HEATING (H)

VENTILATION (V)
AIR (A)
CONDITIONING (C)

 Heating , Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

(Thermodynamic / Fluids/ Heat & Math Transfer)

(Lecture One)
* The development of effective heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC), however,
was begun scarcely 100 years ago.

** Central heating systems were developed in the nineteenth century, and summer air
conditioning using mechanical refrigeration has grown into a major industry only in the
last 60 years.

*** Yet by 2000, HVAC systems in the United States had reached a total installed value of
about $50 billion yearly, with approximately $20 billion in equipment sales.

**** A typical person in modern society may spend up to 90% of each day indoors. It is
not surprising, therefore, that providing a healthy, comfortable indoor environment has
become a major factor in our economy.
 What is Air
Conditioning
?
Air conditioning is the process of treating air in an
internal environment to establish and maintain
required standards of temperature, humidity,
cleanliness, and motion.
 1. Temperature Control.
Air temperature is controlled by heating or cooling the air.

 2. Humidity Control.
Air humidity, the water vapor content of the air, is controlled by adding or removing water vapor from
the air (humidification or dehumidification).

 3. Air Cleanliness Control.

Air cleanliness, or air quality, is controlled by either :
A- filtration, the removal of undesirable contaminants using filters or other
devices, or by :
B- ventilation, the introduction of outside air into the space which dilutes the concentration of contaminants.
Often both filtration and ventilation are used in an installation.

 4. Air Motion Control .

Air motion refers to air velocity and to where the air is distributed. It is controlled by appropriate air
distributing equipment.

 Sound control: can be considered an auxiliary function of an air conditioning

 Pressure differential :
 HVAC Applications

Most air conditioning systems are used for either

human comfort or for process control

• Human Comfort is maintained by adjusting comfortable certain ranges

of air temperature, humidity, cleanliness, and motion for human

• Air conditioning is also used to provide conditions that some processes

require. For example, textile, printing, and photographic processing
facilities, as well as computer rooms and medical facilities, require
certain air temperatures and humidity for successful operation.
 HUMAN COMFORT
 Body Heat Loss
 The human body creates heat when it metabolizes (oxidizes) food.
 This body heat is continually lost to its cooler surroundings. The
factor that determines whether one feels hot or cold is the rate of
body heat loss.
 When the rate of heat loss is within certain limits, a comfortable
feeling ensues.
 If the rate of heat loss is too great, cold is felt; if the rate is too low,
one feels hot.
 The processes by which the body loses heat to the surroundings are:
convection, radiation, and evaporation.



 Typical Metabolic Rates of Human Beings

Degree of Activity Total Rate of Heat Average Value of Sensible (Watt) Latent (Watt)
Emission for Adult Male & Female
Male (Watt) (Watt)

Seated 115 95 65 30

Walking 160 130 75 55

Dancing 265 230 90 160

Sedentary Work 160 130 75 55

9
HVAC system designer and operator can control comfort primarily
by adjusting three of these conditions: temperature, humidity, and
air motion
The indoor air temperature may be raised to decrease body heat loss
(winter) or lowered to increase body heat loss (summer) by
convection.
Humidity may be raised to decrease body heat loss (winter) and
lowered to increase body heat loss (summer) by evaporation.
Air motion may be raised to increase body heat loss (summer) and
lowered to decrease body heat loss (winter) by convection
Air Velocity and Comfort

Air Velocity 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

(m/s)

Dry bulb Temp. 25 26.8 26.9 27.1 27.2

°C

11
Design Criteria - (summer indoor conditions)
 It is essential that the buildings be adjusted to serve people. It should not be
the people who are required to be adopt to the buildings.

 Summer design temperature of 22°C - 24°C is a suitable choice for long term
sedentary occupancy with humidity allowed to swing between 50% -60%
having air movement of 0.1 m/sec.

 Benchmark optimum energy usage in summer satisfying thermal comfort

criteria with room temperature of 24°C at 55% humidity.

 Higher energy penalty in lowering of room temperature from the benchmark

level. Example, room temperature thermostat set at 23°C will increase 9%
more energy consumption. At 22°C, 18% energy penalty.

12
 HVAC Processes






 Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)

 Another factor, air quality, refers to the degree of purity of the air.
 The level of air quality affects both comfort and health.
 Air quality is worsened by the presence of contaminants such as
tobacco smoke and dust particles, biological microorganisms, and
toxic gases.
 Cleaning devices such as filters may be used to remove particles.
 Adsorbent chemicals may be used to remove unwanted gases.
 Indoor air contaminants can also be diluted in concentration by
introducing substantial quantities of outdoor air into the building.
This procedure is called ventilation.
Ventilation in Buildings

The need for ventilation :

 Fresh air required for breathing

(0.2 litres/sec.) directly proportional to metabolic rate

 Minimize the rise in air temperature in the presence of excessive sensible heat
gains

 Dealing with high humidity or condensation

15
Natural Ventilation
 Natural Ventilation is the air flow through a building resulting from the
provision of specified routes such as:

• Operable windows
• Doors
• Shafts
• Ducts
• Towers

16
Natural Ventilation Strategies
 Avoid noise and traffic fumes from busy roads
 Consider Security
 Consider Insects
 Draw cooler air from a shaded side of a building to maximise the cooling
 Cross ventilation
 Buoyancy driven ventilation
 Atrium ventilation
 Chