
The Official Robert’s Rules of Order Web Site: Robert’s Rules Association is an unincorporated
membership association representing Robert’s Rules of Order, the guide to parliamentary proce-
dure. http://www.robertsrules.com
A ten-step article from eHow on how to propose a toast. http://www.ehow.com/how_1383_
propose-toast.html
Read an e-zine article by the Advanced Public Speaking Institute. “Being roasted is an honor,
but you must be careful to honor people while you are roasting them during a public speaking
engagement.” http://ezinearticles.com/?Public-Speaking:-Roast-Humor-and-Insults&id=100203
“Preparing For Your Media Interview” by Judy Jernudd. http://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_
guide/1578/business_and_finance/preparing_for_your_media_interview.html
“How to prepare yourself for a media interview: Fears of being misquoted or having their
research oversimplified scares scientists away from media interviews,” an article from the Ameri-
can Psychological Association. http://www.apa.org/monitor/mar98/prep.html
“7 Tips on How to Prepare For Mainstream News and Feature Media Interviews” by Amelia
Brazell from EzineArticles.com. http://ezinearticles.com/?News-Media-Interviews---7- Tips-on-
How-to-Prepare-For-Mainstream-News-and-Feature-Media-Interviews&id=1178440
Read the Code of Ethics of the Society of Professional Journalists. http://www.spj.org/
ethicscode.asp
“How to introduce a speaker” by Marijane Suttor from Helium. http://www.helium.com/items/
670256-how-to-introduce-a-speaker
“How to Give an Acceptance Speech” by Patricia Fripp from The Sideroad. http://www.sideroad.
com/Public_Speaking/acceptance_speech.html
Visit this site for a pamphlet on how to serve as a master of ceremonies. http://www.usda.org/
trifold/IS04503.pdf
“Why Pass on Viral Messages? Because They Connect Emotionally,” a Harvard Business Online
article by Angela Dobele, Adam Lindgreen, Michael Beverland, Joelle Vanhamme, and Robert Van
Wijk. https://hbr.org/
search?term=Why+Pass+on+Viral+Messages?+Because+They+Connect+Emotionally,â€?
Endnotes
1. Seiler, W., & Beall, M. (2000). Communication: Making connections (4th ed., p. 7). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
2. Shapiro, Fred R. (2008, July 21). Quote…misquote [Commentary]. New York Times Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/21/
magazine/27wwwl-guestsafire-t.html?pagewanted=all
3. Taylor, I. (2004). Mediaspeak: Strategy. Sound-Bites. Spin: The plain-talking guide to issures, reptuation and message management. Toronto, Canada:
Hushion House Publishing.
4. Kerchner, K. (1997). Soundbites: A business guide for working with the media. Superior, WI: Savage Press.
5. Taylor, D., & Terhune, A. D. (2000). Doing e-business: Strategies for thriving in an electronic marketplace. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from
http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471380652.html
6. Adapted from Taylor, D., & Terhune, A. D. (2000). Doing e-business: Strategies for thriving in an electronic marketplace. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Retrieved from http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471380652.html
7. Mayer, K. (1980). Developing delivery skills in aral business communication. Business Communication Quarterly, 43(3), 21–24.
8. Mosvick, R. K. (1996). We’ve got to start meeting like this: A guide to successful meeting management. New York, NY: Park Avenue Productions.
9. Deal, T., & Kennedy, A. (1982). Corporate cultures: The rites and rituals of corporate life. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
13. Ober, S. (1995). Contemporary business communication (2nd ed., p. 478). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
14. Devet, B. (1995). Introducing a speaker: An assingment for students in business communication. Business Communication Quarterly, 58, 57–58.
16. Noveck, J. (2009, June). Jackson death was twittered, texted, and Facebooked. Retrieved from http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090627/ap_en_ot/us/
michael_jackson_the_media_moment
17. Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: Seabury Press.
18. McLean, S. (1997). A communication analysis of community mobilization on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation. Journal of Health Communication, 2,
113–125.
19. Prochaska, J., & DiClemente, C. (1982). Transtheoretical therapy: Toward a more integrative model of change. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Prac-
tice, 19(3), 276–288.
Intrapersonal and
Interpersonal Business
Communication
Identity is the essential core of who we are as individuals, the conscious experience of the self
inside.
— Kauffman
1.
2. Describe yourself in no less than twenty words and no more than fifty.
3. List what is important to you in priority order. List what you spend your time on in rank order.
Compare the results.
What are you doing? This simple question is at the heart of an application that allows user to
stay hyperconnected. Before we consider the social media and its implications on business commu-
nication, let’s first examine the central question Twitter asks its users to address in 140 characters
or less.
What are you doing right now? Are you reading, learning, or have you already tuned out this
introduction and skipped over to Twitter to see what your friends are up to? We often define our-
selves through action, but the definition doesn’t work very well. When you are a newborn baby,
your actions represented a small percentage of your potential—now that you’re older, you are more
than an eating machine that requires constant care and feeding—but what are you? A common
response may be “human,” but even that can be challenging to define. If we say humans are the
tool makers and then note that several nonhuman species from primates to otters make and use
tools, where does that leave us? You could say that a human has two arms, two legs, or two eyes,
but not everyone has these, so the definition fails yet again. You may want to say that you can
communicate, but we don’t all speak the same language, and communication is a universal process
across species. You may be tempted to respond to the question “what are you?” by saying something
along the lines of “I think, therefore I am”—but what is thinking, and are humans the only species
with the ability to think? Again, defining yourself through your ability to think may not completely
work. Finally, you may want to raise the possibility of your ability to reason and act, recall the past,
be conscious of the present, and imagine the future; or your ability to contemplate the abstract, the
ironic, even the absurd. Now we might be getting somewhere.
What does the word “party” mean to you? Most cultures have rituals where people come
together in a common space for conversation and sharing. Such gatherings often include food,
music, and dancing. In our modern society, we increasingly lack time to connect with others. It may
be too expensive or time-consuming to travel across the country for Thanksgiving, but we may
meet on Skype and talk (audio/video) at relatively little or no cost. Some of your instructors may
have traveled to a designated location for a professional conference each year, seeing colleagues and
networking; but in recent years time, cost, and competition for attention has shifted priorities for
many. We may have two (or three or four) jobs that consume much of our time, but you’ll notice
that in the breaks and pauses of life people reach for their cell phones to connect. We instant mes-
sage (IM), text message, tweet, e-mail, and interact. As humans, we have an innate need to connect
with each other, even when that connection can (and does) sometimes produce conflict.
When we ask the question, “What are you doing?” the answer invariably involves communica-
tion; communication with self, with others, in verbal (oral and written) and nonverbal ways. How do
we come to this and how does it influence our experience within the business environment? How
do we come to enter a new community through a rite of initiation, often called a job interview, only
to find ourselves lost as everyone speaks a new language, the language of the workplace? How do
we negotiate relationships, demands for space and time, across meetings, collaborative efforts, and
solo projects? This chapter addresses several of these issues as we attempt to answer the question,
“What are you doing?” with the answer: communicating.
16.2 Intrapersonal Communication
When you answer the question, “What are you doing?” what do you write? Eating at your favorite
restaurant? Working on a slow evening? Reading your favorite book on a Kindle? Preferring the feel
of paper to keyboard? Reading by candlelight? In each case you are communicating what you are
doing, but you may not be communicating why, or what it means to you. That communication may
be internal, but is it only an internal communication process?
Intrapersonal communication can be defined as communication with one’s self, and that may
include self-talk, acts of imagination and visualization, and even recall and memory.[1] You read on
your cell phone screen that your friends are going to have dinner at your favorite restaurant. What
yourself. comes to mind? Sights, sounds, and scents? Something special that happened the last time you
were there? Do you contemplate joining them? Do you start to work out a plan of getting from your
present location to the restaurant? Do you send your friends a text asking if they want company?
Until the moment when you hit the “send” button, you are communicating with yourself.
Communications expert Leonard Shedletsky examines intrapersonal communication through the
eight basic components of the communication process (i.e., source, receiver, message, channel,
feedback, environment, context, and interference) as transactional, but all the interaction occurs within
the individual.[2] Perhaps, as you consider whether to leave your present location and join your
friends at the restaurant, you are aware of all the work that sits in front of you. You may hear
the voice of your boss, or perhaps of one of your parents, admonishing you about personal responsibility
and duty. On the other hand, you may imagine the friends at the restaurant saying something to the
effect of “you deserve some time off!”
At the same time as you argue with yourself, Judy Pearson and Paul Nelson would be quick
to add that intrapersonal communication is not only your internal monologue but also involves
your efforts to plan how to get to the restaurant.[3] From planning to problem solving, internal con-
flict resolution, and evaluations and judgments of self and others, we communicate with ourselves
through intrapersonal communication.
All this interaction takes place in the mind without externalization, and all of it relies on
previous interaction with the external world. If you had been born in a different country, to dif-
ferent parents, what language would you speak? What language would you think in? What would
you value, what would be important to you, and what would not? Even as you argue to yourself
whether the prospect of joining your friends at the restaurant overcomes your need to complete
your work, you use language and symbols that were communicated to you. Your language and cul-
ture have given you the means to rationalize, act, and answer the question, “What are you doing?”
but you are still bound by the expectations of yourself and the others who make up your commu-
nity.
An introduction to our unit on self-concept and perception
Key Takeaway
1. Describe what you are doing, pretending you are another person observing yourself. Write
your observations down or record them with a voice or video recorder. Discuss the exercise
2. Think of a time when you have used self-talk—for example, giving yourself “I can do this!”
messages when you are striving to meet a challenge, or “what’s the use?” messages when
you are discouraged. Did you purposely choose to use self-talk, or did it just happen? Dis-
cuss your thoughts with classmates.
3. Take a few minutes and visualize what you would like your life to be like a year from now, or
five years from now. Do you think this visualization exercise will influence your actions and
decisions in the future? Compare your thoughts with those of your classmates.
16.3 Self-Concept and Dimensions of

Self
1. Define and discuss self-concept.
Again we’ll return to the question “what are you doing?” as one way to approach self-concept. If we
define ourselves through our actions, what might those actions be, and are we no longer ourselves
when we no longer engage in those activities? Psychologist Steven Pinker defines the conscious
present as about three seconds for most people. Everything else is past or future.[4] Who are you at
this moment in time, and will the self you become an hour from now be different from the self that
is reading this sentence right now?
Just as the communication process is dynamic, not static (i.e., always changing, not staying the
One’s own sense of same), you, too, are a dynamic system. Physiologically your body is in a constant state of change as
individuality, personal you inhale and exhale air, digest food, and cleanse waste from each cell. Psychologically you are
characteristics, constantly in a state of change as well. Some aspects of your personality and character will be con-
motivations, and actions. stant, while others will shift and adapt to your environment and context. That complex combination
contributes to the self you call you. We may choose to define self as one’s own sense of
individuality, personal characteristics, motivations, and actions,[5] but any definition we create will
fail to capture who you are, and who you will become.
Self-Concept
Our self-concept is “what we perceive ourselves to be,”[6] and involves aspects of image and esteem.
How we see ourselves and how we feel about ourselves influences how we communicate with others.
What we perceive
What you are thinking now and how you communicate impacts and influences how others treat
ourselves to be.
you. Charles Cooley[7] calls this concept the looking-glass self. We look at how others treat us, what
they say and how they say it, for clues about how they view us to gain insight into our own identity.
Leon Festinger added that we engage in social comparisons, evaluating ourselves in relation to our
Evaluating ourselves in
peers of similar status, similar characteristics, or similar qualities.[8] relation to our peers of
The ability to think about how, what, and when we think, and why, is critical to intrapersonal similar status, similar
communication. Animals may use language and tools, but can they reflect on their own thinking? qualities.
Self-reflection is a trait that allows us to adapt and change to our context or environment, to accept
or reject messages, to examine our concept of ourselves and choose to improve.
Internal monologue refers to the self-talk of intrapersonal communication. It can be a running
monologue that is rational and reasonable, or disorganized and illogical. It can interfere with listen-
The self-talk of
ing to others, impede your ability to focus, and become a barrier to effective communication. Alfred intrapersonal
Korzybski suggested that the first step in becoming conscious of how we think and communicate
with ourselves was to achieve an inner quietness, in effect “turning off” our internal monologue.[9]
Learning to be quiet inside can be a challenge. We can choose to listen to others when they commu-
nicate through the written or spoken word while refraining from preparing our responses before
they finish their turn is essential. We can take mental note of when we jump to conclusions from
only partially attending to the speaker or writer’s message. We can choose to listen to others instead
of ourselves.
One principle of communication is that interaction is always dynamic and changing. That
interaction can be internal, as in intrapersonal communication, but can also be external. We may
communicate with one other person and engage in interpersonal communication. If we engage two
or more individuals (up to eight normally), group communication is the result. More than eight nor-
mally results in subdivisions within the group and a reversion to smaller groups of three to four
members[10] due to the ever-increasing complexity of the communication process. With each new
person comes a multiplier effect on the number of possible interactions, and for many that means
the need to establish limits.
Dimensions of Self
Who are you? You are more than your actions, and more than your communication, and the result
may be greater than the sum of the parts, but how do you know yourself? In the first of the "Intro-
ductory Exercises" for this chapter, you were asked to define yourself in five words or less. Was it
a challenge? Can five words capture the essence of what you consider yourself to be? Was your
twenty to fifty description easier? Or was it equally challenging? Did your description focus on
your characteristics, beliefs, actions, or other factors associated with you? If you compared your
results with classmates or coworkers, what did you observe? For many, these exercises can prove
challenging as we try to reconcile the self-concept we perceive with what we desire others to per-
ceive about us, as we try to see ourselves through our interactions with others, and as we come to
terms with the idea that we may not be aware or know everything there is to know about ourselves.
Joseph Luft and Harry Ingram[11][12] gave considerable thought and attention to these dimen-
sions of self, which are represented in Figure 16.1 In the first quadrant of the figure, information is
known to you and others, such as your height or weight. The second quadrant represents things
others observe about us that we are unaware of, like how many times we say “umm” in the space of
five minutes. The third quadrant involves information that you know, but do not reveal to others. It
may involve actively hiding or withholding information, or may involve social tact, such as thank-
ing your Aunt Martha for the large purple hat she’s given you that you know you will never wear.
Finally, the fourth quadrant involves information that is unknown to you and your conversational
partners. For example, a childhood experience that has been long forgotten or repressed may still
motivate you. As another example, how will you handle an emergency after you’ve received first aid
training? No one knows because it has not happened.
FIGURE 16.1 Luft and Ingram’s Dimensions of Self
These dimensions of self serve to remind us that we are not fixed—that freedom to change
combined with the ability to reflect, anticipate, plan, and predict allows us to improve, learn, and
adapt to our surroundings. By recognizing that we are not fixed in our concept of “self,” we come to
terms with the responsibility and freedom inherent in our potential humanity.
Johari Window in Interpersonal Communication. Video lecture for college Interpersonal

Communication class, by Dr. Lori Zakel, Professor and Chair of the Communication Department
at Sinclair College, Dayton, Ohio
In the context of business communication, the self plays a central role. How do you describe
yourself? Do your career path, job responsibilities, goals, and aspirations align with what you rec-
ognize to be your talents? How you represent “self,” through your résumé, in your writing, in your
articulation and presentation—these all play an important role as you negotiate the relationships
and climate present in any organization.
Key Takeaway
Self-concept involves multiple dimensions and is expressed in internal monologue and social
comparisons.
1. Examine your academic or professional résumé—or, if you don’t have one, create one now.
According to the dimensions of self described in this section, which dimensions contribute to
your résumé? Discuss your results with your classmates.
2. How would you describe yourself in terms of the dimensions of self as shown in Figure 16.1?
3. Can you think of a job or career that would be a good way for you to express yourself? Are
you pursuing that job or career? Why or why not? Discuss your answer with a classmate.
16.4 Interpersonal Needs
1. Understand the role of interpersonal needs in the communication process.
You may have had no problem answering the question, “What are you doing?” and simply pulled a
couple of lines from yesterday’s Twitter message or reviewed your BlackBerry calendar. But if you
had to compose an entirely original answer, would it prove to be a challenge? Perhaps at first this
might appear to be a simple task. You have to work and your job required your participation in a
meeting, or you care about someone and met him or her for lunch.
Both scenarios make sense on the surface, but we have to consider the why with more depth.
Why that meeting, and why that partner? Why not another job, or a lunch date with someone else?
If we consider the question long enough, we’ll come around to the conclusion that we communi-
cate with others in order to meet basic needs, and our meetings, interactions, and relationships help
us meet those needs. We may also recognize that not all our needs are met by any one person, job,
experience, or context; instead, we diversify our communication interactions in order to meet our
needs. At first, you may be skeptical of the idea that we communicate to meet our basic needs, but
let’s consider two theories on the subject and see how well they predict, describe, and anticipate our
tendency to interact.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, represented in Figure 16.2, may be familiar to you.[13] Per-
haps you saw it in negotiation or international business classes and came to recognize its universal
applicability. We need the resources listed in level one (i.e., air, food, and water) to survive. If we have
met those basic needs, we move to level two: safety. We want to make sure we are safe and that
our access to air, food, and water is secure. A job may represent this level of safety at its most basic
level. Regardless of how much satisfaction you may receive from a job well done, a paycheck ulti-
mately represents meeting basic needs for many. Still, for others, sacrifice is part of the job. Can
you think of any professions that require individuals to make decisions where the safety of others
comes first? “First responders” and others who work in public safety often place themselves at risk
for the benefit of those they serve.
If we feel safe and secure, we are more likely to seek the companionship of others. Humans
tend to form groups naturally, and if basic needs are met, love and belonging occur in level three.
Perhaps you’ve been new at work and didn’t understand the first thing about what was really going
on. It’s not that you weren’t well trained and did not receive a solid education, but rather that the
business or organization is made up of groups and communities that communicate and interact in
distinct and divergent ways. You may have known how to do something, but not how it was done
at your new place of work. Colleagues may have viewed you as a stranger or “newbie” and may have
even declined to help you. Conflict may have been part of your experience, but if you were lucky, a
mentor or coworker took the first step and helped you find your way.
As you came to know what was what and who was who, you learned how to negotiate the
landscape and avoid landmines. Your self-esteem (level four) improved as you perceived a sense of
belonging, but still may have lacked the courage to speak up.
'Look Up' is a lesson taught to us through a love story, in a world where we continue to find
ways to make it easier for us to connect with one another, but always results in us spending
more time alone.Written, Performed & Directed by Gary Turk.
Over time, you may have learned your job tasks and the strategies for succeeding in your orga-
nization. Perhaps you even came to be known as a reliable coworker, one who did go the extra mile,
one who did assist the “newbies” around the office. If one of them came to you with a problem,
you would know how to handle it. You are now looked up to by others and by yourself within the
role, with your ability to make a difference. Maslow calls this “self-actualization” (level five), and dis-
cusses how people come to perceive a sense of control or empowerment over their context and
environment. Where they look back and see that they once felt at the mercy of others, particularly
when they were new, they can now influence and direct aspects of the work environment that were
once unavailable.
Beyond self-actualization, Maslow recognizes our innate need to know (level six) that drives us
to grow and learn, explore our environment, or engage in new experiences. We come to appreciate
a sense of self that extends beyond our immediate experiences, beyond the function, and into the
community and the representational. We can take in beauty for its own sake, and value aesthetics
(level seven) that we previously ignored or had little time to consider.
FIGURE 16.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs[14]
Now that you have reached a sense of contentment in your job and can take in a museum tour,
the news of a possible corporate merger is suddenly announced in the mainstream media. It may
have been just gossip before, but now it is real. You may feel a sense of uncertainty and be con-
cerned about your status as a valued employee. Do you have reason to worry about losing your job?
How will you handle the responsibilities that you’ve acquired and what about the company and its
obligations to those who have sacrificed over time for common success? Conflict may be more
frequent in the workplace, and you may feel compelled to go over your personal budget and repri-
oritize your spending. You may eliminate museum visits and donations, and you may decide to start
saving money as the future is less certain. You may dust off your résumé and start communicating
with colleagues in related fields as you network, reaching out to regain that sense of stability, of
control, that is lost as you feel your security threatened. You will move through Maslow’s hierarchy
as you reevaluate what you need to survive.
This theory of interpersonal needs is individualistic, and many cultures are not centered on the
individual, but it does serve to start our discussion about interpersonal needs. What do we need?
Why do we communicate? The answers to both questions are often related.
William Schutz offers an alternate version of interpersonal needs. Like Maslow, he considers
the universal aspects of our needs, but he outlines how they operate within a range or continuum
for each person.[15] According to Schutz, the need for affection, or appreciation, is basic to all Related to the need for
appreciation.
humans. We all need to be recognized and feel like we belong, but may have differing levels of
expectations to meet that need. When part of the merger process is announced and the news of
layoffs comes, those coworkers who have never been particularly outgoing and have largely kept to
People who seek limited
themselves may become even more withdrawn. Schutz describes underpersonals as people who interaction.
seek limited interaction. On the opposite end of the spectrum, you may know people where you
work that are often seeking attention and affirmation. Schutz describes overpersonals as people
who have a strong need to be liked and constantly seek attention from others. The person who
People who have a strong
strikes a healthy balance is called a personal individual. need to be liked and
Humans also have a need for control, or the ability to influence people and events. But that constantly seek attention
from others.
need may vary by the context, environment, and sense of security. You may have already researched
similar mergers, as well as the forecasts for the new organization, and come to realize that your
position and your department are central to the current business model. You may have also of taken
The person who strikes a
steps to prioritize your budget, assess your transferable skills, and look for opportunities beyond
healthy balance in terms of
your current context. Schutz would describe your efforts to control your situation as autocratic, or human interaction.
self-directed. At the same time there may be several employees who have not taken similar steps
who look to you and others for leadership, in effect abdicating their responsibility. Abdicrats shift
the burn of responsibility from themselves to others, looking to others for a sense of control.
Democrats share the need between the individual and the group, and may try to hold a departmental people and events.
meeting to gather information and share.
Finally, Schutz echoes Maslow in his assertion that belonging is a basic interpersonal need, but
notes that it exists within a range or continuum, where some need more and others less. Self-directed in terms of
control.
Undersocials may be less likely to seek interaction, may prefer smaller groups, and will generally
not be found on center stage. Oversocials, however, crave the spotlight of attention and are highly
motivated to seek belonging. A social person is one who strikes a healthy balance between being
People who shift the burn
withdrawn and being the constant center of attention.
of responsibility from
Schutz describes these three interpersonal needs of affection, control, and belonging as inter- themselves to others.
dependent and variable. In one context, an individual may have a high need for control, while in
others he or she may not perceive the same level of motivation or compulsion to meet that need.
Both Maslow and Schutz offer us two related versions of interpersonal needs that begin to address People who share the
the central question: why communicate? need for control between
the individual and the
We communicate with each other to meet our needs, regardless how we define those needs. group.
From the time you are a newborn infant crying for food or the time you are a toddler learning to
say “please” when requesting a cup of milk, to the time you are a adult learning the rituals of the
job interview and the conference room, you learn to communicate in order to gain a sense of self People who are less likely
within the group or community, meeting your basic needs as you grow and learn. to seek interaction, may
will generally not be found

on center stage.
People who crave the

spotlight of attention and
are highly motivated to
seek belonging.
Person who strikes a

healthy balance between
being withdrawn and being
the constant center of
attention.
Key Takeaway
1. Review the types of individuals from Schutz’s theory described in this section. Which types
do you think fit you? Which types fit some of your coworkers or classmates? Why? Share
your opinions with your classmates and compare your self-assessment with the types they
believe describe you.
2. Think of two or more different situations and how you might express your personal needs
differently from one situation to the other. Have you observed similar variations in personal
needs in other people from one situation to another? Discuss your thoughts with a class-
mate.
16.5 Social Penetration Theory
1.
2.
How do you get to know other people? If the answer springs immediately to mind, we’re getting
somewhere: communication. Communication allows us to share experiences, come to know our-
selves and others, and form relationships, but it requires time and effort. You don’t get to know
someone in a day, a month, or even a year. At the same time you are coming to know them, they
are changing, adapting, and growing—and so are you. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor describe
this progression from superficial to intimate levels of communication in social penetration theory,
which is often called the Onion Theory because the model looks like an onion and involves layers
that are peeled away.[16] According to social penetration theory, we fear that which we do not know.
That includes people. Strangers go from being unknown to known through a series of steps that we
can observe through conversational interactions.
If we didn’t have the weather to talk about, what would we say? People across cultures use a
variety of signals to indicate neutral or submissive stances in relation to each other. A wave, a nod,
or a spoken reference about a beautiful day can indicate an open, approachable stance rather than
a guarded, defensive posture. At the outermost layer of the onion, in this model, there is only that
which we can observe. We can observe characteristics about each other and make judgments, but
they are educated guesses at best. Our nonverbal displays of affiliation, like a team jacket, a uni-
form, or a badge, may communicate something about us, but we only peel away a layer when we
engage in conversation, oral or written.
As we move from public to private information we make the transition from small talk to
substantial, and eventually intimate, conversations. Communication requires trust and that often
takes time. Beginnings are fragile times and when expectations, roles, and ways of communicating
are not clear, misunderstandings can occur. Some relationships may never proceed past obser-
vations on the weather, while others may explore controversial topics like politics or religion. A
married couple that has spent countless years together may be able to finish each other’s sentences,
and as memory fades, the retelling of stories may serve to bond and reinforce the relationship.
Increasingly, intimate knowledge and levels of trust are achieved over time, involving frequency of
interaction as well as length and quality. Positive interactions may lead to more positive interac-
tions, while negative ones may lead to less overall interaction.
This may appear to be common sense at first, but let’s examine an example. You are new to
a position and your supervisor has been in his or her role for a number of years. Some people at
your same level within the organization enjoy a level of knowledge and ease of interaction with
your supervisor that you lack. They may have had more time and interactions with the supervi-
sor, but you can still use this theory to gain trust and build a healthy relationship. Recognize that
you are unknown to your supervisor and vice versa. Start with superficial conversations that are
neutral and nonthreatening, but demonstrate a willingness to engage in communication. Silence
early in a relationship can be a sign of respect, but it can also send the message that you are fearful,
shy, or lack confidence. It can be interpreted as an unwillingness to communicate, and may actually
discourage interaction. If the supervisor picks up the conversation, keep your responses short and
light. If not, keep an upbeat attitude and mention the weather.
Over time, the conversations may gradually grow to cross topics beyond the scope of the office,
and a relationship may form that involves trust. To a degree, you and your coworkers learn to pre-
Information, thoughts, or dict one another’s responses and relax in the knowledge of mutual respect. If, however, you skip
feelings we tell others
about ourselves that they from superficial to intimate topics too quickly, you run risk of violating normative expectations.
would not otherwise know. Trust takes time, and with that comes empathy and understanding. But if you share with your
supervisor your personal struggles on day one, it may erode your credibility. According to the social
penetration theory, people go from superficial to intimate conversations as trust develops through
repeated, positive interactions. Self-disclosure is “information, thoughts, or feelings we tell others
about ourselves that they would not otherwise know.”[17] Taking it step by step, and not rushing to
self-disclose or asking personal questions too soon, can help develop positive business relation-
ships.
Principles of Self-Disclosure
Write down five terms that describe your personal self, and five terms that describe your profes-
sional self. Once you have completed your two lists, compare the results. They may have points that
overlap, or may have words that describe you in your distinct roles that are quite different. This
difference can be easy to address, but at times it can be a challenge to maintain. How much of “you”
do you share in the workplace? Our personal and professional lives don’t exist independently, and
in many ways are interdependent.
How do people know more about us? We communicate information about ourselves, whether
or not we are aware of it. You cannot not communicate.[18] From your internal monologue and
intrapersonal communication, to verbal and nonverbal communication, communication is con-
stantly occurring. What do you communicate about yourself by the clothes (or brands) you wear,
the tattoos you display, or the piercing you remove before you enter the workplace? Self-disclosure
is a process by which you intentionally communicate information to others, but can involve unin-
tentional, but revealing slips. Steven Beebe, Susan Beebe, and Mark Redmond offer us five princi-
ples of self-disclosure that remind us that communication is an integral part of any business or
organizational setting. Let’s discuss them one by one.[19]
Self-Disclosure Usually Moves in Small Steps

Would you come to work on your first day wearing a large purple hat? If you knew that office attire
was primarily brown and gray suits? Most people would say, “Of course not!” as there is a normative
expectation for dress, sometimes called a dress code. After you have worked within the organiza-
tion, earned trust and established credibility, and earned your place in the community, the purple
hat might be positively received with a sense of humor. But if you haven’t yet earned your place,
your fashion statement may be poorly received. In the same way, personal information is normally
reserved for those of confidence, and earned over time. Take small steps as you come to know your
colleagues, taking care to make sure who you are does not speak louder than what you say.
Self-Disclosure Moves from Impersonal to Intimate

Information
So you decided against wearing the purple hat to work on your first day, but after a successful first
week you went out with friends from your college days. You shut down the bar late in the evening
and paid for it on Sunday. At work on Monday, is it a wise strategy to share the finer tips of the
drinking games you played on Saturday night? Again, most people would say, “Of course not!” It has
nothing to do with work, and only makes you look immature. Some people have serious substance
abuse issues, and your stories could sound insensitive, producing a negative impact. How would
you know, as you don’t really know your coworkers yet? In the same way, it is not a wise strategy to
post photos from the weekend’s escapades on your MySpace, Facebook, or similar social network-
ing Web page. Employers are increasingly aware of their employees’ Web pages, and the picture of
you looking stupid may come to mind when your supervisor is considering you for a promotion.
You represent yourself, but you also represent your company and its reputation. If you don’t repre-
sent it well, you run the risk of not representing it at all.
Self-Disclosure Is Reciprocal
Monday morning brings the opportunity to tell all sorts of stories about the weekend, and since
you’ve wisely decided to leave any references to the bar in the past, you may instead choose the
wise conversational strategy of asking questions. You may ask your coworkers what they did, what The expectation that when
we reveal something about
it was like, who they met, and where they went, but eventually all conversations form a circle that ourselves, others will
comes back to you. The dance between source and receiver isn’t linear, it’s transactional. After a reciprocate.
couple of stories, sooner or later, you’ll hear the question, “What did you do this weekend?” It’s now
your turn. This aspect of conversation is universal. We expect when we reveal something about
ourselves that others will reciprocate. The dyadic effect is the formal term for this process, and is
often thought to meet the need to reduce uncertainty about conversational partners. If you stay quiet
or decline to answer after everyone else has taken a turn, what will happen? They may be put off at
first, they may invent stories and let their imaginations run wild, or they may reject you. It may be
subtle at first, but reciprocity is expected.
You have the choice of what to reveal and when. You may choose to describe your weekend by
describing the friends and conversations while omitting any reference to the bar. You may choose
to focus on your Sunday afternoon gardening activities. You may just say you read a good book and
mention the title of the one you are reading. Regardless of what option you choose, you have the
freedom and responsibility within the dyadic effect to reciprocate, but you have a degree of control.
You can learn to anticipate when your turn will come, and to give some thought to what you will
say before the moment arrives.
Self-Disclosure Involves Risk

If you decided to go with the “good book” option, or perhaps mention that you watched a movie,
you just ran the risk that whatever you are reading or watching may be criticized. If the book you
are enjoying is controversial, you might anticipate a bit of a debate, but if you mentioned a romance
novel, or one that has a science fiction theme, you may have thought it wouldn’t generate criticism.
Sometimes the most innocent reference or comment can produce conflict when the conversational
partners have little prior history. At the same time, nothing ventured, nothing gained. How are you
going to discover that the person you work with appreciates the same author or genre if you don’t
share that information? Self-disclosure involves risk, but can produce positive results.
Self-Disclosure Involves Trust

Before you mention the title of the book or movie you saw this weekend, you may consider your
audience and what you know about them. If you’ve only known them for a week, your awareness
of their habits, quirks, likes and dislikes may be limited. At the same time, if you feel safe and rel-
atively secure, you may test the waters with a reference to the genre but not the author. You may
also decide that it is just a book, and they can take it or leave it.
“Trust is the ability to place confidence in or rely on the character or truth of someone.”[20] Trust
is a process, not a badge to be earned. It takes time to develop, and can be lost in a moment. Even
if you don’t agree with your coworker, understand that self-revelation communicates a measure of
trust and confidence. Respect that confidence, and respect yourself.
Also, consider the nature of the information. Some information communicated in confidence
must see the light of day. Sexual harassment, fraud, theft, and abuse are all issues in the workplace,
and if you become aware of these behaviors you will have a responsibility to report them according
to your organization’s procedures. A professional understands that trust is built over time, and
understands how valuable this intangible commodity can be to success.
Interpersonal Relationships
Interpersonal communication can be defined as communication between two people, but the def-
inition fails to capture the essence of a relationship. This broad definition is useful when we
compare it to intrapersonal communication, or communication with ourselves, as opposed to mass
two people. communication, or communication with a large audience, but it requires clarification. The develop-
mental view of interpersonal communication places emphasis on the relationship rather than the
size of the audience, and draws a distinction between impersonal and personal interactions.
For example, one day your coworker and best friend, Iris, whom you’ve come to know on a per-
sonal as well as a professional level, gets promoted to the position of manager. She didn’t tell you
ahead of time because it wasn’t certain, and she didn’t know how to bring up the possible change of
roles. Your relationship with Iris will change as your roles transform. Her perspective will change,
and so will yours. You may stay friends, or she may not have as much time as she once did. Over
time, you and Iris gradually grow apart, spending less time together. You eventually lose touch.
What is the status of your relationship?
If you have ever had even a minor interpersonal transaction such as buying a cup of coffee
from a clerk, you know that some people can be personable, but does that mean you’ve developed
a relationship within the transaction process? For many people the transaction is an impersonal
experience, however pleasant. What is the difference between the brief interaction of a transaction
and the interactions you periodically have with your colleague, Iris, who is now your manager?
The developmental view places an emphasis on the prior history, but also focuses on the level
of familiarity and trust. Over time and with increased frequency we form bonds or relationships
with people, and if time and frequency are diminished, we lose that familiarity. The relationship
with the clerk may be impersonal, but so can the relationship with the manager after time has
passed and the familiarity is lost. From a developmental view, interpersonal communication can
exist across this range of experience and interaction.
Review the lists you made for the third of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter. If you
evaluate your list of what is important to you, will you find objects or relationships? You may value
your home or vehicle, but for most people relationships with friends and family are at the top of the
list. Interpersonal relationships take time and effort to form, and they can be challenging. All rela-
tionships are dynamic, meaning that they transform and adapt to changes within the context and
environment. They require effort and sacrifice, and at times, give rise to the question, why bother?
A short answer may be that we, as humans, are compelled to form bonds. But it still fails to answer
the question, why?
Uncertainty theory states that we choose to know more about others with whom we have
interactions in order to reduce or resolve the anxiety associated with the unknown.[21][22][23] The more
we know about others, and become accustomed to how they communicate, the better we can pre-
Asserts that not only do
we want to reduce
dict how they will interact with us in future contexts. If you learn that Monday mornings are never
uncertainty, we also want a good time for your supervisor, you quickly learn to schedule meetings later in the week. The
to maximize our possible predicted outcome value theory asserts that not only do we want to reduce uncertainty, we also want
benefit from the to maximize our possible benefit from the association.[24][25][26] This theory would predict that you
association.
would choose Tuesday or later for a meeting in order to maximize the potential for positive
interaction and any possible rewards that may result. One theory involves the avoidance of fear
while the other focuses on the pursuit of reward. Together, they provide a point of reference as we
continue our discussion on interpersonal relationships.
Regardless of whether we focus on collaboration or competition, we can see that interpersonal
communication is necessary in the business environment. We want to know our place and role
within the organization, accurately predict those within our proximity, and create a sense of safety
and belonging. Family for many is the first experience in interpersonal relationships, but as we
develop professionally, our relationships at work may take on many of the attributes we associate
with family communication. We look to each other with similar sibling rivalries, competition for
attention and resources, and support. The workplace and our peers can become as close, or closer,
than our birth families, with similar challenges and rewards.
Key Takeaways
We come to know one another gradually.
1. Write down five terms that describe your personal self, and five terms that describe your pro-
fessional self. Compare your results with a classmate.
2. Think of someone you trust and who trusts you. How did you come to have a mutually trusting
relationship? Did it take effort on both people’s part? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. How important do you think self-disclosure is in business settings? Give some examples.
16.6 Rituals of Conversation and

Interviews
1.
2.
You no doubt have participated in countless conversations throughout your

FIGURE 16.3 life, and the process of how to conduct a conversation may seem so obvious that
Conversations follow rules.
it needs no examination. Yet, all cultures have rituals of various kinds, and con-
versation is one of these universal rituals. A skilled business communicator
knows when to speak, when to remain silent, and to always stop speaking before
the audience stops listening. Further, understanding conversation provides a solid
foundation for our next discussion on employment interviewing. Employ- ment
interviews follow similar ritual patterns and have their own set of expectations.
Expectations may differ based on field, level, knowledge, and experience, but
they generally follow the five steps of a basic conversation.
University and author of many books and articles about how the language of everyday
conversation affects relationships.

Conversation as a Ritual
Why discuss the ritual of conversation? Because it is one of the main ways we interact in the
business environment, and it is ripe for misunderstandings. Our everyday familiarity with con-
versations often makes us blind to the subtle changes that take place during the course of a
conversation. Examining it will allow you to consider its components, predict the next turn, antic-
ipate an opening or closing, and make you a better conversationalist. Steven Beebe, Susan Beebe,
and Mark Redmond offer us five stages of conversation that are adapted here for our discussion.[27]
Initiation
The first stage of conversation is called initiation, and requires you to be open to interact. How you
communicate openness is up to you; it may involve nonverbal signals like eye contact or body posi-
tions, such as smiling or even merely facing the other person and making eye contact. A casual The first stage of a
conversation.
reference to the weather, a light conversation about the weekend, or an in-depth conversation about
how the financial markets are performing this morning requires a source to start the process:
someone has to initiate the exchange. For some, this may produce a degree of anxiety. If status and
hierarchical relationships are present, it may be a question of who speaks when according to cul-
tural norms. The famous anthropologist Bronislaw Malinowski called small talk “phatic
communion,”[28] reinforcing the idea that there is a degree of ritual across cultures on how we initi-
ate, engage, and conclude conversations.
Preview
The preview is an indication, verbal or nonverbal, of what the conversation is about, both in terms
of content and in terms of the relationship. A word or two in the subject line of an e-mail may sig-
nal the topic, and the relationship between individuals, such as an employee-supervisor An indication, verbal or
nonverbal, of what the
relationship, may be understood. A general reference to a topic may approach a topic indirectly, conversation is about,
allowing the recipient to either pick up on the topic and to engage in the discussion or to redirect both in terms of content
the conversation away from a topic they are not ready to talk about. People are naturally curious, and of the relationship.
and also seek certainty. A preview can serve to reduce uncertainty and signal intent.
Talking Point(s)
Joseph DeVito characterizes this step as getting down to business, reinforcing the goal orientation
of the conversation.[29] In business communication, we often have a specific goal or series of points
to address, but we cannot lose sight of the relationship messages within the discussion of content.
You may signal to your conversation partner that there are three points to address, much like
outlining an agenda at a meeting. This may sound formal at first, but if you listen to casual conver-
sations you’ll often find there is an inherent list or central point where the conversational partners
arrive. By clearly articulating, either in written or oral form, the main points, you provide an outline
or structure to the conversation.
Feedback
Similar to a preview step, this stage allows the conversational partners to clarify, restate, or discuss
the points of the conversation to arrive a sense of mutual understanding. In some cultures the points
and their feedback may recycle several times, which may sound repetitious to Western
ears. In Western cultures we often get to the point rather quickly and once we’ve arrived at an
understanding, we move quickly to the conclusion. Communication across cultures often requires
additional cycles of statement and restatement to insure transmission of information as well as
reinforcement of the relationship. Time may be money in some cultures, but time is also a repre-
sentation of respect. Feedback is an opportunity to make sure the interaction was successful the
first time. Failure to attend to this stage can lead to the need for additional interactions, reducing
efficiency across time.
Closing
The acceptance of feedback on both sides of the conversation often signals the transition to the
conclusion of the conversation. Closings are similar to the initiation step,[30] and often involve ritual
norms.[31] Verbal clues are sometimes present, but you may also notice the half step back as conver-
sational partners create additional space in preparation to disengage.
There are times when a conversational partner introduces new information in the conclusion,
which can start the process all over again. You may also note that if words like “in conclusion” or
“oh—one more thing” are used, a set of expectations is now in force. A conclusion has been
announced and the listener expects it. If the speaker continues to recycle at this point, the listener’s
listening skills are often not as keen as they were during the heat of the main engagement, and it
may even produce frustration. People mentally shift to the next order of business and this transi-
tion must be negotiated successfully.
By mentioning a time, date, or place for future communication you can clearly signal that the
conversation, although currently concluded, will continue later. In this way, you can often disen-
gage successfully while demonstrating respect.
Employment Interviewing
We all join communities, teams, and groups across our lifetimes.[32] We go from an unknown out-
sider to a new member and eventually a full member. Businesses and organizations are
communities consisting of teams and groups, and if we decide to switch teams or communities, or
An exchange between a
if that decision is made for us with a reduction in force layoff, for example, we’ll be back on the job candidate and a
market. In order to make the transition from a outsider to an insider, you’ll have to pass a series of
tests, both informal and formal. One of the most common tests is otherwise known as an employ- their representative).
ment interview. An employment interview is an exchange between a candidate and a prospective
employer (or their representative). It is a formal process with several consistent elements that you
can use to guide your preparation.
Employment interviews come in all shapes and sizes, and may not be limited to only one
exchange but one interaction. A potential employee may very well be screened by a computer (as
the résumé is scanned) and interviewed online or via the telephone before the applicant ever meets
a representative or panel of representatives. The screening process may include formal tests that
include personality tests, background investigations, and consultations with previous employers.
Depending on the type of job you are seeking, you can anticipate answering questions, often more
than once, to a series of people as you progress through a formal interview process. Just as you
have the advantage of preparing for a speech with anticipation, you can apply the same research
and public speaking skills to the employment interview.
The invitation to interview means you have been identified as a candidate who meets the min-
imum qualifications and demonstrate potential as a viable candidate. Your cover letter, résumé, or
related application materials may demonstrate the connection between your preparation and the
job duties, but now comes the moment where you will need to articulate those points out loud.
If we assume that you would like to be successful in your employment interviewing, then it
makes sense to use the communication skills gained to date with the knowledge of interpersonal
communication to maximize your performance. There is no one right or wrong way to prepare and
present at your interview, just as each audience is unique, but we can prepare and anticipate sev-
eral common elements.
Preparation
The right frame of mind is an essential element for success in communication, oral or written. For
many if not most, the employment interview is surrounded with mystery and a degree of fear and
trepidation. Just as giving a speech may produce a certain measure of anxiety, you can expect that a
job interview will make you nervous. Anticipate this normal response, and use your nervous energy
to your benefit. To place your energies where they will be put to best use, the first step is prepara-
tion.
Would you prepare yourself before writing for publication or speaking in public? Of course.
The same preparation applies to the employment interview. Briefly, the employment interview is
a conversational exchange (even if it is in writing at first) where the participants try to learn more
about each other. Both conversational partners will have goals in terms of content, and explicitly or
implicitly across the conversational exchange will be relational messages. Attending to both points
will strengthen your performance.
On the content side, if you have been invited for an interview, you can rest assured that you
have met the basic qualifications the employer is looking for. Hopefully, this initiation signal means
that the company or organization you have thoroughly researched is one you would consider as a
potential employer. Perhaps you have involved colleagues and current employees of the organiza-
tion in your research process and learned about several of the organization’s attractive qualities as
well as some of the challenges experienced by the people working there.
Businesses hire people to solve problems, so you will want to focus on how your talents, exper-
tise, and experience can contribute to the organization’s need to solve those problems. The more
detailed your analysis of their current challenges, the better. You need to be prepared for standard
questions about your education and background, but also see the opening in the conversation to
discuss the job duties, the challenges inherent in the job, and the ways in which you believe you
can meet these challenges. Take the opportunity to demonstrate the fact that you have “done your
homework” in researching the company. Table 16.1 presents a checklist of what you should try to
know before you consider yourself prepared for an interview.
TABLE 16.1 Interview Preparation Checklist

What to Know Examples
Type of Interview Will it be a behavioral interview, where the
employer watches what you do in a given situa-
tion? Will you be asked technical questions or
given a work sample? Or will you be interviewed
over lunch or coffee, where your table manners
and social skills will be assessed?
Type of Dress Office attire varies by industry, so stop by the
workplace and observe what workers are wearing
if you can. If this isn’t possible, call and ask the
human resources office what to wear—they will
appreciate your wish to be prepared.
Company or Organization Do a thorough exploration of the company’s Web
site. If it doesn’t have one, look for business list-
ings in the community online and in the phone
directory. Contact the local chamber of com-
merce. At your library, you may have access to
subscription sites such as Hoover’s Online (http:/
/www.hoovers.com).
Job Carefully read the ad you answered that got you
the interview, and memorize what it says about
the job and the qualifications the employer is
seeking. Use the Internet to find sample job
descriptions for your target job title. Make a writ-
ten list of the job tasks and annotate the list with
your skills, knowledge, and other attributes that
will enable you to perform the job tasks with
excellence.
Employer’s Needs Check for any items in the news in the past cou-
ple of years involving the company name. If it is a
small company, the local town newspaper will be
your best source. In addition, look for any adver-
tisements the company has placed, as these can
give a good indication of the company’s goals.
Performance
You may want to know how to prepare for an employment interview, and we’re going to take it for
granted that you have researched the company, market, and even individuals in your effort to learn
more about the opportunity. From this solid base of preparation, you need to begin to prepare your
responses. Would you like some of the test questions before the test? Luckily for you, employment
interviews involve a degree of uniformity across their many representations. Here are eleven com-
mon questions you are likely to be asked in an employment interview:[33]
1. Tell me about yourself.
2. Have you ever done this type of work before?

3. Why should we hire you?
4. What are your greatest strengths? Weaknesses?
5. Give me an example of a time when you worked under pressure.
6. Tell me about a time you encountered (X) type of problem at work. How did you solve the prob-
lem?
7. Why did you leave your last job?
8. How has your education and/or experience prepared you for this job?
9. Why do you want to work here?
10. What are your long-range goals? Where do you see yourself three years from now?
11. Do you have any questions?
When you are asked a question in the interview, look for its purpose as well as its literal mean-
ing. “Tell me about yourself” may sound like an invitation for you to share your text message win
in last year’s competition, but it is not. The employer is looking for someone who can address their
needs. Telling the interviewer about yourself is an opportunity for you make a positive professional
impression. Consider what experience you can highlight that aligns well with the job duties and
match your response to their needs.
In the same way, responses about your strengths are not an opening to brag, and your weak-
ness not an invitation to confess. If your weakness is a tendency towards perfectionism, and the
job you are applying for involves a detail orientation, you can highlight how your weaknesses may
serve you well in the position.
Consider using the “because” response whenever you can. A “because” response involves the
restatement of the question followed by a statement of how and where you gained education or
experience in that area. For example, if you are asked about handling difficult customers, you could
answer that you have significant experience in that area because you’ve served as a customer ser-
vice representative with X company for X years. You may be able to articulate how you were able to
turn an encounter with a frustrated customer into a long-term relationship that benefited both the
customer and the organization. Your specific example, and use of a “because” response, can increase
the likelihood that the interviewer or audience will recall the specific information you provide.
You may be invited to participate in a conference call, and be told to expect it will last around
twenty minutes. The telephone carries your voice and your words, but doesn’t carry your nonverbal
gestures. If you remember to speak directly into the telephone, look up and smile, your voice will
come through clearly and you will sound competent and pleasant. Whatever you do, don’t take the
call on a cell phone with an iffy connection—your interviewers are guaranteed to be unfavorably
impressed if you keep breaking up during the call. Use the phone to your advantage by preparing
responses on note cards or on your computer screen before the call. When the interviewers ask
you questions, keep track of the time, limiting each response to about a minute. If you know that
a twenty-minute call is scheduled for a certain time, you can anticipate that your phone may ring
may be a minute or two late, as interviews are often scheduled in a series while the committee is all
together at one time. Even if you only have one interview, your interviewers will have a schedule
and your sensitivity to it can help improve your performance.
You can also anticipate that the last few minutes will be set aside for you to ask your questions.
This is your opportunity to learn more about the problems or challenges that the position will
be addressing, allowing you a final opportunity to reinforce a positive message with the audience.
Keep your questions simple, your attitude positive, and communicate your interest.
At the same time as you are being interviewed, know that you too are interviewing the
prospective employer. If you have done your homework you may already know what the organiza-
tion is all about, but you may still be unsure whether it is the right fit for you. Listen and learn from
what is said as well as what is not said, and you will add to your knowledge base for wise decision
making in the future.
Above all, be honest, positive, and brief. You may have heard that the world is small and it is
true. As you develop professionally, you will come to see how fields, organizations, and companies
are interconnected in ways that you cannot anticipate. Your name and reputation are yours to pro-
tect and promote.
Postperformance
You completed your research of the organization, interviewed a couple of employees, learned more
about the position, were on time for the interview (virtual or in person), wore neat and professional
clothes, and demonstrated professionalism in your brief, informative responses. Congratulations
are in order, but so is more work on your part.
Remember that feedback is part of the communication process: follow up promptly with a
thank-you note or e-mail, expressing your appreciation for the interviewer’s time and interest. You
may also indicate that you will call or e-mail next week to see if they have any further questions
for you. (Naturally, if you say you will do this, make sure you follow through!) In the event that you
have decided the position is not right for you, the employer will appreciate your notifying them
without delay. Do this tactfully, keeping in mind that communication occurs between individuals
and organizations in ways you cannot predict.
After you have communicated with your interviewer or committee, move on. Candidates some-
times become quite fixated on one position or job and fail to keep their options open. The best
person does not always get the job, and the prepared business communicator knows that network-
ing and research is a never-ending, ongoing process. Look over the horizon at the next challenge
and begin your research process again. It may be hard work, but getting a job is your job. Budget
time and plan on the effort it will take to make the next contact, get the next interview, and con-
tinue to explore alternate paths to your goal.
You may receive a letter, note, or voice mail explaining that another candidate’s combination of
experience and education better matched the job description. If this happens, it is only natural for
you to feel disappointed. It is also only natural to want to know why you were not chosen, but be
aware that for legal reasons most rejection notifications do not go into detail about why one can-
didate was hired and another was not. Contacting the company with a request for an explanation
can be counterproductive, as it may be interpreted as a “sore loser” response. If there is any pos-
sibility that they will keep your name on file for future opportunities, you want to preserve your
positive relationship.
Although you feel disappointed, don’t focus on the loss or all the hard work you’ve produced.
Instead, focus your energies where they will serve you best. Review the process and learn from the
experience, knowing that each audience is unique and even the most prepared candidate may not
have been the right “fit.” Stay positive and connect with people you who support you. Pre- pare,
practice, and perform. Know that you as a person are far more than just a list of job duties. Focus
on your skill sets: if they need improvement, consider additional education that will enhance you
knowledge and skills. Seek out local resources and keep networking. Have your professional
interview attire clean and ready, and focus on what you can control—your preparation and perfor-
mance.
Key Takeaway
Conversations have universal aspects we can predict and improve. We can use the dynamics
of the ritual of conversation to learn to prepare for employment interviews and evaluations, both
common contexts of communication in the work environment. Employment interviews involve
preparation, performance, and feedback.
1. How does the employment interview serve both interviewer and interviewee? Explain and
present your thoughts to the class.
2. Identify a company that you might be interested in working for. Use the resources described
in this section to research information about the company, the kinds of jobs it hires people to
do, and the needs and goals of the organization. Share your findings with your classmates.
3. Find a job announcement of a position that might interest you after you graduate or reach
your professional goal. Write a brief statement of what experience and education you cur-
rently have that applies to the position and note what you currently lack.
4.
people who hold a similar position, and interview them (via e-mail or in person). Compare
your results with your classmates.
5. What has been your employment interview experience to date? Write a brief statement and
provide examples.
6. What employment-related resources are available on your campus or in your community?
Investigate and share your findings.
7. Prepare for a job that you would like to do by finding a job announcement, preparing sample
responses, and enlisting a friend or colleague in playing the role of a mock interviewer. Limit
your interview to fifteen minutes and record it (audio or audio/visual) and post it in class. If
your instructor indicates this exercise will be an in-class exercise or assessment, dress the
part and be completely prepared. Use this exercise to prepare you for the moment when you
will be required to perform and when you want the job.
16.7 Conflict in the Work Environment
1. Understand evaluations and criticism in the workplace, and discuss several strategies for
resolving workplace conflict.
The word “conflict” produces a sense of anxiety for many people, but it is part of the human expe-
rience. Just because conflict is universal does not mean that we cannot improve how we handle
disagreements, misunderstandings, and struggles to understand or make ourselves understood.
Joyce Hocker and William Wilmot[34] offer us several principles on conflict that have been adapted
here for our discussion:
• Conflict is universal.
• Conflict is associated with incompatible goals.
• Conflict is associated with scarce resources.
• Conflict is associated with interference.
• Conflict is not a sign of a poor relationship.
• Conflict cannot be avoided.
• Conflict cannot always be resolved.
• Conflict is not always bad.
Conflict is the physical or psychological struggle associated with the perception of opposing or
incompatible goals, desires, demands, wants, or needs.[35] When incompatible goals, scarce resources,
The physical or or interference are present, conflict is a typical result, but it doesn’t mean the relationship is poor
psychological struggle
associated with the or failing. All relationships progress through times of conflict and collaboration. How we navigate
perception of opposing or and negotiate these challenges influences, reinforces, or destroys the relationship. Conflict is uni-
incompatible goals, versal, but how and when it occurs is open to influence and interpretation. Rather than viewing
desires, demands, wants, conflict from a negative frame of reference, view it as an opportunity for clarification, growth, and
or needs.
even reinforcement of the relationship.
In many cases, conflict in the workplace just seems to be a fact of life. We've all seen situations
where different people with different goals and needs have come into conflict. And we've all
seen the often-intense personal animosity that can result.
Conflict Management Strategies

As professional communicators, we can acknowledge and anticipate that conflict will be present
in every context or environment where communication occurs. To that end, we can predict, antici-
pate, and formulate strategies to address conflict successfully. How you choose to approach conflict
influences its resolution. Joseph DeVito[36] offers us several conflict management strategies that we
have adapted and expanded for our use.
Avoidance
You may choose to change the subject, leave the room, or not even enter the room in the first place,
but the conflict will remain and resurface when you least expect it. Your reluctance to address the
conflict directly is a normal response, and one which many cultures prize. In cultures where inde-
pendence is highly valued, direct confrontation is more common. In cultures where the community
is emphasized over the individual, indirect strategies may be more common. Avoidance allows for
more time to resolve the problem, but can also increase costs associated with problem in the first
place. Your organization or business will have policies and protocols to follow regarding conflict and
redress, but it is always wise to consider the position of your conversational partner or opponent
and to give them, as well as yourself, time to explore alternatives.
Defensiveness versus Supportiveness

Jack Gibb[37] discussed defensive and supportive communication interactions as part of his analysis
of conflict management. Defensive communication is characterized by control, evaluation, and
judgments, while supportive communication focuses on the points and not personalities. When
Characterized by control,
we feel judged or criticized, our ability to listen can be diminished, and we may only hear the nega-
tive message. By choosing to focus on the message instead of the messenger, we keep the discussion
supportive and professional.
Focuses on the points and

not personalities. Face-Detracting and Face-Saving
Communication is not competition. Communication is the sharing of understanding and meaning,
but does everyone always share equally? People struggle for control, limit access to resources and
information as part of territorial displays, and otherwise use the process of communication to
engage in competition. People also use communication for collaboration. Both competition and col-
laboration can be observed in communication interactions, but there are two concepts central to
both: face-detracting and face-saving strategies.
Face-detracting strategies involve messages or statements that take away from the respect,
integrity, or credibility of a person. Face-saving strategies protect credibility and separate message
from messenger. For example, you might say that “sales were down this quarter,” without specifi-
that take away from the cally noting who was responsible. Sales were simply down. If, however, you ask, “How does the sales
respect, integrity, or manager explain the decline in sales?” you have specifically connected an individual with the neg-
credibility of a person. ative news. While we may want to specifically connect tasks and job responsibilities to individuals
and departments, in terms of language each strategy has distinct results.
Face-detracting strategies often produce a defensive communication climate, inhibit listening,
Messages or statements
and allow for little room for collaboration. To save face is to raise the issue while preserving a sup-
that protect credibility and portive climate, allowing room in the conversation for constructive discussions and problem
separate message from solving. By using a face-saving strategy to shift the emphasis from the individual to the issue, we
messenger. avoid power struggles and personalities, providing each other space to save face.[38]
In collectivist cultures, where the community’s well-being is promoted or valued above that
of the individual, face-saving strategies are a common communicative strategies. In Japan, for
example, to confront someone directly is perceived as humiliation, a great insult. In the United
States, greater emphasis is placed on individual performance, and responsibility may be more
directly assessed. If our goal is to solve a problem, and preserve the relationship, then consideration
of a face-saving strategy should be one option a skilled business communicator considers when
addressing negative news or information.
Empathy
Communication involves not only the words we write or speak, but how and when we write or say
them. The way we communicate also carries meaning, and empathy for the individual involves
Listening to both the literal attending to this aspect of interaction. Empathetic listening involves listening to both the literal
and implied meanings
within a message. and implied meanings within a message. For example, the implied meaning might involve under-
standing what has led this person to feel this way. By paying attention to feelings and emotions
associated with content and information, we can build relationships and address conflict more con-
structively. In management, negotiating conflict is a common task and empathy is one strategy to
consider when attempting to resolve issues.
Gunnysacking
George Bach and Peter Wyden[39] discuss gunnysacking (or backpacking) as the imaginary bag we
all carry into which we place unresolved conflicts or grievances over time. If your organization has
gone through a merger, and your business has transformed, there may have been conflicts that
The imaginary bag we all
occurred during the transition. Holding onto the way things used to be can be like a stone in your
carry, into which we place
gunnysack, and influence how you interpret your current context. unresolved conflicts or
grievances over time.
People may be aware of similar issues but might not know your history, and cannot see your
backpack or its contents. For example, if your previous manager handled issues in one way, and
your new manage handles them in a different way, this may cause you some degree of stress and
frustration. Your new manager cannot see how the relationship existed in the past, but will still
observe the tension. Bottling up your frustrations only hurts you and can cause your current rela-
tionships to suffer. By addressing, or unpacking, the stones you carry, you can better assess the
current situation with the current patterns and variables.
We learn from experience, but can distinguish between old wounds and current challenges,
and try to focus our energies where they will make the most positive impact.
Managing Your Emotions

Have you ever seen red, or perceived a situation through rage, anger, or frustration? Then you know
that you cannot see or think clearly when you are experiencing strong emotions. There will be
times in the work environment when emotions run high. Your awareness of them can help you
clear your mind and choose to wait until the moment has passed to tackle the challenge.
“Never speak or make decision in anger” is one common saying that holds true, but not all emo-
tions involve fear, anger, or frustration. A job loss can be a sort of professional death for many, and
the sense of loss can be profound. The loss of a colleague to a layoff while retaining your position
can bring pain as well as relief, and a sense of survivor’s guilt. Emotions can be contagious in the
workplace, and fear of the unknown can influence people to act in irrational ways. The wise busi-
ness communicator can recognize when emotions are on edge in themselves or others, and choose
to wait to communicate, problem-solve, or negotiate until after the moment has passed.
Evaluations and Criticism in the Workplace

Mary Ellen Guffey wisely notes that Xenophon, a Greek philosopher, once said, “The sweetest of
all sounds is praise.”[40] We have seen previously that appreciation, respect, inclusion, and belong-
ing are all basic human needs across all contexts, and are particularly relevant in the workplace.
Efficiency and morale are positively related, and recognition of good work is important. There may
come a time, however, when evaluations involve criticism. Knowing how to approach this criticism
can give you peace of mind to listen clearly, separating subjective, personal attacks from objective,
constructive requests for improvement. Guffey offers us seven strategies for giving and receiving
evaluations and criticism in the workplace that we have adapted here.
Listen without Interrupting

If you are on the receiving end of an evaluation, start by listening without interruption. Inter-
ruptions can be internal and external, and warrant further discussion. If your supervisor starts to
discuss a point and you immediately start debating the point in your mind, you are paying atten-
tion to yourself and what you think they said or are going to say, and not that which is actually
communicated. This gives rise to misunderstandings and will cause you to lose valuable informa-
tion you need to understand and address the issue at hand.
External interruptions may involve your attempt to get a word in edgewise, and may change
the course of the conversation. Let them speak while you listen, and if you need to take notes to
focus your thoughts, take clear notes of what is said, also noting points to revisit later. External
interruptions can also take the form of a telephone ringing, a “text message has arrived” chime, or a
coworker dropping by in the middle of the conversation.
As an effective business communicator, you know all too well to consider the context and cli-
mate of the communication interaction when approaching the delicate subject of evaluations or
criticism. Choose a time and place free from interruption. Choose one outside the common space
where there may be many observers. Turn off your cell phone. Choose face-to-face communica-
tion instead of an impersonal e-mail. By providing a space free of interruption, you are displaying
respect for the individual and the information.
Determine the Speaker’s Intent

We have discussed previews as a normal part of conversation, and in this context they play an
important role. People want to know what is coming and generally dislike surprises, particularly
when the context of an evaluation is present. If you are on the receiving end, you may need to ask a
clarifying question if it doesn’t count as an interruption. You may also need to take notes and write
down questions that come to mind to address when it is your turn to speak. As a manager, be clear
and positive in your opening and lead with praise. You can find one point, even if it is only that
the employee consistently shows up to work on time, to highlight before transitioning to a perfor-
mance issue.
Indicate You Are Listening

In mainstream U.S. culture, eye contact is a signal that you are listening and paying attention to
the person speaking. Take notes, nod your head, or lean forward to display interest and listening.
Regardless of whether you are the employee receiving the criticism or the supervisor delivering it,
displaying listening behavior engenders a positive climate that helps mitigate the challenge of neg-
ative news or constructive criticism.
Paraphrase
Restate the main points to paraphrase what has been discussed. This verbal display allows for clar-
ification and acknowledges receipt of the message.
If you are the employee, summarize the main points and consider steps you will take to correct
the situation. If none come to mind or you are nervous and are having a hard time thinking clearly,
state out loud the main point and ask if you can provide solution steps and strategies at a later
date. You can request a follow-up meeting if appropriate, or indicate you will respond in writing via
e-mail to provide the additional information.
If you are the employer, restate the main points to ensure that the message was received, as not
everyone hears everything that is said or discussed the first time it is presented. Stress can impair
listening, and paraphrasing the main points can help address this common response.
If You Agree
If an apology is well deserved, offer it. Communicate clearly what will change or indicate when
you will respond with specific strategies to address the concern. As a manager you will want to
formulate a plan that addresses the issue and outlines responsibilities as well as time frames for
corrective action. As an employee you will want specific steps you can both agree on that will serve
to solve the problem. Clear communication and acceptance of responsibility demonstrates matu-
rity and respect.
If You Disagree
If you disagree, focus on the points or issue and not personalities. Do not bring up past issues and
keep the conversation focused on the task at hand. You may want to suggest, now that you better
understand their position, a follow-up meeting to give you time to reflect on the issues. You may
want to consider involving a third party, investigating to learn more about the issue, or taking time
to cool off.
Do not respond in anger or frustration; instead, always display professionalism. If the criticism
is unwarranted, consider that the information they have may be flawed or biased, and consider
ways to learn more about the case to share with them, searching for a mutually beneficial solution.
If other strategies to resolve the conflict fail, consider contacting your human resources
department to learn more about due process procedures at your workplace. Display respect and
never say anything that would reflect poorly on yourself or your organization. Words spoken in
anger can have a lasting impact and are impossible to retrieve or take back.
Learn from Experience

Every communication interaction provides an opportunity for learning if you choose to see it.
Sometimes the lessons are situational and may not apply in future contexts. Other times the
lessons learned may well serve you across your professional career. Taking notes for yourself to
clarify your thoughts, much like a journal, serve to document and help you see the situation more
clearly.
Recognize that some aspects of communication are intentional, and may communicate mean-
ing, even if it is hard to understand. Also, know that some aspects of communication are uninten-
tional, and may not imply meaning or design. People make mistakes. They say things they should
not have said. Emotions are revealed that are not always rational, and not always associated with
the current context. A challenging morning at home can spill over into the work day and someone’s
bad mood may have nothing to do with you.
Try to distinguish between what you can control and what you cannot, and always choose pro-
fessionalism.
Key Takeaway
Conflict is unavoidable and can be opportunity for clarification, growth, and even reinforcement
of the relationship.
1. Write a description of a situation you recall where you came into conflict with someone else.
It may be something that happened years ago, or a current issue that just arose. Using the
principles and strategies in this section, describe how the conflict was resolved, or could
have been resolved. Discuss your ideas with your classmates.
2. Of the strategies for managing conflict described in this section, which do you think are the
most effective? Why? Discuss your opinions with a classmate.
3. Can you think of a time when a conflict led to a new opportunity, better understanding, or
other positive result? If not, think of a past conflict and imagine a positive outcome. Write a
two- to three-paragraph description of what happened, or what you imagine could happen.
Share your results with a classmate.

For another twist on the meaning of “stream of consciousness,” visit this blog from the retail mer-
chant Gaiam. http://blog.gaiam.com
Read an informative article on self-concept and self-esteem by Arash Farzaneh. http://
psychology.suite101.com/article.cfm/impact_of_selfconcept_and_selfesteem_on_life
PsyBlog offers an informative article on self-disclosure. Don’t miss the readers’ comments at
the end! http://www.spring.org.uk/2007/02/getting-closer-art-of-self-disclosure.php
The job search site Monster.com offers a menu of articles about employment interviews. http:/
/career-advice.monster.com/job-interview/careers.aspx
About.com offers an informative article about different types of job interviews. http://
jobsearch.about.com/od/interviewsnetworking/a/interviewtypes.htm
The Boston Globe’s Boston.com site offers tips on handling conflict in the workplace from man-
agement consultant Sue Lankton-Rivas. http://www.boston.com/jobs/galleries/workplaceconflict
Endnotes
2. Shedletsky, L. J. (1989). Meaning and mind: An interpersonal approach to human communication. ERIC Clearinghouse on reading and communication skills.
Bloomington, IN: ERIC.
3. Pearson, J., & Nelson, P. (1985). Understanding and sharing: An introduction to speech communication (3rd ed.). Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown.
4. Pinker, S. (2009). The stuff of thought: Language as a window to human nature. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
7. Cooley, C. (1922). Human nature and the social order (Rev. ed.). New York, NY: Scribners.
8. Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of soical comparison processes. Human Relationships, 7, 117–140.
9. Korzybski, A. (1933). Science and sanity. Lancaster, PA: International Non-Aristotelian Library Publish Co.
11. Luft, J., & Ingham, H. (1955). The Johari Window: A graphic model for interpersonal relations. Los Angeles: University of California Western Training Lab.
12. Luft, J. (1970). Group processes: An introduction to group dynamics (2nd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: National Press Group.
18. Watzlawick, P. (1993). The language of change: Elements of therapeutic communication. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company.
19. Beebe, S. [Steven], Beebe, S. [Susan], & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
20. McLean, S. (2005). The basics of interpersonal communication (p 114). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
21. Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication.
Human Communication Research, 1, 99–112.
22. Berger, C. (1986). Uncertain outcome values in predicted relationships: Uncertainty reduction theory then and now. Human Communication Research, 13(1),
34–38.
23. Gudykunst, W.(1995) Anxiety/uncertainty management theory. In R. W. Wiseman (Ed.), Intercultural communication theory (pp. 8–58). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage.
24. Sunnafrank, M. (1986). Predicted outcome value during initial interactions: A reformulation of uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communication Research,
3–33.
25. Sunnafrank, M. (1990). Predicted outcome value and uncertainty reduction theory: A test of compting perspective. Human Communication Theory, 17,
76–150.
26. Kellerman, K., & Reynolds, R. (1990). When ignorance is bliss: The role of motivation to reduce uncertainty in uncertainty reduction theory. Human Communi-
cation Research, 17, 5–75.
27. Beebe, S. [Steven]., Beebe, S. [Susan], & Redmond, M. (2002). Interpersonal communication relating to others (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
28. Malinowski, B. (1935). The language and magic of gardening. London, England: Allen & Unwin.
30. Knapp, M., & Vangelisti, A. (2000). Interpersonal communication and relationships (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
31. Malinowski, B. (1935). The language and magic of gardening. London, England: Allen & Unwin.
34. Hocker, J., & Wilmot, W. (1991). Interpersonal conflict. Dubuque, IA: Willam C. Brown.
37. Gibb, J. (1961). Defensive and supportive communication. Journal of Communication, 11, 141–148.
38. Donohue, W., & Klot, R. (1992). Managing interpersonal conflict. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
39. Bach, G., & Wyden, P. (1968). The intimate enemy: How to fight fair in love and marriage. New York, NY: Avon.
40. Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed., p. 320). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.
Negative News and Crisis
Communication
You don’t hear things that are bad about your company unless you ask. It is easy to hear good
tidings, but you have to scratch to get the bad news.
— Thomas J. Watson Sr.
One day, today, is worth two tomorrows.

— Anonymous
1. Write a brief description of an experience when someone shared negative news with you in
person or in writing. How was it presented? How was it delivered? How did it make you feel?
After all this time, how do you still feel about it? Share your response and compare with
classmates.
2. Write a brief description of an experience when you shared negative news with someone in
person or in writing. How did you present it? How did you deliver it? How did you feel, and
what was your perception of how it was received? How do you feel about it now? How do

3. Locate the emergency plan where you work or go to school. What would you do in the case
of an emergency? Discuss with classmates.
4. Can you think of one company that has had a scandal, a major problem, or a crisis in the last
year? Indicate the company and your perception of how the situation was handled. Discuss
with classmates.
5. Find five examples of press conferences and create a table with the product or service and
the message.
6. From Introductory Exercise 5, add a third and fourth column to your table, noting whether
you thought the message was effective or ineffective.
Communication is constant, but is it always effective? In times of confusion or crisis, clear

and concise communication takes on an increased level of importance. When an emergency arises,
rumors can spin out of control, emotions can run high, feelings can be hurt, and in some cases lives
can tragically be lost. In this chapter we will examine several scenarios in which negative news is
delivered or received, and examine ways to improve communication. We will conclude with a dis-
cussion of a formal crisis communication plan. Whether you anticipate the necessity of being the
bearer of unpleasant or bad news, or a sudden and unexpected crisis occurs, your thoughtful prepa-
ration can make all the difference.
17.2 Delivering a Negative News

Message
1.
2.
The negative news message delivers news that the audience does not want to hear, read, or receive.
Delivering negative news is never easy. Whether you are informing someone they are being laid off
News that the audience or providing constructive criticism on their job performance, how you choose to deliver the mes-
does not want to hear, sage can influence its response.[1] Some people prefer their bad news to be direct and concise. Others
read, or receive. may prefer a less direct approach. Regardless whether you determine a direct or indirect approach
is warranted, your job is to deliver news that you anticipate will be unwelcome, unwanted, and pos-
sibly dismissed.
In this section we will examine several scenarios that can be communicated internally (within
the organization) and externally (outside the organization), but recognize that the lines can be
blurred as communication flows outside and through an organization or business. Internal and
external communication environments often have a degree of overlap. The rumor of anticipated
layoffs may surface in the local media, and you may be called upon to address the concern within
the organization. In a similar way, a product that has failed internal quality control tests will
require several more tests and improvements before it is ready for market, but if that information
leaves the organization, it can hurt the business reputation, prospects for future contracts, and the
company’s ability to secure financing.
Communication is constantly present, and our ability to manage, clarify, and guide under-
standing is key to addressing challenges while maintaining trust and integrity with employees,
stakeholders, and the public.
There are seven goals to keep in mind when delivering negative news, in person or in written
form:
1. Be clear and concise in order not to require additional clarification.
2. Help the receiver understand and accept the news.
3. Maintain trust and respect for the business or organization and for the receiver.
4. Avoid legal liability or erroneous admission of guilt or culpability.
5. Maintain the relationship, even if a formal association is being terminated.
6. Reduce the anxiety associated with the negative news to increase comprehension.
7. Achieve the designated business outcome.
Chapter 17 Negative News and Crisis Communication 541
Let’s examine our first scenario:

You are a supervisor and have been given the task of discussing repeated tardiness with an
employee, Chris. Chris has frequently been late for work, and the problem has grown worse over
the last two weeks. The tardiness is impairing not only Chris’s performance, but also that of the
entire work team. Your manager has instructed you to put an end to it. The desired result is for
Chris to stop his tardiness behavior and improve his performance.
You can
1. stop by Chris’s cubicle and simply say, “Get to work on time or you are out”;
2. invite Chris out to a nice lunch and let him have it;
3. write Chris a stern e-mail;
4. ask Chris to come to your office and discuss the behavior with him in private.
While there are many other ways you could choose to address the situation, let’s examine each
of these four alternatives in light of the goals to keep in mind when presenting negative news.
First, you could approach Chris in his work space and speak to him directly. Advantages
include the ability to get right to the point right away. Disadvantages include the strain on the
supervisor-employee relationship as a result of the public display of criticism, the possibility that
Chris may not understand you, the lack of a formal discussion you can document, and the risk that
your actions may not bring about the desired results.
The goals include the desire to be clear and concise in order not to require additional clar-
ification. This possible response does not provide the opportunity for discussion, feedback, or
confirmation that Chris has clearly understood your concern. It fails to address the performance
concern, and limits the correction to the tardiness. It fails to demonstrate respect for all parties. The
lack of tact apparent in the approach may reflect negatively on you as the supervisor, not only with
Chris but with your manager as well.
When you need to speak to an employee about a personnel concern, it is always best to do it
in private. Give thought and concern to the conversation before it occurs, and make a list of points
to cover with specific information, including grievances. Like any other speech, you may need to
rehearse, particularly if this type of meeting is new to you. When it comes time to have the discus-
sion, issue the warning, back it up in writing with documentation, and don’t give the impression
that you might change your decision. Whether the issue at hand is a simple caution about tardi-
ness or a more serious conversation, you need to be fair and respectful, even if the other person has
been less than professional. Let’s examine the next alternative.
Let’s say you invite Chris to lunch at a nice restaurant. There is linen on the table, silverware
is present for more than the main course, and the water glasses have stems. The environment
says “good job” in its uniqueness, presentation, and luxury. Your word will contradict this nonverbal
message. The juxtaposition between the environment and the verbal message will cause tension
and confusion, which will probably be an obstacle to the receiver’s ability to listen. If Chris doesn’t
understand the message, and the message requires clarification, your approach has failed. The con-
trast between the restaurant setting and the negative message does not promote understanding
and acceptance of the bad news or correction. Furthermore, it does not build trust in the relation-
ship, as the restaurant invitation might be interpreted as a “trap” or a betrayal. Let’s examine yet
another approach.
You’ve written Chris a stern e-mail. You’ve included a list of all the recent dates when he was
late and made several statements about the quality of his work. You’ve indicated he needs to
improve, and stop being late, or else. But was your e-mail harassment? Could it be considered
beyond the scope of supervision and interpreted as mean or cruel? And do you even know if Chris
has received it? If there was no reply, do you know whether it achieved its desired business out-
come? A written message may certainly be part of the desired approach, but how it is presented
and delivered is as important as what it says. Let’s examine our fourth approach to this scenario.
You ask Chris to join you in a private conversation. You start the conversation with an expres-
sion of concern and an open-ended question: “Chris, I’ve been concerned about your work lately.
Is everything all right?” As Chris answers, you may demonstrate that you are listening by nodding
your head, and possibly taking notes. You may learn that Chris has been having problems sleeping,
or that his living situation has changed. Or Chris may decline to share any issues, deny that any-
thing is wrong, and ask why you are concerned. You may then state that you’ve observed the
chronic tardiness, and name one or more specific mistakes you have found in Chris’s work, ending
with a reiteration that you are concerned. This statement of concern may elicit more responses and
open the conversation up into a dialogue where you come to understand the situation, Chris sees
your concern, and the relationship is preserved. Alternatively, in case the conversation does not go
well, you will still keep a positive attitude even as you document the meeting and give Chris a ver-
bal warning.
Regardless of how well or poorly the conversation goes, if Chris tells other employees about
it, they will take note of how you handled the situation, and it will contribute to their perception
of you. It guides their expectations of how you operate and how to communicate with you, as this
interaction is not only about you and Chris. You represent the company and its reputation, and
your professional display of concern as you try to learn more sends a positive message. While the
private, respectful meeting may not be the perfect solution, it is preferable to the other approaches
we have considered.
FIGURE 17.1
Performance evaluations usually involve constructive criticism.
One additional point to consider as you document this interaction is the need to present the
warning in writing. You may elect to prepare a memo that outlines the information concerning
Chris’s performance and tardiness and have it ready should you want to present it. If the session
goes well, and you have the discretion to make a judgment call, you may elect to give him another
week to resolve the issue. Even if it goes well, you may want to present the memo, as it documents
the interaction and serves as evidence of due process should Chris’s behavior fail to change, even-
tually resulting in the need for termination.
This combined approach of a verbal and written message is increasingly the norm in business
communication. In the next two sections, we’ll compare and contrast approaches, verbal and writ-
ten, and outline several best practices in terms of approach. But first, we’ll outline the four main
parts of a negative news message:
1. Buffer or cushion
2. Explanation
3. Negative news
4. Redirect
The first part of a negative news message, verbal or written, involves neutral or positive infor-
mation. This sets the tone and often serves as a buffer or cushion for the information to come. Next,
an explanation discusses why there is an issue in the first place. This may be relatively simple, quite
complex, or uncomfortable. In a journal article titled “Further Conceptualization of Explanations
in Negative News Messages,”[2] Mohan Limaye makes the clear case that not only is an explanation
a necessary part of any negative news message, it is an ethical and moral requirement. While an
explanation is important, never admit or imply responsibility without written authorization from
your company cleared by legal counsel. The third part of the negative news message involves the
bad news itself, and the emphasis here is on clarity and accuracy. Finally, the redirect may refocus
attention on a solution strategy, an alternative, or the subsequent actions that will take place. Table
17.1 provides an example that might apply in an external communication situation.
TABLE 17.1 Negative News Message Sample Script

Parts of the Negative News Message Example
Buffer or Cushion Thank you for your order. We appreciate your
interest in our product.
Explanation We are writing to let you know that this product
has been unexpectedly popular, with over 10,000
requests on the day you placed your order.
Negative News This unexpected increase in demand has resulted
in a temporary out-of-stock/backorder situation.
We will fulfill your order, received at 11:59 p.m.
on 09/09/2009, in the order it was received.
Redirect We anticipate that your product will ship next
Monday. While you wait, we encourage you to
consider using the enclosed $5 off coupon
toward the purchase of any product in our cata-
log. We appreciate your business and want you
to know that our highest priority is your satisfac-
tion.
In Table 17.1, the neutral or positive news comes first and introduces the customer to the overall
topic. The explanation provides an indication of the purpose of the communication, while the neg-
A subtle, low-pressure ative message directly addresses how it affects the customer. The redirect discusses specific actions
method of selling,
cross-selling, or to take place. In this case, it also includes a solution strategy enhanced with a soft sell message, a
advertising a product or subtle, low-pressure method of selling, cross-selling, or advertising a product or service. Whether
service. you are delivering negative news in person or in writing, the four main parts of a negative message
can help you meet all seven goals.
It's never easy to communicate bad news to your employees. Susan Rink explains the best
employee communications practices that can help improve employee morale and build
long-term good will among your employees, vendors, and customers. Visit Rink Strategic
Communications online http://www.RinkComms.com.
Before we move to the verbal and written delivery of the negative news message, we need to
offer a word of counsel. You want to avoid legal problems when communicating bad news. You
cannot always predict how others are going to respond, but you can prepare for and deliver your
response in ways that lower the risk of litigation in four ways:
1. Avoid abusive language or behavior.
2. Avoid contradictions and absolutes.

3. Avoid confusion or misinterpretation.
4. Maintain respect and privacy.
Sarcasm, profanity, shouting, or abusive or derogatory language is an obstacle to clear commu-
nication. Furthermore, such language can be interpreted as defamatory, or harming the reputation
of the person, possibly having a negative impact on their future earnings. In written form, it is
called libel. If you say it out loud, it is called slander. While slander may be harder to prove, no
defamatory remarks should be part of your negative news message. Cell phones increasingly serve
to record conversations, and you simply never know if your words will come back to you in short
order. Represent yourself, the business, and the receiver of your message with professionalism and
avoid abusive or defamatory language.
You also want to avoid contradictions, as they only serve to invite debate. Make sure your infor-
mation is consistent and in agreement with the general information in the conversation. If one part
of the information stands out as a contradiction, its importance will be magnified in the context
and distract from your main message. Don’t provide more information that is necessary. Polarizing,
absolute terms like “always” and “never” are often part of sweeping generalizations that are open to
debate. Instead of saying, “You are always late,” choose to say, “You were late sixteen times in May.”
To avoid confusion or misinterpretation, be precise and specific.
Always maintain respect and privacy. Making a negative statement about an employee in front
of a group of coworkers can be considered ridicule or harm, and in the coming cases may be action-
able and involve legal ramifications. In addition to the legal responsibility, you have the overall
goal of demonstrating professionalism as you represent yourself and your company in maintaining
the relationship with the employee, even if the end goal is termination. Employees have retaliated
against their organizations in many ways, from discouraging remarks to vandalism and computer
viruses. Your goal is to avoid such behavior, not out of fear, but out of professionalism and respect
for yourself and your organization. Open lines of communication present in a relationship can help
reduce the risk of relational deterioration or animosity. The sidebar below provides a checklist for
delivering a negative message.
Negative Message Checklist
1. Clear goal in mind

2. Clear instructions from supervisor (legal counsel)
3. Clear understanding of message
4. Clear understanding of audience/reader
5. Clear understanding of procedure and protocol
6. Clear, neutral opening
7. Clear explanation without admission of guilt or culpability
8. Clear statement of impact or negative news
9. Clear redirect with no reminders of negative news
10. Clear results with acceptance or action on negative news
Presenting Negative News in Person

Most of us dislike conflict. It may be tempting to avoid face-to-face interaction for fear of confronta-
tion, but delivering negative news in person can be quite effective, even necessary, in many business
situations. When considering a one-on-one meeting or a large, formal meeting, consider the prepa-
ration and implementation of the discussion.
The first step involves a clear goal. Stephen Covey (1989) recommends beginning with the end
in mind.[3] Do you want your negative news to inform, or to bring about change, and if so what kind
of change and to what degree? A clear conceptualization of the goal allows you to anticipate the
possible responses, to plan ahead, and to get your emotional “house” in order.
Your emotional response to the news and the audience, whether it is one person or the whole
company, will set the tone for the entire interaction. You may feel frustrated, angry, or hurt, but
the display of these emotions is often more likely to make the problem worse than to help solve it.
Emotions can be contagious, and people will respond to the emotional tone of the speaker.
If your response involves only one other person, a private, personal meeting is the best option,
but it may not be available. Increasingly people work and contribute to projects from a distance, via
the Internet, and may only know each other via e-mail, phone, or videophone/videoconferencing
services. A personal meeting may be impractical or impossible. How then does one deliver negative
news in person? By the best option available to both parties. Written feedback may be an option via
e-mail, but it takes time to prepare, send, receive, process, and respond—and the written word has
its disadvantages. Miscommunication and misinterpretation can easily occur, with little opportu-
nity for constructive feedback to check meanings and clarify perceptions.
The telephone call allows both parties to hear each other’s voices, including the words, the
inflection, the disfluencies, and the emotional elements of conversation. It is immediate in that the
possibility of overlap is present, meaning not only is proximity in terms of voice as close as possi-
ble, but both parties may experience overlaps as they take turns and communicate. Telephone calls
allow for quick feedback and clarification questions, and allow both parties an opportunity to recy-
cle and revisit topics for elaboration or a better understanding. They also can cover long distances
with reasonable clarity. Voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) allows you to do the same with relatively
little cost.
While there are distinct advantages, the telephone lacks part of the nonverbal spectrum avail-
able to speakers in a live setting. On the telephone, proximity is a function of response time rather
than physical space and the degree to which one person is near another. Time is also synchro-
nous, though the telephone crosses time zones and changes the context as one party may have just
arrived at work while the other party is leaving for lunch. Body language gets lost in the exchange
as well, although many of us continue to make hand gestures on the phone, even when our conver-
sational partners cannot see us. Paralanguage, or the sounds we hear that are not verbal, including
pitch, tone, rate, rhythm, pace, articulation, and pronunciation are all available to the listener. As we
can see, the telephone call allows for a richer communication experience than written communica-
tion, but cannot convey as much information as would be available in person. Just as a telephone
interview may be used for screening purposes while a live interview is reserved for the final candi-
dates, the live setting is often considered the best option for delivering negative news.
Live and in person may be the best option for direct communication with immediate feedback.
In a live setting time is constant. The participants may schedule a breakfast meeting, for example,
mirroring schedules and rhythms. Live, face-to-face communication comes in many forms. The
casual exchange in the hallway, the conversation over coffee, and the formal performance review
meeting all have interpersonal communication in common.
If you need to share the message with a larger audience, you may need to speak to a group, or
you might even have to make a public presentation or speech. If it needs a feedback loop, we often
call it a press conference, as the speech is followed by a question and answer session. From meeting
in the hallway to live, onstage, under camera lights and ready for questions, the personal delivery
of negative news can be a challenging task.
Presenting Negative News in Writing

Writing can be intrapersonal, between two people, group communication, public communication,
or even mass communication. One distinct advantage of presenting negative news in writing is the
planning and preparation that goes into the message, making the initial communication more
predictable. When a message is delivered orally in an interpersonal setting, we may interrupt each
other, we sometimes hear what we want to, and it often takes negotiation and listening skills to
grasp meaning. While a written message, like all messages, is open to interpretation, the range of
possibilities is narrowed and presented within the frame and format designed by the source or
author.
The written message involves verbal factors like language and word choice, but it can also
involve nonverbal factors like timing and presentation. Do you communicate the message on letter-
head, do you choose the channel of e-mail over a hard copy letter, or do you compose your written
message in your best penmanship? Each choice communicates meaning, and the choice of how you
present your written message influences its reception, interpretation, and the degree to which it is
understood. In this section we consider the written message that delivers negative news.
Let’s consider several scenarios:
1. A community disaster such as illness (e.g., a swine flu epidemic), earthquake, wildfire, plane
crash, or a terrorism incident
2. An on-the-job accident with injuries or even death
3. A product defect resulting in injuries, illness, or even death to consumers
4. An unsuccessful product test (e.g., a new software system that isn’t going to be ready for
launch as planned)
5. A company merger that may result in reductions in force or layoffs
In business communication we often categorize our communication as internal or external.
Internal communication is the sharing and understanding of meaning between individuals,
departments, or representatives of the same business. External communication is the sharing and
The sharing and
understanding of meaning between individuals, departments, or representatives of the business and
parties outside the organization. Across the five scenarios we’ll consider each of these categories between individuals,
in turn. departments, or
representatives of the
The confirmation of swine flu (H1N1) may first occur with a laboratory report (itself a written same business.
document), but it is normally preceded by conversations between health care professionals con-
cerned over the symptoms exhibited by patients, including a high fever, a cough, sore throat, and a
headache. According to Sally Redman, a registered nurse at Student Health Services at Washington
State University–Pullman, over two thousand students (of nineteen thousand total student popu- The sharing and
lation) presented symptoms on or around August 21, 2009.[4]
between individuals,
Communication will predictably occur among students, health care professionals, and the departments, or
community, but parents at a distance will want to know not only the status of their child, but also representatives of the
business and parties
of the university. A written message that necessarily contains negative news may be written in the outside the organization.
form of a press release, for example, noting important information like the number of students
affected, the capacity of the health care system to respond, the experience to date, and whom to
contact for further details and updates. This message will be read over and over as parents,
reporters, and people across the country want to learn more about the situation. Like all business
communication, it needs to be clear and concise.
Our next scenario offers a learning opportunity as well. An on-the-job accident affects employ-
ees and the company, and like our previous example, there will be considerable interest. There may
Statement that the be interpersonal communication between company representatives and the individual’s family, but
contributing factors that
gave rise to the situation the company will want to communicate a clear record of the occurrence with an assurance, or
has been corrected or statement that the contributing factors that gave rise to the situation has been corrected or were
where beyond the control beyond the control of the company and its representatives.
of the company and its
representatives. In addition to a statement of record, and an assurance, the company will certainly want to avoid
the implication or indication of guilt or culpability. In the case of a product defect resulting in
injuries, illness, or even death to consumers, this will be a relevant point of consideration. Per-
haps a voluntary recall will be ordered, proactively addressing the risk before an accident occurs. It
may also be the case that the recall order is issued by a government agency. Again, a written state-
ment delivering negative news, in this case the recall of a product that presents a risk, must be
written with care and consultation of legal counsel.
If your company is publicly traded, the premature announcement of a software program full of
bugs, or programming errors that result in less than perfect performance, can send the company’s
stock price plummeting. How you release this information within the organization will influence
how it is received. If your written internal memo briefly states that the software program develop-
ment process has been extended to incorporate additional improvements, the emphasis shifts from
the negative to the positive. While the negative news, the delay of release, remains, the focus on the
benefits of the additional time can influence employees’ views, and can make a difference in how
the message is received outside the organization.
The awareness of a merger, and the possibility of a reduction in force or layoffs, will be dis-
cussed along the grapevine at work, and will give rise to tension and anticipation of negative news.
You could simply write a short memo “To All Employees,” not include any contact information, and
have an assistant walk around and place copies on everyone’s chair or desk during the lunch hour.
But let’s look at the message this would send to employees. The written communication includes
nonverbal aspects like timing and presentation as well as verbal aspects like language and word
choice. The timing itself suggests avoidance of conflict, and a reluctance to address the issue with
transparency. The presentation of a memo in hard copy form on your chair from an unidentified
company representative will certainly cause confusion, may be mistaken for a prank, and could
cause considerable stress. It will contribute to increased tensions rather than solidarity, and if trust
is the foundation for all effective communication, it violates this principle.
Negative news may not be easy to deliver, but it is necessary at times and should be done with
clarity and brevity. All parties should be clearly identified. The negative news itself should be clear
and concise. The presentation should be direct, with authority and credibility. Commu- nication
occurs between people, and all humans experience concern, fear, and trepidation of the unknown.
The negative news message, while it may be unwelcome, can bring light to an issue.
As we mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, some people prefer their bad news to be
direct and concise, while others prefer a less direct approach. Let’s weigh the pros and cons of each
approach. Table 17.2 contrasts the elements of the two approaches.
TABLE 17.2 Direct and Indirect Delivery

Direct Delivery Direct Example Indirect Delivery Indirect Example
Positive introduction Thank you for your
request for leave.
Negative news mes- Your request for leave Negative news mes- We regret to inform you
sage as introduction has been denied. sage that your request has
been denied.
Conclusion Please contact your Conclusion Please contact your
supervisor if you need supervisor if you need
more information. more information.
The direct approach places the negative news at the beginning of the message, while the indi-
rect approach packages the negative news between a positive introduction, sometimes called a
“buffer” or cushion, and a conclusion. Your negative message may include the rationale or reasons
for the decision.
The direct approach is often associated with a message where the audience values brevity and
the message needs to be concise. A positive introduction often introduces the topic but not the out-
come. An effective negative news statement clearly states the message while limiting the possibility
of misinterpretation. An effective closing statement may provide reasons, reference a policy, or indi-
cate a procedure to follow for more information.
Key Takeaway
Delivering negative news involves a buffer or cushion statement, an explanation, the negative
news itself, and a redirecting statement. Whether you choose a direct or an indirect approach,
the message should be delivered clearly and concisely, with respect for the receiver and the
organization.
1. When should you use an indirect approach in delivering a negative news message? Explain
your answer to the class.
2. Ask five friends which they would prefer: negative news in a direct or indirect format? Why?
Discuss your results with a classmate.
3. Sales have decreased for two consecutive quarters at your business. You have been
instructed to inform your sales team that their hours, and base pay, will be reduced by 20
percent. While you may have a few members of your sales team that are underperforming,
you want to retain the entire team. Write a negative news message in a direct or indirect
approach informing your sales team of the news.
4. You have observed and documented an employee being late and taking long breaks for the
past two weeks. Write out a brief summary of the conversation you need to have. You may
be assigned to another classmate for a role-playing exercise. Share and compare with your
classmates.
17.3 Eliciting Negative News
1. Understand the importance of feedback, even if it is negative.

2.
How do you know when you are doing a good job? How do you know when, where, and how you
could do a better job? What makes the difference between business or organization that is stagnant
The verbal and/or
nonverbal response to a and one that is dynamic? Often the response to all these questions involves one key, but often over-
message. looked, company resource: feedback. Feedback is the verbal and/or nonverbal response to a
message, and that message may involve a company product or service.
Employee surveys, for example, may be completed online, in written form, in small focus
groups, and can involve both oral and written communication. In the same way, customer satisfac-
tion surveys may involve similar options and both provide a valuable opportunity to take a critical
look at what we are doing, how it is perceived, and what areas we can identify for improvement.
They often measure opinions, satisfaction, attitude, brand affiliation, preference, and engagement
of customers and employees. In this section we will consider negative news as a valuable tool in
self, team, company, product, and service improvement.
Across the years there have been extensive studies on how to improve businesses and compa-
nies, from Total Quality Improvement to the Six Sigma approach to excellence. Regardless of the
management theory, approach, or label, they all rest on a foundation of effective communication. One way that
communication is often described involves customer relationship management,[5] or the relation-
the organization ship between the organization (sometimes represented by the product or service itself) and the
(sometimes represented customer.
by the product or service
itself) and the customer. This leads us to our first point: who is the customer? You might be tempted to say the end-user,
the purchaser, or the decision-maker, but customers are often categorized as internal and external.
Employees themselves represent internal customers, and their relationship with the business,
product, or service has value to the organization. External customers may include the end-user, but
can also include vendors and related businesses that are part of the supply chain. This expanded,
global view of communication and customer service relationships will guide our discussion as we
explore ways to effectively elicit negative news, critical feedback, and praise for a job well done.
Positive news is part of feedback, and indeed the difference between positive and negative
news often lies more in the interpretation of information than the information itself. For example,
if a software product that your company has been testing for some time, scheduled for a release
date in the near future, has failed several tests, the tendency to view the news as negative is under-
stood. The fact that the problems and issues were identified prior to release, however, provides an
opportunity to correct them before their impact is magnified by negative news in the press, cus-
tomer rejection of an inferior product, and a diminished view of your brand, all of which could
ultimately damage customer loyalty and even your stock value. The chain reaction doesn’t stop
there; these effects could in turn limit your ability to get additional financing as an organization,
the perceived risk could elevate interest rates on your company debts, and this could reduce bud-
gets across the organization, limiting the very research and development budget that gives rise to
the new, innovative, or breakout products that will gain market share.
Viewed in this light, it could be a very positive development that the faults in the software were
detected before release. In addition, by learning to view information in a dispassionate way, noting
that there is more than one way to interpret much of what we gather as data, you as a business
professional can enhance your ability to see new approaches to products or services.
Thomas Kuhn, author of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1996),[6] states that commu-
nities operate on a set of beliefs. These beliefs form the foundation of the community, business,
and organization. Employees and customers alike become socialized, learning the values, meaning,
behaviors, cultural customs, expectations for excellence, and brand associations through interac-
tion with the community. In business, we can clearly see the example of new employees becoming
socialized into the company culture; they are training, learning about their jobs, and getting to
know their coworkers.
We can also see how a customer interacts with a product or service, and comes to associate feel-
ings, ideas, and expectations with a brand or company. This foundation or set of actualized beliefs
becomes the norm or the status quo, and can become static or fixed. If a certain process is success-
ful and an individual or company is rewarded, the process is often repeated. If a customer buys a
certain product that works as they anticipate it will, they are more likely to make a similar pur-
chase decision in the future.
Kuhn discusses research and the scientific method as a process that can affirm the status quo,
but can also produce an anomaly, or something that doesn’t fit, challenges the existing norm, or
Something that doesn’t fit,
stands apart from the anticipated results.[7] This anomaly can challenge the status quo, and may not
challenges the existing
be greeted with open arms. Instead, it may be ignored or dismissed as irrelevant, but nothing could norm, or stands apart from
be further from the truth. As Kuhn (1996)[8] notes, this outlying information that challenges the the anticipated results.
norm is precisely the necessary ingredient for a paradigm shift, or a change in overall view. The view
itself can be as simple as the new awareness that a product has more uses than originally
anticipated, or as significant as a new awareness of the brand and the company focus.
Is there a better way to produce a product? Is there a new feature that customers want? You’ll
never know if you don’t ask, and you’ll never improve or change if you don’t listen to the feedback.
One story that articulates this power of the anomaly, of unanticipated information that results
in a change in view, involves a common business product. A research chemist for the 3M Company,
Spencer Silver, was used to trial and error as he pursued his goal of a new superglue.[9] By mixing
simple organic compounds in unusual ratios, he tried to create this superstrong glue, but one result
in particular was a spectacular failure. This particular result, a polymer, would stick to many sur-
faces, but it was also easy to remove, leaving no trace of itself. This odd substance was considered
useless until Arthur Fry, a fellow 3M scientist, found a new use for it: removable paper notes that
could be used to mark pages in his hymnal when he sang in his church choir. Minor modifications
resulted in sample note pads that were passed around at 3M, and soon a new form of written com-
munication and information organization was created: the now-famous Post-it brand note.[10] Silver
and Fry could have dismissed the negative result as a failure to reach the established goal of invent-
ing a super glue, but by undergoing a paradigm shift, they revolutionized business communication.
Learning to be open to information that challenges your views is a key business skill.
This now brings us to the question of how we elicit negative news, critical feedback, and assess-
ment information. How do you learn more about the people around you? You watch, listen, and ask
questions. Asking questions while watching, listening, and learning is the foundation of eliciting
feedback. We can ask questions in interpersonal interviews, in small groups, and even large groups
in person. We can use technology to help gather and process information, categorizing and classify-
ing it. We can also create surveys with questions designed to elicit specific types of information.
Academic research often uses the terms “qualitative” and “quantitative” to categorize two types
of information gathering. Qualitative research involves interactions, which by their very nature
Involves interactions,
are subject to interpretation and, as a result, are less reliable and statistically valid. Their strength which by their very nature
is in the raw data, the proximity to the source, and the possibility of unexpected results. The weak- are subject to
ness in the results is often the inability to replicate the results the same way again. An example may interpretation and, as a
be a focus group, where participants try a new beverage and report their experience in words and
statistically valid.
nonverbal expressions. By recording the group, we can replay and study their response to the new
drink, and learn that many of the participants perceive it to be sour from their facial gestures. The
written responses may not indicate this response to the same degree, and the recorded responses
may portray a different story. If you replicate the focus group with new participants, you may very
well have a different outcome.
Over time, patterns may emerge that produce reliable results, and indeed double-blind studies
for many pharmaceuticals use a similar approach, but the number of participants has to be signifi-
Factors that can alter the
results; must be cantly increased while the confounding factors, or factors that can alter the results, must be
anticipated and controlled. anticipated and controlled. All of this involves a cost, and not every product, service, or study needs
this type of investigation.
Quantitative research involves investigation and analysis of data and relationships between
data that can be represented by numbers. The categorization and classification from the moment
of data and relationships the investigation means that some aspects of the raw data will be necessarily lost in the process,
between data that can be but the information that remains will have a reliability and validity that compensates for this loss.
Indeed, quantitative measures and representations of data are increasingly the norm in business
communication, and are used to make decisions at all levels.
If your company produces automobiles, you may want qualitative information from potential
consumers on their impression of the placement of the cupholders, but you will probably prefer
quantitative information when it comes to engineering and safety. As you stress-test the steel in
crash tests, assessing the force of the impact, the displacement of parts of the car as the crumple
zones deform to absorb the energy, and the relative location of the crash-test dummy driver to the
crush zone, you will measure it in terms of numbers. Each time your repeat the test, you should see
similar results. If you don’t, you may need to test the welds and examine the production process to
determine why there is an inconsistency. You may even need to test the steel itself to see if it is a
materials issue, rather than a process and production problem. All this information would be mea-
sured in terms of numbers and symbols, representing velocity, tensile strength, and related factors.
Another factor in gathering feedback is confidentiality. Before you consider how to ask ques-
tions, you may want to consider to what degree you want identifying information in the process. If
you are designing a campaign where employees submit suggestions to save the company money,
increase production, or improve quality, and want to offer a financial incentive for ideas that are
adopted, you will need to be able to identify the contributing employee for the reward. On the other
hand, if you want a feedback system for employees to report coworkers who are under the influ-
ence or have substance abuse problems on the job, threatening the safety of all, then you would
want an anonymous 1-800 number to give out, and to encourage its use by assuring employees that
it carries no identifying markers.
Anonymous surveys can elicit information that would not be revealed otherwise, but they can
also be a place for employees to vent, exaggerate, or invent responses. The validity is an issue, but
the opportunity for insight may outweigh the risks. You can also provide an optional opportunity
for the employee or customer to self-identify by providing a place where they could indicate con-
tact information. A customer that completes a postpurchase survey may be offered a coupon if they
register, and that contact information may be useful for follow-up contacts. Some customers will
prefer, however, to write a direct complaint without identifying themselves. When designing a
survey, brochure, or procedure to elicit feedback, you need to consider identification and
anonymity.
In order to gather information, we often ask questions. For this application there are two types
of questions: open and closed.[11] Open-ended questions allow for interpretation and a range of
responses in the respondent’s own words. Closed-ended questions limit the responses to a prese-
Allow for interpretation and
lected range of options or choices. Your choice of open or closed questions depends on what type of
a range of responses in
the respondent’s own information you plan to gather.
words.
Open-ended questions may sound like the following:
1. What do you like about the product?
2. How was the service today?
Limit the responses to a 3. How does the product make you feel?
preselected range of
options or choices.
4. What does our brand mean to you?

5. Why did you choose our product?
In each case, the question can be answered many ways, depending on the word choice of the
respondent. The value is placed on the personal response and the range of data gathered may well
be quite diverse, presenting challenge to categorize and group. Open-ended questions cannot be
answered with a simple yes or no response.
Closed-ended questions, however, can be answered with a yes/no response. Here are five exam-
ples of closed-ended questions:
1. Have you purchased our product previously?
Yes
No
2. Why did you choose our product?
a. Price/low cost
b. Quality
c. Reputation
d. Previous experience
3. How was the service today?
1 2 3 4 5
Poor Below average Neutral Good Excellent
4. What do you like about the product? (Please indicate in rank order.)
Low cost
Quality
Reputation
Features
Low maintenance
5. Please indicate the year you were born.
The first closed-ended question is simply a closed question with its yes/no response options,
but it is also an example of a categorical question. Categorical questions limit the responses to two
Limit the responses to two categories. For example, you may ask a customer to indicate their sex in the response survey, allow-
categories.
ing them to choose from two categories: male or female. Multiple choice questions allow for
specific choices and limit the range of options. Likert Scale questions allow for the conversion of
feelings, attitudes, and perceptions into numbers in a range. Ordinal questions request the respon-
dent to rank order specific options. Numerical questions request a specific number, often a birth
Allow for specific choices
and limit the range of date or a serial number, that itself carries meaning. For example, age may be correlated to dispos-
options. able income, and while the respondent may not be willing to respond to a direct question about
their income level, they may be willing to indicate their year of birth.
To summarize the pros and cons of the two basic question types: open-ended questions are
best when you want all possible responses in the respondent’s own words. Closed-ended questions
Allow for the conversion of limit the responses to a few choices, and they can be categorized, placed in order, assess degrees of
feelings, attitudes, and
perceptions into numbers attitudes and feelings, and request specific information.[12]
in a range.
Key Takeaway
Request the respondent to
rank order specific
options.
may be
requested through open-ended or closed-ended questions.
Request a specific
number, often a birthdate
or a serial number, that
itself carries meaning.
1. Describe a time when you received negative feedback in time to correct your error. How did
you feel about the correction at the time? Looking back, how do you feel about it in retro-
spect? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
2. Find a negative message online and write a brief review. Share and compare with class-
mates.
3. Prepare a sample customer satisfaction survey with at least ten questions. Make sure you
include a couple of questions to learn more about your audience as well as their opinions of
the product or service. Post your results in class and compare them with classmates.
17.4 Crisis Communication Plan
1. Understand how to prepare a crisis communication plan.
A rumor that the CEO is ill pulls down the stock price. A plant explosion kills several workers
and requires evacuating residents on several surrounding city blocks. Risk management seeks to
address these many risks, including prevention as well as liability, but emergency and crisis sit-
uations happen nevertheless. In addition, people make errors in judgment that can damage the
public perception of a company. The mainstream media does not lack stories involving infidelity,
addiction, or abuse that require a clear a response from a company’s standpoint. In this chapter we
address the basics of a crisis communication plan.
Focus on key types of information during an emergency:[13]

FIGURE 17.2
• What is happening? Crisis communication requires efficiency and
• Is anyone in danger? accuracy.
• How big is the problem?

• Who reported the problem?
• Where is the problem?
• Has a response started?
• What resources are on-scene?
• Who is responding so far?
• Is everyone’s location known?
You will be receiving information from the moment you know a crisis has
occurred, but without a framework or communication plan to guide you, valu-
able information may be ignored or lost. These questions help you quickly focus on the basics of
“who, what, and where” in the crisis situation.
Colorado Mesa University interviewed Chris Reddin about how entrepreneurs can go about
creating a crisis communication plan.
Developing Your Crisis Communication Plan

A crisis communication plan is the prepared scenario document that organizes information into
responsibilities and lines of communication prior to an event. With a plan in place, if an emergency
arises, each person knows his or her role and responsibilities from a common reference document.
The prepared scenario
Overall effectiveness can be enhanced with a clear understanding of roles and responsibilities for document that organizes
an effective and swift response. information into
The plan should include four elements: communication prior to an
event.
1. Crisis communication team members with contact information
2. Designated spokesperson
3. Meeting place/location
4. Media plan with procedures
A crisis communication team includes people who can

a. decide what actions to take,
b. carry out those actions,
c. offer expertise or education in the relevant areas.
By designating a spokesperson prior to an actual emergency, your team addresses the
inevitable need for information in a proactive manner. People will want to know what happened
and where to get further details about the crisis. Lack of information breeds rumors, which can
make a bad situation worse. The designated spokesperson should be knowledgeable about the
organization and its values; be comfortable in front of a microphone, camera, and media lights; and
be able to stay calm under pressure.
Part of your communication crisis plan should focus on where you will meet to coordinate
communicate and activities. In case of a fire in your house, you might meet in the front yard. In an
organization, a designated contingency building or office some distance away from your usual
place of business might serve as a central place for communication in an emergency that requires
evacuating your building. Depending on the size of your organization and the type of facilities
where you do business, the company may develop an emergency plan with exit routes, hazardous
materials procedures, and policies for handling bomb threats, for example. Safety, of course, is the
priority, but in terms of communication, the goal is to eliminate confusion about where people are
and where information is coming from.
Whether or not evacuation is necessary, when a crisis occurs, your designated spokesperson
will gather information and carry out your media plan. He or she will need to make quick judg-
ments about which information to share, how to phrase it, and whether certain individuals need to
be notified of facts before they become public. The media and public will want to know information
and reliable information is preferable to speculation. Official responses help clarify the situation
for the public, but an unofficial interview can make the tragedy personal, and attract unwanted
attention. Remind employees to direct all inquiries to the official spokesperson and to never speak
“off the record.”
Enable your spokesperson to have access to the place you indicated as your crisis contingency
location to coordinate communication and activities, and allow that professional to prepare and
respond to inquiries. When crisis communication is handled in a professional manner, it seeks not
to withhold information or mislead, but to minimize the “spin damage” from the incident by pro-
viding necessary facts, even if they are unpleasant or even tragic.
Key Takeaway
Because crises are bound to happen despite the best planning, every organization should have
a crisis communication plan, which includes designating a crisis communication team and
spokesperson.
1. Locate the crisis communication plan where you go to school or work, or find one online.
Briefly describe the overall plan and please note at least one part, element, or point of
emphasis we have not discussed. Post and compare with classmates.
2. When people don’t know what to do in a crisis situation, what happens? How can you
address probable challenges before the crisis occurs? Discuss your ideas with classmates.
3. As a case study, research one crisis that involves your area of training or career field. What
communication issues were present and how did they affect the response to the crisis?
Compare your results with classmates.
4.
5. Do you always have to be on guard with members of the media? Why or why not? Explain
your answer to the class as if they were members of the media.
17.5 Press Conferences
1. Discuss the purpose of a press conference.

2. Discuss how to prepare and conduct a press conference.
Holding a press conference when you are unprepared can feel like standing in front of a firing
squad, where all the journalists are armed so no one will carry the guilt of the winning shot. It can
make you nervous, scared, and reluctant to speak at all. It can take your fear of a misquote, or a
stumble, or a misstatement replayed across the Internet thousands of times in the next twenty-
four hours and make you wish for a blindfold and a cigarette, but that won’t help. The way to calm
your nerves is to be confident in your material. This section discusses the press conference, from
preparation to execution (pun intended).
If you've ever wondered what kind of work goes into producing a press conference, tune in as
SNM's Associate Director of Public Relations Amy Shaw shares best practices for obtaining
media coverage. Amy discusses how to connect with reporters, how to hold a virtual press
conference, and how to maintain momentum and relationships after the press conference.
A press conference is a presentation of information to the media. It normally involves a writ-

ten statement that is read exactly as written and is followed by questions and answers. The press
A presentation of conference normally requires a seasoned representative of the company or business with estab-
information to the media.
lished credibility and integrity. It also requires a sense of calm in the confidence that you know
your material, know how to tactfully say you don’t know or don’t wish to comment, and a sense of
humor to handle the “gotcha” questions.
Press conferences can be held for positive news like the announcement of a new hospital wing
that will increase the health care services available to the community. It can also be held to clarify
information regarding the CEO’s trip to Chile with an alleged mistress, the recent law enforcement
sting operation on the illegal sale of controlled substances from the hospital, or to announce the
layoff of employees as part of a reduction in force.
Positive or negative, your role as a speaker at a press conference is to deliver the prepared mes-
sage and to represent the business or organization in a professional manner. You understand that
there may be moments of tension, but you also know you have a choice in how to respond. First
we’ll examine preparation, then discuss the actual press conference.
You should have a good reason for holding a press conference. Wasting the media’s time on a
frivolous issue will only set you up for challenges later on. You should also have a brief prepared
statement that you will read and restate if necessary. Today’s press conference messages are often
drafted by someone in public relations or media, and reviewed by legal counsel when warranted. If
the task falls to you, keep it short and simple, addressing the following:
• Who?
• What?
• Where?
• When?
• How?
• Why?
As a follow-up to why the press conference needs to occur in the first place, you need to con-
sider the location. If it is a ribbon-cutting ceremony, the choice is obvious. If the announcement is
less than positive, and you’ve been instructed by your supervisors or counsel to not offer additional
remarks, you’ll want a podium strategically located next to a stage exit. Your press release or invita-
tion to the media will contain the time, date, and location of the press conference, and may contain
a title or subject line as well as contact information for follow-up information.
As you prepare your background materials, learning as much as needed for the announcement,
you may also want to consider using a moderator. Perhaps that will be your role as you introduce
senior management to read the prepared statement. A moderator can serve to influence the process
and redirect if questions go off topic or if a transition is needed. A moderator can also call a formal
close the press conference and thank everyone for attending.
Finally, visual aids are an excellent way to reinforce and communicate your message. They
need to be big, they need to be relevant (not just decorative), and (from a technical standpoint) they
need to work. If they will be projected onto a screen, make sure the screen is available (not stuck),
the laptop has power (as well as battery backup), the presentation or visual aid is on the laptop, and
that the projector can and does project what you want it to. Don’t forget sound equipment if nec-
essary, and make sure everything works the day of the presentation.
Holding a Press Conference

Someone should be designated as the greeter for the media. Be ready at least fifteen minutes before
the scheduled time of the event. Provide each member of the media with a print copy of the actual
statement that will be read before or after the event. If there is an element of surprise, you may
want to hold the copies of the statement back until after the press conference has been concluded,
but otherwise distributing them beforehand is standard.
The moderator opens the press conference with a welcome, indicates the purpose of the press
conference and reminds everyone that there will (or will not) be an opportunity for questions
following the press conference. The moderator introduces the spokesperson who will read the
statement and welcomes him or her to the podium. The moderator may need to assist with sound
equipment but otherwise stands back but near the speaker.
The speaker will read the statement. If there are to be no questions, the moderator will retake
the podium and indicate that press kits, containing background material, fact sheets, the news
release, sample photos, or related materials will be available; or simply indicate that copies of the
press release are available at the back of the room. If there are questions, the moderator may still
take the podium and outline ground rules for questions such as: they should pertain to the subject,
be brief, and may or may not include follow-up questions. Members of the media will often ask a
question and state that they have a follow-up question as a way of reserving two turns.
The moderator may indicate which member of the media is to ask a question, and typically
they will stand and address the speaker directly. The speaker can take notes, but this isn’t common.
Instead, they should be aware that every movement is being recorded and that by maintaining eye
contact, they are demonstrating that they are listening. They may reiterate the statement from the
press release or refer to the background material, but should limit the scope of their response. Your
team may have anticipated several questions and the speaker may have several sound bites ready
to deliver. Visual media will want it visual, audio will want clarity, and print will want descriptive
quotes. Meet the needs of your audience as you deliver your message.
Invariably the “gotcha” question, or the question that attempts to catch the speaker off guard,
will be asked. “We’re not ready to discuss the matter at this time,” “When more information becomes
available we will let you know,” “Our company has no position on that issue,” or “We’re not prepared
to speculate on that issue at this time” are all common response phrases. Don’t use “I think,” “I
believe,” or “I don’t know” comments as they invite speculation, and refrain from “no comment” if at
all possible as it is increasingly perceived as if the company or representative is “hiding something.”
You want to appear professional, knowledgeable, and credible—not as if you are sneaking or
hiding something. Don’t display a nonverbal gesture or make a face at a question, as this can also be
misinterpreted. Keep your poise and balance at all times, and if you are the speaker and the ques-
tion puts you off, establish eye contact with the moderator. Their role is to step in and they may
move to the conclusion.
Never say anything you wouldn’t want the world to hear, as microphones are increasingly pow-
erful, video captures lips movement, and there will be a communication professional available to
analyze your nonverbal gestures on the evening news. Being cool, calm, and collected is the best
policy whether you are delivering positive or negative news.
NTSB Chairman Deborah Hersman giving an excellent press conference in the wake of the
crash of Asiana Airlines 214 in San Francisco. It's a great example of crisis communications.
Key Takeaway
A press conference is an important presentation of information that requires you to anticipate

questions and prepare possible responses.
Exercises
Your role as spokesperson is to write and present a prepared statement, and respond to no less
than five questions. You will select one of the scenarios below based on your birth month, and
prepare your statement. You are allowed to improve on facts, but should recognize that each
scenario is serious and treat the assignment with professionalism.
1. January—Healthcare, Inc.
A hacker illegally accessed thousands of the new digital health care records on file with Health-
care, Inc. and posted them directly to the Internet in an early morning protest against invasion
of privacy. The hacker has not been identified, but local law enforcement is on the scene inves-
tigating the incident and the offending Web sites have been taken offline. Your company has
received hundreds of calls concerning the incident. The federal government required the conversion
to digital records last year, and your company complied with the order. Your company used a
government-approved vendor for a no-bid installation of hardware and software to secure the
digital records. You represent Healthcare, Inc.
2. February—Educational Services, Inc.
Half the senior class in your private magnet high school cheated on the graduation exam, and
the rest were apparently aware of the cheating, as were many of the parents. An employee,
a secretary with several employee passwords, allegedly gained access to the exam before its
release and provided the questions and responses to her son, who then provided it to his friends.
The employee was often provided login names and passwords to facilitate records processing
for several administrators when they were off site, often at conferences. Headquarters wants to
minimize the publicity but cannot in good faith issue diplomas to students who cheated. The
employee has been dismissed for conduct, and an investigation is underway, but graduation
is next week and the evidence against the cheating seniors is clear. They won’t be receiving their
diplomas unless they pass an alternate version of the test that won’t be ready for sixty days. You
represent Educational Services, Inc.
3. March—Software, Inc.
Your company recently released its latest version of a popular business and industry software
program. Programs always have a few bugs or problems upon release, even after the most rig-
orous laboratory testing, but this program is apparently infested with bugs. Stories are popping
up across the Internet about how the program doesn’t work, or specific features don’t work, and
your customer service team has been responding to customer complaints. The software
designers report it is an exaggeration to say “infested,” and point out that in all the trial tests
it has worked perfectly. Your company is working on finding and addressing the issues, and is
ready to create patch programs and issue refunds if necessary, but wants to prevent a recall
and a loss of consumer confidence. You represent Software, Inc.
4. April—Electric Company, Inc.
An employee was consuming alcohol on the job and failed to adjust the voltage regulator. The
voltage was increased by a considerable amount, causing several house fires, significant loss of
property (appliances) and the death of an eleven-year-old child. The local media interviewed the
employee’s spouse who stated the employee was working a double shift, that they had called
someone to relieve them, and no one came. Your company is investigating, but has no new
information. You represent Electric Company, Inc.
5. May—Online Market, Inc.
An online marketplace company has been accused by law enforcement of knowingly allowing
users to sell stolen goods on their Web site. Since the company never handles any of the goods
themselves, and simply facilitates the exchange of goods between buyer and seller via the short-
term creation of a Web page with text and images provided by the seller, the company denies
all responsibility. You represent Online Market, Inc.
6. June—ABC Engineering, Inc.
A 4.2-million-dollar, two-lane bridge recently completed collapsed into the local Blue River, tak-
ing with it three vehicles. The loss of life included four men, three women, and one unborn baby.
Local media has interviewed workers who indicated they were rushed to complete the bridge to
get a bonus for the construction firm. The construction firm indicates that their internal investi-
gation points to a faulty design, but the architects, engineers, and government inspectors deny
the charge. You represent ABC Engineering.
7. July—Package Delivery, Inc.
A class-action lawsuit has been filed in federal court against Package Delivery, Inc. A group of
employees, all female, allege sexual harassment and discriminatory promotion practices against the
company. They cite photos and calendars of a sexual nature hung in the workplace and allege
that male colleagues with less seniority were promoted ahead of the female workers. You
represent Package Delivery, Inc.
8. August—Hamburgers, Inc.
Hamburgers, Inc. is pleased to announce a new menu practice where the nutritional information
and the calorie counts will be prominently displayed, helping consumers make healthy choices
from the menu. Your supervisors have heard that there may be representatives of the Cow
Liberation Group (which advocates vegetarianism) and several nutritionists (who perceive the
company has not done enough to improve its products) at the press conference. You represent
Hamburgers, Inc.
9. September—Headache Pills, Inc.
A person in New York died of cyanide poisoning, supposedly after taking a 200-mg Headache
Pill made by your company. Your headache pills come in sealed, tamper-resistant packaging
with child-proof protective caps. Some stores are voluntarily taking your product off the market.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration has announced an investigation, and the family of the
person who died has threatened to sue. You represent Headache Pills, Inc.
10. October—Maisy Mayflower, Star Actress
You represent Maisy Mayflower as her spokesperson. She has recently returned from Bolivia
where she adopted a two-year-old child. She already has three adopted children representing
several countries. She is not married. Upon her return, a man claiming to be the child’s father
came forward to the media in La Paz, Bolivia protesting the adoption, and the U.S. media has
picked up on it. It is all over the Internet. The Bolivian government issued a statement that while
they cannot confirm the legitimacy of his claim, the father of the child did not present himself at
court during the announced hearing, nor did he present himself in the six months preceding the
adoption. The child was legally declared abandoned, and legally adopted. You represent Maisy
Mayflower.
11. November—Fast Food Restaurants, Inc.
A customer reported finding a severed human fingertip in soup purchased from Fast Food
Restaurants, Inc. The soup and sandwich package was purchased at a Fast Food Restaurant
as a take-out order. Your company has several quality controls in place to prevent accidents like
this. Local law enforcement is investigating. The customer has taken pictures and posted them
all over the Web, and made both libelous and slanderous comments against your company in
media interviews and blogs. The customer has never been an employee of Fast Food Restau-
rants or its affiliates. You represent Fast Food Restaurants, Inc.
12. December—Congressman “Honest” Abe Johnson.
The honorable Congressman from the State of Denial was apprehended in Ecuador for solicita-
tion of a minor. The local media reports that a young girl approached him when he was with his
traveling group and he offered to take a picture of her. The mother appeared, spoke to him, and
slapped him in the face. She says the congressman offered her money for time alone with her
daughter. The congressman stated to local law enforcement, according to a conversation with
his spouse from jail, that all he did was compliment her on her daughter, something like “what a
fine daughter you have,” in his best Spanish. You represent the Congressman.

“Good Ways to Deliver Bad News” by Curtis Sittenfeld from Fast Company. http://www.
fastcompany.com/magazine/23/buckman.html
“How to Deliver Bad News to a Group” by Kevin Daley, a Harvard Business article. https://hbr.
org/2009/10/how-to-deliver-bad-news-to-a-g
“Bad News Doesn’t Get Better with Age” from SmallBizClub.com. http://www.smallbizclub.
com/component/k2/item/366-bad-news-doesnâ€™t-get-better-with-age
“Top 7 Ways To Elicit Constructive Web site Feedback” by Adam Senour. http://top7business.
com/?id=555
Visit this Northern Illinois University site for a guide to preparing a generic crisis communica-
tion plan and adapting it to your needs. http://www3.niu.edu/newsplace/crisis.html
To see an actual crisis communication plan, visit this North Carolina State University Web
site. https://www.ncsu.edu/emergency-information/crisisplan/
See the Crisis Communication Plan of Meredith College at this website. http://webpages.acs.
ttu.edu/jstill/3365/Plan_Example.htm
Western Organization of Research Councils presents “How to Hold a Press Conference.” http://
www.worc.org/media/Hold-a-Press-Conference1.pdf
How to hold a press conference: http://www.civilrights.org/census/media/press-conference.
html
How to hold a press conference, small business: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/organize-
successful-press-conference-39875.html
Endnotes
1. Bovee, C., & Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: A skills-based approach to vital business English (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
2. Limaye, Mohan R. (1997, June 1). Further conceptualization of explanation in negative messages. Business Communication Quarterly, 60(2), 38–50.
3. Covey, S. (1989). The seven habits of highly effective people. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
4. Yardley, William. (2009, September 6). 2,000 Washington state students report signs of swine flu. New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/
2009/09/06/health/06flu.html?_r=1
5. Bauer, J. E., Duffy, G. L., & Westcott, R. T. (2006). The quality improvement handbook. New York, NY: ASQ Quality Press.
10. 3M Company. (2009). A NOTE-able achievement. Retrieved from http://www.3m.com/US/office/postit/pastpresent/history_ws.html
11. Fink, A. (1995). How to ask survey questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
12. Fink, A. (1995). How to ask survey questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
13. Mallet, L., Vaught, C., & Brinch, M. (1999). The emergency communication triangle. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Institute for Occu-
pational Saftey and Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Pittsburgh, PA: Pittsburgh Research Laboratory.
Intercultural and International
Business Communication
We should never denigrate any other culture but rather help people to understand the rela-
tionship between their own culture and the dominant culture. When you understand another
culture or language, it does not mean that you have to lose your own culture.
— Edward T. Hall
I’ve been traveling all over the world for 25 years, performing, talking to people, studying their
cultures and musical instruments, and I always come away with more questions in my head
than can be answered.
— Yo-Yo Ma
1. Find a film where one person overcomes all obstacles. Make notes of your observations on
how he or she approaches the world, solves problems, and rises triumphant
2. Find a film where a group of people overcomes obstacles through joint effort. Make notes of
your observations on how they approach the world, solve problems, and rise triumphant.
3. Consider a culture with which you have had little interaction. Write down at least five terms
to describe that culture.
As a professional in the modern business community, you need to be aware that the very
concept of community is undergoing a fundamental transformation. Throughout the world’s his-
tory—until recently—a community was defined by its geographic boundaries. A merchant supplied
salt and sugar, and people made what they needed. The products the merchant sold were often
produced locally because the cost of transportation was significant. A transcontinental railroad
brought telegraph lines, shipping routes, and brought ports together from coast to coast. Shipping
that once took months and years was now measured in days. A modern highway system and cheap
oil products allowed for that measurement unit to be reduced to days and minutes. Just in time
product delivery reduced storage costs, from renting a warehouse at the port to spoilage in tran-
sit. As products sold, bar code and RDIF (radio frequency identification) tagged items instantly
updated inventories and initiated orders at factories all over the world.
Communication, both oral and written, linked communities in ways that we failed to recognize
until economic turmoil in one place led to job loss, in a matter of days or minutes, thousands of
miles away. A system of trade and the circulation of capital and goods that once flowed relatively
seamlessly have been challenged by change, misunderstanding, and conflict. People learn of polit-
ical, economic, and military turmoil that is instantly translated into multiple market impacts.
Integrated markets and global networks bind us together in ways we are just now learning to
appreciate, anticipate, and understand. Intercultural and international communication are critical
areas of study with readily apparent, real-world consequences.
Agrarian, industrial, and information ages gave way to global business and brought the impor-
tance of communication across cultures to the forefront. The Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Thomas
Friedman calls this new world “flat,”[1] noting how the integration of markets and community had
penetrated the daily lives of nearly everyone on the planet, regardless of language or culture. While
the increasing ease of telecommunications and travel have transformed the nature of doing business,
Friedman argues that “the dawning ‘flat world’ is a jungle pitting ‘lions’ and ‘gazelles,’ where
‘economic stability is not going to be a feature’ and ‘the weak will fall farther behind.’”[2] Half of the
world’s population that earn less than $2 (USD) a day felt the impact of a reduction in trade and
fluctuations in commodity prices even though they may not have known any of the details. Rice,
for example, became an even more valuable commodity than ever; to the individuals who could not
find it, grow it, or earn enough to buy it, the hunger felt was personal and global. International
trade took on a new level of importance.
Intercultural and international business communication has taken on a new
FIGURE 18.1
With modern manufacturing, “Made in X” is role for students as well as career professionals. Knowing when the European
more of a relative statement. and Asian markets open has become mandatory; so has awareness of multiple
time zones and their importance in relation to trade, shipping, and the produc-
tion cycle. Managing production in China from an office in Chicago has become
common. Receiving technical assistance for your computer often means connect-
ing with a well-educated English speaker in New Delhi. We compete with each
other via Elance.com or oDesk.com for contracts and projects, selecting the cur-
rency of choice for each bid as we can be located anywhere on the planet.
Communities are no longer linked as simply “brother” and “sister” cities in sym-
bolic partnerships. They are linked in the daily trade of goods and services.
In this chapter, we explore this dynamic aspect of communication. If the
foundation of communication is important, its application in this context is crit-
ical. Just as Europe once formed intercontinental alliances for the trade of
metals—leading to the development of a common currency, trade zone, and new
concept of nation-state—now North and South America are following with
increased integration. Major corporations are no longer affiliated with only one
country or one country’s interests but instead perceive the integrated market as
team members across global trade. “Made in X” is more of a relative statement as
products, from cars to appliances to garments, now come with a list of where
components were made and assembled and what percentage corresponds to each
nation.
Global business is more than trade between companies located in distinct
countries; indeed, that concept is already outdated. Intercultural and interna-
tional business focuses less on the borders that separate people and more on the
communication that brings them together. Business communication values clear, concise interac-
tion that promotes efficiency and effectiveness. You may perceive your role as a business
communicator within a specific city, business, or organization, but you need to be aware that your
role crosses cultures, languages, value and legal systems, and borders.
18.2 Intercultural Communication
1.
2.
Communication is the sharing of understanding and meaning,[3] but what is intercultural commu-
nication? If you answered, “The sharing of understanding and meaning across cultures,” you’d be
close, but the definition requires more attention. What is a culture? Where does one culture stop
and another start? How are cultures created, maintained, and dissolved? Donald Klopf described
culture as “that part of the environment made by humans.”[4] From the building we erect that
represents design values to the fences we install that delineate borders, our environment is a rep-
resentation of culture, but it is not all that is culture.
Culture involves beliefs, attitudes, values, and traditions that are shared by a group of people.
Thus, we must consider more than the clothes we wear, the movies we watch, or the video games
we play, all representations of environment, as culture. Culture also involves the psychological
aspects of our expectations of the communication context. For example, if we are raised in a culture
where males speak while females are expected to remain silent, the context of the communication
interaction governs behavior, which in itself is a representation of culture. From the choice of words
(message), to how we communicate (in person, or by e-mail), to how we acknowledge understanding
with a nod or a glance (nonverbal feedback), to the internal and external interference, all aspects of
communication are influenced by culture.
In defining intercultural communication, we only have eight components of communication to
work with and yet we must bridge divergent cultures with distinct values across languages and time
zones to exchange value, a representation of meaning. It may be tempting to consider only the source
and receiver within a transaction as a representation of intercultural communication, but if we do
that, we miss the other six components—the message, channel, feedback, context, environment,
and interference—in every communicative act. Each component influences and is influenced by
culture. Is culture context? Environment? Message? Culture is represented in all eight compo-
nents every time we communicate. All communication is intercultural.
increase. Learn how to improve intercultural sensitivity from a professional speaker and
communications instructor in this free education video.
We may be tempted to think of intercultural communication as interaction between two peo-

ple from different countries. While two distinct national passports may be artifacts, or nonverbal
of communication.
representations of communication, what happens when two people from two different parts of the
same country communicate? From high and low Germanic dialects, to the perspective of a South-
erner versus a Northerner in the United States, to the rural versus urban dynamic, our geographic,
linguistic, educational, sociological, and psychological traits influence our communication.
It is not enough to say that someone from rural Southern Chile and the capital, Santiago, both
speak Castellano (the Chilean word for the Spanish language), so that communication between
them must be intracultural communication, or communication within the same culture. What is
Communication within the
same culture. life like for the rural Southerner? For the city dweller? Were their educational experiences the
same? Do they share the same vocabulary? Do they value the same things? To a city dweller, all the
sheep look the same. To the rural Southerner, the sheep are distinct, with unique markings; they
have value as a food source, a source of wool with which to create sweaters and socks that keep the
cold winters at bay, and in their numbers they represent wealth. Even if both Chileans speak the
same language, their socialization will influence how they communicate and what they value, and
their vocabulary will reflect these differences.
Let’s take this intranational comparison a step further. Within the same family, can there be
intercultural communication? If all communication is intercultural, then the answer would be yes,
but we still have to prove our case. Imagine a three-generation family living in one house. The
grandparents may represent another time and different values from the grandchildren. The parents
may have a different level of education and pursue different careers from the grandparents; the
schooling the children are receiving may prepare them for yet another career. From music, to food
preferences, to how work is done may vary across time; Elvis Presley may seem like ancient history
to the children. The communication across generations represents intercultural communication,
even if only to a limited degree.
But suppose we have a group of students who are all similar in age and educational level. Do
gender and the societal expectations of roles influence interaction? Of course. And so we see that
among these students not only do the boys and girls communicate in distinct ways but also not all
boys and girls are the same. With a group of sisters, there may be common characteristics, but they
will still have differences, and these differences contribute to intercultural communication. We are
each shaped by our upbringing and it influences our worldview, what we value, and how we inter-
act with each other. We create culture, and it creates us.
Everett Rogers and Thomas Steinfatt define intercultural communication as the exchange of
information between individuals who are “unalike culturally.”[5] If you follow our discussion and
its implications, you may arrive at the idea that ultimately we are each a “culture of one”—we are
simultaneously a part of a community and its culture(s) and separate from it in the unique combi-
nation that represents us as an individual. All of us are separated by a matter of degrees from each
other even if we were raised on the same street or by parents of similar educational background
and profession, and yet, we have many other things in common.
Communication with yourself is called intrapersonal communication, which may also be
intracultural, as you may only represent one culture. But most people belong to many groups, each
with their own culture. Within our imaginary intergenerational home, how many cultures do you
think we might find? If we only consider the parents and consider work one culture, and family yourself.
another, we now have two. If we were to examine the options more closely, we would find many
more groups, and the complexity would grow exponentially. Does a conversation with yourself ever
involve competing goals, objectives, needs, wants, or values? How did you learn of those goals, or
values? Through communication within and between individuals, they themselves representatives
of many cultures. We struggle with the demands of each group and their expectations and could
consider this internal struggle intercultural conflict or simply intercultural communication.
Culture is part of the very fabric of our thought, and we cannot separate ourselves from it, even
as we leave home, defining ourselves anew in work and achievements. Every business or organiza-
tion has a culture, and within what may be considered a global culture, there are many subcultures
or co-cultures. For example, consider the difference between the sales and accounting departments
in a corporation. We can quickly see two distinct groups with their own symbols, vocabulary, and
values. Within each group, there may also be smaller groups, and each member of each department
comes from a distinct background that in itself influences behavior and interaction.
Intercultural communication is a fascinating area of study within business communication, and
it is essential to your success. One idea to keep in mind as we examine this topic is the importance
of considering multiple points of view. If you tend to dismiss ideas or views that are “unalike
culturally,” you will find it challenging to learn about diverse cultures. If you cannot learn, how can
you grow and be successful?
Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view other cultures as inferior to one’s own. Having pride in
your culture can be healthy, but history has taught us that having a predisposition to discount other
The tendency to view
cultures simply because they are different can be hurtful, damaging, and dangerous. Ethno- other cultures as inferior to
centrism makes us far less likely to be able to bridge the gap with others and often increases one’s own.
intolerance of difference. Business and industry are no longer regional, and in your career, you will
necessarily cross borders, languages, and cultures. You will need tolerance, understanding, patience,
and openness to difference. A skilled business communicator knows that the process of learning is
never complete, and being open to new ideas is a key strategy for success.
Key Takeaway
Intercultural communication is an aspect of all communicative interactions, and attention to your

perspective is key to your effectiveness. Ethnocentrism is a major obstacle to intercultural com-
munication.
1. Please list five words to describe your dominant culture. Please list five words to describe a
culture with which you are not a member, have little or no contact, or have limited knowl-
edge. Now, compare and contrast the terms noting their inherent value statements.
2. Identify a country you would like to visit. Research the country and find one interesting busi-
ness fact and share it with the class.
3. Write a brief summary about a city, region, state, or country you have visited that is not like
where you live. Share and compare with classmates.
18.3 How to Understand Intercultural

Communication
1. Describe strategies to understand intercultural communication, prejudice, and ethnocen-

trism.
The American anthropologist Edward T. Hall is often cited as a pioneer in the field of intercultural
communication.[6] Born in 1914, Hall spent much of his early adulthood in the multicultural setting
of the American Southwest, where Native Americans, Spanish-speakers, and descendents of pio-
neers came together from diverse cultural perspectives. He then traveled the globe during World
War II and later served as a U.S. State Department official. Where culture had once been viewed by
anthropologists as a single, distinct way of living, Hall saw how the perspective of the individual
influences interaction. By focusing on interactions rather than cultures as separate from individu-
als, he asked us to evaluate the many cultures we ourselves belong to or are influenced by as well
as those with whom we interact. While his view makes the study of intercultural communication
far more complex, it also brings a healthy dose of reality to the discussion. Hall is generally credited
with eight contributions to our study of intercultural communication:[7],[8],[9]
1. Compare cultures. Focus on the interactions versus general observations of culture.
2. Shift to local perspective. Local level versus global perspective.
3. You don’t have to know everything to know something. Time, space, gestures, and gender roles
can be studied, even if we lack a larger understanding of the entire culture.
4. There are rules we can learn. People create rules for themselves in each community that we
can learn from, compare, and contrast.
5. Experience counts. Personal experience has value in addition to more comprehensive studies
of interaction and culture.
6. Perspectives can differ. Descriptive linguistics serves as a model to understand cultures, and
the U.S. Foreign Service adopted it as a base for training.
7. Intercultural communication can be applied to international business. U.S. Foreign Service
training yielded applications for trade and commerce and became a point of study for business
majors.
8. It integrates the disciplines. Culture and communication are intertwined and bring together
many academic disciplines.
Hall[10] shows us that emphasis on a culture as a whole, and how it operates, may lead us to
neglect individual differences. Individuals may hold beliefs or practice customs that do not follow
their own cultural norm. When we resort to the mental shortcut of a stereotype, we lose these
unique differences. Stereotypes can be defined as a generalization about a group of people that
oversimplifies their culture.[11]
The American psychologist Gordon Allport[12] explored how, when, and why we formulate or
use stereotypes to characterize distinct groups. His results may not surprise you. Look back at the
third of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter and examine the terms you used to describe
a culture with which you are unfamiliar. Were the terms flattering or pejorative? Did they reflect
respect for the culture or did they make unfavorable value judgments? Regardless of how you
answered, you proved Allport’s main point. When we do not have enough contact with people or
their cultures to understand them well, we tend to resort to stereotypes.[13]
As Hall[14] notes, experience has value. If you do not know a culture, you should consider learn-
ing more about it firsthand if possible. The people you interact with may not be representative of
the culture as a whole, but that is not to say that what you learn lacks validity. Quite the contrary; Hall
asserts that you can, in fact, learn something without understanding everything, and given the
dynamic nature of communication and culture, who is to say that your lessons will not serve you
well? Consider a study abroad experience if that is an option for you, or learn from a classmate who
comes from a foreign country or an unfamiliar culture. Be open to new ideas and experiences, and start
investigating. Many have gone before you, and today, unlike in generations past, much of the
information is accessible. Your experiences will allow you to learn about another culture and yourself,
and help you to avoid prejudice.
Prejudice involves a negative preconceived judgment or opinion that guides conduct or social
behavior.[16] As an example, imagine two people walking into a room for a job interview. You are
tasked to interview both, and having read the previous section, you know that Allport rings true
judgment or opinion that
when he says we rely on stereotypes when encountering people or cultures with which we have guides conduct or social
had little contact. Will the candidates’ dress, age, or gender influence your opinion of them? Will behavior.[15]
their race or ethnicity be a conscious or subconscious factor in your thinking process? Allport’s
work would indicate that those factors and more will make you likely to use stereotypes to guide
your expectations of them and your subsequent interactions with them.
People who treat other with prejudice often make assumptions, or take preconceived ideas for
granted without question, about the group or communities. As Allport illustrated for us, we often
basically similar. assume characteristics about groups with which we have little contact. Sometimes we also assume
similarity, thinking that people are all basically similar. This denies cultural, racial, ethnic, socioe-
conomic, and many other valuable, insightful differences.
In 1976 Edward T. Hall theorized that culture was like an iceberg in that there were two parts:
internal and external. External culture is the outward behaviors of a society while internal culture
are the beliefs, values, and thought patterns underlying those behaviors. View the video to hear
how Hall advises we should adapt to a new culture.
Key Takeaway
about cultural differences.
1. People sometimes assume that learning about other cultures is unnecessary if we simply
treat others as we would like to be treated. To test this assumption, try answering the follow-
ing questions.
When receiving a gift from a friend, should you open it immediately, or wait to open it
in private?
When grocery shopping, should you touch fruits and vegetables to evaluate their
freshness?
In a conversation with your instructor or your supervisor at work, should you maintain
direct eye contact?
Write down your answers before reading further. Now let’s explore how these questions
might be answered in various cultures.
a. In Chile, it is good manners to open a gift immediately and express delight and
thanks. But in Japan it is a traditional custom to not open a gift in the giver’s pres-
ence.
b. In the United States, shoppers typically touch, hold, and even smell fruits and veg-
etables before buying them. But in northern Europe this is strongly frowned upon.
c. In mainstream North American culture, people are expected to look directly at each
other when having a conversation. But a cultural norm for many Native Americans
involves keeping one’s eyes lowered as a sign of respect when speaking to an
instructor or supervisor.
No one can be expected to learn all the “dos and don’ts” of the world’s myriad cultures;
instead, the key is to keep an open mind, be sensitive to other cultures, and remember that
the way you’d like to be treated is not necessarily the way others would appreciate.
2. Please write a short paragraph where your perception of someone was changed once you
got to know them. Share and compare with your classmates
18.4 Common Cultural Characteristics
characteristics in your life.
While we may be members of many different cultures, we tend to adhere to some more than others.
Perhaps you have become friendly with several of your fellow students as you’ve pursued your
studies in college. As you take many of the same classes and share many experiences on campus,
you begin to have more and more in common, in effect forming a small group culture of your own.
A similar cultural formation process may happen in the workplace, where coworkers spend many
hours each week sharing work experiences and getting to know each other socially in the process.
Groups come together, form cultures, and grow apart across time. How does one become a
member of a community, and how do you know when you are full member? What aspects of cul-
ture do we have in common and how do they relate to business communication? Researchers who
have studied cultures around the world have identified certain characteristics that define a culture.
These characteristics are expressed in different ways, but they tend to be present in nearly all cul-
tures. Let’s examine them.
Rites of Initiation
Cultures tend to have a ritual for becoming a new member. A newcomer starts out as a nonentity, a
stranger, an unaffiliated person with no connection or even possibly awareness of the community.
Newcomers who stay around and learn about the culture become members. Most cultures have a
rite of initiation that marks the passage of the individual within the community; some of these rit-
uals may be so informal as to be hardly noticed (e.g., the first time a coworker asks you to join the
group to eat lunch together), while others may be highly formalized (e.g., the ordination of clergy
in a religion). The nonmember becomes a member, the new member becomes a full member, and
individuals rise in terms of responsibility and influence.
Business communities are communities first, because without communication interaction, no

business will occur. Even if sales and stock are processed by servers that link database platforms
to flow, individuals are still involved in the maintenance, repair, and development of the system.
Where there is communication, there is culture, and every business has several cultures.
Across the course of your life, you have no doubt passed several rites of initiation but may not
have taken notice of them. Did you earn a driver’s license, register to vote, or acquire the permission
to purchase alcohol? In North American culture, these three common markers indicate the pass-
ing from a previous stage of life to a new one, with new rights and responsibilities. As a child, you
were not allowed to have a driver’s license. At age fourteen to eighteen, depending on your state
and location (rural versus urban), you were allowed to drive a tractor, use farm equipment, operate
a motor vehicle during daylight hours, or have full access to public roads. With the privilege of dri-
ving comes responsibility. It is your responsibility to learn what the signs and signals mean and to
obey traffic laws for the common safety. In order for stop signs to work, we all have to agree on the
behavior associated with them and observe that behavior.
Sometimes people choose to ignore a stop sign, or accidentally miss one, and it places the pub-
lic in danger. Law enforcement officials reinforce that common safety as representatives of the
culture, empowered by the people themselves based on a common agreement of what a stop sign
means and what a driver is supposed to do when approaching one. Some people may argue that
law enforcement serves some while it prosecutes others. This point of debate may deserve some
consideration, but across cultures, there are rules, signs, and symbols that we share.
Rites of initiation mark the transition of the role or status of the individual within the group.
Your first day on the job may have been a challenge as you learned your way around the physical
These mark the transition
of the role or status of the
space, but the true challenge was to learn how the group members communicate with each other.
If you graduate from college with a Master of Business Administration (MBA) degree, you will
already have passed a series of tests, learned terms and theories, and possess a symbol of accom-
plishment in your diploma, but that only grants you the opportunity to look for a job—to seek
access to a new culture.
In every business, there are groups, power struggles, and unspoken ways that members earn
their way from the role of a “newbie” to that of a full member. The newbie may get the tough
account, the office without a window, or the cubicle next to the bathroom, denoting low status. As
the new member learns to navigate through the community—establishing a track record and being
promoted—he passes the rite of initiation and acquires new rights and responsibilities.
Over time, the person comes to be an important part of the business, a “keeper of the flame.”
The “flame” may not exist in physical space or time, but it does exist in the minds of those members
in the community who have invested time and effort in the business. It is not a flame to be trusted
to a new person, as it can only be earned with time. Along the way, there may be personality con-
flicts and power struggles over resources and perceived scarcity (e.g., there is only one promotion
and everyone wants it). All these challenges are to be expected in any culture.
Common History and Traditions

Think for a moment about the history of a business like Ford Motor Company—what are your asso-
ciations with Henry Ford, the assembly line manufacturing system, or the Model T? Or the early
days of McDonald’s? Do you have an emotional response to mental images of the “golden arches”
logo, Ronald McDonald, or the Big Mac sandwich? Traditions form as the organization grows and
expands, and stories are told and retold to educate new members on how business should be con-
ducted. The history of every culture, of every corporation, influences the present. There are times
when the phrase “we’ve tried that before” can become stumbling block for members of the organi-
zation as it grows and adapts to new market forces. There may be struggles between members who
have weathered many storms and new members, who come armed with new educational perspec-
tives, technological tools, or experiences that may contribute to growth.
Common Values and Principles

Cultures all hold values and principles that are commonly shared and communicated from older
members to younger (or newer) ones. Time and length of commitment are associated with an
awareness of these values and principles, so that new members, whether they are socialized at
home, in school, or at work, may not have a thorough understanding of their importance. For
example, time (fast customer service) and cleanliness are two cornerstone values of the McDonald’s
corporation. A new employee may take these for granted, while a seasoned professional who
inspects restaurants may see the continued need to reinforce these core values. Without reinforce-
ment, norms may gradually change, and if this were the case it could fundamentally change the
customer experience associated with McDonald’s.
Common Purpose and Sense of Mission

Cultures share a common sense of purpose and mission. Why are we here and whom do we serve?
These are fundamental questions of the human condition that philosophers and theologians all over
the world have pondered for centuries. In business, the answers to these questions often address
purpose and mission, and they can be found in mission and vision statements of almost every
organization. Individual members will be expected to acknowledge and share the mission and
vision, actualize them, or make them real through action. Without action, the mission and vision
statements are simply an arrangement of words. As a guide to individual and group behavioral
norms, they can serve as a powerful motivator and a call to action.
Common Symbols, Boundaries, Status,

Language, and Rituals
Most of us learn early in life what a stop sign represents, but do we know what military stripes
represent on a sleeve, or a ten-year service pin on a lapel, or a corner office with two windows? Cul-
tures have common symbols that mark them as a group; the knowledge of what a symbol stands
for helps to reinforce who is a group member and who is not. You may have a brand on your arm
from your fraternity, or wear a college ring—symbols that represent groups you affiliate with tem-
porarily, while you are a student. They may or may not continue to hold meaning to you when your
college experience is over. Cultural symbols include dress, such as the Western business suit and tie,
the Scottish kilt, or the Islamic headscarf. Symbols also include slogans or sayings, such as “you’re
in good hands” or “you deserve a break today.” The slogan may serve a marketing purpose but may
also embrace a mission or purpose within the culture. Family crests and clan tartan patterns serve
as symbols of affiliation. Symbols can also be used to communicate rank and status within the
group.
Space is another common cultural characteristic; it may be a nonverbal symbol that represents
status and power. In most of the world’s cultures, a person occupying superior status is entitled to a
physically elevated position—a throne, a dais, a podium from which to address subordinates. Sub-
ordinates may be expected to bow, curtsy, or lower their eyes as a sign of respect. In business, the
corner office may offer the best view with the most space. Movement from a cubicle to a private
office may also be a symbol of transition within an organization, involving increased responsibility
as well as power. Parking spaces, the kind of vehicle you drive, and the transportation allowance
you have may also serve to communicate symbolic meaning within an organization.
The office serves our discussion on the second point concerning boundaries. Would you sit
on your boss’s desk or sit in his chair with your feet up on the desk in his presence? Most people
indicate they would not, because doing so would communicate a lack of respect, violate normative
space expectations, and invite retaliation. Still, subtle challenges to authority may arise in the work-
place. A less than flattering photograph of the boss at the office party posted to the recreational
room bulletin board communicates more than a lack of respect for authority. By placing the image
anonymously in a public place, the prankster clearly communicates a challenge, even if it is a juve-
nile one. Movement from the cubicle to the broom closet may be the result for someone who is
found responsible for the prank. Again, there are no words used to communicate meaning, only
symbols, but those symbols represent significant issues.
Communities have their own vocabulary and way in which they communicate. Consider the
person who uses a sewing machine to create a dress and the accountant behind the desk; both are
professionals and both have specialized jargon used in their field. If they were to change places,
the lack of skills would present an obstacle, but the lack of understanding of terms, how they
are used, and what they mean would also severely limit their effectiveness. Those terms and how
they are used are learned over time and through interaction. While a textbook can help, it cannot
demonstrate use in live interactions. Cultures are dynamic systems that reflect the communication
process itself.
Cultures celebrate heroes, denigrate villains, and have specific ways of completing jobs and
tasks. In business and industry, the emphasis may be on effectiveness and efficiency, but the prac-
tice can often be “because that is the way we have always done it.” Rituals serve to guide our
performance and behavior and may be limited to small groups or celebrated across the entire com-
pany. A pink Cadillac has a special meaning for a Mary Kay cosmetics representative. How that car
is received is ritualistic, recognizing current success while honoring past performances across the
company.
Rituals can serve to bind a group together, or to constrain it. Institutions tend to formalize
processes and then have a hard time adapting to new circumstances. While the core values or mis-
sion statement may hold true, the method of doing things that worked in the past may not be as
successful as it once was. Adaptation and change can be difficult for individuals and companies,
and yet all communities, cultures, and communication contexts are dynamic, or always changing.
As much as we might like things to stay the same, they will always change—and we will change
with (and be changed by) them.
Key Takeaway
pose, symbols, and boundaries.
1. Compile a list or group of pictures of symbols that characterize some of the cultural groups
you belong to. Share and discuss your list with your classmates.
2. Compile a list of pictures or symbols that your group or community finds offensive. Share
18.5 Divergent Cultural

Characteristics
1. Discuss divergent cultural characteristics and list several examples of such characteristics in
the culture(s) you identify with.
We are not created equal. We are born light- or dark-skinned, to parents of education or parents
without access to education, and we grow up short or tall, slender or stocky. Our life chances or
options are in many ways determined by our birth. The Victorian “rags to riches” novels that Hora-
tio Alger wrote promoted the ideal that individuals can overcome all obstacles, raising themselves
up by their bootstraps. Some people do have amazing stories, but even if you are quick to point out
that Microsoft founder Bill Gates became fabulously successful despite his lack of a college
education, know that his example is exception, not the rule. We all may use the advantages of our
circumstances to improve our lives, but the type and extent of those advantages vary greatly across
the planet.
Cultures reflect this inequality, this diversity, and the divergent range of values, symbols, and
meanings across communities. Can you tie a knot? Perhaps you can tie your shoes, but can you tie
a knot to secure a line to a boat, to secure a heavy load on a cart or truck, or to bundle a bale of hay?
You may not be able to, but if you were raised in a culture that place a high value on knot-tying for
specific purposes, you would learn that which your community values. We all have viewpoints, but
they are shaped by our interactions with our communities. Let’s examine several points of diver-
gence across cultures.
Presentation by Professor Geert Hofstede on 16 September 2011 at the Hofstede Symposium

in Groningen, the Netherlands
Individualistic versus Collectivist Cultures

People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence, and cul-
tures always have stories to reflect their values. You may recall the story of Superman, or John
McLean in the Diehard series, and note how one person overcomes all obstacles. Through personal
This culture values
individual freedom and ingenuity, in spite of challenges, one person rises successfully to conquer or vanquish those obsta-
cles. Sometimes there is an assist, as in basketball or football, where another person lends a hand,
but still the story repeats itself again and again, reflecting the cultural viewpoint.
The Dutch researcher Geert Hofstede explored the concepts of individualism and collectivism
across diverse cultures.[17],[18],[19] He found that in individualistic cultures like the United States, people
perceived their world primarily from their own viewpoint. They perceived themselves as empow-
ered individuals, capable of making their own decisions, and able to make an impact on their own
lives.
Cultural viewpoint is not an either/or dichotomy, but rather a continuum or range. You may
belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values, while others place the
focus on a collective viewpoint. Collectivist cultures,[20] including many in Asia and South America,
focus on the needs of the nation, community, family, or group of workers. Ownership and private
property is one way to examine this difference. In some cultures, property is almost exclusively
private, while others tend toward community ownership. The collectively owned resource returns
benefits to the community. Water, for example, has long been viewed as a community resource,
much like air, but that has been changing as business and organizations have purchased water rights
and gained control over resources. Public lands, such as parks, are often considered public, and
individual exploitation of them is restricted. Copper, a metal with a variety of industrial appli-
cations, is collectively owned in Chile, with profits deposited in the general government fund. While
public and private initiatives exist, the cultural viewpoint is our topic. How does someone raised in
a culture that emphasizes the community interact with someone raised in a primarily individual-
istic culture? How could tensions be expressed and how might interactions be influenced by this
point of divergence?
Explicit-Rule Cultures versus Implicit-Rule

Cultures
Do you know the rules of your business or organization? Did you learn them from an employee manual
or by observing the conduct of others? Your response may include both options, but not all cultures
Rules are clearly
communicate rules in the same way. Carley Dodd[21] discusses this difference and has found quite a
communicated so that
range of difference. In an explicit-rule culture, where rules are clearly communicated so that
everyone is aware of them, the guidelines and agenda for a meeting are announced prior to the
gathering. In an implicit-rule culture, where rules are often understood and communicated
nonverbally, there may be no agenda. Everyone knows why they are gathered and what role each Rules are often
member plays, even though the expectations may not be clearly stated. Power, status, and behavioral understood and
expectations may all be understood, and to the person from outside this culture, it may prove a communicated
nonverbally.
challenge to understand the rules of the context.
Outsiders often communicate their “otherness” by not knowing where to stand, when to sit, or
how to initiate a conversation if the rules are not clearly stated. While it may help to know that
implicit-rule cultures are often more tolerant of deviation from the understood rules, the new-
comer will be wise to learn by observing quietly—and to do as much research ahead of the event as
possible.
Uncertainty-Accepting Cultures versus

Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures
When we meet each other for the first time, we often use what we have previously learned to
understand our current context. We also do this to reduce our uncertainty. Some cultures, such as
the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths
to reduce the element of surprise. Cultures in the Arab world, for example, are high in uncertainty
avoidance; they tend to be resistant to change and reluctant to take risks. Whereas a U.S. business
negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would
likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.
Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese[22] developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine
this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:
1. There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal commu-
nication increases and our uncertainty begins to decrease.
2. Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty continues
to decrease, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding one’s head to indicate
agreement, will start to be expressed.
3. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking
behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases,
uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.
4. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, the communication interaction is not as per-
sonal or intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.
5. When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication will feature more reciprocity, or
displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.
6. Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.
7. Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other
person, while reductions in uncertainty are associated with liking the other person more.
Time Orientation
Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall[23] state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider
one thing at a time, whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time,
Interruptions are to be
and time is considered in a more fluid sense. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be
avoided, and everything
has its own specific time. avoided, and everything has its own specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic cul-
ture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. The United
States, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time
orientation.
Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with din-
A more fluid approach to ner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this
scheduling time, where perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but when they actually
several things can be done begin may be another story. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may in reality be more
at once, and each may like 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the
have different levels of
importance and urgency.
hosts are not quite ready to receive you.
When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from polychromatic cultures will be
used to foreigner’s tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established times
for events. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to antici-
pate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in many ways, and your understanding
can help you communicate more effectively.
Short-Term versus Long-Term Orientation

Do you want your reward right now or can you dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may
work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do
not materialize. Geert Hofstede[24],[25] discusses this relationship of time orientation to a culture as
a “time horizon,” and it underscores the perspective of the individual within a cultural context.
Many countries in Asia, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation,
whereas other countries, including the United States, have a more short-term approach to life and
results. Native American cultures are known for holding a long-term orientation, as illustrated by
the proverb attributed to the Iroquois that decisions require contemplation of their impact seven
generations removed.
If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater
emphasis on reciprocation of greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, if you send a thank-
you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner, your host will appreciate your
promptness. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal rep-
resentation and honor, a reflection of identity and integrity. Personal stability and consistency are
also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and
familiarity.
Long-term orientation is often marked by persistence, thrift and frugality, and an order to rela-
tionships based on age and status. A sense of shame for the family and community is also observed
across generations. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and
extended family members.
Masculine versus Feminine Orientation

There was a time when many cultures and religions valued a female figurehead, and with the rise
of Western cultures we have observed a shift toward a masculine ideal. Each carries with it a set of
cultural expectations and norms for gender behavior and gender roles across life, including busi-
ness.
Hofstede describes the masculine-feminine dichotomy not in terms of whether men or women
hold the power in a given culture, but rather the extent to which that culture values certain traits
that may be considered masculine or feminine. Thus, “the assertive pole has been called ‘masculine’
and the modest, caring pole ‘feminine.’ The women in feminine countries have the same modest,
caring values as the men; in the masculine countries they are somewhat assertive and competitive,
but not as much as the men, so that these countries show a gap between men’s values and women’s
values.”[26]
We can observe this difference in where people gather, how they interact, and how they dress.
We can see it during business negotiations, where it may make an important difference in the
success of the organizations involved. Cultural expectations precede the interaction, so someone
who doesn’t match those expectations may experience tension. Business in the United States has
a masculine orientation—assertiveness and competition are highly valued. In other cultures, such
as Sweden, business values are more attuned to modesty (lack of self-promotion) and taking care
of society’s weaker members. This range of difference is one aspect of intercultural communication
that requires significant attention when the business communicator enters a new environment.
Direct versus Indirect

In the United States, business correspondence is expected to be short and to the point. “What can I
do for you?” is a common question when a business person receives a call from a stranger; it is an
accepted way of asking the caller to state his or her business. In some cultures it is quite appropri-
ate to make direct personal observation, such as “You’ve changed your hairstyle,” while for others
it may be observed, but never spoken of in polite company. In indirect cultures, such as those in
Latin America, business conversations may start with discussions of the weather, or family, or top-
ics other than business as the partners gain a sense of each other, long before the topic of business
is raised. Again, the skilled business communicator researches the new environment before enter-
ing it, as a social faux pas, or error, can have a significant impact.
Materialism versus Relationships

Does the car someone drives say something about them? You may consider that many people
across the planet do not own a vehicle and that a car or truck is a statement of wealth. But beyond
that, do the make and model reflect their personality? If you are from a materialistic culture, you
may be inclined to say yes. If you are from a culture that values relationships rather than mater-
ial objects, you may say no or focus on how the vehicle serves the family. From rocks that display
beauty and wealth—what we call jewelry—to what you eat—will it be lobster ravioli or prime
rib?—we express our values and cultural differences with our purchase decisions.
Members of a materialistic culture place emphasis on external goods and services as a repre-
sentation of self, power, and social rank. If you consider the plate of food before you, and consider
the labor required to harvest the grain, butcher the animal, and cook the meal, you are focusing
more on the relationships involved with its production than the foods themselves. Caviar may be a
luxury, and it may communicate your ability to acquire and offer a delicacy, but it also represents an
effort. Cultures differ in how they view material objects and their relationship to them, and some
value people and relationships more than the objects themselves. The United States and Japan are
often noted as materialistic cultures, while many Scandinavian nations feature cultures that place
more emphasis on relationships.
Low-Power versus High-Power Distance

How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you are from a low-power dis-
tance culture, your answer might be “no problem.” In low-power distance cultures, according to
Hofstede,[27] people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or sub-
ordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal roles as employee and manager, for example.
In a high-power distance culture, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the deci-
sion, to provide an alternative, or to give input. If you are working with people from a high-power
distance culture, you may need to take extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the dis-
cussion because their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned
that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or
know there is a significant problem. Unless you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power dis-
tance, you may lose valuable information.
Key Takeaway
Cultures have distinct orientations when it comes to rules, uncertainty, time and time horizon,
masculinity, directness, materialism, and power distance.
1. Take a business letter or a page of a business report from a U.S. organization and try rewrit-
ing it as someone from a highly indirect, relational culture might have written it. Share and
discuss your result with your classmates.
2. Conduct an online search for translated movie titles. Share and compare your results with
your classmates.
3. Consider the movie you noted in the first of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter. In
what ways does it exemplify this individualistic viewpoint? Share your observations with your
classmates.
4. Think of a movie where one or more characters exemplify individualism. Write a brief state-
ment and share with classmates.
5. Think of a movie where one or more characters exemplify community-oriented values. Write
a brief statement and share with classmates.
18.6 International Communication and

the Global Marketplace
1. Describe international communication and the global marketplace, including political, legal,
economic, and ethical systems.
People create systems that reflect cultural values. These systems reduce uncertainty for the culture,
creating and perpetuating the rules and customs, but may prove a significant challenge to the
entrepreneur entering a new market. Political, legal, economic, and ethical systems vary from cul-
ture to culture, and may or may not reflect formal boundaries. For example, disputes over who
controls what part of their shoreline are common and are still a matter of debate, interpretation,
and negotiation in many countries.
To a large extent, a country’s culture is composed of formal systems. Formal systems often
direct, guide, constrain, or promote some behaviors over others. A legal system, like taxation, may
favor the first-time homebuyer in the United States, and as a consequence, home ownership may be
pursued instead of other investment strategies. That same legal system, via tariffs, may levy import
taxes on specific goods and services, and reduce their demand as the cost increases. Each of these
systems reinforces or discourages actions based on cultural norms, creating regulations that reflect
ways that each culture, through its constituents, views the world.
In this section, we’ll examine intercultural communication from the standpoint of interna-
tional communication. International communication can be defined as communication between
nations, but we recognize that nations do not exist independent of people. International communi-
cation is typically government to government or, more accurately, governmental representatives to
governmental representatives. It often involves topics and issues that relate to the nations as enti-
ties, broad issues of trade, and conflict resolution. People use political, legal, and economic systems
to guide and regulate behavior, and diverse cultural viewpoints necessarily give rise to many vari-
ations. Ethical systems also guide behavior, but often in less formal, institutional ways. Together
these areas form much of the basis of international communication, and warrant closer examina-
tion.
As our world becomes increasingly interconnected, people increasingly encounter problems

when communicating with people from other cultures. This can lead to problems ranging from
employee frustration and decreased efficiency, to losing billion dollar deals.
Political Systems
You may be familiar with democracy, or rule by the people; and theocracy, or rule of God by his or
her designates; but the world presents a diverse range of how people are governed. It is also impor-
tant to note, as we examine political systems, that they are created, maintained, and changed by
people. Just as people change over time, so do all systems that humans create. A political climate
that was once closed to market forces, including direct and indirect investment, may change over
time.
Centuries ago, China built a physical wall to keep out invaders. In the twentieth century, it
erected another kind of wall: a political wall that separated the country from the Western world
and limited entrepreneurship due to its adherence to its interpretation of communism. In 2009, that
closed market is now open for business. To what extent it is open may be a point of debate, but simple
observation provides ample evidence of a country, and a culture, open to investment and trade. The
opening and closing ceremonies for the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing symbolized this openness,
with symbolic representations of culture combined with notable emphasis on welcoming the
world. As the nature of global trade and change transforms business, so it also transforms political
systems.
Political systems are often framed in terms of how people are governed, and the extent to
which they may participate. Democracy is one form of government that promotes the involvement
Political system or form of of the individual, but even here we can observe stark differences. In the United States, people are
government that promotes
the involvement of the encouraged to vote, but it is not mandatory, and voter turnout is often so low that voting minorities
individual. have great influence on the larger political systems. In Chile, voting is mandatory, so that all indi-
viduals are expected to participate, with adverse consequences if they do not. This doesn’t mean
there are not still voting minorities or groups with disproportionate levels of influence and power,
but it does underscore cultural values and their many representations.
Centralized rule of the people also comes in many forms. In a dictatorship, the dictator estab-
lishes and enforces the rules with few checks and balances, if any. In a totalitarian system, one
party makes the rules. The Communist states of the twentieth century (although egalitarian in the- Political system where
power is concentrated,
ory) were ruled in practice by a small central committee. In a theocracy, one religion makes the rules such as dictatorship,
based on their primary documents or interpretation of them, and religious leaders hold positions of communism, or theocracy.
political power. In each case, political power is centralized to a small group over the many.
A third type of political system is anarchy, in which there is no government. A few places in
the world, notably Somalia, may be said to exist in a state of anarchy. But even in a state of anarchy,
Political state in which
the lack of a central government means that local warlords, elders, and others exercise a certain there is no government.
amount of political, military, and economic power. The lack of an established governing system
itself creates the need for informal power structures that regulate behavior and conduct, set and
promote ideals, and engage in commerce and trade, even if that engagement involves nonstandard
strategies such as the appropriation of ships via piracy. In the absence of appointed or elected lead-
ers, emergent leaders will rise as people attempt to meet their basic needs.
Legal Systems
Legal systems also vary across the planet and come in many forms. Some
legal systems promote the rule of law while others promote the rule of culture, FIGURE 18.2
Communication varies across cultures,
including customs, traditions, and religions. The two most common systems are
including legal and economic norms and
civil and common law. Civil law draws from a Roman history and common law customs.
from an English tradition. In civil law the rules are spelled out in detail, and
judges are responsible for applying the law to the given case. In common law, the
judge interprets the law and considers the concept of precedent, or previous deci-
sions. Common law naturally adapts to changes in technology and modern
contexts as precedents accumulate, while civil law requires new rules to be writ-
ten out to reflect the new context even as the context transforms and changes.
Civil law is more predictable and is practiced in the majority of countries, while
common law involves more interpretation that can produce conflict with multi-
ple views on the application of the law in question. The third type of law draws
its rules from a theological base rooted in religion. This system presents unique
challenges to the outsider, and warrants thorough research. © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
Economic Systems Legal system in which the

rules are spelled out in
detail and judges are
responsible for applying
the law to the given case.
Economic systems vary in similar ways across cultures, and again reflect the norms and customs of
people. Economies are often described on the relationship between people and their government.
An economy with a high degree of government intervention may prove challenging for both inter-
Legal system in which the
nal and external businesses. An economy with relatively little government oversight may be said to judge interprets the law
reflect more of the market(s) and to be less restricted. Along these same lines, government may per- and considers the concept
ceive its role as a representative of the common good, to protect individual consumers, and to of precedent, or previous
prevent fraud and exploitation. decisions.
This continuum or range, from high to low degrees of government involvement, reflects the
concept of government itself. A government may be designed to give everyone access to the market,
with little supervision, in the hope that people will regulate transactions based on their own needs,
wants, and desires; in essence, their own self-interest. If everyone operates in one’s self-interest and
word gets out that one business produces a product that fails to work as advertised, it is often
believed that the market will naturally gravitate away from this faulty product to a competing
product that works properly. Individual consumers, however, may have a hard time knowing which
product to have faith in and may look to government to provide that measure of safety.
Government certification of food, for example, attempts to reduce disease. Meat from
unknown sources would lack the seal of certification, alerting the consumer to evaluate the prod-
uct closely or choose another product. In terms of supervision, we can see an example of this when
Japan restricts the sale of U.S. beef for fear of mad cow disease. The concern may be warranted
from the consumer’s viewpoint, or it may be protectionist from a business standpoint, protecting
the local producer over the importer.
From meat to financial products, we can see both the dangers and positive attributes of
intervention and can also acknowledge that its application may be less than consistent. Some
cultures that value the community may naturally look to their government for leadership in eco-
nomic areas, while those that represent an individualistic tendency may take a more “hands off”
approach.
Ethical Systems
Ethical systems, unlike political, legal, and economic systems, are generally not formally institu-
tionalized. This does not imply, however, that they are less influential in interactions, trade, and
commerce. Ethics refers to a set of norms and principles that relate to individual and group behav-
ior, including businesses and organizations. They may be explicit, in the form of an organization’s
code of conduct; may be represented in religion, as in the Ten Commandments; or may reflect cul-
tural values in law. What is legal and what is ethical are at times quite distinct.
For example, the question of executive bonuses was hotly debated when several U.S. financial
services companies accepted taxpayer money under the Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP)
in 2008. It was legal for TARP recipient firms to pay bonuses—indeed, some lawyers argued that
failing to pay promised bonuses would violate contract law—but many taxpayers believed it was
unethical.
Some cultures have systems of respect and honor that require tribute and compensation for
service, while others may view payment as a form of bribe. It may be legal in one country to make a
donation or support a public official in order to gain influence over a decision, but it may be uneth-
ical. In some countries, it may be both illegal and unethical. Given the complexity of human values
and their expression across behaviors, it is wise to research the legal and ethical norms of the place
or community where you want to do business.
Global Village
International trade has advantages and disadvantages, again based on your viewpoint and cultural
reference. If you come from a traditional culture, with strong gender norms and codes of conduct,
you may not appreciate the importation of some Western television programs that promote what
you consider to be content that contradicts your cultural values. You may also take the viewpoint
from a basic perspective and assert that basic goods and services that can only be obtained through
trade pose a security risk. If you cannot obtain the product or service, it may put you, your business,
or your community at risk.
Furthermore, “just in time” delivery methods may produce shortages when the systems break
down due to weather, transportation delays, or conflict. People come to know each other through
interactions (and transactions are fundamental to global trade), but cultural viewpoints may come
into conflict. Some cultures may want a traditional framework to continue and will promote their
traditional cultural values and norms at the expense of innovation and trade. Other cultures may
come to embrace diverse cultures and trade, only to find that they have welcomed some who wish
to do harm. In a modern world, transactions have a cultural dynamic that cannot be ignored.
Intercultural communication and business have been related since the first exchange of value.
People, even from the same community, had to arrive at a common understanding of value. Sym-
bols, gestures, and even language reflect these values. Attention to this central concept will enable
the skilled business communicator to look beyond his or her own viewpoint.
It was once the privilege of the wealthy to travel, and the merchant or explorer knew firsthand
what many could only read about. Now we can take virtual tours of locations we may never travel
Characterized by
to, and as the cost of travel decreases, we can increasingly see the world for ourselves. As global information and
trade has developed, and time to market has decreased, the world has effectively grown smaller. transportation
While the size has not changed, our ability to navigate has been dramatically decreased. Time and technologies that reduce
distance are no longer the obstacles they once were. The Canadian philosopher Marshall McLuhan, the time and space
required to interact.
a pioneer in the field of communication, predicted what we now know as the “global village.” The
global village is characterized by information and transportation technologies that reduce the time
and space required to interact.[28]
International business and cross-cultural communication. Cross-cultural communication -

International business culture (how to work with different cultures
)http://www.integrationtraining.co.uk/ Working cross-culturally (how to work with different
cultures in business) with Mark Walsh from Integration Training talking about the work of Geert
Hofstede
Key Takeaway
People create political, legal, economic, and ethical systems to guide them in transacting busi-
ness domestically and internationally.
1. Choose one country you would like to visit and explore its political system. How is it different
from the system in your country? What are the similarities? Share your findings with class-
mates.
2. Think of an ethical aspect of the economic crisis of 2008 that involved you or your family. For
example, did you or a relative get laid off at work, have difficulty making mortgage or rent
payments, change your spending habits, or make donations to help those less fortunate? Is
there more than one interpretation of the ethics of the situation? Write a short essay about it
and discuss it with your classmates.
3. Choose one country you would like to visit and explore its economic system, including type
of currency and its current value in relation to the U.S. dollar. Share and compare your results
with classmates.
18.7 International Business and Law

Enforcement
1. Explain some of the cultural considerations for distinct communities in the context of law
enforcement.
2.
3.
Introduction
Always be respectful and considerate of others.
Flickr, gustavominas (Gustavo Gomes),http://www.flickr.com/photos/gustavominas/2705078138.
You may have heard the phrase, “When in Rome, do as the Romans do,” mean-
ing that one should behave and observe the customs of the people in their FIGURE 18.3
Each culture also features a culture of law
homeland. As a visitor, you don’t have to participate in every activity, but you do
enforcement.
have to respect the local customs and laws. You are subject to the laws of the land,
and ignorance of the law is not a solid defense. What may seem strange to you
may be normal in other parts of the world, and vice versa. For example, in the
United States, when you come to a four-way stop with either a red stop sign or a
red stop light, what do you do? Of course you stop, but what do you do next? Do
you observe the intersection flow of traffic and take a right turn? If it doesn’t
infringe on other drivers’ right of way, it is allowed. If you are in Chile, it is not
allowed and is cause for a parte, or a ticket. There is no “free right-hand turn on
red” allowed. What you can do in one country may be illegal in another. In this
section, we examine the wide range of diversity across laws, turn our attention to
law enforcement and punishment across cultures, and finally offer several sug-
gestions to help you when you find yourself a stranger in a strange land. Flickr, matiasfabres,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
matiasfabres/5863819073.
Diverse Laws Across Cultures

Let’s say you are part of a study abroad group traveling the world. You are
FIGURE 18.4 learning about local cultures and customs, enjoying local foods, and you probably
There are diverse laws across cultures to learn
would like to avoid trouble with the law. Even if you have researched all the coun-
when traveling.
tries before your travels, you may find yourself fined, locked up, or the center of
an international incident in short order. When in doubt, be careful and ask before
you act.
If our first stop is in Italy, you are welcome to explore your surroundings and
take pictures of the local monuments, but do not feed the pigeons.[29] It is illegal,
and you can be fined. Pigeons damage the monuments with their droppings, and
there are significant efforts to control the bird population. Also take care if you
are overweight, as the obese are forbidden from wearing polyester or spandex.[30]
If we continue our journey around Europe, you have to be careful not to
wear a Jerry Lewis mask in Cannes, France. (In fact, it was technically illegal for
Flickr, toolmantim (Tim Lucas),http://www.flickr.com/
photos/toolmantim/6258872886.
women to wear pants in Paris until 2013.) In nearby Portugal, it is illegal to pee in
the ocean. As we proceed north to England, you have to remember that it is ille-
FIGURE 18.5 gal to eat mincemeat pie on Christmas, and you cannot stare at naked mannequins. Finally, if we
Be careful to observe local
rent a car in Denmark, you have to have your lights on all the time or you can be fined.[31] Actual
laws.
enforcement of the law may vary depending on our context, of course, but the lesson is clear: be
careful.
TABLE 18.1 Several Laws that May Surprise You

Country Law
Beijing, China Drivers of motor-driven vehicles are not allowed
to stop for pedestrians
Saudi Arabia Women are not allowed to drive. It is also illegal
for women to appear in public without a male rel-
ative or guardian.
Singapore Chewing gum is illegal unless it is therapeutic or
considered a medicine; it is banned under
the “Regulation of Imports and Exports (Chewing
Gum) Regulations.”
Isle of Capri Noisy sandals are illegal.
Flickr, mollenborg (Kristian
Mollenborg),http://www.flickr. San Salvador Drunk drivers can be executed by firing squad.
com/photos/mollenborg/
US Virgin Islands It is legal to drink alcohol and drive.
407777086.
Thailand It is illegal to leave the house if you are not wear-
ing underwear.
Canada Any public debt more than 25 cents cannot be
paid in pennies.
Eraclea (Near Venice, Italy) Building sandcastles and the collecting of sea
shells is illegal.
Germany A pillow is considered a “passive weapon.” No
pillow fights allowed.
Victoria, Australia It is illegal to name an animal you plan to eat. It is
also illegal to wear hot pink shorts after midday
on Sunday.
Moscow, Russia It is illegal to drive a dirty car.
Source: National Geographic. (2012). Locked up abroad. Retrieved from http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/locked-up-
abroad; Zlatanovska, T. (2012, April 6). Strange laws around the world. Jokeroo. Retrieved from http://blog.jokeroo.com/2012/04/06/
strange-laws-around-the-world; Pure Travel. (2010, May 14). 14 Weird laws from around the world. Retrieved from http://www.
puretravel.com/blog/2010/03/05/14-weird-laws-from-around-the-world; Rabiya. (2012, July 6). Weird laws around the world. Weirdly
Odd. Retrieved from http://www.weirdlyodd.com/10-weird-laws-around-the-world.
Our discussion of unusual laws would not be complete without a mention of some of the
FIGURE 18.6
unusual laws you’ll find in the United States. Each state creates its own laws, and while federal law
Cultural backgrounds
supersedes state law, enforcement is still local. Again, if we should decide to tour the United States, influence law enforcement.
it would be wise to be aware of local laws:
TABLE 18.2 Surprising U.S. State Laws

State Law
Alabama Masks may not be worn in public.
Arizona Any misdemeanor committed while wearing a red
mask is considered a felony. Flickr, euromagic (Martin L),http://
www.flickr.com/photos/
California Women may not drive in a house coat. euromagic/422388998.
Colorado It is illegal to ride a horse under the influence of

alcohol. FIGURE 18.7
Cultures and countries have
Florida It is illegal to sing in a public place while attired in distinct rules.
a swimsuit.
Georgia Members of the state assembly cannot be tick-
eted for speeding while the state assembly is in
session.
Hawaii Billboards are illegal.
Indiana Smoking in the state legislature building is

banned, except when the legislature is in session.
Kansas If two trains meet on the same track, neither shall Flickr, hughe,http://www.flickr.
proceed until the other has passed. com/photos/hughe/5561688243.
Massachusetts Tomatoes may not be used in the production of

clam chowder.
New Jersey All motorists must honk before passing another
car, bicyclist, skater, or even skateboarder.
Oregon Drivers must yield to pedestrians who are stand-
ing on the sidewalk, and they cannot pump their
own gas.
Washington No person my walk about in public if he or she
has the common cold.
Wisconsin It is illegal to serve apple pie in public restaurants
without cheese.
Wyoming Skiing under the influence of alcohol is prohibited
Source: Big Government. Small Brains. Dumb Laws. Dumb laws in the United States. Retrieved on 7/10/2012 from http://www.
dumblaws.com/laws/united-states.
Now that we have explored some of the many unusual laws around world, it
FIGURE 18.8 is only natural to consider what happens when we inadvertently break them. In
When you are in another country, you are
some cases there is no enforcement at all, and the laws are considered anti-
subject to their laws and their punishments.
quated, as from a time when horses were our primary mode of transportation. In
others, there might be a fine or even incarceration. Prison in your own country is
not a pleasant experience, but being in jail in another country is dangerous.
Law Enforcement and Punishment

across Cultures
Flickr, carat-clwp,http://www.flickr.com/photos/carat-
In 1994, Michael Fay made international headlines when he was convicted of theft
clwp/4774571284. and vandalism and sentenced to four months in jail, a fine of $2,200, and six
strikes of a cane, also called caning.[32] President Clinton called for leniency; the
caning punishment was reduced to four strikes and was carried out in public. This case brought
the issue of international law, and observing local laws as well as local punishments, into sharp
focus for many. When you are in another country, you are subject to their laws and their punish-
ments, and sometimes no amount of international diplomatic intervention can make a difference.
National Geographic has pioneered a program called Locked Up Abroad that showcases what
happens when foreigners are arrested and held in foreign countries.[33] According to their website,
the show is a “cult favorite that takes viewers inside accounts of capture, incarceration, and terror
far away from home with intimate personal interviews and dramatic reenactments.”
FIGURE 18.9
Cross-cultural law enforcement involves
intercultural communication.
Flickr, thenationalguard,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
thenationalguard/4497614280.
The U.S. Department of State[34] maintains a website with country-by-coun-

try descriptions of punishments to alert travelers to law enforcement. In 2010, FIGURE 18.10
Bribes are viewed in different ways around the
Newsweek[35] ran a feature article entitled, “The World’s Most Barbaric Punish-
world.
ments,” that noted that “In Iran in 2012 a woman was a spared from being stoned
to death for adultery in response to a widespread international outcry.” In 2003,
an Indian citizen working in Saudi Arabia was in a bar fight that resulted in the
loss of a man’s eye. He was convicted and the sentence was the loss of his right
eye. The Indian government made an appeal for clemency, and it is not clear if
the punishment was carried out. In 2007, a man poured sulfuric acid on a woman,
leaving her blinded. He was punished with five drops of acid to each eye, blinding
him in turn. You can lose your right hand for theft in Nigeria and Saudi Arabia,
and repeat offenders can lose both hands. Newsweek estimates “about 100 people
per year” are beheaded in Saudi Arabia. In the United States, Ronnie Lee Gardner,
a convicted murderer, was shot in the head by a firing squad in Utah. Flickr, Chris Potter,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
In many South Asian countries and the Middle East, honor killings—the 86530412@N02/8448086741.
killing of a female by a male relative for refusing an arranged marriage, seeking divorce, being the
victim of a sexual assault, or prostitution—are still legal.[36] Bride kidnapping, in Ethiopia and
Rwanda, can also include sexual assault so that the marriage is unavoidable. Bride burning is a pun-
ishment for an insufficient dowry in India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Finally, genital mutilation,
performed on girls from four to eight years old without anesthesia, is observed in parts of Africa.
Tips and Bribery

Now that we have discussed the wide range of customs and rules, as well as punishments, we can
consider to what extent bribery and influence will play a role in our travels. While a general rule to
A monetary reward,
follow is to not offer bribes, one has to view the action of influencing the actions of another across
sometimes in addition to a
a continuum, from tips to bribery. A tip is usually a monetary reward, sometimes in addition to a standard payment, for a
standard payment, for a service or action. A bribe is, according to Nakayama and Martin,[37] “giving service or action.
or promising something, often money, to influence another’s actions.” As we can observe from these
two definitions, both the actions and the desired outcomes are quite similar. The difference is often
in the amount and context of the compensation. Giving or promising
something, often money,
We may tip for excellent service at a restaurant in the United States, where the tip is a very
to influence another's
important part of the compensation of the server, who often receives food-worker minimum wage actions.
of just $2.13 an hour. We may tip a taxi driver for quickly and successfully arriving at our desired
location, and we may tip the bellhop for transporting our bags with care and consideration. We
may tell the server, driver, or maid to keep the change, paying with a bill that is in excess of the
actual amount required for payment. We may also add an additional amount to our bill or even be
required to add a certain percentage, often 18–20 percent, to the restaurant bill when we gather in
groups larger than five people. This requirement is often a source of conflict, and even when it is
posted it can be an issue of contention.
For example, a Houston family called the police because they were locked in
FIGURE 18.11 a Fisherman’s restaurant after refusing to pay the required group gratu-
Tips are viewed in different ways across

cultures.
ity.[38] Gratuity is another word for tip, but as we observe in this case, it has little
relation to the service rendered. In this case it resembles a fee, or a cost associated
with a transaction. Jasmine Marks refused to pay the required 17 percent group
gratuity, alleging rude staff, drinks that weren’t refilled, and incomplete food
orders. While the police reported to the scene, the Marks family paid the bill to
leave and avoid further problems. Understanding the expectations, and the dif-
ference between optional and required payment, is important when traveling.
Conversely, we may not tip at a restaurant and suffer for it. For example, a server
at Chili’s was so upset over a poor tip that she posted this message on Face- book:[39]
“Next time you tip me $5 on a $138 bill, don’t even bother coming in cause I’ll spit in
your food and then in your [misspelled expletive] face you cheap bas- tards!!!!!!!!!”
Ultimately the server lost her job, and patrons were once again alerted to the
threat of retaliation. Bribery, however, carries far more significant consequences,
including fines and jail time. Albert J. Stanely, an oil businessman, was convicted
in the United States of conspiring to bribe officials in Nigeria to be awarded $6
billion in business contracts.[40]
Flickr, palander (Petter Palander),http://www.flickr.com/

photos/palander/3864364037.
Another word for tip.
FIGURE 18.12
The custom of tipping and gratuities is itself an
example of intercultural communication.
Flickr, brokentaco,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
brokentaco/4413343893.
According to the New York Times, graft, or the use of bribery to secure illegal gains, often in
politics and business, is quite common in global business today. To that end, the U.S. Justice Depart-
ment is currently investigating at least seventy-eight corporations for possible violations of the The use of bribery to
Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). Companies include Alcoa, Avon, Goldman Sachs, Hewlett- in politics and business.
Packard, Pfizer, and Walmart.[41] Not everyone agrees with the Justice Department’s interpretation
of the FCPA, and there have been several judicial decisions that have called enforcement efforts
into question.
So we can see that tips reward and encourage good behavior, while the lack
FIGURE 18.13
of them may encourage poor behavior or outright retaliation. Every culture has Some countries have a cultural expectation of
expectations for tipping and compensation, and the distinction between formal bribery.
payment and informal payment may include several shades of gray. When we extend
this discussion to law enforcement, from customs to immigration to the local police,
we can also that see a range of expectations, from compliments to outright payment
for services, can exist. At the same time, some cultures do not condone payment for
services outside of normal channels and even sanction against it. For example, as
we’ve observed, the United States is home to the most restrictive laws against
bribery on the planet, and companies found paying bribes to foreigners, be they
government officials or businesspersons, can be fined more than $1 million. While
we cannot reconcile the customs and expectations across this wide range, from
prohibition to understood requirements, we can learn about local customs.
According to Nakayama and Martin,[42] in Mexico bribes are known as mor- Flickr, 666_is_money (Raquel Baranow),http://www.
dida, while in Southeast Asia they are referred to as kumshaw, and in the Middle flickr.com/photos/666_is_money/4624795360.
East they are called baksheesh. What they represent in each culture varies greatly. In the case of
Mexico, mordidas, translated literally and figuratively as “bites,” take a bite out of your pocket book.
They may involve small payments to avoid a traffic ticket or to get faster service at a hospital, and
they can add up. According to Transparency International, bribery cost Mexico $2.75 billion in
2010,[43] representing 33 percent of household income. They interviewed more than fifteen thousand
households and analyzed thirty-five different governmental services and found widespread use of
“bites.” Just as the U.S. food server looks to a tip as an important part of daily compensation, some
cultures and countries, including Mexico, have a system of payment that exists around and between
normal transactions. Transparency International found mordidas rose to an average of $14 (165
pesos) from $11.80 (138 pesos) in 2009.
Not all systems of influence abroad involve monetary compensation. In Chile, for example, the
system of pitutos, or favors, is well known and wide spread. A pituto is another word for a favor
with obligations attached, but it also refers to the informal social network of individuals who owe
(and grant) favors that then create obligations. While the Chilean government considers this sys-
tem to be illegal, its practice is still common and widespread. A person may “pull some strings” and
call a former classmate who works for a company that is considering a contract, and if the desired
outcome is accomplished, a debt exists in the form of a favor to be repaid. This system of referrals
and favors, with long-remembered debts, creates a social network of insiders and outsiders. It is not
unique to Chile, and examples can be found throughout Latin America and around the world. In
Spain, favors are referred to as enchufes, literally and figuratively translated as “plugs,” as in electric
plugs, where the introduction, referral, or entrance to a group or connection plugs in an individual,
or company, to a social network where resources are allocated.
As an international traveler on business, knowing that the range of interpre-

FIGURE 18.14 tations on tips and expected compensation is quite diverse is important, as is the
From tips to bribery, influence and access are
recognition that the interpretation of an influencing action may be viewed very
part of international relations.
differently by the host country individuals or by your home country law enforce-
ment officials. Learning how to interpret and negotiate this range of
expectations is important, though one should never assume you can buy your
way out of trouble.
Tips to Assist the Foreign Traveler
Flickr, bombardier (Joel Bombardier),http://www.flickr. The U.S. State Department[44] offers seven important tips to assist the foreign
com/photos/bombardier/6195107168. traveler:
1. “Sign up for the Smart Traveler Enrollment Program so the State Department
can better assist you in an emergency: Let us know your travel plans through the Smart Trav-
eler Enrollment Program, a free online service at https://travelregistration.state.gov. This will
help us contact you if there is a family emergency in the United States, or if there is a crisis
where you are traveling. In accordance with the Privacy Act, information about your welfare
and whereabouts will not be released to others without your express authorization.”
2. “Sign passport, and fill in the emergency information: Make sure you have a signed, valid
passport, and a visa, if required, and fill in the emergency information page of your passport.”
3. “Leave copies of itinerary and passport data page: Leave copies of your itinerary, passport
data page and visas with family or friends, so you can be contacted in case of an emergency.”
4. “Check your overseas medical insurance coverage: Ask your medical insurance company if
your policy applies overseas, and if it covers emergency expenses such as medical evacuation.
If it does not, consider supplemental insurance.”
5. “Familiarize yourself with local conditions and laws: While in a foreign country, you are sub-
ject to its laws. The State Department website at http://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/
country.html has useful safety and other information about the countries you will visit.”
6. “Take precautions to avoid being a target of crime: To avoid being a target of crime, do not
wear conspicuous clothing or jewelry and do not carry excessive amounts of money. Also, do
not leave unattended luggage in public areas and do not accept packages from strangers.”
7. “Contact us in an emergency: Consular personnel at U.S. Embassies and Consulates abroad and
in the United States are available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, to provide emergency assistance
to U.S. citizens. Contact information for U.S. Embassies and Consulates appears on the Bureau of
Consular Affairs website at http://travel.state.gov. Also note that the Office of Over- seas Citizen
Services in the State Department’s Bureau of Consular Affairs may be reached for assistance with
emergencies at 1-888-407-4747, if calling from the United States or Canada, or 202-501-4444, if
calling from overseas.”
The Australian Government[45] offers specific advice for travelers concerning drugs and medica-
tions. Avoid getting into trouble with drugs overseas by following these simple precautions:
• “Obey the law—do not purchase, take, or travel with drugs.”
• “Lock your bags as a precaution against tampering or theft.”
• “Don’t leaving your bags unattended in public areas or in the care of a stranger.”
• “Never carry anything into or out of another country for someone else.”
• “Ensure any prescription medication is carried in its original packaging, accompanied by a let-
ter from your doctor indicating what the medication is and that it’s for personal use.”
• “Ensure your medication is not considered illegal overseas by contacting the nearest foreign
mission of the country you’re visiting before your departure.”
Finally, many countries have signed the United Nation’s Vienna Convention on Consular Rela-
tions (http://treaties.un.org). This convention, while not applicable to every country, provides the
legal framework for people who have been detained, arrested, or jailed in a country other than their
homeland to have access to consular officers from their country of citizenship. If you should ever
be detained overseas, you should ask to speak to officials from your country.
Conclusion
In this section, we have examined the both humorous and serious issue of laws
and law enforcement around the world. Cultural expectations are a part of laws FIGURE 18.15
Know where your local consulate or embassy is
and customs, and they vary greatly around the world. The consequences can be
located.
severe, and your home country may not be able to save you. At the same time,
your home country may consider an activity illegal that is common practice in
another country.
https://www.ted.com/talks/misha_glenny_investigates_global_crime_networks
Key Takeaway
You are subject to the laws of the land where you are, and ignorance of the local
laws, customs, or traditions is not a solid defense.
Flickr, rapidtravelchai (Stefan Krasowski),http://www.

flickr.com/photos/rapidtravelchai/8169205370.
1. Choose a country that does not border your own. Investigate its legal system
and at least one crime and associated punishment. Share and compare with the class.
2. Investigate legal systems and punishments in countries other than your own and find at least
one custom, practice, or punishment that you think could or should be adopted in your home
country. Share and compare with your classmates.
18.8 Styles of Management
1. Understand and discuss how various styles of management, including Theory X, Y, and Z,
influence workplace culture.
People and their relationships to dominant and subordinate roles are a reflection of culture and cultural
viewpoint. They are communicated through experience and create expectations for how and when
managers interact with employees. The three most commonly discussed management theories are often
called X, Y, and Z. In this section we’ll briefly discuss them and their relationship to intercultural
communication.
Introduction to Business A level: Management styles-Theory Y &

Theory X
A quick once over of two key management styles.
Theory X
In an influential book titled The Human Side of Enterprise, M. I. T. management professor Douglas
McGregor[46] described two contrasting perceptions on how and why people work, formulating The-
ory X and Theory Y; they are both based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.[47],[48] According to this model,
people are concerned first with physical needs (e.g., food, shelter) and second with safety. At the third
level, people seek love, acceptance, and intimacy. Self-esteem, achievement, and respect are the
fourth level. Finally, the fifth level embodies self-actualization.
Theory X McGregor’s Theory X asserts that workers are motivated by their basic (low-level) needs and
Asserts that workers are have a general disposition against labor. In this viewpoint, workers are considered lazy and pre-
motivated by their basic dicted to avoid work if they can, giving rise to the perceived need for constant, direct supervision. A
Theory X manager may be described as authoritarian or autocratic, and does not seek input or feed-
a general disposition
back from employees. The view further holds that workers are motivated by personal interest, avoid
against labor.
discomfort, and seek pleasure. The Theory X manager uses control and incentive programs to
provide punishment and rewards. Responsibility is the domain of the manager, and the view is that
employees will avoid it if at all possible to the extent that blame is always deflected or attributed
to something other than personal responsibility. Lack of training, inferior machines, or failure to
provide the necessary tools are all reasons to stop working, and it is up to the manager to fix these
issues.
Theory Y
In contrast to Theory X, Theory Y views employees as ambitious, self-directed, and capable of self-
Theory Y
motivation. Employees have a choice, and they prefer to do a good job as a representation of self-
Views employees as
actualization. The pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain are part of being human, but work is
also a reward in itself and employees take pride in their efforts. Employees want to reach their and capable of
fullest potential and define themselves by their profession. A job well done is reward in and of itself, motivation.
and the employee may be a valuable source of feedback. Collaboration is viewed as normal, and the
worker may need little supervision.
Theory Z
Theory X and Y may seem like two extremes across the range of management styles, but in fact
they are often combined in actual work settings. William Ouchi’s Theory Z combines elements of both,
Combines elements of
and draws from American and Japanese management style. It promotes worker participation and
both Theory X and Y;
emphasizes job rotation, skills development, and loyalty to the company.[49] Workers are seen as having views workers as having a
a high need for reinforcement, and belonging is emphasized. Theory Z workers are trusted to do high need for
their jobs with excellence and management is trusted to support them, looking out for their well- reinforcement and
belonging.
being.[50]
Each of these theories of management features a viewpoint with assumptions about people and
why they do what they do. While each has been the subject of debate, and variations on each have
been introduced across organizational communication and business, they serve as a foundation
for understanding management in an intercultural context.
There's no single perfect way to manage, but there IS a management style that works best for
your situation and team. Do you know how to choose the right one?
Key Takeaway
Management Theories X, Y, and Z are examples of distinct and divergent views on worker moti-
vation, need for supervision, and the possibility of collaboration.
1. Imagine that you are a manager in charge of approximately a dozen workers. Would you
prefer to rely primarily on Theory X, Y, or Z as your management style? Why? Write a short
you
would make. Discuss your essay with your classmates.
2. Describe your best boss and write a short analysis on what type of management style you
perceive they used. Share and compare with classmates.
3. Describe your worst boss and write a short analysis on what type of management style you
perceive they used. Share and compare with classmates.
18.9 The International Assignment
1.
2.
3.
Suppose you have the opportunity to work or study in a foreign country. You may find the prospect
of an international assignment intriguing, challenging, or even frightening; indeed, most profes-
sionals employed abroad will tell you they pass through all three stages at some point during the
assignment. They may also share their sense of adjustment, even embrace of their host culture, and
the challenges of reintegration into their native country.
An international assignment, whether as a student or a career professional, requires work and
preparation, and should be given the time and consideration of any major life change. When you
lose a loved one, it takes time to come to terms with the loss. When someone you love is diagnosed
with a serious illness, the news may take some time to sink in. When a new baby enters your family,
a period of adjustment is predictable and prolonged. All these major life changes can stress an indi-
vidual beyond their capacity to adjust. Similarly, in order to be a successful “expat,” or expatriate,
one needs to prepare mentally and physically for the change.
International business assignments are a reflection of increased global trade, and as trade
decreases, they may become an expensive luxury. As technology allows for instant face-to-face
communication, and group collaboration on documents via cloud computing and storage, the need
for physical travel may be reduced. But regardless of whether your assignment involves relocation
abroad, supervision of managers in another country at a distance, or supervision by a foreign man-
ager, you will need to learn more about the language, culture, and customs that are not your own.
You will need to compare and contrast, and seek experiences that lend insight, in order to commu-
nicate more effectively.
An efficient, effective manager in any country is desirable, but one with international expe-
rience even more so. You will represent your company and they will represent you, including a
considerable financial investment, either by your employer (in the case of a professional assign-
ment) or by whoever is financing your education (in the case of studying abroad). That investment
should not be taken lightly. As many as 40 percent of foreign-assigned employees terminate their
assignments early,[51] at a considerable cost to their employers. Of those that remain, almost 50 per-
cent are less than effective.[52]
Here is a first-person account of living abroad, from Paris, to London, Lagos, and Dubai.
Preparation
With this perspective in mind, let’s discuss how to prepare for the international assignment and
strategies to make you a more effective professional as a stranger in a strange land. First we’ll
dispel a couple of myths associated with an idealized or romantic view of living abroad. Next we’ll
examine traits and skills of the successful expatriate. Finally, we’ll examine culture shock and the
acculturation process.
Your experience with other cultures may have come firsthand, but for most, a foreign location
like Paris is an idea formed from exposure to images via the mass media. Paris may be known for
its art, as a place for lovers, or as a great place to buy bread. But if you have only ever known about
a place through the lens of a camera, you have only seen the portraits designed and portrayed by
others. You will lack the multidimensional view of one who lives and works in Paris, and even if
you are aware of its history, its economic development, or its recent changes, these are all academic
observations until the moment of experience.
That is not to say that research does not form a solid foundation in preparation for an interna-
tional assignment, but it does reinforce the distinction between a media-fabricated ideal and real
life. Awareness of this difference is an important step as you prepare yourself for life in a foreign
culture.
If the decision is yours to make, take your time. If others are involved, and family is a considera-
tion, you should take even more care with this important decision. Residence abroad requires some
knowledge of the language, an ability to adapt, and an interest in learning about different cultures.
If family members are not a part of the decision, or lack the language skills or interest, the assign-
ment may prove overwhelming and lead to failure. Sixty-four percent of expatriate respondents
who terminated their assignment early indicated that family concerns were the primary reason.[53]
Points to consider include the following:
• How flexible are you?
• Do you need everything spelled out or can you go with the flow?
• Can you adapt to new ways of doing business?
• Are you interested in the host culture and willing to dedicate the time and put forth the effort
to learn more about it?
• What has been your experience to date working with people from distinct cultures?
• What are your language skills at present, and are you interested in learning a new language?
• Is your family supportive of the assignment?
• How will it affect your children’s education? Your spouse’s career? Your career?
• Will this assignment benefit your family?
• How long are you willing to commit to the assignment?
• What resources are available to help you prepare, move, and adjust?
• Can you stand being out of the loop, even if you are in daily written and oral communication
with the home office?
• What is your relationship with your employer, and can it withstand the anticipated stress and
tension that will result as not everything goes according to plan?
• Is the cultural framework of your assignment similar to—or unlike—your own, and how ready
are you to adapt to differences in such areas as time horizon, masculinity versus femininity, or
direct versus indirect styles of communication?
This list of questions could continue, and feel free to add your own as you explore the idea
of an international assignment. An international assignment is not like a domestic move or reas-
signment. Within the same country, even if there are significantly different local customs in place,
similar rules, laws, and ways of doing business are present. In a foreign country, you will lose those
familiar traditions and institutions and have to learn many new ways of accomplishing your given
tasks. What once took a five-minute phone call may now take a dozen meetings and a month to
achieve, and that may cause you some frustration. It may also cause your employer frustration
as you try to communicate how things are done locally, and why results are not immediate, as
they lack even your limited understanding of your current context. Your relationship with your
employer will experience stress, and your ability to communicate your situation will require tact
and finesse.
Successful expatriates are adaptable, open to learning new languages, cultures, and skilled at
finding common ground for communication. Rather than responding with frustration, they learn
the new customs and find the advantage to get the job done. They form relationships and are not
afraid to ask for help when it is warranted or required. They feel secure in their place as explorer,
and understand that mistakes are a given, even as they are unpredictable. Being a stranger is no
easy task, but they welcome the challenge with energy and enthusiasm.
Acculturation Process
Acculturation, or the transition to living abroad, is often described as an emotional rollercoaster.
Steven Rhinesmith[54] provides ten steps that show the process of acculturation, including culture
abroad. shock, that you may experience:
1. Initial anxiety
2. Initial elation
3. Initial culture shock

4. Superficial adjustment
5. Depression-frustration
6. Acceptance of host culture
7. Return anxiety
8. Return elation
9. Reentry shock
10. Reintegration
Humans fear the unknown, and even if your tolerance for uncertainty is high, you may experi-
ence a degree of anxiety in anticipation of your arrival. At first the “honeymoon” period is observed,
with a sense of elation at all the new-found wonders. You may adjust superficially at first, learning
where to get familiar foods or new ways to meet your basic needs. As you live in the new culture,
divergence will become a trend and you’ll notice many things that frustrate you. You won’t antic-
ipate the need for two hours at a bank for a transaction that once took five minutes, or could
be handled over the Internet, and find that businesses close during midday, preventing you from
accomplishing your goals. At this stage, you will feel that living in this new culture is simply
exhausting. Many expats advise that this is the time to tough it out—if you give in to the tempta-
tion to make a visit back home, you will only prolong your difficult adjustment.
Over time, if you persevere, you will come to accept and adjust to your host culture, and learn
how to accomplish your goals with less frustration and ease. You may come to appreciate several
cultural values or traits and come to embrace some aspects of your host culture. At some point, you
will need to return to your first, or home, culture, but that transition will bring a sense of anxiety.
People and places change, the familiar is no longer so familiar, and you too have changed. You may
once again be elated at your return and the familiar, and experience a sense of comfort in home
and family, but culture shock may again be part of your adjustment. You may look at your home
culture in a new way and question things that are done in a particular way that you have always
considered normal. You may hold onto some of the cultural traits you adopted while living abroad,
and begin the process of reintegration.
You may also begin to feel that the “grass is greener” in your host country,
FIGURE 18.16
and long to return. Expatriates are often noted for “going native,” or adopting the The international assignment requires
host culture’s way of life, but even the most confirmed expats still gather to hear adaptability.
the familiar sound of their first language, and find community in people like
themselves who have blended cultural boundaries on a personal level.
Living and Working Abroad

In order to learn to swim you have to get in the water, and all the research and
preparation cannot take the place of direct experience. Your awareness of culture
shock may help you adjust, and your preparation by learning some of the lan-
guage will assist you, but know that living and working abroad take time and © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
effort. Still, there are several guidelines that can serve you well as you start your
new life in a strange land:
1. Be open and creative. People will eat foods that seem strange or do things in a new way, and
your openness and creativity can play a positive role in your adjustment. Staying close to your
living quarters or surrounding yourself with similar expats can limit your exposure to and
understanding of the local cultures. While the familiar may be comfortable, and the new set-
ting may be uncomfortable, you will learn much more about your host culture and yourself if
you make the effort to be open to new experiences. Being open involves getting out of your
comfort zone.
2. Be self-reliant. Things that were once easy or took little time may now be challenging or con-
sume your whole day. Focus on your ability to resolve issues, learn new ways to get the job
done, and be prepared to do new things.
3. Keep a balanced perspective. Your host culture isn’t perfect. Humans aren’t perfect, and neither
was your home culture. Each location and cultural community has strengths you can learn
from if you are open to them.
4. Be patient. Take your time, and know a silent period is normal. The textbook language classes
only provide a base from which you will learn how people who live in the host country actu-
ally communicate. You didn’t learn to walk in a day and won’t learn to successfully navigate
this culture overnight either.
5. Be a student and a teacher. You are learning as the new member of the community, but as a
full member of your culture, you can share your experiences as well.
6. Be an explorer. Get out and go beyond your boundaries when you feel safe and secure. Trav-
eling to surrounding villages, or across neighboring borders, can expand your perspective and
help you learn.
7. Protect yourself. Always keep all your essential documents, money, and medicines close to you,
or where you know they will be safe. Trying to source a medicine in a country where you are
not fluent in the language, or where the names of remedies are different, can be a challenge.
Your passport is essential to your safety and you need to keep it safe. You may also consider
vaccination records, birth certificates, or business documents in the same way, keeping them
safe and accessible. You may want to consider a “bug-out bag,” with all the essentials you need,
including food, water, keys, and small tools, as an essential part of planning in case of emer-
gency.
Key Takeaway
Preparation is key to a successful international assignment. Living and working abroad takes
time, effort, and patience.
1. Research one organization in a business or industry that relates to your major and has an
international presence. Find a job announcement or similar document that discusses the
business and its international activities. Share and compare with classmates.
2. Conduct a search on expat networks including online forum. Briefly describe your findings
and share with classmates.
3. What would be the hardest part of an overseas assignment for you and why? What would
be the easiest part of an overseas assignment for you and why?
4.
classmates.
5. Find an article or other first-person account of someone’s experience on an international
assignment. Share your results with your classmates.
18.10 Popular Culture and

Intercultural Communication
1. Define pop culture.

2.
3. Discuss the influence and impact of pop culture on local cultures.
Introduction
Images of America are so pervasive in this global village that it is almost as if instead of
the world immigrating to America, America has emigrated to the world, allowing people
to aspire to be Americans even in distant countries.[55]
—Former Canadian Prime Minister Kim Campbell
Movies are the biggest export in the world, the biggest American export. It influences
people all over the world.[56]
—Brett Ratner
• iPad
• NYSE
• Mick Jagger
• Twitter
• Old Navy
• Skype
• Super Bowl
• Bud Light
• PDiddy
• Game of Thrones
• Vampires
• Mickey Mouse
• American Idol
• DWTS
• The Walking Dead
Do any of these words mean anything to you? You probably know almost all
FIGURE 18.17 of them, but where did you learn them? We are surrounded by messages, coming
Homer Simpson is a representation of popular
at us from our computers, our cell phones, our radios and televisions, or even
culture.
from our friends and colleagues, and we hear about these well-known represen-
tations of pop culture. They influence what we think and what we do in ways we
don’t always recognize, and the next catchphrase, from “sick” to the recycling of
an old one like “radical,” that we will use (because everyone else is using it) will
come from popular culture. It is all around us, in our cars, at the office, in our
homes, and it makes an impact.
Do you know the character Homer Simpson? If you took an image of Homer
to the remotest part of our planet, you would find something quite interesting:
almost everyone knows Homer Simpson. The television program has been
dubbed and translated, broadcast in reruns, and been the focus of piracy, from
dolls to backpacks, all over the world. In today’s globalized world, the mass media
are quite effective in reaching almost everyone with aspects of pop culture. From
Metallica’s “Sandman” to music from Bob Dylan and the Beatles playing in gro-
cery stores around the world, pop culture is international, as much as it reflects
its producers and North American cultures. When we use the term pop culture,
we refer to aspects of culture that arepopular, or “of the people.” These aspects of
culture are common, encountered almost everywhere, and they make an impact
on local, indigenous cultures.
Flickr, lorenjavier, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

lorenjavier/5437579478.
Popular Culture in Context
FIGURE 18.18
Classical art is a representation of high culture.
When we consider the word culture, which refers to that which humans create, it
also suggests a sense of refinement, prestige, or education. To say someone is “cul-
tured” means they understand a culture and can operate effectively within it. For
example, a table set in linen with countless forks, knives, and spoons is a reflec-
tion of culture, but the knowledge and education associated with their use, the
order of the meal, and the presentation of the food is also an aspect of culture.
For generations, to be “cultured” was considered part of being elite, or part of the
educated upper class. How you pronounced your words, what you considered art,
or even your support of the arts was a reflection of this view of culture. This
sharply contrasts with what is considered common culture, or culture of the une-
Flickr, dalbera (Jean-Pierre Dalbéra), http://www.flickr. ducated masses. While this view is quite debatable, and has been debated
com/photos/dalbera/8264090415.
extensively, the view persists.
One way to resolve this perception of a dilemma between “culture” in the sense of refinement
and “pop” (short for popular) is to view it from a communication perspective. We look to the verbal
and nonverbal aspects of all cultures and encounter similarities and differences. We find that
artifacts, like the representation of Homer Simpson and his characteristics as a father, contain
meaning we can assess, analyze, and discuss in the same way we can examine other artifacts
like architectural styles, furniture styles, or even fashion. Each artifact represents a culture, a
movement or a value system, and meaning within the creating culture. While there has been a tra-
ditional debate on what offers quality, or what is valued, we can observe that it is often a reflection
of perspective, awareness, and experience. To say that common or pop culture has little redeeming
value is to vastly underestimate its importance and impact on cultures around the world.
We can extend our discussion to high culture and folk culture to make a similar distinc-
tion. High culture consists of artifacts, customs, traditions, and creations associated with
Artifacts, customs, education and often exclusivity. Classical music stands an example of high culture. It is not com-
traditions, and creations
associated with education
mon, and to appreciate it and its composers, from the classical Beethoven to the polyphonic
and often exclusivity. Brahms, requires education. While we can enjoy it without formal education, the additional
insights offered by academics, keepers of high culture, allow us a greater understanding. From the
words of Shakespeare to the art of Renoir, we can see the distinction in their creations that con-
trasts sharply with the pop art of Andy Warhol, for example.
Folk culture, or culture of the people, reflects a specific community or ethnic group that is not
mass reproduced. For example, if we consider the handcrafted mebrillo baskets made in Southern
Culture of the people,
Chile, they include local designs and techniques in their creation and presentation. We can also reflecting a specific
observe how the baskets themselves, copied and reproduced in mass to be sold in tourist shops all community or ethnic
over, cross the line between folk culture and popular culture. What was rare is now made common. group, that is not mass
Mass culture refers to the messages created and received through mass reproduced.
media, from print to electronic media. Mass culture is an aspect of popular cul-
FIGURE 18.19
ture, and its impact is related to the size of its audience, often massive or even Andy Warhol’s Marilyn is a representation of
global, and its influence on other cultures. We can extend the discussion to oppo- pop culture.
sition to popular culture, called counter culture, or the representations of
resistance to mass or popular culture. Regardless of how we examine popular cul-
ture, we will consistently arrive at the same conclusion: it is ever present, and its
impact is global.
What Is Popular Culture?
Popular culture represents a common denominator, something that cuts

across most economic, social, and education barriers.[57]
—Edward Jay Whetmore
Flickr, oddsock (Ian Burt), http://www.flickr.com/
photos/oddsock/100943517.
Pop culture is a collection of widely accepted messages, knowledge, and practices that represent
current popular values, attitudes, and beliefs. In these many images, sounds, and messages, we see The messages created
commonly held beliefs about justice, beauty, success, love, revenge, and tragedy all played out in and received through
myriad ways. In many ways, the consistency of the messages forms the web of knowledge into a mass media, from print to
language anyone familiar with pop culture understands. The lone action hero who triumphs over electronic media.
evil again and again, from video games to movies, used to wear a white hat, though it is not that
obvious anymore. Still, the one person against all odds can and will come out on top, get the atten-
tion of the female supporting actress, and live happily ever after. If a character ever betrays his
resistance to mass or
friends, however, we know that sooner or later justice will be served. We know this because we have popular culture.
seen the lessons of popular culture played over and over across formats, contexts, and mediums.
We have seen betrayal and justice served time and time again. We know what happens and learn to
expect it. The media, regardless of how they remix the lessons, always sticks to the pop culture
A collection of widely
script. Audiences don’t like ambiguous endings or ambiguous morality; good versus evil and Harry accepted messages,
Potter being triumphant is what sells, and pop culture is nothing if not a product. knowledge, and practices
that represent current
Speaking of products, pop culture is full of product placement. Just as the television popular values, attitudes,
show Friends wasn’t about friends so much as it was about dysfunction, drama, and entertainment, and beliefs.
the advertisements placed within and between scenes of the program promoted all sorts of prod-
ucts, from values to commercial goods. Our songs and jingles have catchy melodies with ironic
observations about life, love, and love lost that we hear over and over again until we can hear them
in our minds without the radio. We can also sing along to the music or sales pitch with equal ease.
All it takes is the familiar prompt, from a rhythmic beat to a few musical notes, and our minds fill
in the blank. We know the slogans and catchphrases, and that when it is Nike, we should “Just do
it!” Thirsty? Have a Coke and a smile.
Our minds are full of pop culture, often without our complete awareness, and
FIGURE 18.20 here is one exercise to help illustrate the concept. We read left to right in Eng- lish,
Counter culture refers to the representations of
top of the page to the bottom, and each word is marked clearly with spaces
resistance to mass or popular culture.
between them, as well as punctuation to serve as signposts for meaning. Even
when the spelling, or code, is mixed up, we can still figure it out because our
minds know what to do.
As we can see in Figure 18.22 our mind is quite agile and can figure out the
meaning of words even when they are not spelled correctly. In the same way, we
know that creepy music combined with someone young and attractive entering
a dark house means something bad will happen, and if the person that scares
them happens to wear a hockey mask, then it is going to be really bad. We know
in horror films that the person who goes off alone doesn’t come back, and one should
never answer the telephone. We know that in a movie where there is a bar there will
Flickr, lifeontheedge (Marshall Astor), http://www.flickr. be a fight. This knowledge and awareness comes through exposure and experience,
com/photos/lifeontheedge/152639332.
and the patterns across the contexts create a consistency that is hard
to ignore. We’ve learned these lessons from our exposure to and experience within pop culture.
FIGURE 18.21 Pop culture is the subject of academic study for good reason: we create it and
Representations of pop culture can be found all it says something about us. Perhaps you don’t create the story on the evening
around the world. news, but collectively we tune into, or do not tune into, media all the time. Shows
that don’t make the viewership count don’t make the cut. Those that do survive.
George Lipsitz,[58] for example, points out that “perhaps the most important facts
about people have always been encoded within the ordinary and the common-
place.” When we look at pop culture, we see reflections of ourselves. Another
study observes, “Popular culture is a very important segment of our society. The
contemporary scene is holding us up to ourselves to see; it can tell us who we are,
what we are, and why.”[59]
Popular Culture, Power, and Influence

Pop culture socializes populations and raises important issues on health and
health care, but it also ignores other issues and marginalizes subgroups and
cocultures. Pop culture is a force, neither positive nor negative, that we create. It
reflects our cultural messages to ourselves like a mirror, and sometimes the
image is not healthy or attractive.
Flickr, rockinfree, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

rockinfree/2172563035.
Pop culture exists as a commodity, produced to sell. It is a reflection of not

only capitalistic societies but all modern, industrial societies. From Germany’s FIGURE 18.22 Reading Illusion
A person can read this paragraph with little
wartime propaganda to Russia’s postrevolutionary, inspirational art work, each
effort if the first and last letters of each word are
political, military, or government movement has promoted ideas and emphasized in the right place.
certain beliefs over others through popularized messages in entertainment and
advertising. People have learned from these messages and have even come to use
them to create their own meaning. For example, in the Iranian presidential elec-
tions of 2013, a front running candidate was actually a fictional character named
Zahra that combined a frequent Internet-based panel cartoon with a viral cam-
paign message on issues of democracy, dignity, and justice.[60]
Finally, as we consider popular culture, we should recognize that it fulfills a
social function. Even as it exists as a commodity, as we can see with the Disney
Adapted from Reading illusion. Optical Illusions.
Corporation, it also exists as an educational and social tool. It may be images,
Retrieved from http://www.newopticalillusions.com/
sounds, and plot points in common serial crime dramas, and the lessons may be
kids-optical-illusions/reading-illusion.
about justice and the American Way, but ultimately popular culture serves its cre-
ators by defining the agenda. We learn what is important to pay attention to, and
what to ignore, by what is presented to us day in and day out. This social function FIGURE 18.23
Pop culture sells ideas as well as products.
can be quite positive, as we learn heart-healthy information from messages from
the American Heart Association, but it can also be quite destructive, as we
observe thousands of acts of violence, including domestic violence, played out on
screens large and small, from Grand Theft Auto to Apocalypto, often without con-
sequences. We need to know what our culture expects from us, what we expect
from each other, and how to anticipate and predict how our world, at least our
entertainment world, will be. Popular culture provides both the message and the
meaning, and it helps us make sense of our world, fulfilling an important societal
function, but that doesn’t mean we should not question the messages, or messen-
ger, and take them to task.
Flickr, dorena-wm, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

dorena-wm/4405147965.
Spotlight!
The film Branded (2012) is all about the world of branding, pop culture, and its impact on us.
More about Branded: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1368440
The Top 100 Pop Culture Films: http://www.imdb.com/list/WqiKQ86TWU0
Film and Pop Culture on Pinterest: http://pinterest.com/melaniexeinalem/film-and-pop-culture
When you read the word McDonald’s, what comes to mind? Perhaps you
recall trips as a child to the playplace, the happy meals, and the movie-themed FIGURE 18.24
Pop culture portrays values, attitudes, and
toys. Perhaps a mental image comes up of a Big Mac or chicken nuggets. Perhaps
beliefs.
you see in your mind’s eye the counter, the display of food options and combos,
and the person that stands behind the counter and says “May I take your order?”
All these images represent aspects of popular culture, and even if you have never
been to a McDonald’s restaurant in your life, you may still have an awareness of
it that includes preconceived notions and ideas about what to expect.
Flickr, ssoosay (Surian Soosay), http://www.flickr.com/

photos/ssoosay/5765697233.
FIGURE 18.25 McDonald’s Meals You Won’t Find in America
Adapted from 21 McDonald’s meals you won’t find in America (2013, January 19). The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.
huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/19/mcdonalds-international-menu_n_2507006.html#slide=more275485.
If we take a closer look, however, we find that the same McDonald’s to a person in Japan may
bring to mind a bacon-potato pie or a bacon-and-cheese fritter not available in the United States. If
we ask someone from Spain, we may find that they think of a McIberica, with Manchego cheese,
olive oil, lettuce, and tomato.
Popular Culture, Stereotypes, Discrimination,

and Indiscrimination
When we consider media constraints like frames per second, seconds and minutes of broadcast
time, and our attention spans, we can see how challenging it is for media producers to communicate
the complexity of our world and its peoples. How do they manage it? They simplify, reduce, exag-
gerate, and stereotype to present quick and easy ways to recognize characters. Much like the artist
of a political cartoon, who uses the briefest outline and limited use of color to capture political fig-
ures—often exaggerating a nose, an ear, or lips, for example—to make them easily recognizable and
ridiculous, the media uses the given tools to capture our attention. They call on the familiar to move
the story forward, and remember: they want your attention for the advertisements. The story has
to sell. If it doesn’t, it is cancelled, and they are out of a project.
In the cutthroat business of media, there are age-old characters. The lone
hero who overcomes all obstacles, the damsel in distress, and the child who sur- FIGURE 18.26
Pop culture is everywhere, but it can also be
prises everyone with the truth or an amazing insight are familiar characters across
adapted to the local market.
programs. If they especially want to get our attention, the saying goes, they insert
a puppy in the scene.
This representation can and does lead to stereotypes. If you take a look at
almost any media depiction or portrayal, you can identify three groups of char-
acters: primary, secondary, and tertiary or auxiliary.[61] The primary characters are
the heart of the program. They cannot, with rare exceptions, be removed from
the show. There are times, as in season-ending cliff-hangers, when there is a ques-
tion of whether a main character has been eliminated, but often we find that in
the next premier he or she is miraculously back with us for another season.
Secondary characters are another story. They have a shorter life span on any
given television program, for example. They play a supporting role to the main
cast. They are seen once in a while, and we recognize them as familiar but also
know they are not the main characters. They are candidates for dramatic
removal or change. Where the proverbial bullet shot at the primary character
misses, it strikes the secondary character. The loss of the teammate motivates the
primary character to overcome new obstacles, and we soon forget the secondary
character.
Tertiary characters are even more disposable. They are the characters that
come on stage or screen only to be removed or used without much issue. The
Flickr, francesc_2000, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
hero character, leading a dramatic raid into the bad guys’ territory, experiences a francesc_2000/4583307518.
fierce (and exciting to us) battle. At the end, we see that he or she dodged almost
every bullet (or was saved by a vest), the secondary characters have injuries that are more severe,
and the lawn is littered with tertiary characters from both sides. We do not know the names of
those lost in the drama, and their time on stage is short.
Understanding this perspective on characters, their interaction, and their relationships, we can
now turn our attention to who they are and what they represent. Mastro and Greenberg[62] explored
the representation and portrayal of Caucasian, African American/black, and Latino characters on
prime-time television. The found minorities were underrepresented in comparison to actual census
data, often filled secondary and tertiary roles, and were the subject of negative characterizations
and consequences in the programs.
Goffman[63] proposed that media images and messages work as a cognitive filter to help people
make sense of their world. When we do not have direct experience with a place or a people, we call
on what we know to figure out what we don’t know. In this case, if we have never been to New York
City, we make think of television programs that have portrayed the city and use them as a frame of
reference to make sense of things. We may see Times Square and compare it to our mental image,
formed by a media representation that was created to entice and entertain, not to reflect reality.
In the same way, if we have little interaction with people from Asia but continually see the myth
of the Asian superstudent,[64] we may use that frame of reference when interacting with someone
from Asia, regardless of whether it holds any truth. The depiction of most minority characters as
lazy, evil, devious, untrustworthy, or a host of other negative characterizations goes back as far as
we can study media, though we can see changes. Lara Croft, the famous female lead character in a
series of video games and a movie, is no damsel in distress. Still, we can see minorities often cast
as secondary and tertiary characters, and they are often the victims of the tragedies experienced in
shows while the lead characters continue on unharmed. No one is invincible, but television depic-
tions and portrayals are hardly representations of reality.
A stereotype is a widely held, oversimplified characterization of a person or thing. The use of a

stereotype allows media producers to move a story along quickly instead of spending time develop-
The prejudicial treatment ing the characters and their complexity. It can lead to discrimination, or the prejudicial treatment
of one group over another,
particularly on the grounds of one group over another, particularly on the grounds of sex, gender, age, race, or ethnicity. It can
of sex, gender, age, race, also lead to indiscrimination, or the prejudicial characterization of a group of people as all having
or ethnicity. the same traits, often negative.
In the case of discrimination, we could see it in action in the employment setting. For example,
if two job candidates with the same skills apply for the same job and the the younger, less experi-
The prejudicial
enced candidate is selected instead of the older candidate simply based on the discriminating factor
characterization of a group
of people as all having the of age, that would be age discrimination. In the case of indiscrimination, if the interview conversa-
tion included talk of how all old people can’t be trained, can’t learn new things, or are stuck in their
ways, it would be applying a negative characterization and traits to an entire age group indiscrimi-
nately. The group members are all the same, in this indiscriminate viewpoint.
Popular culture promotes heroes, villains, stars, and celebrities all the time, but who plays what
role and how they are depicted or portrayed has a serious impact on our societies. We cannot travel
to the corners of the Earth and know all peoples, so we rely on what we see and hear to provide
some frame of reference. The media depicts groups and individuals with stereotypes and portrays
both discrimination and indiscrimination. This influences individuals in the real world and
contributes to real cases of discrimination and indiscrimination. As effective intercultural commu-
nicators, we can learn to recognize a message’s values, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as its influence
and impact. We can use this awareness to help facilitate positive, productive intercultural commu-
nication.
Framing Questions on Popular Culture to Consider for Critical Analysis
1. Do all media consumers “see” or “hear” the same thing, even when viewing or listening to
the same media?
2. Does depiction equal endorsement?
3. How do consumers choose their media?
4. What do consumers get out of the media they consume?
5. Are consumers influenced by the media?
6. Are all consumers influenced in the same way?
7. What factors might help explain different degrees and kinds of influence?
8. Is there a difference between the media’s power to influence surface things, like fashion
and style, and deeper things, like values and actions?
9. Can a single exposure to a single media depiction influence the values and/or actions of a
consumer?
10. Can repeated exposure to uniform media depictions influence the values and/or actions
of a consumer?
11. Do the media depict our society, its values, and its actions in a uniform manner?
12. If you were an alien and knew our culture only through our media, what values would you
think our society holds?
13. Are age, gender, sexuality, social class, race, other cultures, violence, and decency
depicted in media as diverse or as narrow and consistent?
14. When stereotypes and facts conflict, which are consumers more likely to believe?
15. Would media depictions be entertaining if they did not fall within, or play with, the culture’s
values?
16. Are the media responsible in the values they depict?
17. Should the media be responsible in the values they depict?
18. Does the audience bear any responsibility for the values the media depict?
19. How much power does the audience have over the values the media depict?
20. Do we, as individuals, show equal awareness of how the media depict various values and
behaviors and how they depict various groups of people?
21. Are we more sensitive to depictions that address our personal concerns?
22. Are the media more or less powerful concerning our understanding of those areas in
which we do not have our guards up?
23. Does enjoyment of a media depiction equal endorsement of the values contained within
that depiction?
24. Even if we do not consume media we don’t like, does it still affect us secondhand, either
because we are exposed to it anyway or through other people who were exposed to it?
25. How much responsibility do parents bear for the media their children consume?
26. How much responsibility does society bear for the media children consume?
27. Do we, as a society, tend to focus on the media’s impact on specific areas of culture and
ignore their impact on others? For instance, does our culture, as a whole, worry about
both sex and violence in the media at the same time, or do we shift back and forth between
the two, usually prompted by an extreme event?
28. Must we choose between politics or the media being responsible for a society’s problems
and/or the solutions to its problems?
29. Must we choose between the media being ideological or “just entertainment”?
30. Must we choose between the media reflecting or influencing society?
31. Is criticizing media depictions the same as advocating censorship?
32. Does advocating free speech require accepting all media depictions?
Source: Adapted from pop culture framing questions created by Mark W. Sullivan, Walden Uni-
versity.
Conclusion
In this section, we have discussed pop culture and its function in society. We have explored its
global impact and discussed the difference between high culture, mass culture, folk culture, and
counter culture. We can observe the powerful impact of pop culture on communities around the
world, and we can question the values, attitudes, and beliefs portrayed in those messages. Pop
culture is all around us, but as skilled communicators, we can critically analyze its creation, pre-
sentation, and distribution. We can also analyze it in terms of feedback, in terms of the billions of
dollars generated annually as well as the transmission of words, catchphrases, products, and cus-
toms and their translation into behaviors and actions. We often learn of our world through popular
culture, but we need to keep in mind how exaggerated, distorted, or manipulated the images are
that we see, hear, and consume each day.
Video Link: Cynthia Schneider: The Surprising Spread of Idol TV
https://www.ted.com/talks/cynthia_schneider_the_surprising_spread_of_idol_tv
Key Takeaway
Popular culture transmits cultural messages that transcend individual cultures, communities,
regions, or nationalities.
1. From the moment you wake up, see how long it takes before you see, hear, or interact with
a representation of pop culture. Share and compare with your classmates.
2. How does pop culture influence your home culture? Identify three ways and their impact.
3. Is pop culture international? Or does it represent a particular set of values, attitudes, and
beliefs? Share and compare with your classmates.
4. Is pop culture a weapon of colonization at a distance, forcing home cultures to adapt,
respond, and change in relation to the ever-present pop culture messages? Share and com-
pare your response with your classmates.
5. Who does pop culture represent? Describe the characters you observe most frequently in
pop culture, and then compare them to people in your world. How are they the same or dif-
ferent? Share and compare your results with classmates.
6. Can you unlearn the lessons or forget the messages of pop culture? Why or why not? Share
and compare your response with your classmates.
7. Choose one group (based on age, race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, etc.) and do
your own study on media depictions of this group. Write a brief paragraph on your findings
and provide example(s). Share and compare with classmates.
18.11 Virtual Communication Across

Cultures
Introduction FIGURE 18.27

We represent ourselves in many ways online.
Before we consider how we interact with others, we should consider how we view
ourselves. Identity, or our self-concept, is based on our self-esteem and self-
image. We come to know ourselves though our communication with others. We
create our identities over time, sometimes all of a sudden, often across many
years. We perceive ourselves in many ways and often embrace multiple identities
that reflect our personal and professional lives. We are influenced by our local
cultures and society, and we define ourselves relative to their expectations. For
example, our choice of an image for a tattoo is a personal one, but the image itself
is a representation of culture.
We also have to consider where we place that tattoo, as well as how we expect
others to interpret it, to be a reflection of our culture. If you have a tattoo that can
be hidden by a long-sleeved shirt, you may have selected its location so you can
choose whether to reveal it depending on the context. The work environment
Flickr, jenxer (Jennifer Mathis),http://www.flickr.com/
may be complicated, as some employers view tattoos negatively, and the ability
photos/jenxer/4439156308; Flickr, jenxer (Jennifer
to cover it discreetly may confer an advantage. In other cultures, however, the
Mathis),http://www.flickr.com/photos/jenxer/
tattoo may need to be prominently placed, clear for all to see, as it is expected and 4410923888; Flickr, delicategenius (Michael
says something about you, your clan, and your role, status, or place in the Kordahi),http://www.flickr.com/photos/delicategenius/
community. As we step into the virtual world, we may leave the physical tattoo 4369655755; Flickr, tijsb,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
behind. We may choose to represent it, but we may also choose to not reveal it. tijsb/725820071.
What we write, share, and communicate online reflects the identities we hold of
ourselves and influences how we perceive others. We accentuate and suppress
FIGURE 18.28
aspects of self when we engage in impression management. A tattoo, like an avatar, is an example of
self-expression.
What is Virtual Communication?

What constitutes virtual communication? Let’s discuss common definitions,
characteristics, and elements of virtual communication as we continue our
exploration of intercultural communication in this developing context. Virtual
communication can be defined as representational interaction between individ-
uals, groups, and communities within the online environment. We once discussed
computer-mediated communication as an element of virtual communication,
but we can no longer consider computers to be the only technological interface
for our interactions. Our smartphone or video game console may just as well serve
as the device that allows us to link to each other. Psychologist Kenneth Gergen has
coined the phrase, “I am linked therefore I am,” providing a modern update to
Descartes’s “I think therefore I am.”[65] The emphasis on the link, or the
connection, is now as important to many as thoughts, hopes, and dreams. Indeed,
if we could not share, how we would we come to know ourselves?
Flickr, calliope (Liz West),http://www.flickr.com/photos/

calliope/172310808.
Representational
interaction between
communities within the

online environment.
Communication interaction is integral in both the formation of our identity

FIGURE 18.29 or self-concept as well as our communities, regardless of the context. Being con-
Virtual communication can be defined as
representational interaction between individuals, nected takes on a whole new meaning when almost everyone we know, or want
groups, and communities within the online to know, or even used to know, participates in social media.
environment.
In 2012, Facebook took this basic idea and extended it to our personal pages,
calling them timelines. In a subtle but profound change of formatting and access
to information, we can now review our links and interactions across time. This
virtual memory serves as an important resource, but it can also be the source of
embarrassment. The bad yearbook photographs from school, the photos posted
and liked by friends from long ago that demonstrate our behaviors in a less than
favorable light, even our debates, arguments, and breakups are all part of this
timeline. Erasing the past becomes a challenge.
Flickr, usdagov,http://www.flickr.com/photos/usdagov/
8230204327.
Characteristics of Virtual
Communication
What are characteristics of virtual communication? Virtual communication
FIGURE 18.30 requires social interaction, and as Lon Safko[66] notes, “Social media is the media
Virtual communities bring people together.
we use to be social. That’s it.” If communication is defined as the sharing and
understanding of meaning, then the social media we use to interact in a virtual or
online context must include ways to share and make sense of each other and our
world. How we do that is a far more complicated question to address. The tactics
and strategies we use in social media are diverse and comprehensive, but they
also come right back to how we communicate in person—we take turns, we
compete for attention, we use nonverbal cues and visual signals to share mean-
ing, we have conversational rituals, and we view each other through the many
lenses of our many cultural influences.
When we consider social media, we need to reinforce that it is one of our
basic instincts to connect, to belong, to interact, and to link to each other. Long
before social media made the loss of our cell phone a significant tragedy in our
lives, we connected with each other. Humans are social creatures. We communi-
cate to survive and thrive. We compete and collaborate. We invent rules and
customs, build spaces to gather, hold events, tournaments, and sporting events to
connect, and trade with each other almost daily. Once upon a time, you may have
Flickr, hamed (Hamed Saber),http://www.flickr.com/
left your house before first light, ridden a horse to the coastline, and taken a boat
photos/hamed/257209436.
to the nearest port, all to go to the market to buy basic supplies. While the flour,
nails, or tools you purchased may have real value to you, the interactions with people in the mar-
ketplace would be the topic of conversation in your home community. You might learn of news or
events, be surprised by changing prices, or learn of new opportunities. You might connect with old
friends or new ones. And you might only do this once or twice a year.
FIGURE 18.31
Social media is all about online interactions across cultures around common interests.
Flickr, detleflagrand, http://www.flickr.com/photos/detleflagrand/6895839892.
Fast forward to today, where you might go from one room to another, sit in
front of your computer, and call up several websites that almost instantly display FIGURE 18.32
Facebook, a popular social media community,
the models, colors, and types of appliances, for example, that are available. Let’s
archives what we post and share.
say you are looking for an electric mixer. Which one to choose? People who love
to cook like you may have posted their experience with different models on
review websites. Some may have provided details about the product and them-
selves. The availability of information is almost overwhelming. You might find a
model you like and go to the manufacture’s website. Customer reviews may also
be posted here, and you may wonder if they are screened or edited until you see
company representative responses. You see how product issues are handled,
whether returns are provided right away, or whether a guarantee is worth the
paper it was once printed on.
So far, you have not had to interact with one person. You’ve been able to
review, at your leisure, all these interactions. Some reviews may speak to you,
while others may come across as an advertisement. You make click “like” next to
Flickr, anthonymendezvo (Anthony Mendez),http://www.
a review, and you may find as you load the next page an advertisement for the
flickr.com/photos/anthonymendezvo/6192783219.
product you were just researching. It may even offer you a discount. If you click
the link and buy the product, you will get it in the color you want—delivered right to your door.
Once purchased, you’ll get an e-mail with a tracking number, and soon enough, the mixer will
be at your home. You may get a call from a customer service representative confirming delivery,
making sure you are satisfied, and they may let you know there are several attachments for the
mixer that are on sale now. When you use it, find it lacking, and tweet about it, you may have a
company representative sending you a message right away.
You might post a review about your experience, with the mixer as well as the service, and find
yourself being asked questions by people who are also interested in mixers. The mixer, once simply
an image, may now be a tool you use to create delicate dishes and bake amazing breads that you
then photograph and post to Flickr. Your recipes, “liked” by many, become the basis for your first
cookbook. You interact with more people online, start your own blog and YouTube channel, and
gain a bit of fame. This is social media in action, involving interactions in a virtual world, with real-
world outcomes.
FIGURE 18.33 Does our scenario sound so farfetched? It’s more common than you might
Social media involves building communities and think. We link with each other as we trade information and resources, and how
cultures through interactions. we interact influences us. Social media may once have involved telephone chains,
where people called each other to pass the word, but now we can share informa-
tion quickly and efficiently across time and distance. If you were unhappy with
your mixer, perhaps you told a friend. That would influence his or her buying
decision. Multiply that by the number of friends you have on Facebook, or fol-
lowers on Twitter, and your lack of enthusiasm about a product or service is
broadcast with exponential results, impacting many more people. Just as you
might have read online reviews before buying the mixer, people now read yours,
and given your rise in popularity as a gourmet chef, you will certainly get atten-
tion. You may even get offers from companies to evaluate their next mixers.
Brand images, once the domain of effective public relations firms, are
increasingly influenced, impacted by, and even controlled by users themselves.
The loyal and enthusiastic customer can quickly become the best salesperson a
Flickr, teo,http://www.flickr.com/photos/teo/6126518. company could want. The power dynamics of our relationships has changed.
According to Safko,[67] “An angry customer will tell up to twenty other people
about a bad experience. A satisfied customer shares good experiences with nine
FIGURE 18.34
Companies compete for your attention online.
to twelve people. It costs five times as much to get a new customer as it does to
keep an existing one. And customers will spend up to 10 percent more for the
same product if they have an existing relationship.” The key word in his insight
is “relationship.” It is all about the community, the interaction, the culture. As we
consider intercultural communication, we must consider the cultures of brands,
commerce, and trade, as they play a significant role in our lives. How companies
portray their cultural values makes a significant difference in how we respond to
them.
Flickr, chungwei,http://www.flickr.com/photos/
chungwei/43214475.
Cause marketing once again makes an excellent example. As the Iranian
film Children of Heaven (dir. Majid Majidi, 1997) portrays, people in some cultures—children in par-
ticular—lack basic necessities, including shoes. Tom’s Shoes (http://www.toms.com) is a company
that creates and cultivates a community of consumers that gather around a simple concept: Buy a
pair of shoes, and one pair will be provided to someone who has none. Many of us would like to
help a child with a pair of shoes, but we lack the time or access to make a direct impact. Tom’s Shoes
helps us fulfill a need to make a difference as we make a purchasing decision. It integrates cause
marketing with social media to reach, interact, and provide service for its customers. The customers
contribute to the community and choose affiliation. They also provide important feedback that
changes the culture and even the focus of the original company. As Tom’s Shoes listens to its cus-
tomers, it adapts as well, and it now offers eye glasses, another basic need for many, as a product
and service.
Let’s contrast these positive examples with a challenging one: representation

of identity in video games. As we’ve discussed, people invest a lot of their time FIGURE 18.35
Customer service and support may come from
and resources in video games that are increasingly online and interactive. From
anywhere in the world.
Farmville to World of Warcraft, each game also represents a community. With the
millions of color combinations available to designers, what colors are used to rep-
resent race and ethnicity? Surprisingly few. Even as the landscape of media has
changed, and avatars can be anything we want them to be, we still observe a lim-
ited palate of colors used to represent racial or ethnic identity. We still observe
exaggerated body stereotypes to represent sexual identity. Even as we see a brave
new world of virtual interactions before us on Second Life and other virtual com-
munities, we can observe narrow, often stereotypical, representations of identity.
We play a role in our representation. We represent ourselves online with words,
images, time and frequency of interaction, and the information we share with
others, known or unknown.
Words represent us in our absence. They stand apart from us and are open
to interpretation and analysis. The tweet we share with “friends” in the moment Flickr, mihalysoft (Szilard Mihaly),http://www.flickr.com/
it is published is shared with the world. It can be impossible to erase. The images photos/mihalysoft/5380666068.
we share, from avatars to pictures, also represent us. The time we spend online at
specific sites, participating in forums and video games for example, also commu-
FIGURE 18.36
nicates something about what we value and how we invest our time. While
We can connect with people who have similar
Facebook security protocols and settings may limit some information for some interests online, forming new communities and
viewers, we leave a trail that represents views, the information we share, what we cultures.
purchase, and what we research, and again, whether we realize it or not, this
information can be accessed by third parties. Even the best apps to control this
information have their limitations.
Social Media, Libel, and Slander Flickr, smemon (Sean MacEntee),http://www.flickr.com/

photos/smemon/5684115572.
If someone wrote your name on the board in front of the class and spit on it, the effects would
be immediate. You might feel angry, frustrated, or upset. We associate what we surround ourselves
with with our sense of self, and to attack letters on a whiteboard that spell out your name is asso-
ciated with a direct challenge to you. In the same way, when people post nasty notes about each
other online in a culture like Instagram, YouTube, or even the familiar Facebook, it can have real-
world consequences.
The first consequence we’ve already started to discuss: hurt feelings. Words and images can
hurt and do serious damage. Businesses and companies invest significantly in their brands and
logos, and in the same way, we invest in relationships and our online personas or extensions of our-
selves. When people challenge what we say or do, it can be an expression of their free speech, but it
can also be a damaging statement that is actionable—that could lead to a legal contest.
What you post about yourself may reflect your online and offline cultural norms. Perhaps you
use Facebook to communicate with family but go to Instagram to interact with friends. If you
say something that hurts a family member’s feelings, the comment itself is considered verbal, and
unless it is recorded, it has little chance of becoming grounds for a legal contest. If you post negative
comments about family members that hurt their personal or professional reputations, then there is
the possibility of serious consequences. Once something is posted online, even if privacy settings are
on and only a few people have access to it, U.S. law considers it published. Once a statement is
published, it is public, and public statements, particularly written statements that communicate
negative observations or viewpoints, may constitute grounds for legal action.
Let’s look at the difference between libel and slander. Libel is a written, published false state-
ment that is damaging to a person’s reputation, personal or professional. Slander, in contrast, is a
A written, published false
statement that is spoken false statement that is damaging to a person’s reputation, again personal or professional.
damaging to a person's What is false and what is true are not always clear. Was something written to be harmful, with mal-
reputation, personal or ice? What is opinion, and when is an online post an expression of an opinion? If you write a
professional.
negative review of an album or a book or a fashion design, will it get you in hot water? The answer
is not at all clear, and in a world of emerging media, the law is trying to catch up.
Slander
A spoken false statement
For example, in the case of Courtney Love, the rocker from the band Hole and former wife of
that is damaging to a the late Kurt Cobain, her tweets via Twitter allegedly defamed fashion designer Dawn Simorangkir
person's reputation, in 2009.[68] The cost was a $96,000 fine on top of $350,000 paid in a settlement. Were the tweets mali-
personal or professional. cious or defamatory? The answer and the viewpoint may depend on who you ask. In a related case,
Rhonda Holmes, an attorney, also sued Love for malicious tweets, but the judge found for Love, not-
ing a lack of malice combined with the “limited pubic figure” status of Holmes.[69] These cases broke
new ground in legal issues and serve as a strong reminder, particularly across languages and cul-
tures, to be very careful of what you say, write, and publish online. It also underscores the old adage,
“If you cannot say anything nice, don’t say anything at all.”
What you post online, from images to word, sounds, and movies, is very dif-
FIGURE 18.37
Online shopping is a feature of social media. ficult to remove, so take care that what you share with others you wouldn’t mind
seeing on the front page of the local newspaper for everyone to see. What you
post and share online is almost as permanent as a tattoo. Perhaps your online
group has a way of communicating that others outside of the community would
not understand. Think about how those who know you as an employee, a son or
daughter, or a friend outside of that group might view the comments. Also keep
in mind that, as we’ve learned in intercultural communication, people interpret
our words and actions in many ways depending on their cultural background, and
the possibility of miscommunication is always present.
Conclusion
As we close our brief introduction to virtual communication, we recognize it isn’t
as much about the media—our text messages, tweets, or instant messages, for
example—as the age-old emphasis on social interaction. Where we once went to
a physical marketplace, we now join several communities, even if only to read the
reviews and form a view of a company or product’s identity, via social media. Our
interaction in social media influences others and can change us. We network,
publish, share photos, share audio and video, microblog, livecast, and play games
with each other all via our mobile devices. We also interact in person, and we
need to be careful what we say, write, and publish online. Our virtual communi-
cation and our live interactions are increasingly blurring our lines of
communication across cultures.
Flickr, wheredidgogogo (Anthony Gherghetta),http://
www.flickr.com/photos/wheredidgogogo/4986051928.
Video Link: Juan Enriquez: Your Online Life, Permanent as a Tattoo
https://www.ted.com/talks/juan_enriquez_how_to_think_about_digital_tattoos
Key Takeaway
munication across cultures.
1. Find one group website and note the symbols, words, and cues it presents to the world on
what it means to be a member. Share and compare your results with classmates.
2. Choose one country or culture. Find a website that presents that country or culture from a
local perspective, as close to a first-person perspective as possible. Note how the country or
culture is portrayed, including verbal and nonverbal messages. Share and compare your
3. If you had to choose one symbol to represent your culture, what would it be and why? Share
and compare your results with classmates.
4. Investigate one case of online defamation and share it with the class. What lessons did you
learn, and how it will impact what you post?

Visit the Web site of culture scholar Edward T. Hall. http://www.edwardthall.com
Visit these sites to explore the history and traditions of some famous American businesses.
http://corporate.ford.com/our-company/heritage; http://www.aboutmcdonalds.com/mcd/our_
company/mcd_history.html
Learn more about Geert Hofstede’s research on culture by exploring his Web site. http://geert-
hofstede.com/
Read advice from the U.S. Department of State on living abroad http://www.state.gov/travel/
Visit ExpatExchange: A World of Friends Abroad to learn about the opportunities, experiences,
and emotions of people living and working in foreign countries and cultures worldwide. http://
www.expatexchange.com/newsarchiveall.cfm
Endnotes
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suits.
Group Communication,
Teamwork, and Leadership
Teamwork is the ability to work together toward a common vision. The ability to direct individ-
ual accomplishments toward organizational objectives. It is the fuel that allows common people to
attain uncommon results.
— Andrew Carnegie
Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed people can change the world. Indeed,
it is the only thing that ever has.
— Margaret Mead
1. List the family and social groups you belong to and interact with on a regular basis—for
example, within a twenty-four-hour period or within a typical week. Please also consider
forums, online communities, and Web sites where you follow threads of discussion or post
regularly. Discuss your results with your classmates.
2.
also consider informal as well as formal groups (e.g., the 10:30 coffee club and the col-
leagues you often share your commute with). Compare your results with those of your
classmates.
3. Identify one group to which you no longer belong. List at least one reason why you no longer
belong to this group. Compare your results with those of your classmates.
As humans, we are social beings. We naturally form relationships with others. In fact, relation-
ships are often noted as one of the most important aspects of a person’s life, and they exist in many
forms. Interpersonal communication occurs between two people, but group communication may
involve two or more individuals. Groups are a primary context for interaction within the business
community. Groups may have heroes, enemies, and sages alongside new members. Groups overlap
and may share common goals, but they may also engage in conflict. Groups can be supportive or
coercive and can exert powerful influences over individuals.
Within a group, individuals may behave in distinct ways, use unique or specialized terms, or
display symbols that have meaning to that group. Those same terms or symbols may be confus-
ing, meaningless, or even unacceptable to another group. An individual may belong to both groups,
adapting his or her communication patterns to meet group normative expectations. Groups are
increasingly important across social media venues, and there are many examples of successful
business ventures on the Web that value and promote group interaction.
Groups use words to exchange meaning, establish territory, and identify who is a stranger ver-
sus who is a trusted member. Are you familiar with the term “troll”? It is often used to identify
someone who is not a member of an online group or community; does not share the values and
beliefs of the group; and posts a message in an online discussion board to initiate flame wars, cause
disruption, or otherwise challenge the group members. Members often use words to respond to the
challenge that are not otherwise common in the discussions, and the less than flattering descrip-
tions of the troll are a rallying point.
Groups have existed throughout human history and continue to follow familiar patterns
across emerging venues as we adapt to technology, computer-mediated interaction, suburban
sprawl, and modern life. We need groups, and groups need us. Our relationship with groups war-
rants attention on this interdependence as we come to know our communities, our world, and
ourselves.
19.2 What Is a Group?
1.
2.
3. Discuss how groups tend to limit their own size and create group norms.
Let’s get into a time machine and travel way, way back to join early humans in prehistoric times.
Their needs are like ours today: they cannot exist or thrive without air, food, and water—and a
sense of belonging. How did they meet these needs? Through cooperation and competition. If food
scarcity was an issue, who got more and who got less? This serves as our first introduction to roles,
status and power, and hierarchy within a group. When food scarcity becomes an issue, who gets to
keep their spoon? In some Latin American cultures, having a job or earning a living is referred to
by the slang term cuchara, which literally means “spoon” and figuratively implies food, safety, and
security.
Now let’s return to the present and enter a modern office. Cubicles define territories and corner
offices denote status. In times of economic recession or slumping sales for the company, there is a
greater need for cooperation, and there is competition for scarce resources. The loss of a “spoon”—
or of one’s cubicle—may now come in the form of a pink slip, but it is no less devastating.
We form self-identities through our communication with others, and much of that interaction
occurs in a group context. A group may be defined as three or more individuals who affiliate, inter-
The exchange of
act, or cooperate in a familial, social, or work context. Group communication may be defined as the
information with those who exchange of information with those who are alike culturally, linguistically, and/or geographically.
are culturally, linguistically, Group members may be known by their symbols, such as patches and insignia on a military uni-
and/or geographically form. They may be known by their use of specialized language or jargon; for example, someone in
alike.
information technology may use the term “server” in reference to the Internet, whereas someone in
the food service industry may use “server” to refer to the worker who takes customer orders in a
restaurant. Group members may also be known by their proximity, as in gated communities.
Regardless of how the group defines itself, and regardless of the extent to which its borders are
porous or permeable, a group recognizes itself as a group. Humans naturally make groups a part of
their context or environment.
Types of Groups in the Workplace

As a skilled business communicator, learning more about groups, group dynamics, management,
and leadership will serve you well. Mergers, forced sales, downsizing, and entering new markets all
call upon individuals within a business or organization to become members of groups. In the sec-
ond of the "Introductory Exercises" for this chapter, you were asked to list the professional (i.e.,
work-related) groups you interact with in order of frequency. What did your list include? Perhaps
you noted your immediate coworkers, your supervisor and other leaders in your work situation,
members of other departments with whom you communicate, and the colleagues who are also your
personal friends during off-work times. Groups may be defined by function. They can also be
defined, from a developmental viewpoint, by the relationships within them. Groups can also be
discussed in terms of their relationship to the individual and the degree to which they meet inter-
personal needs.
Some groups may be assembled at work to solve problems, and once the challenge has been
resolved, they dissolve into previous or yet to be determined groups. Functional groups like this
may be immediately familiar to you. You take a class in sociology from a professor of sociology, who
is a member of the discipline of sociology. To be a member of a discipline is to be a disciple, and
adhere to a common framework to for viewing the world. Disciplines involve a common set of the-
ories that explain the world around us, terms to explain those theories, and have grown to reflect
the advance of human knowledge. Compared to your sociology instructor, your physics instructor
may see the world from a completely different perspective. Still, both may be members of divisions
or schools, dedicated to teaching or research, and come together under the large group heading we
know as the university.
In business, we may have marketing experts who are members of the marketing department,
who perceive their tasks differently from a member of the sales staff or someone in accounting.
You may work in the mailroom, and the mailroom staff is a group in itself, both distinct from and
interconnected with the larger organization.
Relationships are part of any group, and can be described in terms of status,
FIGURE 19.1
power, control, as well as role, function, or viewpoint. Within a family, for exam- Groups and teams are an important part of
ple, the ties that bind you together may be common experiences, collaborative business communication.
efforts, and even pain and suffering. The birth process may forge a relationship
between mother and daughter, but it also may not. An adoption may transform a
family. Relationships are formed through communication interaction across
time, and often share a common history, values, and beliefs about the world
around us.
In business, an idea may bring professionals together and they may even
refer to the new product or service as their “baby,” speaking in reverent tones
about a project they have taken from the drawing board and “birthed” into the
real world. As in family communication, work groups or teams may have chal-
lenges, rivalries, and even “birthing pains” as a product is developed, adjusted, © 2010 Jupiterimages Corporation
adapted, and transformed. Struggles are a part of relationships, both in families
and business, and form a common history of shared challenged overcome through effort and hard
work.
Through conversations and a shared sense that you and your coworkers belong together, you
meet many of your basic human needs, such as the need to feel included, the need for affection, and
the need for control.[1] In a work context, “affection” may sound odd, but we all experience affection
at work in the form of friendly comments like “good morning,” “have a nice weekend,” and “good
job!” Our professional lives also fulfill more than just our basic needs (i.e., air, food, and water, as
well as safety). While your work group may be gathered together with common goals, such as to
deliver the mail in a timely fashion to the corresponding departments and individuals, your daily
interactions may well go beyond this functional perspective.
In the same way, your family may provide a place for you at the table and meet your basic
needs, but they also may not meet other needs. If you grow to understand yourself and your place
in a way that challenges group norms, you will be able to choose which parts of your life to share
and to withhold in different groups, and to choose where to seek acceptance, affection, and control.
Primary and Secondary Groups

There are fundamentally two types of groups that can be observed in many contexts, from church
to school, family to work. These two types are primary and secondary groups. The hierarchy
Groups that meet most, if
denotes the degree to which the group(s) meet your interpersonal needs. Primary groups meet
not all, of one’s needs.
most, if not all, of one’s needs. Groups that meet some, but not all, needs are called secondary
groups. Secondary groups often include work groups, where the goal is to complete a task or solve
a problem. If you are a member of the sales department, your purpose is to sell.
Groups that meet some,
but not all, of individuals’ In terms of problem solving, work groups can accomplish more than individuals can. People,
needs. each of whom have specialized skills, talents, experience, or education come together in new com-
binations with new challenges, find new perspectives to create unique approaches that they
themselves would not have formulated alone.
Secondary groups may meet your need for professional acceptance and celebrate your success,
but they may not meet your need for understanding and sharing on a personal level. Family mem-
bers may understand you in ways that your coworkers cannot, and vice versa.
If Two’s Company and Three’s a Crowd, What

Is a Group?
This old cliché refers to the human tendency to form pairs. Pairing is the most basic form of rela-
tionship formation; it applies to childhood best friends, college roommates, romantic couples,
who affiliate, interact or business partners, and many other dyads (two-person relationships). A group, by definition,
cooperate in a familial, includes at least three people. We can categorize groups in terms of their size and complexity.
social, or work context.
When we discuss demographic groups as part of a market study, we may focus on large num-
bers of individuals that share common characteristics. If you are the producer of an ecologically
innovative car such as the Smart ForTwo, and know your customers have an average of four mem-
bers in their family, you may discuss developing a new model with additional seats. While the target
audience is a group, car customers don’t relate to each other as a unified whole. Even if they form
car clubs and have regional gatherings, a newsletter, and competitions at their local race tracks each
year, they still subdivide the overall community of car owners into smaller groups.
The larger the group grows, the more likely it is to subdivide. Analysis of these smaller, or
microgroups, is increasingly a point of study as the Internet allows individuals to join people of
A small, independent
similar mind or habit to share virtually anything across time and distance. A microgroup is a small,
group that has a link,
independent group that has a link, affiliation, or association with a larger group. With each addi-
with a larger group. tional group member the number of possible interactions increases.[2],[3]
Small groups normally contain between three and eight people. One person may involve
intrapersonal communication, while two may constitute interpersonal communication, and both
may be present within a group communication context. You may think to yourself before making
a speech or writing your next post, and you may turn to your neighbor or coworker and have a side
conversation, but a group relationship normally involves three to eight people, and the potential
for distraction is great.
In Table 19.1, you can quickly see how the number of possible interactions grows according to
how many people are in the group. At some point, we all find the possible and actual interactions
overwhelming and subdivide into smaller groups. For example, you may have hundreds of friends
on MySpace or Facebook, but how many of them do you regularly communicate with? You may be
tempted to provide a number greater than eight, but if you exclude the “all to one” messages, such
as a general tweet to everyone (but no one person in particular), you’ll find the group norms will
appear.
TABLE 19.1 Possible Interaction in Groups
Number of 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Group
Members
Number of 2 9 28 75 186 441 1,056
Possible
Interac-
tions
Group norms are customs, standards, and behavioral expectations that emerge as a group
forms. If you post an update every day on your Facebook page and your friends stop by to post
on your wall and comment, not posting for a week will violate a group norm. They will wonder if
you are sick or in the hospital where you have no access to a computer to keep them updated. If,
however, you only post once a week, the group will come to naturally expect your customary post.
Norms involve expectations that are self and group imposed and that often arise as groups form
and develop.
If there are more than eight members, it becomes a challenge to have equal participation, where
everyone has a chance to speak, listen, and respond. Some will dominate, others will recede, and
smaller groups will form. Finding a natural balance within a group can also be a challenge. Small
groups need to have enough members to generate a rich and stimulating exchange of ideas,
information, and interaction, but not so many people that what each brings cannot be shared.[4]
Key Takeaway
individuals also need to cooperate in groups to fulfill basic survival needs.
1. Think of the online groups you participate in. Forums may have hundreds or thousands of
members, and you may have hundreds of friends on MySpace or Facebook, but how many
do you regularly communicate with? Exclude the “all-to-one” messages, such as a general
tweet to everyone (but no one person in particular). Do you find that you gravitate toward the
group norm of eight or fewer group members? Discuss your answer with your classmates.
2. What are some of the primary groups in your life? How do they compare with the secondary
groups in your life? Write a two- to three-paragraph description of these groups and com-
pare it with a classmate’s description.
3. What group is most important to people? Create a survey with at least two questions, identify
a target sample size, and conduct your survey. Report how you completed the activity and
your findings. Compare the results with those of your classmates.
4. Are there times when it is better to work alone rather than in a group? Why or why not? Dis-
cuss your opinion with a classmate.
19.3 Organizational Cultures and

Communication
1.
2.
Introduction
Where do you spend most of your time? If you are like many, if not most, you
juggle a job or two (or three) and try to find time for a personal life, relationships, FIGURE 19.2
Google is an example of an innovative
and everything else. If you work in an office during the day and bartend a couple corporate culture.
nights a week, you will see the sharp contrast between the organizational cul-
tures. In the office setting, the nonverbal clues are clear, from the dividers
between cubicles, to what people wear, to the good-morning rituals (or lack
thereof) and how work gets done. You will quickly learn who to go to solve a prob-
lem, and that person isn’t always your manager. In the evening, the bar comes to
life with the after-hours crowd. People may dress the same, but the ties come off
or are loosened up a bit. People reveal other aspects of themselves. The territorial
markers are no longer cubicle dividers but tables, chairs, floor space, or even
where the objects are placed on the table. Who gets the bill? Just like you know
during your day job who to go to get things done, it is often clear who gets the
bill.
Flickr, adrianlibotean, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
Each setting has its own culture. Each place is full of intercultural communi- adrianlibotean/117185084.
cation interactions, and we can quickly recognize that organizations have
cultures that are distinct from those of our family or heritage. We learn from those who were hired
before us how things work that are not documented on the organizational chart. We learn who does
what and how things get done. We learn to use specific terms at certain times in each setting, and
we wouldn’t think of using the communication styles of one setting in another. Each has its own
culture, and we learn to adapt.
In this section, we extend our discussion of intercultural communication to
FIGURE 19.3
the organization, the workplace, or other spaces and places where we interact An organization is a social unit of people
with others for most of our time. Cultures are not our passports or our countries structured, managed, and directed toward a
but the values, beliefs, and attitudes that guide what we do and how we do it. goal or task.
Organizations have distinct values that are expressed in how people interact.
Learning to understand communication within an organization has a direct
application to our study of intercultural communication and can influence our
professional success.
Organizational Cultures
Flickr, bayerberg, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
bayerberg/6873148842.
An organization’s culture is reflected by what is valued, the dominant lead-
ership styles, the language and symbols, the procedures and routines, and the
definitions of success that make an organization unique.[5]
—Kim S. Cameron, Robert E. Quinn
When people come together as a social unit, we often call it a group, a family, or even a community,
but when it has a specific goal and mission, it becomes an organization. An organization is a social
unit of people structured, managed, and directed toward a goal or task. Any time people gather The process of sorting
together, cultures form and grow, and organizations are no different. The corporate culture at categories or series.
Google is quite different from that of IBM. Sports organizations are distinct from church groups,
and we can often observe the differences in the representations of culture. In order to effectively
communicate across cultures, including those cultures we encounter in groups, teams, organiza-
tions, or institutions, we can apply our knowledge and understanding of communication, particu-
larly intercultural communication, to be successful.
Governance Not all organizations are created equal. There can be an organization that is top down, where
one leader calls the shots and the employees must obey. There can also be an organization in which
The act of exercising
authority over an the employees represent the leadership, have active input, and influence the activities and goals of
the organization. Governance is the act of exercising authority over an organization, and it reflects
values.
an organization’s culture and values. Shared governance is “a dynamic staff-leader partnership
that promotes collaboration, shared decision making and accountability for improving quality of
care.”[6]
A dynamic staff-leader Shared governance can be an important part of an organization’s cultural
partnership that promotes values, and it is characterized by openness in communication, interactions
collaboration, shared between employees at different levels with distinct job functions, and an overall
decision making, and
accountability. commitment to organizational success. Much as we might observe an inspira-
tional coach who actively solicits the input of all his or her players, we can see
FIGURE 19.4 that cultural values are transmitted through actions and behaviors. Asking for
All organizations have distinct cultures. input, listening, and active reflection resulting in a transformed activity, task, or
goal, are elements of a transformative organizational culture. When we consider
the core value of transformational leadership, we observe that “people will follow
a person who inspires them, a person with vision and passion can achieve great
things, and the way to get things done is by injecting enthusiasm and energy.”[7]
We can often observe what it means to be a member of an organization not
only by actions and behaviors but through mission statements and codes of
ethics—statements of cultural values held up to the larger community. Almost
every organization has a “code of ethics”[8] that assists its members with the dif-
ference between right and wrong in their community. This clear indication of
what is correct and accepted within a company and what is rejected or wrong is
an important insight into an organization’s culture. To learn more about our case
Flickr, paulmiller, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
paulmiller/7795562112.
study example, Google, please go to their company culture page: http://www.
google.com/about/company/facts/culture.
FIGURE 19.5
Some corporate cultures encourage creativity
and personal responsibility.
Flickr, bayerberg, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

bayerberg/6873146996.
FIGURE 19.6
Life Cycle of Member Roles Organizational cultures impact intercultural
interactions.
All groups have cultural norms, actions, customs, and traditions. One does not
become a full member of a group overnight, and learning the cultural values of
an organization takes time and effort. Just as groups go through a life cycle when
they form and eventually adjourn, so do the group members fulfill different roles
during this life cycle. These roles, proposed by Richard Moreland and John
Levine,[9] are summarized in Table 19.2.[10]
TABLE 19.2 Life Cycle of Member Roles
Flickr, nanpalmero, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

nanpalmero/2854956356.
1. Potential Member Curiosity and interest
2. New Member Joined the group but still an outsider and

unknown
3. Full Member Knows the “rules” and is looked to for leadership
4. Divergent Member Focuses on differences
5. Marginal member No longer involved
6. Ex-Member No longer considered a member
Suppose you are about to graduate from school and you are in the midst of
FIGURE 19.7 an employment search. You’ve gathered extensive information on a couple of
All groups have membership roles and life
cycles. local businesses and are aware that they will be participating in the university
job fair. You’ve explored their websites, talked to people currently employed at
each company, and learned what you can from the public information available.
At this stage, you are considered a potential member, or a candidate for member-
ship in the group. You may have an electrical, chemical, or mechanical
engineering degree soon, but you are not a member of an engineering team.
You show up at the job fair in professional attire and completely prepared.
You understand that the cultural expectations of your current context require
attention to dress and presentation. You are aware that your nonverbal message
that you are a professional needs to come through clearly for you to be consid-
ered for a turn in the conversation. You have prepared yourself to present a firm
handshake, to put your best foot forward, and to communicate confidence. The
Flickr, theeerin, http://www.flickr.com/photos/theeerin/ representatives of each company notice and acknowledge you. They are respect-
2314507559. ful, cordial, and give you contact information. One of them even calls a member
of the organization on the spot and arranges an interview for you next week. You are excited at the
An individual who is prospect and want to learn more. You are still a potential member.
qualified to join a group
The interview goes well the following week. The day after the meeting, you
but has not yet joined.
receive a call for a follow-up interview that leads to a committee interview. This
committee has a culture all its own, as do all groups, and your observational skills
FIGURE 19.8 serve you well. You negotiate the greeting ritual with round of firm handshakes.
Being accepted into a group or culture is an

You take your assigned seat and notice how it will influence your ability to estab-
important event.
lish eye contact with each member. You listen to the questions and consider what
they mean as you tailor your responses to each question and committee member.
You negotiate the closing ritual with ease, another round of handshakes, and
hope you left a positive, professional image with the committee. A few weeks
later, the company calls you with a job offer. However, in the meantime, you have
also been interviewing with other potential employers, and you are waiting to
hear back from two of them. You are still a potential member.
Flickr, thos003 (Thos Ballantyne), http://www.flickr.com/

photos/thos003/6024170424.
After careful consideration, you decide to take the job offer and start the next
week. The projects look interesting, you’ll be gaining valuable experience, and FIGURE 19.9
Sometimes becoming part of a group or team
the commute to work is reasonable. Your first day on the job is positive, and
takes time.
they’ve assigned you a mentor. The conversations are positive, but you feel lost at
times, as if they are speaking a language you can’t quite grasp. As a new group
member, your level of acceptance will increase as you begin learning the group’s
rules, spoken and unspoken.[11] You will gradually move from the potential mem-
ber role to the role of new group member as you learn to fit into the group.
Over time and projects, you gradually
increase your responsibilities. You are no longer
looked at as the new person, and you can follow
almost every conversation. You can’t quite say, “I
remember when…” yet because your tenure
hasn’t been that long, but you are a known
quantity and know your way around. You are a
full member of the group. Full members enjoy
knowing the rules and customs and can even
create new rules. New group members look to
full members for leadership and guidance. Full
group members can control the agenda and have
considerable influence on the agenda and
activities.
Flickr, alancleaver, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

alancleaver/4446487402.
An individual who is still

learning the group's norms
and rules.
FIGURE 19.10
As a member of a new group, you will learn new
customs and traditions.
Full members
Individuals who are known
quantities, are familiar with
the groups norms, and feel
free to express opinions.
Full members of a group, however, can and do come into conflict. When you
FIGURE 19.11 were a new member, you may have remained silent when you felt you had some-
Full members share the mission of the group.
thing to say, but now you state your case. There is more than one way to get the
job done. You may suggest new ways that emphasize efficiency over existing
methods. Coworkers who have been working in the department for several years
may be unwilling to adapt and change, resulting in tension. Expressing different
views can cause conflict and may even interfere with communication.
When this type of tension arises, divergent group members pull back, con-
tribute less, and start to see themselves as separate from the group. Divergent
group members have less eye contact, seek out each other’s opinion less fre-
quently, and listen defensively. In the beginning of the process, you felt a sense of
belonging, but now you don’t. Marginal group members start to look outside the
group for their interpersonal needs.
Flickr, savannahcorps, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
savannahcorps/7989084156.
After several months of trying to cope with these adjustments, you decide
that you never really investigated the other two companies—that your job search
process was incomplete. Perhaps you should take a second look at the options.
FIGURE 19.12 You will report to work on Monday, but you will start the process of becoming
Divergent group members pull back, contribute an ex-member, one who no longer belongs. You may experience a sense of relief
less, and start to see themselves as separate
from the group.
upon making this decision, given that you haven’t felt like you belonged to the
group for a while. When you line up your next job and submit your resignation,
you make it official.
This process has no set timetable. Some people overcome differences and
stay in the group for years; others get promoted and leave the group only when
they get transferred to regional headquarters. As a skilled business communica-
tor, you will recognize the signs of divergence, just as you have anticipated the
storming stage, and do your best to facilitate success.
Flickr, alancleaver, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

alancleaver/4118367546.
Diverse Group Member Roles
If someone in your group always makes everyone laugh, that can be a distinct asset when the news
An individual who pulls is less than positive. At times when you have to get work done, however, the class clown may
back contributes less, and become a distraction. Notions of positive and negative will often depend on the context when dis-
starts to see oneself as cussing groups. Table 19.3 and Table 19.4 list positive and negative roles people sometimes play in a
separate from the group.
group setting.[12]
TABLE 19.3 Positive Roles

Individuals who look Initiator-Coordinator Suggests new ideas or ways of looking at the
outside the group for problem
needs. Elaborator Builds on ideas and provides examples
Coordinator Brings ideas, information, and suggestions
ex- together
An individual who no
longer belongs to a group. Evaluator-Critic Evaluates ideas and provides constructive criti-
cism
Recorder Records ideas, examples, suggestions, and cri-
tiques
TABLE 19.4 Negative Roles
Dominator Dominates discussion, not allowing others to take

their turn
Recognition Seeker Relates discussion to their accomplishments;
seeks attention
Special-Interest Pleader Relates discussion to special intereste or per-
sonal agenda
Blocker Blocks attempts at consensus consistently
Joker or Clown Seeks attention through humor and distracts
group members
Now that we’ve examined a classical view of positive and negative group member roles, let’s
examine another perspective. While some personality traits and behaviors may negatively influ-
ence groups, some are positive or negative depending on the context.
Just as the class clown can have a positive effect in lifting spirits or a negative effect in distract-
ing members, a dominator may be exactly what is needed for quick action. An emergency physician
doesn’t have time to ask all the group members in the emergency unit how they feel about a course
of action; instead, a self-directed approach based on training and experience may be necessary. In
contrast, the pastor of a church may have ample opportunity to ask members of the congregation
their opinions about a change in the format of Sunday services; in this situation, the role of coordi-
nator or elaborator is more appropriate than that of dominator.
The group is together because they have a purpose or goal, and normally
FIGURE 19.13
they are more capable than any individual member could be on their own, so it Group members can play positive roles in your
would be inefficient to hinder that progress. But a blocker, who cuts off collabo- life.
ration, does just that. If a group member interrupts another and presents a
viewpoint or information that suggests a different course of action, the point
may be well taken and serve the collaborative process. But if that same group
member repeatedly engages in blocking behavior, then the behavior becomes a
problem. A skilled business communicator will learn to recognize the difference,
even when positive and negative aren’t completely clear.
We can turn to Deal and Kennedy to learn more about group member roles
within the cultural network present in any organization. They offer five informal
roles that you may recognize:[13]
Flickr, sobero, http://www.flickr.com/photos/sobero/

347833960.
1. Storytellers are individuals within the organization who interpret what happens, creating
stories of what happened and how it reflects the corporate culture. These stories may be told
Individuals who interpret to new members to initiate them to the culture, or they may be retold time and time again to
what happens, creating
stories of what happened full members as they recall past glories and challenge employees to strive for new ones.
and how it reflects the 2. Gossipers are individuals within the organization who interpret what is happening with their
corporate culture.
own spin, often reflecting a personal or team agenda. They provide other employees with a
steady supply of interesting information, but most others know not to take what they hear at
face value. Still, gossipers’ stories may contain a kernel of truth and provide endless entertain-
Individuals within the ment. They can be effective in spreading information quickly throughout an organization.
what is happening with 3. Whisperers are individuals who have the ear of powerful people in the organization. They
their own spin, often pass on information for other employees who do not want to go through formal channels and
reflecting a personal or
also serve as gatekeepers of information, passing along some information to decision makers
team agenda.
but withholding others.
4. Spies are individuals who provide information to powerful people or top management in an
Individuals who have the organization. Spies may pass on information to whisperers so that the boss knows what hap-
ear of powerful people in pens on the floor before the floor supervisor has a chance to relay the incident, and the
the organization. information they pass on may have a spin, emphasize some information over others, or cast
some employees in a positive or negative light.
Spies
5. Priests and priestesses are individuals within an organization who guard, promote, and rein-
force cultural values. They are the keepers of the company history, often seen as leaders, and
information to powerful
people or top they are called on when current situations need to be interpreted using the values, beliefs, or
management in an past actions of the company.
organization.
Do any of these cultural roles sound familiar? Organizations include fami-
lies, churches, nonprofit efforts, as well as small businesses and large
corporations. Can you identify any of these roles within your group or work-
place?
Individuals within an
promote, and reinforce

cultural values.
FIGURE 19.14
Storytellers are individuals within the
organization who interpret what happens,
creating stories of what happened and how it
reflects the corporate culture.
Flickr, sanjoselibrary, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

sanjoselibrary/4794208073.
FIGURE 19.15
Whisperers are individuals that have the ear of
powerful people in the organization.
Flickr, greenplastic875, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

greenplastic875/264037055.
FIGURE 19.16
Spies are individuals who provide information to
powerful people or top management in an
organization.
Flickr, anonymous9000, http://www.flickr.com/photos/

anonymous9000/2663311366.
FIGURE 19.17
Priests and priestesses are individuals within an
Conclusion
organization who guard, promote, and reinforce
cultural values.
In this section, we have explored group and organizational cultures with atten-
tion to group life cycles and member roles. We can see common elements of
culture, from history to values, rituals, ceremonies, stories and their heroic fig-
ures, and the cultural communication network across organizations large and
small. Group member roles vary by team or organization, but here we have dis-
cussed several common roles that we can often easily recognize in almost any
environment. Some roles may be perceived as positive or negative, but the cul-
tural context plays a significant role. All groups have cultures, and learning to
navigate within the cultural contexts of your workplace is an important part of
your professional and personal success.
Flickr, stevensnodgrass, http://www.flickr.com/photos/
stevensnodgrass/3676163966.
Video Link: Clay Shirky: Institutions versus Collaboration
http://www.ted.com/talks/clay_shirky_on_institutions_versus_collaboration
Key Takeaway
Teamwork allows individuals to share their talents and energy to accomplish goals. Organiza-
tions have distinct cultures, and employees have roles that contribute to each culture.
1. Do you prefer working in a group environment or working individually? What are the advan-
tages and disadvantages of each? Discuss your thoughts with classmates.
2. Imagine that you could choose anyone you wanted to be on a team with you. Who would
you choose and why? Write a two- to three-paragraph description and share it with a class-
mate.
3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. How did this individual become a leader—for
example, by appointment, democratic selection, or emergence? How would you character-
ize this leader’s style—is the leader autocratic or laissez-faire? A technician or a coach?
4. Choose two countries from the following table (listed in the third column under Examples)
and examine their differences in terms of teamwork, leadership, and approaches to conflict
Discussion Processes,” by Myron Lustig and Laura Cassotta, https://www.bellevuecollege.

edu/artshum/materials/spch/Buxton/W05/225/CompGrpComm.htm.
19.4 Group Problem Solving
1. Identify and describe how to implement seven steps for group problem solving.
No matter who you are or where you live, problems are an inevitable part of life. This is true for
groups as well as for individuals. Some groups—especially work teams—are formed specifically to
solve problems. Other groups encounter problems for a wide variety of reasons. Within a family
group, a problem might be that a daughter or son wants to get married and the parents do not
approve of the marriage partner. In a work group, a problem might be that some workers are
putting in more effort than others, yet achieving poorer results. Regardless of the problem, having
the resources of a group can be an advantage, as different people can contribute different ideas for
how to reach a satisfactory solution.
Once a group encounters a problem, the questions that come up range from “Where do we
start?” to “How do we solve it?” While there are many ways to approach a problem, the American
educational philosopher John Dewey’s reflective thinking sequence has stood the test of time. This
seven-step process[14] has produced positive results and serves as a handy organizational structure.
If you are member of a group that needs to solve a problem and don’t know where to start, consider
these seven simple steps in a format adapted from Scott McLean:[15]
1. Define the problem
2. Analyze the problem
3. Establish criteria
4. Consider possible solutions
5. Decide on a solution
6. Implement the solution
7. Follow up on the solution
Let’s discuss each step in detail.
Define the Problem

If you don’t know what the problem is, how do you know you can solve it? Defining the problem
allows the group to set boundaries of what the problem is and what it is not and to begin to formal-
ize a description or definition of the scope, size, or extent of the challenge the group will address.
A problem that is too broadly defined can overwhelm the group. If the problem is too narrowly
defined, important information will be missed or ignored.
In the following example, we have a Web-based company called Favorites that needs to
increase its customer base and ultimately sales. A problem-solving group has been formed, and
they start by formulating a working definition of the problem.
Too broad: “Sales are off, our numbers are down, and we need more customers.”
More precise: “Sales have been slipping incrementally for six of the past nine months and are
significantly lower than a seasonally adjusted comparison to last year. Overall, this loss represents
a 4.5 percent reduction in sales from the same time last year. However, when we break it down by
product category, sales of our nonedible products have seen a modest but steady increase, while
sales of edibles account for the drop off and we need to halt the decline.”
Analyze the Problem

Now the group analyzes the problem, trying to gather information and learn more. The problem is
complex and requires more than one area of expertise. Why do nonedible products continue selling
well? What is it about the edibles that is turning customers off? Let’s meet our problem solvers at
Favorites.
Kevin is responsible for customer resource management. He is involved with the customer
from the point of initial contact through purchase and delivery. Most of the interface is automated
in the form of an online “basket model,” where photographs and product descriptions are accom-
panied by “buy it” buttons. He is available during normal working business hours for live chat and
voice chat if needed, and customers are invited to request additional information. Most Favorites
customers do not access this service, but Kevin is kept quite busy, as he also handles returns and
complaints. Because Kevin believes that superior service retains customers while attracting new
ones, he is always interested in better ways to serve the customer. Looking at edibles and nonedi-
bles, he will study the cycle of customer service and see if there are any common points—from the
main Web page, through the catalog, to the purchase process, and to returns—at which customers
abandon the sale. He has existing customer feedback loops with end-of-sale surveys, but most cus-
tomers decline to take the survey and there is currently no incentive to participate.
Mariah is responsible for products and purchasing. She wants to offer the best products at the
lowest price, and to offer new products that are unusual, rare, or exotic. She regularly adds new
products to the Favorites catalog and culls underperformers. Right now she has the data on every
product and its sales history, but it is a challenge to represent it. She will analyze current sales data
and produce a report that specifically identifies how each product—edible and nonedible—is per-
forming. She wants to highlight “winners” and “losers” but also recognizes that today’s “losers” may
be the hit of tomorrow. It is hard to predict constantly changing tastes and preferences, but that is
part of her job. It’s not all science, and it’s not all art. She has to have an eye for what will catch on
tomorrow while continuing to provide what is hot today.
Suri is responsible for data management at Favorites. She gathers, analyzes, and presents infor-
mation gathered from the supply chain, sales, and marketing. She works with vendors to make sure
products are available when needed, makes sales predictions based on past sales history, and
assesses the effectiveness of marketing campaigns.
The problem-solving group members already have certain information on hand. They know
that customer retention is one contributing factor. Attracting new customers is a constant goal, but
they are aware of the well-known principle that it takes more effort to attract new customers than
to keep existing ones. Thus, it is important to insure a quality customer service experience for exist-
ing customers and encourage them to refer friends. The group needs to determine how to promote
this favorable customer behavior.
Another contributing factor seems to be that customers often abandon the shopping cart
before completing a purchase, especially when purchasing edibles. The group members need to
learn more about why this is happening.
Establish Criteria
Establishing the criteria for a solution is the next step. At this point, information is coming in from
diverse perspectives, and each group member has contributed information from their perspective,
even though there may be several points of overlap.
Kevin: Customers who complete the postsale survey indicate that they want to know (1) what
is the estimated time of delivery, (2) why a specific item was not in stock and when it will be avail-
able, and (3) why their order sometimes arrives with less than a complete order, with some items
back-ordered, without prior notification.
He notes that a very small percentage of customers complete the postsale survey, and the
results are far from scientific. He also notes that it appears the interface is not capable of cross-
checking inventory to provide immediate information concerning back orders, so that the customer
“buys it” only to learn several days later that it was not in stock. This seems to be especially problem-
atic for edible products, because people may tend to order them for special occasions like birthdays
and anniversaries. But we don’t really know this for sure because of the low participation in the
postsale survey.
Mariah: There are four edible products that frequently sell out. So far, we haven’t been able to
boost the appeal of other edibles so that people would order them as a second choice when these
sales leaders aren’t available. We also have several rare, exotic products that are slow movers. They
have potential, but currently are underperformers.
Suri: We know from a zip code analysis that most of our customers are from a few specific geo-
graphic areas associated with above-average incomes. We have very few credit cards declined, and
the average sale is over $100. Shipping costs represent on average 8 percent of the total sales cost.
We do not have sufficient information to produce a customer profile. There is no specific point in
the purchase process where basket abandonment tends to happen; it happens fairly uniformly at
all steps.
Consider Possible Solutions to the Problem

The group has listened to each other and now starts to brainstorm ways to address the challenges
they have addressed while focusing resources on those solutions that are more likely to produce
results.
Kevin: Is it possible for our programmers to create a cross-index feature, linking the product
desired with a report of how many are in stock? I’d like the customer to know right away whether
it is in stock, or how long they may have to wait. As another idea, is it possible to add incentives
to the purchase cycle that won’t negatively impact our overall profit? I’m thinking a small volume
discount on multiple items, or perhaps free shipping over a specific dollar amount.
Mariah: I recommend we hold a focus group where customers can sample our edible products
and tell us what they like best and why. When the best sellers are sold out, could we offer a discount
on related products to provide an instant alternative? We might also cull the underperforming
products with a liquidation sale to generate interest.
Suri: If we want to know more about our customers, we need to give them an incentive to com-
plete the postsale survey. How about a 5 percent off coupon code for the next purchase to get them
to return and to help us better identify our customer base? We may also want to build in a customer
referral rewards program, but it all takes better data in to get results out. We should also explore
the supply side of the business by getting a more reliable supply of the leading products and trying
to get discounts that are more advantageous from our suppliers, especially in the edible category.
Decide on a Solution
Kevin, Mariah, and Suri may want to implement all the solution strategies, but they do not have the
resources to do them all. They’ll complete a cost-benefit analysis, which ranks each solution
Method of ranking each
according to its probable impact. The analysis is shown in Table 19.5.
possible solution
according to its probable
impact. TABLE 19.5 Cost-Benefit Analysis
Source Proposed Cost Benefit Comment
Solution
Kevin Integrate the High High Many of our com-
cross-index fea- petitors already
ture have this feature
Volume discount Low Medium May increase sales
slightly
Free shipping Low Low This has a down-
side in making
customers more
aware of shipping
costs if their order
doesn’t qualify for
free shipping
Mariah Hold a focus High Medium Difficult to select
group to taste edi- participants repre-
ble products sentative of our
customer base
Search for alterna- Medium Medium We can’t know for
tive products to sure which prod-
high performers ucts customers
will like best
Liquidate under- Low Low Might create a
performers “bargain base-
ment” impression
inconsistent with
our brand
Suri Incentive for post- Low Medium Make sure the
sale survey com- incentive process
pletion is easy for the cus-
tomer
Incentive for cus- Low Medium People may feel
tomer referrals uncomfortable
referring friends if it
is seen as putting
them in a market-
ing role
Find a more reli- Medium High We already know
able supply of top- customers want
selling edibles these products
Negotiate better Low High If we can do this
discounts from without alienating
vendors our best vendors,
it will be a win-win
Now that the options have been presented with their costs and benefits, it is easier for the
group to decide which courses of action are likely to yield the best outcomes. The analysis helps the
group members to see beyond the immediate cost of implementing a given solution. For example,
Kevin’s suggestion of offering free shipping won’t cost Favorites much money, but it also may not
pay off in customer goodwill. And even though Mariah’s suggestion of having a focus group might
sound like a good idea, it will be expensive and its benefits are questionable.
A careful reading of the analysis indicates that Kevin’s best suggestion is to integrate the cross-
index feature in the ordering process so that customers can know immediately whether an item is
in stock or on back order. Mariah, meanwhile, suggests that searching for alternative products is
probably the most likely to benefit Favorites, while Suri’s two supply-side suggestions are likely to
result in positive outcomes.
Implement the Solution

Kevin is faced with the challenge of designing the computer interface without incurring unac-
ceptable costs. He strongly believes that the interface will pay for itself within the first year—or,
to put it more bluntly, that Favorites’ declining sales will get worse if the Web site does not have
this feature soon. He asks to meet with top management to get budget approval and secures their
agreement, on one condition: he must negotiate a compensation schedule with the Information
Technology consultants that includes delayed compensation in the form of bonuses after the fea-
ture has been up and running successfully for six months.
Mariah knows that searching for alternative products is a never-ending process, but it takes
time and the company needs results. She decides to invest time evaluating products that compet-
ing companies currently offer, especially in the edible category, on the theory that customers who
find their desired items sold out on the Favorites Web site may have been buying alternative prod-
ucts elsewhere instead of choosing an alternative from Favorites’s product lines.
Suri decides to approach the vendors of the four frequently sold-out products and ask point
blank, “What would it take to get you to produce these items more reliably in greater quantities?” By
opening the channel of communication with these vendors, she is able to motivate them to make
modifications that will improve the reliability and quantity. She also approaches the vendors of the
less popular products with a request for better discounts in return for their cooperation in develop-
ing and test-marketing new products.
Follow Up on the Solution

Kevin: After several beta tests, the cross-index feature was implemented and has been in place for
thirty days. Now customers see either “in stock” or “available [mo/da/yr]” in the shopping basket. As
expected, Kevin notes a decrease in the number of chat and phone inquiries to the effect of, “Will
this item arrive before my wife’s birthday?” However, he notes an increase in inquiries asking, “Why
isn’t this item in stock?” It is difficult to tell whether customer satisfaction is higher overall.
Mariah: In exploring the merchandise available from competing merchants, she got several
ideas for modifying Favorites’ product line to offer more flavors and other variations on popular
edibles. Working with vendors, she found that these modifications cost very little. Within the first
thirty days of adding these items to the product line, sales are up. Mariah believes these additions
also serve to enhance the Favorites brand identity, but she has no data to back this up.
Suri: So far, the vendors supplying the four top-selling edibles have fulfilled their promise of
increasing quantity and reliability. However, three of the four items have still sold out, raising the
question of whether Favorites needs to bring in one or more additional vendors to produce these
items. Of the vendors with which Favorites asked to negotiate better discounts, some refused, and
two of these were “stolen” by a competing merchant so that they no longer sell to Favorites. In addi-
tion, one of the vendors that agreed to give a better discount was unexpectedly forced to cease
operations for several weeks because of a fire.
This scenario allows us to see that the problem may have several dimensions as well as solu-
tions, but resources can be limited and not every solution is successful. Even though the problem is
not immediately resolved, the group problem-solving pattern serves as a useful guide through the
problem-solving process.
Key Takeaway
Group problem solving can be an orderly process when it is broken down into seven specific
stages.
1. Think of a problem encountered in the past by a group of which you are a member. How did
the group solve the problem? How satisfactory was the solution? Discuss your results with
your classmates.
2. Consider again the problem you described in Exercise 1. In view of the seven-step frame-
work, which steps did the group utilize? Would following the full seven-step framework have
been helpful? Discuss your opinion with a classmate.
3. Research one business that you would like to know more about and see if you can learn
about how they communicate in groups and teams. Compare your results with those of
classmates.
4. Think of a decision you will be making some time in the near future. Apply the cost-benefit
analysis framework to your decision. Do you find this method helpful? Discuss your results
with classmates.
19.5 Business and Professional

Meetings
1. Understand how to prepare for and conduct business meetings.

2. Understand how to use technology to aid in group communications.
3.
Business and professional meetings are a part of the communication climate of any business. Some
view meetings as boring, pointless, and futile exercises, while others see them as opportunities to
exchange information and produce results. A combination of preparation and execution makes all
the difference. Remember, too, that meetings do not have to take place in a physical space where
the participants meet face to face. Instead, a number of technological tools make it possible to hold
virtual meetings in which the participants are half a world away from one another. Virtual meet-
ings are formally arranged gatherings where participants, located in distinct geographic locations,
come together via the Internet.
When it comes to succeeding professionally, attention to detail counts for a lot. Learn the rules
of etiquette in time for your next business meeting.
Preparation
A meeting, like a problem-solving group, needs a clear purpose statement. The specific goal for the
specific meeting will clearly relate to the overall goal of the group or committee. Determining your
purpose is central to an effective meeting and getting together just to get together is called a party,
not a meeting. Do not schedule a meeting just because you met at the same time last month or
because it is a standing committee. Members will resent the intrusion into their schedules and
quickly perceive the lack of purpose.
Similarly, if the need for a meeting arises, do not rush into it without planning. A poorly
planned meeting announced at the last minute is sure to be less than effective. People may be unable
to change their schedules, may fail to attend, or may impede the progress and discussion of the
group because of their absence. Those who attend may feel hindered because they needed more
time to prepare and present comprehensive results to the group or committee.
If a meeting is necessary, and a clear purpose can be articulated, then you’ll need to decide how
and where to meet. Distance is no longer an obstacle to participation, as we will see later in this
section when we explore some of the technologies for virtual meetings. However, there are many
advantages to meeting in person. People communicate not just with words but also with their body
language—facial expressions, hand gestures, head nodding or head shaking, and posture. These
subtleties of communication can be key to determining how group members really feel about an
issue or question. Meeting in real time can be important, too, as all group members have the bene-
fit of receiving new information at the same time. For purposes of our present discussion, we will
focus on meetings taking place face to face in real time.
If you have a purpose statement for the meeting, then it also follows that you should be able
to create an agenda, or a list of topics to be discussed. You may need to solicit information from
members to formulate an agenda, and this premeeting contact can serve to encourage active par-
ticipation. The agenda will have a time, date, place, and method of interaction noted, as well as a list
of participants. It will also have a statement of purpose, a list of points to be considered, and a brief
summary of relevant information that relates to each point. Somewhere on the agenda the start and
end times need to be clearly indicated, and it is always a good idea to leave time at the end for
questions and additional points that individual members may want to share. If the meeting has an
emotional point or theme, or the news is negative, plan for additional time for discussion, clarifica-
tion, and recycling of conversations as the participants process the information.
If you are planning an intense work session, you need to consider the number of possible inter-
actions among the participants and limit them. Smaller groups are generally more productive. If
you are gathering to present information or to motivate the sales staff, a large audience, where little
interaction is expected, is appropriate. Each member has a role, and attention to how and why they
are interacting will produce the best results. Review the stages of group formation in view of the
idea that a meeting is a short-term group. You can anticipate a “forming” stage, and if roles are not
clear, there may be a bit of “storming” before the group establishes norms and becomes productive.
Adding additional participants for no clear reason will only make the process more complex and
may produce negative results.
Inviting the participants via e-mail has become increasingly common across business and
industry. Software programs like Microsoft Outlook allow you to initiate a meeting request and
receive an “accept” or “decline” response that makes the invitation process organized and straight-
forward. Reliance on a software program, however, may not be enough to encourage and ensure
participation. A reminder on the individual’s computer may go off fifteen minutes prior to the meet-
ing, but if they are away from their computer or if Outlook is not running, the reminder will go
unseen and unheard. A reminder e-mail on the day of the meeting, often early in the morning, can
serve as a personal effort to highlight the activities of the day.
If you are the person responsible for the room reservation, confirm the reservation a week
before the meeting and again the day before the meeting. Redundancy in the confirmation process
two meetings are can help eliminate double-booking a room, where two meetings are scheduled at the same time. If
scheduled at the same technology is required at the meeting, such as a microphone, conference telephone, or laptop and
time in the same place. projector, make sure you confirm their reservation at the same time as you confirm the meeting
room reservation. Always personally inspect the room and test these systems prior to the meeting.
There is nothing more embarrassing than introducing a high-profile speaker, such as the company
president, and then finding that the PowerPoint projector is not working properly.
Conducting the Meeting

The world is a stage and a meeting is a performance, the same as an interview or speech pre-
sentation. Each member has a part to perform and they should each be aware of their roles and
responsibilities prior to the meeting. Everyone is a member of the group, ranging from new mem-
bers to full members. If you can reduce or eliminate the storming stage, all the better. A clearly
defined agenda can be a productive tool for this effort.
People may know each other by role or title, but may not be familiar with each other. Brief
introductions can serve to establish identity, credibility, and help the group transition to perfor-
mance. The purpose of the meeting should be clearly stated, and if there are rules or guidelines that
require a specific protocol, they should be introduced.
Mary Ellen Guffey[16] provides a useful participant checklist that is adapted here for our use:
• Arrive on time and stay until the meeting adjourns (unless there are prior arrangements)
• Leave the meeting only for established breaks or emergencies
• Be prepared and have everything you need on hand
• Turn off cell phones and personal digital assistants
• Follow the established protocol for turn taking
• Respect time limits
• Demonstrate professionalism in your verbal and nonverbal interactions
• Communicate interest and stay engaged in the discussion
• Avoid tangents and side discussions
• Respect space and don’t place your notebook or papers all around you
• Clean up after yourself
• Engage in polite conversation after the conclusion
If you are cast in the role of meeting leader, you may need to facilitate the discussion and
address conflict. The agenda serves as your guide and you may need to redirect the discussion to
the topic, but always demonstrate respect for each and every member. You may also need to inter-
vene if a point has reached a stalemate in terms of conflict (this text offers specific guidelines for
managing interpersonal conflict that apply here).
There has been quite a discussion on the role of seating arrangements in meeting within the
field of business communication. Generally, a table that is square, rectangular, or U-shaped has a
fixed point at which the attention is directed, often referred to as the head of the table. This space
is often associated with power, status, and hierarchy and may play an important role in the flow of
interactions across the meeting. If information is to be distributed and presented from administra-
tion to managers, for example, a table with a clear focal point for the head or CEO may be indicated.
Tables that are round, or tables arranged in a circular pattern, allow for a more egalitarian model
of interaction, reducing the hierarchical aspects while reinforcing the clear line of sight among all
participants. If a meeting requires intense interaction and collaboration, generally a round table or
a circular pattern is indicated.
Some meetings do not call for a table, but rather rows of seats all facing toward the speaker;
you probably recognize this arrangement from many class lectures you have attended. For rela-
tively formal meetings in which information is being delivered to a large number of listeners and
little interaction is desired, seating in rows is an efficient use of space.
Transitions are often the hardest part of any meeting. Facilitating the transition from one topic
to the next may require you to create links between each point. You can specifically note the next
point on the agenda and verbally introduce the next speaker or person responsible for the content
area. Once the meeting has accomplished its goals in the established time frame, it is time to facil-
itate the transition to a conclusion. You may conclude by summarizing what has been discussed
or decided, and what actions the group members are to take as a result of the meeting. If there is
a clear purpose for holding a subsequent meeting, discuss the time and date, and specifically note
assignments for next time.
Feedback is an important part of any communication interaction. Minutes are a written docu-
ment that serves to record the interaction and can provide an opportunity for clarification. Minutes
often appear as the agenda with notes in relation to actions taken during the meeting or specific
indications of who is responsible for what before the next meeting. In many organizations, min-
utes of the meeting are tentative, like a rough draft, until they are approved by the members of
the group or committee. Normally minutes are sent within a week of the meeting if it is a monthly
event, and more quickly if the need to meet more frequently has been determined. If your organi-
zation does not call for minutes, you can still benefit by reviewing your notes after a meeting and
comparing them with those of others to make sure you understood what was discussed and did
not miss—or misinterpret—any key information.
Using Technology to Facilitate Meetings

Given the widespread availability and increasingly low cost of electronic communication, tech-
nologies that once served to bring people together across continents and time zones are now also
serving people in the same geographic area. Rather than traveling (by plane, car, or even elevator
within the same building) to a central point for a face-to-face interaction, busy and cost-conscious
professionals often choose to see and hear each other via one of many different electronic interface
technologies. It is important to be aware of the dimensions of nonverbal communication that are
lost in a virtual meeting compared to an in-person meeting. Nevertheless, these technologies are a
boon to today’s business organizations, and knowing how to use them is a key skill for all job seek-
ers. We will discuss the technologies by category, beginning with audio-only, then audio-visual, and
finally social media.
Audio-Only Interactions
The simplest form of audio-only interaction is, of course, a telephone call. Chances are that you
have been using the phone all your life, yet did you know that some executives hire professional
voice coaches to help them increase their effectiveness in phone communication? When you stop to
think about it, we use a great many audio-only modes of communication, ranging from phone calls
and voice-activated telephone menus to radio interviews, public address systems, dictation record-
ing systems, and computer voice recognition technology. The importance of audio communication
in the business world has increased with the availability of conference calls, Web conferences, and
voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) communications.
Your voice has qualities that cannot be communicated in written form, and you can use these
qualities to your advantage as you interact with colleagues. If you are sending a general infor-
mative message to all employees, an e-mail may serve you well, but if you are congratulating one
employee on receiving an industry award, your voice as the channel carries your enthusiasm.
Take care to pay attention to your pronunciation of words, stating them correctly in normal
ways, and avoiding words that you are not comfortable with as you may mispronounce them. Mis-
The way a word or phrase
sounds when stated orally. pronunciation can have a negative impact on your reputation or perceived credibility. Instead of
using complicated words that may cause you to stumble, choose a simple phrase if you can, or learn
to pronounce the word correctly before you use it in a formal interactive setting.
Your voice quality, volume, and pitch also influence how your spoken words are interpreted.
Quality often refers to emotional tone of your voice, from happy and enthusiastic to serious or
even sad. In most business situations, it is appropriate to speak with some level of formality, yet Emotional tone of one’s
voice.
avoid sounding stilted or arrogant. Your volume (the loudness of your voice) should be normal, but
do make sure your listeners can hear you. In some situations, you may be using a directional micro-
phone that only amplifies your voice signal if you speak directly into it.
Loudness or softness of
If your audience includes English learners, remember that speaking louder (i.e., shouting) does one’s voice.
not help them to understand you any better than speaking in a normal tone. Your word choices will
make a much more significant impact when communicating across cultures; strive to use direct
sentences and avoid figures of speech that do not translate literally.
Pitch refers to the frequency, high or low, of your voice. A pleasant, natural voice will have some
variation in pitch. A speaker with a flat pitch, or a monotone (one-tone) voice, is often interpreted
Frequency, high or low, of
as being bored and often bores his or her listeners. one’s voice.
If you are leaving a voice mail, state all the relevant information in concise, clear terms, making
sure to speak slowly; don’t forget to include your contact information, even if you think the person
already knows your phone number. Imagine you were writing down your phone number as you
recite it and you will be better able to record it at a “listener-friendly” speed. Don’t leave a long, ram-
bling voice mail message. You may later wish you had said less, and the more content you provide
the more you increase the possibility for misunderstandings without your being present for clari-
fication.
Audio-Visual Interactions
Rather than call each other, we often call and interact in both audio and visual ways via the Inter-
net. There are several ways to interface via audio and video, and new technologies in this area are
being invented all the time. For example, VoIP software allows the participants to see and hear each
other across time and distance with one-on-one calls and video conferencing. The audio portion
of the call comes through a headset, and the callers see each other on their computer monitors,
as if they were being broadcast on television. This form of audio-visual communication is quickly
becoming a low- or no-cost business tool for interaction.
If you are going to interact via audio and visual signals, make sure you are prepared. Appropri-
ate dress, setting, and attitude are all required. The integration of a visual signal to the traditional
phone call means that nonverbal gestures can now be observed in real time and can both aid and
detract from the message.
If you are unfamiliar with the technology, practice with it before your actual business interac-
tion. Try out the features with a friend and know where to find and access the information. If the
call doesn’t go as planned, or the signal isn’t what you expected or experienced in the past, keep a
good attitude and try again.
Social Media
Online communities, forums, blogs, tweets, cloud computing, and avatar-activated environments
are some of the continually developing means of social media being harnessed by the business
world. The Internet is increasingly promoting tools and platforms for people to interact. From bul-
letin boards that resemble the FreeNet posts of years past, to interactive environments like Second
Life, people are increasingly representing and interpreting themselves online.
Humans seek interaction, and this has led to new ways to market, advertise, and interact;
however, caution is warranted when engaging in social media online. When you use these media,
remember a few simple cautions:
1. Not everything is at it appears. The individuals on the forum may not all be who they repre-
sent themselves to be.
2. The words you write and the images you send, regardless of how much you trust the recipient,
may become public and can remain online forever.
3. Always consider what you access and what you post, and how it represents you and your
employer, even if you think others cannot know where you work or who you are.
4. Be aware that Internet service providers (ISPs) are required by law to archive information con-
cerning the use and traffic of information that can become available under subpoena.
Forums are often theme-based websites that gather a community of individuals dedicated to a
common interest. From owner-enthusiast websites that celebrate the new Mini Cooper, where
Theme-based Web sites owners discuss modifications and sell parts to each other, to forums that emphasize a viewpoint,
that gather a community of
individuals dedicated to a such as the Life After the Oil Crash (LATOC) discussion board, affectionately called doomers, people
common interest. come together to compare notes around areas of interest.
Professional networking sites such as LinkedIn allow people to link to, and interact with, oth-
ers who work in their industry or related ones. More general social media sites include MySpace
and Facebook, which also present threaded discussions and dynamic interfaces with groups that
A site that allows people to may or may not be limited to those that user intends. Interactive writing platforms such as blogs,
link to and interact with
others who work in their
wikis, and cloud computing involve having common documents stored on the Internet which can
industry or related ones. be accessed from multiple sites at once, further facilitating the interaction. Blogs are Web pages
with periodic posts that may or may not feature feedback responses from readers. Wikis are col-
laborations on Web content that are created and edited by users. Cloud computing involves secure
Web pages with periodic access of files from anywhere as information is stored remotely. Somewhere between a social
posts that may or may not networking site, where people gather virtually to interact, and a computer game lies the genre of
feature feedback avatar-activated virtual worlds such as Second Life. In these environments, users can meet others
responses from readers.
and make friends, participate in activities, and create and trade virtual property and services.
Business and industry organizations may also incorporate posts and threaded discussions, but
Collaborations on Web
often under a password-protected design on a company’s intranet or other limited-access platform.
content that are created Employees may use their business-provided computer equipment to access sites that are not busi-
and edited by users. ness related (if not specifically blocked), but all information associated with a each business’s
computer is subject to inspection, archival, and supervision.
Every computer is assigned an Internet protocol or IP address. The IP address can be specifi-
files from anywhere as
cally traced back to the original user, or at least to the computer itself and to who is responsible for
information is stored its use. From an e-mail via one of the free sites (e.g., Juno, Google’s Gmail, or Yahoo! Mail) to cloud
remotely. computing and wikis, your movements across the Web leave clear “footprints.”
Whether you maintain a personal Web page, a blog, or engage with peers and colleagues via
Twitter, take care when considering what personal information to make public. Privacy is an
increasing issue online and your safety is a priority. Always represent yourself and your organiza-
A site where people gather
virtually to interact.
tion with professionalism, knowing that what you search for and how you use your business
computer can and often is subject to inspection.
Organizational Communication
Businesses and companies are often described in terms we normally associate with family, from
relationships between siblings, to dominant-subordinate roles between parents and children, and
the role of praise and correction. Organizational communication, or the study of the communica-
The study of the
communication context, tion context, environment, and interaction within an organization, was once the domain of speech
environment, and communication departments. Modern business schools now view the study of organizational com-
interaction within an munication as an integral part of the curriculum, noting the interdependent relationships of
organization.
productivity, climate, and interaction between individuals within the organization (internal) and
related to the organization (external), such as suppliers or customers.
Organizations have communication needs and challenges just like a family, a group, or a com-
munity. We can examine the study of communication within an organization, noting common
interactive practices like performance reviews, newsletters, supervisor and direction, and the flow
of information throughout the organization. We can also study the practices of the organization as
they relate to other organizations and the media, as is public relations, crisis communication plans,
and interorganizational interaction. Research into these areas often emphasizes the outcome, in
terms of increased productivity and more effective strategic communication systems.[17] Change
management, knowledge management, organizational culture, leaderships, and strategic planning
often include elements of organizational communication, and again examine communication from
the perspective of efficiency and effectiveness.
As a skilled business writer or communicator, you can see that the study of organizational com-
munication can serve to inform you on the lessons learned by other companies, which are often
represented in research publications, to improve the processes in place within your organization.
For example, crisis management once was a knee-jerk reaction to a situation, one that caused busi-
nesses and companies to experience chaos and information management in unanticipated ways,
leading to mistakes and damaging reputations. Crisis communication plans are now a common fea-
ture in business, outlining roles and responsibilities, as well as central communication coordination
and how to interact with media. Supervisors and employees then have a guide to serve everyone,
much like a common playbook in organized sports like football, where everyone knows everyone
else’s position on the field once an emergency occurs.
Key Takeaway
Meetings require planning, choice of appropriate technology, and understanding of organiza-

tional communication.
1. Take notes in one of your classes as if they were the official minutes of a meeting. Does the
class “meeting” have a purpose? What preparations were made and what technology was
used? Is there a follow-up or a plan for the next class meeting? Compare your notes with
another student to see if you understood all the information conveyed in the class.
2. Collaborate with one or more classmates and contribute to a computing cloud or a wiki. What
was the activity like? Did you learn new information that you would not have learned by
studying individually?
3.
recordings until you notice improvement.
19.6 Teamwork and Leadership
1.
2.
3.
Two important aspects of group communication—especially in the business environment—are

teamwork and leadership. You will work in a team and at some point may be called on to lead. You
may emerge to that role as the group recognizes your specific skill set in relation to the task, or you
may be appointed to a position of responsibility for yourself and others. Your communication skills
will be your foundation for success as a member and as a leader. Listen and seek to understand
both the task and your group members as you become involved with the new effort. Have confi-
dence in yourself and inspire the trust of others. Know that leading and following are both integral
aspects of effective teamwork.
Teamwork
Teamwork is a compound word, combining team and work. Teams are a form of group normally
dedicated to production or problem solving. That leaves us with the work. This is where our pre-
vious example on problem solving can serve us well. Each member of the team has skills, talents,
experience, and education. Each is expected to contribute. Work is the activity, and while it may be
fun or engaging, it also requires effort and commitment, as there is a schedule for production with
individual and group responsibilities. Each member must fulfill his or her own obligations for the
team to succeed, and the team, like a chain, is only as strong as its weakest member. In this context
we don’t measure strength or weakness at the gym, but in terms of productivity.
Teams can often achieve higher levels of performance than individuals because of the com-
bined energies and talents of the members. Collaboration can produce motivation and creativity
that may not be present in single-contractor projects. Individuals also have a sense of belonging to
the group, and the range of views and diversity can energize the process, helping address creative
blocks and stalemates. By involving members of the team in decision-making, and calling up on
each member’s area of contribution, teams can produce positive results.
Teamwork is not without its challenges. The work itself may prove a challenge as members
juggle competing assignments and personal commitments. The work may also be compromised if
Tendency to accept the
team members are expected to conform and pressured to go along with a procedure, plan, or prod- group’s ideas and actions
uct that they themselves have not developed. Groupthink, or the tendency to accept the group’s in spite of individual
ideas and actions in spite of individual concerns, can also compromise the process and reduce effi- concerns.
ciency. Personalities and competition can play a role in a team’s failure to produce.
We can recognize that people want to belong to a successful team, and celebrating incremental
gain can focus the attention on the project and its goals. Members will be more willing to express
thoughts and opinions, and follow through with actions, when they perceive that they are an
important part of the team. By failing to include all the team members, valuable insights may be
lost in the rush to judgment or production. Making time for planning, and giving each member
time to study, reflect, and contribute can allow them to gain valuable insights from each other, and
may make them more likely to contribute information that challenges the status quo. Unconven-
tional or “devil’s advocate” thinking may prove insightful and serve to challenge the process in a
positive way, improving the production of the team. Respect for divergent views can encourage
open discussion.
John Thill and Courtland Bovee[18] provide a valuable list to consider when setting up a team,
which we have adapted here for our discussion:
• Select team members wisely
• Select a responsible leader
• Promote cooperation
• Clarify goals
• Elicit commitment
• Clarify responsibilities
• Instill prompt action
• Apply technology
• Ensure technological compatibility
• Provide prompt feedback
Group dynamics involve the interactions and processes of a team and influence the degree to
which members feel a part of the goal and mission. A team with a strong identity can prove to
be a powerful force, but it requires time and commitment. A team that exerts too much control over
individual members can run the risk or reducing creative interactions and encourage tunnel vision.
A team that exerts too little control, with attention to process and areas of specific responsibility,
may not be productive. The balance between motivation and encouragement, and control and
influence, is challenging as team members represent diverse viewpoints and approaches to the
problem. A skilled business communicator creates a positive team by first selecting members based
on their areas of skill and expertise, but attention to their style of communication is also warranted.
Individuals that typically work alone or tend to be introverted may need additional encouragement
to participate. Extroverts may need to be encouraged to listen to others and not dominate the con-
versation. Teamwork involves teams and work, and group dynamics play an integral role in their
function and production.
Leadership
Whether or not there is a “natural leader,” born with a combination of talents and traits that enable
a person to lead others, has been a subject of debate across time. In a modern context, we have
come to recognize that leadership comes in many form and representations. Once it was thought
that someone with presence of mind, innate intelligence, and an engaging personality was destined
for leadership, but modern research and experience shows us otherwise. Just as a successful heart
surgeon has a series of skill sets, so does a dynamic leader. A television producer must both direct
and provide space for talent to create, balancing control with confidence and trust. This awareness
of various leadership styles serves our discussion as groups and teams often have leaders, and they
may not always be the person who holds the title, status, or role.
Leaders take on the role because they are appointed, elected, or emerge into the role. The group
Individual designated by members play an important role in this process. An appointed leader is designated by an authority
an authority to serve in the to serve in that capacity, irrespective of the thoughts or wishes of the group. They may serve as the
leadership capacity. leader and accomplish all the designated tasks, but if the group does not accept their role as leader,
it can prove to be a challenge. As Bruce Tuckman[19] notes, “storming” occurs as group members come
to know each other and communicate more freely, and an appointed leader who lacks the endorse-
ment of the group may experience challenges to his or her authority.
A democratic leader is elected or chosen by the group, but may also face serious challenges. If
individual group members or constituent groups feel neglected or ignored, they may assert that the
group to serve as its democratic leader does not represent their interests. The democratic leader involves the group in
leader. the decision-making process, and insures group ownership of the resulting decisions and actions
as a result. Open and free discussions are representative of this process, and the democratic leader
acknowledges this diversity of opinion.
An emergent leader contrasts the first two paths to the role by growing into the role, often out
of necessity. The appointed leader may know little about the topic or content, and group members
Individual who grows into
the leadership role, often
will naturally look to the senior member with the most experience for leadership. If the democratic
out of necessity. leader fails to bring the group together, or does not represent the whole group, subgroups may
form, each with an informal leader serving as spokesperson.
Types of Leaders
We can see types of leaders in action and draw on common experience for examples. The heart sur-
geon does not involve everyone democratically, is typically appointed to the role through earned
establishes norms and
degrees and experience, and resembles a military sergeant more than a politician. The autocratic
conduct for the group. leader is self-directed and often establishes norms and conduct for the group. In some settings we
can see that this is quite advantageous, such as open-heart surgery or during a military exercise,
but it does not apply equally to all leadership opportunities.
Contrasting the autocrat is the laissez-faire, or “live and let live” leader. In a professional set-
ting, such as a university, professors may bristle at the thought of an autocratic leader telling them
Individual who practices a
“live and let live” style of
what to do. They have earned their role through time, effort, and experience and know their job. A
leadership. wise laissez-faire leader recognizes this aspect of working with professionals and may choose to
focus efforts on providing the professors with the tools they need to make a positive impact. Imag-
ine that you are in the role of a television director and you have a vision or idea of what the
successful pilot program should look like. The script is set, the lighting correct, and the cameras are
in the correct position. You may tell people what to do and where to stand, but you remember that
your job is to facilitate the overall process. You work with talent, and creative people are interesting
on camera. If you micromanage your actors, they may perform in ways that are not creative and
that will not draw audiences. If you let them run wild through improvisation, the program may not
go well at all. Balancing the need for control with the need for space is the challenge of the laissez-
faire leader.
Not all leaders are autocrats or laissez-faire leaders. Thomas Harris and John Sherblom[20]
specifically note three leadership styles that characterize the modern business or organization, and
Occurs when the leader
reflect our modern economy. We are not born leaders but may become them if the context or envi- has skills that others do
ronment requires our skill set. A leader-as-technician role often occurs when we have skills that not.
others do not. If you can fix the copy machine at the office, your leadership and ability to get it run-
ning again are prized and sought-after skills. You may instruct others on how to load the paper or
how to change the toner, and even though your pay grade may not reflect this leadership role, you
are looked to by the group as a leader within that context. Technical skills, from Internet technol-
ogy to facilities maintenance, may experience moments where their particular area of knowledge
is required to solve a problem. Their leadership will be in demand.
The leader-as-conductor involves a central role of bringing people together for a common
goal. In the common analogy, a conductor leads an orchestra and integrates the specialized skills
and sounds of the various components the musical group comprises. In the same way, a leader who
people together for a
conducts may set a vision, create benchmarks, and collaborate with a group as they interpret a set common goal.
script. Whether it is a beautiful movement in music or a group of teams that comes together to
address a common challenge, the leader-as-conductor keeps the time and tempo of the group.
Coaches are often discussed in business-related books as models of leadership for good reason.
A leader-as-coach combines many of the talents and skills we’ve discussed here, serving as a
Individual serving as a
teacher, motivator, and keeper of the goals of the group. A coach may be autocratic at times, give teacher, motivator, and
pointed direction without input from the group, and stand on the sidelines while the players do keeper of the goals of the
what they’ve been trained to do and make the points. The coach may look out for the group and group.
defend it against bad calls, and may motivate players with words of encouragement. We can recog-
nize some of the behaviors of coaches, but what specific traits have a positive influence on the
group? Thomas Peters and Nancy Austin[21] identify five important traits that produce results:
1. Orientation and education
2. Nurturing and encouragement
3. Assessment and correction
4. Listening and counseling
5. Establishing group emphasis
Coaches are teachers, motivators, and keepers of the goals of the group. There are times when
members of the team forget that there is no “I” in the word “team.” At such times, coaches serve to
redirect the attention and energy of the individuals to the overall goals of the group. They conduct
the group with a sense of timing and tempo, and at times, they relax and let the members demon-
strate their talents. Through their listening skills and counseling, they come to know each member
as an individual, but keep the team focus for all to see. They set an example. Coaches, however,
are human and by definition are not perfect. They can and do prefer some players over others and
can display less than professional sideline behavior when they don’t agree with the referee, but the
style of leadership is worthy of your consideration in its multidisciplinary approach. Coaches use
more than one style of leadership and adapt to the context and environment. A skilled business
communicator will recognize that this approach has its merits
Cisco CEO John Chambers explains how abandoning command-and-control leadership has
enabled the company to innovate more quickly, using collaboration and teamwork.
Key Takeaway
Teamwork allows individuals to share their talents and energy to accomplish goals. An effective
leader facilitates this teamwork process.
1. Do you prefer working in a group or team environment, or working individually? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each? Discuss your thoughts with classmates.
2. Imagine that you could choose anyone you wanted to be on a team with you. Who would
you choose, and why? Write a two- to three-paragraph description and share it with a class-
mate.
3. Think of a leader you admire and respect. How did this individual become a leader—for
example, by appointment, democratic selection, or emergence? How would you character-
ize this leader’s style—is the leader autocratic or laissez-faire, a technician, or a coach?
19.7 Family Business
1.
2.
Successors can’t learn from their mistakes if they’re never allowed to make any.
—Leon A Danco, President, Center for Family Business[22]
Wealth doesn’t last more than three generations.

—Chinese Proverb[23]
The final test of greatness in a CEO is how well he chooses a successor and whether he
can step aside and let his successor run the company.
—Peter Drucker[24]
Introduction
“If small business is the backbone of the U.S. economy, then family-owned businesses for the most
part make up a large portion of the vertebrae! In fact, family-owned businesses account for 90 per-
cent of all businesses in the United States (large and small) and continue to be a powerful force.[25]
Perhaps your dream is to be part of a family business, where you are valued for your contribu-
tions and your relationship to each other, secure in the knowledge that you are family, and have a
place in the organization. Perhaps your dream is to no longer be part of a family business, where
rivalries and competition takes more energy from you each day than actually serving customers.
Regardless of whether it’s a dream, or in some respects a nightmare, the U.S. Small Business Admin-
istration indicates 90 percent of all businesses in the United States are family-owned businesses.
For you and me, that means that if we work in a small business setting, nine times out of ten it will
be a family-owned business.
In this section we explore several common business communication issues related to family-
owned businesses, examine the latest trends in the research, and look at ten tips for successfully
owning and operating a family business.
Roles and Responsibilities

Did you know that Walmart is a family business? Or Lender’s Bagels? We often think of family busi-
ness and small business as the same thing, but nothing could be further from the truth. A business
may start small, like McDonald’s, and then grow into a franchise that is a collection of independent
owner/operators under the “Golden Arches”—part of the business family but also, in many cases,
each its own family business. Family business comes in many shapes and forms, and doesn’t always
look like the local restaurant, deli, diner, hardware store, bar, or fish and tackle shop.
Like all business, communication is at the core of success, and failure. It is paramount that
we learn to anticipate, plan, address, and engage each other in their successful growth and devel-
opment. If we look to a family business to be our “golden goose,” then we must protect it and be
watchful for powerful takeovers, internal conflicts, and poison pills.
What truly drives many family businesses is the sense of connection and identity the owners
and their family members feel with the business.[26]
First, let’s turn our attention to what makes up a family business. A family business is any
business, group, or corporation in which two or more family members are involved and hold the
majority of the ownership. This definition is broad, and covers the two person mobile computer
repair shop to Fortune 500 Firms. As you might imagine, there are other related definitions that
cover the range and diversity of organizations and relationships (visit the Family Firm Institute to
learn more about these definitions at http://www.ffi.org/?page=definitions. According to Ted Clark,
Executive Director of the Northeastern University Center for Family Business,[27] family businesses
account for 50 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product, generate 60 percent of the employment
in the United States, and account for 78 percent of new job creation. Clark takes issue with the
assertion that 90 percent of all businesses are family businesses, but still underscores their vital
importance to the U.S. economy. From eBay entrepreneurs to Amazon authors to local bookstore
owners and dog groomers, small business is an important part of business, and therefore business
communication.
Unlike non-family businesses, where the rules may be relatively clear, family businesses have
a unique set of challenges, in many ways communication challenges, which we need to consider. A
family business can be described and framed as the interaction between business and family. From
our understanding of the communication model, we also recognize that if we cast business and
family as source and receiver (who alternate roles), then we must also consider issues of message,
channel, feedback, context, environment, and interference. Business and family do not exist as sep-
arate entities. They exist within multiple contexts, and have many messages across a diverse range
of channels in which the environment, and interference, play important roles. The confusion and
interplay between roles and relationships can make this context of communication interaction ripe
for miscommunication.
Who gets to say what to whom when, why, and how? In a traditional business setting with a
standard organizational model, a worker might speak to a supervisor who speaks to a manager who
then speaks to a boss. In family business, with husbands, wives, children, parents, extended fam-
ilies, and multiple generations represented across legal counsel, stockholders, suppliers, shippers,
and even board members, the complexity and interconnected nature of the relationships makes
for a challenging communication environment. As we recognize the dynamic nature of family busi-
ness, we can also acknowledge the importance of strategic planning tools, transparent and open
communication, and the role of third-party outsiders in organizational health and success.
One key challenge can be to define who is a family member. If we take a husband, wife, and
children as a nuclear model of a family, and then blend, reorganize, layer in multiple generations,
and extend the family definition out to third cousins, we can see that family can mean many things
to many people. People may come into the family by marriage or by birth, and may even not be
“blood-related,” but still might be considered “family”—until legal issues arise. Even within family
businesses it can be difficult to know where lines are drawn.
FIGURE 19.18
The Lender family members identify their relationship to Carl.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/clender/9691057579/
A related challenge is to understand the role of the outsider, or non-family member who is part
of the business or organization. It can be difficult to attract, hire, train, and retain employees who
are not related because they may feel like outsiders, may perceive their investment of time and
energy is not as valued as that of family members, and that they can never be on equal footing with
any family member within the business. That translates to a perception of limited opportunities
for advancement and special treatment of family members, which can breed resentment. As chal-
lenging as it is for outsiders to make a place for themselves in a family business, their very presence
can contribute new and diverse perspectives on business issues, tackle challenges in new ways, and
even provide a stabilizing presence in the midst of inter-familial rivalries and conflicts.
Roles and responsibilities represent two clear issues in a family-run business. As members are
related to each other they have a set of expectations formed over time about how they interact with
each other, their relative personality traits, their skills, and their expectations, which can reflect
childhood experiences as well as current business activities. Perceptions guide our realities, and the
shadow of a common history of inter-related family members can provide a rich foundation for
successful cooperation, but it can also limit its members to prescribed roles and expectations. At
times, individual family members may think that they simply cannot grow and mature
professionally, or take on new responsibilities within the family business, so feel they need to strike
out on their own. Other times the support network in a family can provide a base to bring out the
best in its members. A wide range of experiences can be found, and no two cases are completely
identical. Still, we can learn from the experience of others.
One important lesson is to clearly communicate, in writing as well as verbally, expectations for
roles and responsibilities within a family business. Interpretation, particularly that based on fam-
ily experiences, sibling rivalries, past hurts or slights, or other issues, can easily work its way into a
formal business discussion. Job descriptions, formal policies, and clear procedures can set expecta-
tions for all members and help guide communication.
A second lesson is to not ignore family relationships. A great strength of family businesses is
their resilience over time. Research shows that family businesses are less likely to lay off employees
regardless of financial performance.[28] Relationships of interdependence can provide an important

and meaningful part of lives, and family relationships can be a part of it all, both at work and home.
That said, balance is important. Make time to celebrate birthdays, but don’t lose sight of important
details, clients, or contracts that are key to business success. Make time to listen to each other, but
know that family members need to develop a way to take a respectful time out, or to redirect tact-
fully to the business at hand without the interruption perceived as a slight or insult. Make time to
listen to ideas of the young as well as the wisdom and experience of elders. Balance requires effec-
tive communication, and in family businesses it is critical every day.
Compensation and Job Security

Two issues that present common concerns involve compensation and job security, and succession.
Let’s examine each in turn. Who gets what and why? This question has no easy answer. We all work
every day, sometimes more than one job, sometimes more than two jobs. We all want to earn a liv-
ing, even be successful, and we desire a degree of continuity and security in our work environment.
If we can agree that we all desire similar values in terms of compensation and job security, we can
then explore the complexity that is a family business.
There are lots of ways to be compensated. We might earn a wage by the hour, day, or month. We
might earn an annual salary, and be exempt from overtime. We might receive membership interest
units or even shares (or the right to purchase them) as part of a compensation package. We might
drive a company car or use company gas to get to our company apartment, house, or mansion, or
get away on the corporate jet for a weekend retreat. The list could go on, but it’s fair to say that
compensation involves more than money. From health insurance benefits to time off to the use of
business assets, we can observe not everyone is compensated in the same way. We can also see that
not everyone brings the same level of value to the company.
Let’s use a story for an example to examine the concept of value. This story is old, and has been
told in many ways. Each version of the telling, however, focuses on the value each brother brings to
the business. If you were the boss, given the information provided in our story below, who would
you say brings greater value to the organization?
There was once a father who observed his sons, both of whom worked the local saw mill in
the same role, receive different amounts in their paychecks. He learned it wasn’t a difference in age,
experience, time served, or even hours. Since he was a friend of the local mill owner, he thought he’d
ask why. The boss was glad to receive him, hear his concern, and said, “Let me show you.” As they
were talking, a truck and trailer loaded with logs pulled up. He asked one son, as an employee, to
go size up the load and come back with an estimate of what it was worth. The son left, spoke with
the driver, counted the logs, measured a few, and came back five minutes later. He said “There are
thirty pine logs, ten ash, and three maples, all between twenty-four and thirty-six inches. I’d esti-
mate about twelve thousand dollars for the load.” The boss said thanks and the son went back to
work.
He then called the second son to the office, and gave him the same instructions. He also spoke
to the driver, counted and measured, and got out his cellphone. About ten minutes later he returned
at said “There are thirty pine logs, ten ash, and three maple. We can cut the pine for elaborated
wood, and that will turn a small profit. There was a customer in here last week asking for ash for a
project. I took the liberty of calling him to see if he is interested and he is, and can take delivery of
them tomorrow at one thousand dollars each. The maple trees are excellent, and will serve for fine
furniture products, and we can call the local cabinet and furniture makers to see if they are inter-
ested if you want. I’d estimate between ten thousand and fourteen thousand dollars for the load,
but we can all but cover our costs with the sale of the ash tomorrow.” The son left and got back to
work. The father looked at the boss, shook his hand, and headed home, taking note of the lesson on
value.
While again this story has been told many times in many ways, the lesson holds true. It is
sometimes hard to measure value, but we know it when we see it in action. The second son brought
added value to mill, made a profit for the boss, and helped himself as his earnings reflected initia-
tive and intelligence.
With this lesson in mind, we can turn our attention to family businesses and see that this
simple lesson doesn’t always hold true. People are not always fairly compensated for the value
they bring the organization, and family members who receive a company car or stock but only
show up to work on Tuesdays and Thursdays breed resentment and create problems and instability
in an organization. Conversely, family members who do bring value to a business might not be
recognized for that value. Others might expect long hours of sacrifice, and that, too, can create
misunderstandings and problems. The relationship between salaries, compensation, benefits, and
privileges, and the interpretation of value is one considerable issue in family businesses.
Finally, let’s briefly discuss the difference between job descriptions, job tasks, and personal
strengths and weaknesses. A job description details the job in both generic and specific terms, and
may contain task statements, targets, goals, and other defining characteristics of what a job is, and
is not. This serves as one point of comparison and consideration. If job descriptions are not up to
date, it might be time to revisit them. If they are no longer accurate, to reflect the dynamic work
space we live in today, then a review also may be warranted. Defining jobs can help delineate who
does what, when, and how, and can help reduce overlap and miscommunication.
Next we can consider job tasks. Tasks are what we actually do. They are observable behaviors.
If you are tasked with customer service, there are a range of behaviors and actions associated with
the job that an engineer may not need to perform. Conversely, the engineer may have their own list
of tasks that are critical for business performance. When tasks are properly aligned, and everyone
knows their job, role, and responsibilities, then a business, using an age-old comparison, might run
like a well-oiled machine. Humans aren’t machines, and even though we may be aware of our job,
role, and responsibilities, we may choose for a range of reasons to take on new duties, pick up the
slack from someone else, or otherwise behave in ways that don’t conform to the model. Under-
standing tasks and the clear agreement among the parties is an important element of any effective
business.
Personal strengths and weaknesses are always a factor in any business, but in a context where
roles exist outside of the workplace along family lines, with history, challenges, and changes, it can
become complex fast. Jessica Johnson, of Johnson Security Bureau, highlights this when she indi-
cates you can’t choose your family:
Even though her brother was her full-on partner in rejuvenating the business, he's not the one
to sit in long meetings, she says. "He has the attention span of a dead ant." But her fiancé, she
says, has precisely the skills she doesn’t. (Yes, her fiancé is in the business, too!). "When we
go into a client meeting," she says, "we divide and conquer.”[29]
Focusing on strengths and weaknesses in a candid way can highlight the interdependence pre-
sent, create pathways for improvement, and better align strengths to business needs.
Succession
Succession is the act or process of inheriting a title, office, role, or property. In the case of the family
business, the issue of who will lead, who will follow, and who will take over as family member’s age
is a constant challenge. It can be difficult to articulate roles and responsibilities, and to clearly dis-
tinguish between individual and organization identities, in a family-owned business.[30]
FIGURE 19.19
The Lender family’s long line of successors.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/clender/4803311817/
Scholars have noted that succession often involves three aspects for consideration: character-
istics of successors and founders, succession processes, and the influence of family members on the
interpretation of these characteristics during a success process.[31] Indeed, the literature on succes-
sion clearly documents this significant and persistent challenge.[32][33][34][35][36]
Advisers can often play an important role as independent, outside observers who can help the
family clarify their needs and goals in terms of succession.[37]
In order to facilitate a positive succession in a family business, it is important to consider many
factors, but Lois Lang at the Multi-Unit Franchise[38] outlines four tips adapted for our discussion:
1. There is more to succession than seniority. The normal, often assumed, pathway to the CEO
chair is through seniority. The person who has been there the longest is the heir-apparent
for many, but that is not always the best for the business. If the heir-apparent lacks the skills
or support of the other family members, it can present an obstacle to success. The business
comes first as an entity separate from the family, and measured decisions taken in time with
clear, transparent evaluations of the information can sometimes lead to a conclusion distinct
from the usual path. Being open to other family members, or even an outsider, can offer strate-
gic benefits that warrant consideration.
2. Use a professional process to evaluate candidates. Family businesses often rely on subjective
methods to make decisions, but when it comes to succession, this decision, that will impact
the livelihood of everyone, deserves careful analysis. The process of skill evaluations, perfor-
mance evaluations, and comprehensive reviews can provide additional insight for the decision
makers, the board, or even the single owner business. By outlining an objective pathway, and
choosing to not ignore any relevant information, a family business can avoid groupthink and
arrive at a range of conclusions, including the succession of the senior candidate. If the senior
candidate, through this process, is found to have strengths and weaknesses, as we all do, then
a plan, including coaching, mentoring, or third-party consultation can all be developed with
time and anticipation.
3. Groom, mentor, and provide opportunities to lead. If a candidate for succession has been
clearly identified, then the next step is to provide clear steps for grooming, mentorship, and
opportunities to lead before the succession date. Family members have been known to go with
the flow only to change their position, even their willingness to serve, at a later time. A clear
pathway to leadership needs to provide opportunities to lead, make mistakes, and demonstrate
competency. All the information gained in the grooming period can serve to make the candi-
date stronger in their skill set and help the business in the anticipated transition.
4. Consider a non-family member for leadership. The initial response might be a resounding
“no,” as an outsider is perceived as lacking the history, commitment, or understanding of the
business that only a family member can possess, but beyond loyalty lies many factors that
need to be considered. A family member may not want to step up to a leadership role right
away, or might not be ready yet, and a “bridge CEO” may well serve for a specific time to help
in that transition. It can also be the case that the family experiences deep divisions over rivals,
and again a third party might well serve or a limited time to provide stability and neutrality as
the business continues and the family members reconsider positions and options. Being open
to all of the options can be a challenge, but family businesses can benefit from their clear con-
sideration.
Ten Tips for Family Business Success

We’ve addressed clear roles and responsibilities, as well as compensation, job security, and suc-
cession, and now turn our attention to specific tips to help improve family business success. While
there are no universal cures, and family businesses face a host of challenges, from taxes to
competition to regulation, access to capital, investment, research and development, and many
other aspects, here we focus our attention within the family business itself. These tips, while not
universal, are certainly worthy of consideration. They could be used to guide a family business
discussion, or one might serve as a focus each month. Regardless of how they serve your fam-
ily business, think of them as goals, even ideals, that might be worth the effort. Even bringing
them up as topics of discussion might produce positive results. Communication is critical in all
businesses, but family businesses present interesting and complex challenges. Here, we look at
several tips that can help improve family business performance.
1. Business comes first.
2. Clear lines of communication and responsibility are required.
3. Consider hiring a non-family member to oversee operations.
4. Conflict management is critical.
5. Crisis management involves consideration of business and family interests.
6. Focus on the big picture: priorities.
7. Recognize family isn’t a matter of choice.
8. Address formal vs. informal communication styles.
9. Differentiate between individual vs. organizational goals.
10. Prepare for succession.
Three Rules for Survival
Finally, as we close our discussion on family business, let’s consider Peter Drucker’s three rules
for survival of the family business into maturity.[39]
1. Family members do not work in the business unless they are at least as able and
work at least as hard as any non-family employee. This rule addresses many factors
we have considered. Roles and responsibilities. Work ethics. The ability follow as well as
lead. Learning to keep a floor clean, a shelf stocked, stock rotation and orders in line,
supply chain management, as well as marketing and design, public relations, and sales all
require core competencies and skills. A family member should be able to carry their own
responsibilities as well and work as hard as any non-family employee, and starting in the
mail room provides lessons and unique insights that can only be earned on the job.
2. No matter how many family members are in the company’s management and how
effective they are, at least one top job is always filled by an outsider. Groupthink
and family pressures can lead to tunnel vision. Family members may not want to admit or
accept that a specific family member has a problem. Substance abuse, lack of interest, or
even infighting can all drain valuable energy from the business. The presence of an out-
sider in a key decision-making role can provide stability in the midst of personal conflicts,
rivalries, and even crisis situations. An outside perspective may challenge the status quo,
shake up the traditional, and provide a needed breath of fresh air at times when family
members may not all be ready to listen, but its value remains.
3. Family managed businesses, except for the very smallest ones, increasingly need
to staff key positions with non-family professionals. Family members are not innately more
skilled professionals than the general population, and not everyone is good at every skill
and talent required by a business to be successful. Looking outside the family for talent
can be a needed antidote to mediocracy and complacency. The familiar status quo, where
we’ve always done it this way so why change, doesn’t hold true in today’s dynamic, fast-
paced business environment. Strategic use of talented professionals in key roles can
enhance a family run business and help it grow.
What do Wal-Mart, Mars, and Newscorp have in common? They’re family businesses. Vikram
Bhalla analyzes the unique strengths and weaknesses of family businesses today, contrasting it
with the humble mom-and-pop store the term usually brings to mind. Vikram’s research has
revealed that family businesses in emerging economies are the fastest-growing, most ambitious
breed of companies in the world. He extrapolates some valuable lessons that these successful
ventures can share for both family and traditional companies.
Conclusion
In this section we’ve considered some of the many challenges that face family businesses. Roles and
responsibilities need to be clearly communicated. Job descriptions with specific tasks serve to com-
municate and reinforce these responsibilities and also open the door to discussions on areas not
currently met by family members. While you cannot choose your family, you can make important
decisions about how you interact, how you decide priorities, and when it is time to bring in talent
to meet and unmet need with a business. The challenges are many, but family businesses are often
resilient in times of stress, and form a core part of our economy. Communication is critical to family
business success.
Key Takeaway
job
security, and lines of promotion and succession. Non-family members play an important role in
family business success.

Read about groups and teams on the business Web site 1000 Ventures. http://www.1000ventures.
com/business_guide/crosscuttings/team_main.html
Learn more about Tuckman’s linear model. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tuckman.htm
Learn more about Dewey’s sequence of group problem solving on this site from Manatee Com-
munity College in Florida. http://faculty.scf.edu/frithl/SPC1608update/handouts/Dewey.htm
Read a hands-on article about how to conduct productive meetings. http://www.articlesnatch.
com/Article/How-To-Conduct-Productive-Meetings-/132050
Visit this wikiHow site to learn how to use VoIP. http://www.wikihow.com/Use-VoIP

Watch a YouTube video on cloud computing. http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=6PNuQHUiV3Q
Read about groups and teams, and contribute to a wiki about them, on Wikibooks. http://en.
wikibooks.org/wiki/Managing_Groups_and_Teams
How did Twitter get started? Find out. http://twitter.com/about
Take a (nonscientific) quiz to identify your leadership style. http://psychology.about.com/
library/quiz/bl-leadershipquiz.htm
Endnotes
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5. Cameron, K.S., and Quinn, R.E. Diagnosing and changing organisational culture. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1999.
6. Moore, S. (2010, February 2). Shared governance. Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Retrieved fromhttp://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/root/
vumc.php?site=Shared Governance&doc=23733
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8. Garvin, D. A. (1993). Building a learning organization. Harvard Business Review, 71(4), 78–91.
9. Moreland, R., & Levine, J. (1982). Socialization in small groups: Temporal changes in individual group relations. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology,
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14. Adler, R. (1996). Communicating at work: Principles and practices for business and the professions. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
16. Guffey, M. (2007). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.
17. Tucker, M., Meyer, G., & Westman, J. (1986). Thinking through communication: An introduction to the study of human communication. Boston, MA: Allyn &
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18. Thill, J. V., & Bovee, C. L. (2002). Essentials of business communication. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
19. Tuckman, B. (1965). Developmental sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63, 384–399.
20. Harris, T., & Sherblom, J. (1999). Small group and team communication. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
21. Peters, T., & Austin, N. (1985). A passion for excellence: The leadership difference. New York, NY: Random House.
22. http://ronforeman.com/2003/06/24/family-business-stories-quotations/
25. 5 Tips for Managing a Successful Family Business. (2011). Retrieved 2015, from https://www.sba.gov/blogs/5-tips-managing-successful-family-business
26. Fallon, N. “Focus on ‘Family’ Is Key to Long-Term Family Business Success.” 2014. Business News Daily. Retrieved June 2014: http://www.businessnews-
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27. Clark, T. “The Biggest Myth About Family Businesses.” (2014). Forbes. Retrieved June 2014, from http://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2014/05/20/the-
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Change-Drucker-Library/dp/1422140792
appeal to emotion beliefs
Index 219, 460-463, 501
appointed leader
39, 68, 88, 95-101, 114, 122, 127, 162,
183, 192, 209-212, 321-323, 337, 344,
410-411, 420, 441-442, 447-448, 455,
656 463, 487, 509, 551, 567, 571-572,
607-614, 626-627, 631, 638
appropriateness
320-329 benefit
12, 17, 45, 72, 87, 107, 137, 199, 227-230,
arrangement 244-245, 276, 286, 295, 300, 313-314,
110, 145-149, 302, 387-390, 575, 649 372, 377-378, 393, 415, 512, 520, 525,
602, 644-646, 650, 665
artifacts
357, 362-363, 568, 606 bias
abdicrats
70, 138, 161-162, 221, 256, 287, 410-411,
515 assertion 424, 429, 447, 464-465
111, 161, 239, 246, 295, 369, 411, 515,
ability blogs
660
10-14, 20, 27-30, 46, 56, 66-70, 93, 97, 19, 35, 62, 188, 263, 274, 316, 347, 562,
101-113, 119, 137, 143, 153, 161-163, assimilation 622, 651-652, 668
182, 193-194, 203, 208, 219-224, 229, 183, 337
256-258, 267, 294, 326-329, 339-340, body
344, 360-361, 382-388, 409, 424, 430, assume similarity 18, 45-48, 81, 106-112, 119, 134,
442, 461, 505, 509-515, 519, 532, 345, 572 185-186, 195, 201-202, 222, 229,
540-542, 550, 582, 587, 601-604, 615, 250-251, 255, 267, 286-291, 302, 313,
625, 634, 657, 665 assurance 322, 328, 349-350, 354-366, 374-379,
548 386, 392-395, 413, 417, 423, 431-435,
abstract
440, 462, 470-476, 508, 523, 546, 619,
69, 84, 140, 151, 199-200, 223, 242, 294, asynchronous 648
301, 313, 505
134-136
body sentences
accommodation
attention statement 202
182-183, 337
45-48, 106, 289, 313-314, 392-395, 400,
409, 417, 431-434, 469-474 bribe
acculturation
586, 593-594
600-602 attitude
96, 137, 162, 274, 407-412, 517, 527, 542, business proposal
active listening and reading
550, 651 138, 279, 293-297
11, 125-128
authority pages bypassing
active voice
263 155-158
211-214
autocratic casual language
adaptor
515, 598, 640, 656-658 148
353
autocratic leader categorical questions
adoption
656 554
55-56, 277, 448, 562, 627
auxiliary messages centralized rule
affect display
44 585
352-353
award channel
affection
234, 346, 383, 399, 477, 489, 494-498, 17-22, 46-48, 122, 133, 165-171, 255-261,
452, 515, 627-630 650 365, 436, 506, 547, 567, 590, 618, 622,
645, 650, 660
agenda setting awareness
420-421 11, 64, 93, 104-105, 116, 159, 163-168, Chronemics
180-184, 193, 203, 209, 240, 249, 256, 360, 379
anarchy
266, 279-281, 296, 325, 337-338, 344,
585 378, 383, 444, 475, 519, 533, 548-551, civil law
566, 573-575, 601-613, 656 585
anomaly
551 behavioral evaluation clarity
273 29-30, 76-77, 133-135, 141-146, 204,
anticipation step 239-244, 257-259, 329, 368-369, 374,
366 387-390, 422, 481, 543-548, 560
appeal cliché
27, 142-144, 151, 167, 218-219, 242, 294, 73, 78, 137, 241-242, 628
312-314, 326-329, 388, 417, 444, 450,
460-463, 501, 593, 643
context customer relationship management
closed-ended questions
7, 11-12, 16-33, 37-42, 56, 64-67, 71-74, 57, 260, 271, 550
550-554
93, 104, 108, 113, 125, 132-136, 141,
closure 148-155, 168, 193, 203, 208-210, declarative sentence
214-215, 219, 223, 227, 241, 257-260, 114, 203, 286
45-48, 109-112, 392
264, 270-274, 288-289, 329, 341-346,
350-365, 375-377, 383-386, 391, 410, defensive communication
cloud computing
414, 420, 441-442, 451, 456-461, 532
600, 651-652, 668
478-482, 488-490, 506-515, 520, 531-535,
545-546, 566-567, 579-580, 585-593, democracy
co-languages
599-602, 606, 615-616, 625-628, 634-640, 584, 609
343
652-663
cognate strategies democratic leader
contextual rules 656
141-146, 385, 389-390, 395
67
democrats
colloquial language
continuance 515
147-148
448-450
demographic traits
common law
continuity 118-119, 123
585
108-112, 371-373, 662
communication denotative meaning
control 69-71
1-668
28, 44, 67, 83-87, 97, 111, 148, 155, 160,
219, 227, 255, 283, 299-300, 340, deterrence
compiling
352-361, 368, 376, 391, 407, 411, 424, 448-450, 469-470
17, 182-183, 337
453-454, 460-461, 478, 513-515, 519,
528, 532-535, 539-540, 548, 563, 578, diagram
conciseness
590, 598, 619, 627-630, 635, 655-658 80, 369, 396, 442
144-146, 244, 329, 387-390
conventions direct feedback
conclusion
102-103, 138 256-258
29-32, 45-48, 65, 81, 85, 107, 112, 182,
187, 201-205, 215, 220, 229, 269, 286, conversational tone discontinuance
290-291, 295, 301-302, 313, 351, 365, 209
370-372, 392-395, 403, 409, 423, 448-450
432-435, 454-457, 462, 466, 470-474, cookies discrimination
498, 511, 524, 548-549, 560, 597, 607,
263 610-612
613, 620, 640, 649, 664-667
cost-benefit analysis divergent group members
conclusion sentence
107, 300, 415, 644-646 636
202
counter culture double negative
concrete term
605-608, 613 236
151
credibility double-booking
confirmation bias
10, 41, 68, 136, 144-146, 162, 167, 648
161-162
171-172, 176-180, 194, 215, 219-224,
conflict 232-235, 260-261, 271-273, 294-295, doublespeak
312-316, 330-331, 335-336, 362-368, 376, 77-79
72, 86, 127, 183-185, 215, 337, 353, 429,
388-390, 400, 415, 419, 428-431, 444,
456, 506, 512-514, 519, 530-537,
456, 461-465, 469, 491-498, 518, 532, dyadic effect
545-549, 565, 569, 583-586, 594, 612,
548, 558, 649-650 519
625, 636, 640, 649, 665
crisis communication plan e-mail
confounding factors
539, 554-557, 563 19-20, 26-27, 44-48, 55, 132-135,
552
147-150, 154-159, 163, 168-176, 180,
critical thinking
connotative meaning 185, 189-191, 213-214, 258-264, 279-284,
137-141, 161-162, 189, 347, 475 288-291, 306-309, 315-316, 351, 360,
69-71
484, 506, 523, 528-529, 534, 541-542,
cultural value system
constructivist 546-547, 567, 617, 648-652
343
21-22
egalitarian
culture 31-33, 585, 649
22-24, 34, 38, 67-69, 114, 120, 153, 194,
296, 342-347, 358-366, 373, 378-379, egocentrism
391-392, 420-421, 427, 437, 442-444, 161-162
477, 534, 551, 565-589, 595-622,
631-634, 638-640, 653, 668 electronic slides
372
expectations framing
elevator speech
7, 11-12, 20-31, 39, 52-55, 59-65, 71, 144, 250, 385, 417-420, 464, 612-613
415, 473-476, 502
85-87, 94-103, 111-117, 122-124, 129,
emblem 134-150, 155, 169-172, 184, 193, 209, Full members
228-231, 235, 240-243, 250, 257-259, 498, 635-638, 649
352
264, 270-271, 288-289, 294, 299-305,
313, 320, 325-329, 338-344, 349, gatekeeping
emergent leader
354-366, 383-388, 410, 419, 428-430, 420-421
656
442-443, 454, 507, 515-518, 522-524,
542, 551, 567-572, 576-581, 594-598, general purpose
emotion
615, 625, 629, 634, 661 165-166, 173, 195, 201, 320-324, 330,
31, 46-47, 93, 167, 203, 218-221, 240,
274, 280, 288, 312-316, 352-355, 366, 391, 395, 433-434
explicit-rule culture
379, 385, 460-465, 471, 496, 501,
579 global village
532-535, 539, 546, 621
586-587, 605
exploitation
emotional resistance
219, 430-433, 460, 578, 585 goals
219, 461-463
72, 87, 103, 117-119, 123, 143-147, 152,
exposition 163, 180-183, 221, 228, 240, 246-247,
empathetic listening
193, 408-410 275, 293, 298, 302-306, 325, 336-337,
532
344, 356, 368, 433, 448, 465, 478,
exposure 484-487, 510, 525-531, 540-544, 569,
employment interview
106, 182-183, 337, 601-603, 608, 612 603, 625-627, 632, 640, 649, 655-658,
525-529
663-665
external communication
environment
14, 279, 540-543, 547 Gossipers
10, 15-23, 28-29, 39, 57, 69, 103, 113,
638
125, 133-135, 142, 149, 153-155, 161, external feedback
168, 173, 183, 188, 227-228, 249, Governance
256, 260-262
255-264, 270, 277, 284, 321-323, 327,
632, 668
337, 353, 357, 363-365, 376-378, external stimuli
452-453, 503-509, 513-515, 520-523, graft
105
529-533, 542, 567, 581, 615-616, 626,
640, 652-662, 666 595
eye contact
ethics 104, 125, 351-359, 366-367, 377, 387, grammar
31-35, 144, 176-177, 220-222, 226, 333, 430, 435, 472, 498, 523, 534, 560, 572, 11, 18, 59-60, 136-142, 148-154, 203,
634-636 207-214, 223-227, 231, 235-242, 246,
338, 390, 426, 436, 440, 464-468, 476,
503, 586-588, 632, 665 253, 273, 281, 295
face-detracting strategies
ethnocentrism 532 grapevine
120, 129, 342-346, 567-570 258, 285, 548
face-saving strategies
ethos 532 Gratuity
31, 144-146, 194, 219-221, 273, 295, 312, 594, 622
facial gestures
385-390, 405, 461, 465, 494
354-355, 366-367, 551 group
etiquette 1, 13-15, 23-31, 35-39, 43-46, 70-77, 86,
fallacy 91-92, 98-101, 108-113, 120-123, 139,
208, 280, 316, 488, 524, 647, 653
110, 215, 219-222, 464-468, 476 143-148, 156-162, 189-191, 204, 209,
euphemism 221, 256-269, 276, 282-285, 320-323,
feedback 328, 333-334, 342-345, 359-362, 367-369,
77-78
3, 11, 16-22, 29, 34-35, 46-48, 74, 86-87, 378-384, 388-390, 407, 421, 425-430,
evaluative feedback 97, 125-128, 133-135, 139-141, 151, 155, 445, 452-453, 465, 484-489, 498, 509,
163-168, 227, 248, 255-277, 282, 287, 515, 537, 545-547, 551-553, 562-578,
273
341, 359, 419, 427-429, 480-483, 506, 585-586, 590, 594-595, 600, 607,
ex-member 523-524, 528-529, 541, 546, 550-554, 612-614, 620-621, 625-668
563, 567, 582, 599, 613, 618, 642,
633-636 group communication
650-655, 660
exclamatory sentence 1, 13-14, 25-28, 484-485, 509, 547,
five-finger model of public speaking 625-667
113, 203
392
groupthink
Folk culture 162, 655, 664-668
605-607, 613
gunnysacking (or backpacking)
formal language 533
149
haptics
Forums 361
263-265, 619, 625, 630, 651-652
interest laissez-faire leader
High culture
10, 15-16, 30-32, 47, 51, 79, 104-106, 640, 656-658
605-607, 613
115-116, 125, 142, 146-147, 167, 177,
hit 183, 194, 209-211, 221, 258, 263, language
273-275, 286-287, 295, 301, 313-316, 18-24, 31, 37-43, 48, 60, 65-79, 83-84,
147, 169, 213, 238, 262, 296, 501, 506,
324-327, 331, 337, 343, 351-352, 383, 88-92, 102, 119, 129, 134-142, 147-152,
642
387, 409, 413, 417-422, 427-430, 158-159, 168, 194-195, 203-204, 208-210,
honesty 434-435, 444, 448, 452-453, 462-465, 219-222, 226-229, 242, 254-256, 267,
471-473, 482, 493, 499-501, 527-534, 273-274, 284, 288, 296, 308, 328,
122-123, 221, 363, 429, 433, 465
544, 548-550, 585, 598-601, 633, 637, 342-349, 354-358, 364, 374-379, 383-385,
hubs 643, 649-652, 662, 666 405, 412-414, 422-427, 436, 460,
476-480, 488, 505-509, 522, 532, 537,
263 interference 544-548, 565-568, 575, 587, 600-607,
illustrator 18-23, 134, 257, 506, 530, 567, 660 626, 631, 635, 648
352 internal communication leader-as-coach
imperative sentence 14, 506, 547 657
203 internal feedback leader-as-conductor
implementation step 258-259 657
366 internal monologue leader-as-technician
implicit-rule culture 125, 506-511, 518 657
579 internal stimuli letter
importance 105 7, 19, 26, 31, 40-41, 47, 66, 93, 104,
128-138, 143, 147-157, 166-177, 182,
10, 14-15, 33-34, 38, 72, 83, 103-105, interpersonal communication 197-201, 231, 235, 249-251, 261-263,
111-116, 124-125, 133, 137, 165, 183,
14, 25-28, 35-36, 89, 100, 254, 276, 285, 273, 279-297, 304, 309-317, 392-397,
200-203, 210, 227, 251, 296, 330, 337,
379, 504, 509-512, 520-521, 525, 537, 525-528, 547, 582, 609, 619
358, 364-366, 381-383, 387-388, 399-400,
546-548, 622-628, 668
418-430, 440-442, 464, 468, 486-488, Libel
539, 545, 550, 566, 575, 580, 606, 629, interpretation 153, 179, 335, 545, 619-620
650, 660
17, 31, 38-47, 101, 111-112, 134-137,
141, 151-155, 165, 204, 267, 383, 400, libel
incorporation
408-412, 421, 478, 530, 547-552, 153, 179, 335, 545, 619-620
142, 182-183, 337
583-588, 595-596, 619, 661-664
Likert Scale questions
incubation
interpretive feedback 554
182-183, 189, 337, 347
274
line justification
independent verification
interrogative sentence 250
232
203
logos
indirect feedback
intracultural communication 29-31, 144-146, 183, 194, 219, 295, 312,
257-258
568 362, 385, 389-390, 461, 619
indiscrimination
intrapersonal communication looking-glass self
610-612
17, 23-30, 36, 93, 506-509, 518-520, 569, 97, 509
individual differences 628
Marginal group members
113-115, 322, 571 introduction 636
individualistic cultures 35, 41, 45-48, 89, 104-106, 195-196,
200-202, 212, 229, 241, 263, 286-291, mass communication
344, 578
301-302, 313, 329, 347, 365, 392-395, 14, 27-28, 114, 285, 420, 440, 520, 547
infinitive 399, 408, 413, 421, 431-437, 447, 454,
469-477, 493-500, 505-508, 537, 548-549, Mass culture
236
589, 595-598, 605, 615, 620-622, 626, 437, 605-607, 613
initiation 631, 659, 668
master of ceremonies
506, 523-525, 573-574 irregular verbs 477, 498-503
237, 253
inter-rater reliability
271 jargon
30, 60, 71-79, 85-88, 209-210, 240-243,
343-346, 387, 413, 422, 428, 432, 576,
626
kinesics
361
new group member paralanguage
meaning
635 357, 362-363, 462, 546
11-12, 17-22, 35-43, 66-93, 111-113, 125,
133-134, 139-157, 166, 183-186, 194,
nonjudgmentalism parallel construction
202-204, 208-209, 217, 223-226, 232-243,
257, 274, 285, 337, 342, 350-353, 122, 429 243
362-365, 428-429, 442-444, 451-453, 459,
nonverbal communication paraphrase
476, 482, 520, 532-537, 546-547,
551-554, 567, 575-576, 606-609, 616, 134, 349-357, 361-363, 375-379, 462, 177, 222-225, 274, 534
625-626 518, 579, 650
passive voice
measurable gain novelty 211
163, 442-443 313-314, 326, 418, 424, 501
patch writing
media interview numerical questions 224
422, 490-492, 503 554
pathos
meeting object-adaptor 31, 144-146, 194, 219, 295, 312, 385,
20, 24, 30, 46, 51, 59, 67, 85, 102, 353 389-390, 405, 461
166-167, 185, 191-193, 204-207, 212-213,
open-ended questions personal individual
232-236, 244, 265, 320, 329-332, 344,
352-353, 362-365, 369-371, 383-388, 420, 265, 552-554 515
428, 442, 450-451, 477, 482-486, 504,
ordinal questions personal space
511-515, 520-523, 534-535, 541-546, 555,
579, 634, 647-650, 654, 663 554 214, 343, 359
memo organization persuasion

31, 109, 135, 156-159, 168-174, 215, 244, 9, 15-18, 29-34, 45, 68-70, 88, 101, 220-221, 285, 293, 384-385, 440-446,
262, 285-287, 293, 316, 543, 548 106-112, 122, 128, 146-148, 152-154, 450-451, 457-458, 464-468
165, 170-178, 183, 187, 193-195,
message 202-210, 214, 227-232, 237, 243, phatic communion
9-12, 16-32, 37-92, 101-105, 111-128, 248-250, 258-272, 285-304, 320, 338-340, 523
132-136, 143-144, 148-159, 165-171, 179, 369, 381-405, 418, 422, 433-435, 471,
491-492, 496, 510-521, 525-535, 540, physical characteristics
183-186, 191-195, 199-204, 209, 213,
219-221, 227, 239-252, 256-261, 273-275, 545-551, 556-558, 563-566, 574-582, 586, 96, 113-114, 300, 356-360
280-292, 296, 312-327, 335-340, 350-356, 604, 627, 631-640, 652-653, 657-664, 668
361-378, 383-395, 410, 420-425, 432-435, pitch
organization 117, 167, 313-317, 333, 355, 393, 414,
439-446, 461-478, 482, 501-511, 517,
527, 532-534, 539-550, 554, 559-560, 9, 15-18, 29-34, 45, 68-70, 88, 101, 425, 473-475, 546, 607, 651
567, 594, 609-612, 617, 626, 634, 106-112, 122, 128, 146-148, 152-154,
650-651, 660 165, 170-178, 183, 187, 193-195, plagiarism
202-210, 214, 227-232, 237, 243, 152-153, 176-177, 181, 187, 222-226,
metasearch 248-250, 258-272, 285-304, 320, 338-340, 330-333, 338, 347
178 369, 381-405, 418, 422, 433-435, 471,
491-492, 496, 510-521, 525-535, 540, point of view
microgroup 545-551, 556-558, 563-566, 574-582, 586, 17, 68, 101, 124, 180, 219, 336, 411-413,
628 604, 627, 631-640, 652-653, 657-664, 668 429, 447-448, 460-462
modifier organizational communication polychromatic time

232, 238-240 14, 599, 647, 652-653 580
monochromatic time organizing principle Pop culture

580 195-202, 229, 397-400 605-614, 622
motivation outline potential member

11, 92, 137, 208, 226, 405, 437-443, 476, 29, 144, 166, 182-184, 194, 200-201, 633-634
515, 537, 599, 622, 655 205-207, 225, 288-289, 320, 339,
381-385, 394-396, 404-405, 421, 431-435, precise words
multiple choice questions 442, 471, 483, 502, 523, 543, 559, 610 83-87, 242
554
overpersonals predicted outcome value theory
mutuality 515 520
122, 429
oversocials pregnant pause
negative news message 515 362
540-549
page views prejudice
netiquette 262-264 345-347, 570-572, 622
153, 279-283, 316-317
paradigm prepositional phrase
60, 68-71, 551-554 241
quality residual message
presentation to inform
3, 13, 35, 63, 156, 180, 187, 198, 208, 45-48, 313, 366, 370, 392-395, 432-434,
408, 413
218, 245, 266, 293, 335, 398, 418, 439, 471-474
press conference 460, 517, 540-542, 550-553, 562-563,
606, 632, 642, 651-654 respect
546, 557-563
20, 31-34, 77, 85, 97, 122-127, 214-215,
quantitative research 275, 281-283, 294, 331, 359-362, 407,
preunderstanding
266-269, 552 428-430, 453-456, 464, 485-498, 517-520,
102
524, 532-535, 540-541, 545, 549,
quotes 571-580, 586-589, 598, 634, 640, 649,
preview
89, 362, 477-479, 503, 560, 622 655-658
205, 223, 289, 403, 523
racist language response rate
Priests and priestesses
72, 76-78 261-262
638-640
ratings revise
primary groups
262 11, 156-157, 163, 232-236, 240, 249, 281,
628-630
334
readability
primary messages
228-230 revision
44
7, 87, 137, 141-144, 182-184, 227-232,
receiver 238-245, 249, 262, 275, 337-338, 371,
priming
17-22, 38, 42, 67, 74, 78, 93, 133-134, 377
183, 337
151, 155, 168-170, 211-214, 257-260,
354-355, 383, 387, 444-446, 482, 506, rhetoric
probing feedback
519, 540-545, 549, 567, 660 144, 216, 382, 440, 476
274
reciprocity rhetorical situation
process
122, 428-432, 443-446, 519, 579 184, 338, 373-374, 382-389, 397, 415,
7-12, 16-26, 37-38, 55, 72, 80-84, 88,
419
92-94, 101-107, 111-113, 120, 133-147, reference
159-168, 180-184, 193-205, 223, 227-231, rites of initiation
27, 68-70, 85-88, 92-96, 115, 145-146,
235-249, 253-277, 295, 300, 306,
150-155, 173, 179-180, 209, 224, 573-574
320-322, 328-346, 350, 354-359, 363,
235-239, 246-247, 273, 287-289, 295,
369, 374, 382-385, 392, 397-398, 403, roasts
299, 331-336, 383, 388-390, 402, 485,
408-420, 428-430, 440-446, 450, 455,
517-523, 530, 549, 555, 586, 611-612, 486-489
464, 495, 505-511, 515-528, 532-535,
626
543-552, 559, 569-576, 600-603, 627, role identities
631, 636-637, 641-648, 654-658, 663-664 reflection 343
production 137, 152, 156, 163, 184, 203, 260, 264,
272, 338, 425, 488, 495, 509, 580-582, résumé
138, 170-175, 182-184, 203, 216, 228,
598-600, 606-609, 615, 632 9, 16, 279, 294, 304-312, 316-317, 494,
256, 263-264, 300, 334-338, 415, 420,
510-514, 525
458, 552, 566, 581, 591, 654-655 regulator
352-353, 561 sales message
professional networking sites
46, 101-104, 135, 296, 312-317
652 relaxation step
pronunciation 366 scarcity
30, 355, 546, 650, 654 443-446, 574, 626
relevance
146, 218, 386-391, 417, 427, 434, 460, secondary groups
proxemics
496, 501 626-630
358, 379
reliability secondary messages
proximity
63, 167, 180, 258, 266, 270-272, 336, 357, 44
25, 70, 108-112, 370, 374, 521, 546, 551,
552, 645
626 selection
report 101-106, 111-113, 183, 214, 327, 333,
public communication
10, 17-18, 24, 30, 35, 47, 94, 107, 374, 383, 410, 417, 427, 464, 640, 658
26-28, 68, 93, 421, 547
119-122, 129, 135-141, 145, 149,
155-158, 163-176, 181-186, 191-196, 200, selective attention
punctuation marks
210-213, 223, 229-236, 250-253, 257, 106, 128
68, 232-233, 253
262, 266, 270, 279-281, 288-303, 362,
qualitative research 379, 410-416, 425, 432-439, 445, selective exposure
484-486, 492-494, 520, 547, 551-552, 106, 183
266-268, 551
561-563, 582, 622, 630, 636, 642-643
selective retention
research methodologies 82, 106
269
slang syntactic rules
self
30, 72-79, 133, 147, 210, 242, 343-346, 67
7, 11-15, 24, 39, 48, 69, 93-101, 105,
111-114, 128-129, 137-140, 147, 154, 626
syntax
160-162, 183, 193, 208-209, 221-224,
slogans 42, 66-67, 71, 149-154
246, 255, 266, 274, 319, 327-330, 337,
352-353, 362-364, 388, 425, 429, 477-479, 575, 607
tailoring your message
451-455, 461-465, 498, 505-521, 536,
social comparisons 59, 101, 114-119, 325, 433, 473
550-552, 581, 585, 598-599, 604,
615-619, 626-629, 637, 656 509-511
targeted practice
self-actualization social networking site 139-141
453, 513, 598 652
template
self-adaptor social penetration theory 102, 139, 143, 157, 193, 225-230, 250,
353 454-456, 516-521 316, 372, 378
self-concept social person territory

11, 15, 48, 93-101, 362, 507-511, 536, 515 358, 376, 611, 626
615-616
sociocentrism texting
self-disclosure 161-162 10-11, 96, 148, 280-281, 316-317, 350
429, 451-455, 461, 516-521, 536
soft sell message theory of learning styles
self-esteem 544 425
96-97, 111, 128, 330, 453, 512, 536, 598,
sound bites Theory X
615
477-479, 503, 560 597-600
self-fulfilling prophecy
source Theory Y
93, 98-100, 129
17-22, 35-38, 53-56, 67, 78, 102, 133-134, 598-599
self-image 151-155, 167-168, 174-184, 188, 198,
217, 222-225, 232, 257-265, 273-275, Theory Z
96-97
316, 331-338, 362, 383, 388, 398, 599
semantic rules 409-412, 428, 459, 479, 506, 519,
523-526, 547, 551, 567-568, 590-594, thesis statement
67
599, 604, 613-616, 644, 660 195, 201, 225, 320, 328-331, 339, 384,
semantic triangle 391, 395, 433
speaker introduction
40-41
493 tip
Sensitivity 86, 116-117, 253, 419, 593-595, 622
Spies
182-183, 259, 337, 429, 527, 568
638-639 toasts
sensitivity 486-489
stage
182-183, 259, 337, 429, 527, 568
19, 104, 109, 163, 183-184, 193, 237, 337, tone
serif 341, 359-365, 372, 377, 382, 481-482, 11, 18, 30, 39, 83-88, 101, 125-127, 134,
211, 251, 309, 374 493-498, 515, 523-524, 559, 574, 603, 139, 145-150, 156, 168, 208-211, 229,
611, 634-636, 648-649 251-253, 281, 287, 350, 357-362, 366,
sexist language 386-390, 425, 481, 490, 498, 543-546,
statistically significant findings 651
76
271
Shared governance topic sentence
Stereotypes 186-187, 202
632, 668
328, 344-347, 379, 421, 571-572,
sharing 610-612, 619 transactional
11, 17-18, 22-25, 35-37, 46, 62, 87-92, 21-22, 257-259, 428, 506, 519
Storytellers
124-125, 147, 177, 184, 338, 347,
638 transitions
407-410, 418, 425, 430-433, 437, 505,
532, 537, 547, 567, 573, 616, 621, 628 30, 45, 194, 204-207, 229, 239, 365-370,
summarize 386, 401-405, 498-499, 649, 668
signposts (or indicators) 136, 201-205, 216, 223-224, 298, 395,
434-435, 458, 472, 478, 534, 554 trigger
81
501
similarity supportive communication
532, 537 trust
109-112, 205, 345, 374, 403, 445, 572
32-33, 78, 123, 127, 136, 145, 167, 181,
supportive feedback 209, 217-220, 260, 336, 357, 362, 377,
Slander
274 388-390, 429-430, 441-445, 455, 461-462,
545, 619-620
467-468, 517-521, 540-542, 548, 652-656
understanding feedback Virtual communication
typeface
275 614-616, 620-621
134, 251
underpersonals validity volume

68, 180, 266-272, 277, 336, 552, 571 18, 643-644, 651
515
values Web server
undersocials
515 11, 34, 39, 52-53, 67-68, 95-96, 100-101, 262
113-115, 120-122, 209, 221, 227, 244,
261, 321, 342-344, 421-424, 440, Whisperers
understanding
447-449, 455, 465-468, 487, 537, 638-639
9-11, 16-17, 22-24, 29, 35-40, 45-47,
549-551, 556, 566-587, 603, 607-614,
66-68, 72, 77-79, 83-135, 139-147,
618, 622, 626-627, 631-633, 638-640, 662 white space
151-156, 168, 187, 208-209, 221,
240-245, 255, 264-266, 270-276, 295, 250
verb tense
321-329, 345-350, 355-357, 361, 366,
236 wikis
372, 376-378, 382-383, 388-389, 408-413,
418, 423, 429, 437-442, 451-455, 652
461-462, 466-468, 477, 491, 498, 518, verbatim
writing style
522-524, 532, 536-537, 542-547, 555, 177, 222-224
567-571, 575-580, 587, 594, 599-603, 18, 32, 125, 208-209, 214-215, 239
607, 611-616, 621-622, 628, 632, 654, viral messages
660, 665 500-503

Business Communication For Success

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Business Communication for

"[Author removed at request of original publisher]

Chapter 1 Effective Business Communication

About the Author 1

Delivering Your Message 37

Chapter 3 Understanding Your Audience 91

3.1 Getting Started 91

Chapter 4 Effective Business Writing 131

4.1 Getting Started 131

Chapter 5 Writing Preparation 159

5.1 Getting Started 159

Chapter 6 Writing 191

6.1 Getting Started 191

Chapter 7 Revising and Presenting Your Writing 227

7.1 Getting Started 227

Chapter 8 Feedback in the Writing Process 255

8.1 Getting Started 255

Chapter 9 Business Writing in Action 279

9.1 Getting Started 279

Chapter 10 Developing Business Presentations 319

10.1 Getting Started 319

Chapter 11 Nonverbal Delivery 349

11.1 Getting Started 349

Chapter 12 Organization and Outlines 381

12.1 Getting Started 381

Chapter 13 Presentations to Inform 407

13.1 Getting Started 407

Chapter 14 Presentations to Persuade 439

14.1 Getting Started 439

Chapter 15 Business Presentations in Action 477

15.1 Getting Started 477

Chapter 16 Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Business Communication 505

16.1 Getting Started 505

Negative News and Crisis Communication 539

Chapter 18 Intercultural and International Business Communication 565

18.1 Getting Started 565

Diverse Laws Across Cultures 590

Law Enforcement and Punishment across Cultures 592

18.8 Styles of Management 597

18.9 The International Assignment 600

18.10 Popular Culture and Intercultural Communication 605

Chapter 19 Group Communication, Teamwork, and Leadership 625

19.1 Getting Started 625

Define the Problem 641

For Lisa and our children, Mackenzie, John, and Katherine

1.1 Getting Started

1.2 Why Is It Important to

1. Recognize the importance of communication in gaining a better understanding of yourself

• What is the best course of action?

Communication Influences Your Thinking

Communication Influences How You Learn

Communication Represents You and Your

Communication Skills Are Desired by Business

NACE, 2013: https://www.naceweb.org/s10022013/job-outlook-skills-quality.aspx

1.3 What Is Communication?

Eight Essential Components of

Two Models of Communication

FIGURE 1.4 Transactional Model of Communication

FIGURE 1.5 Constructivist Model of Communication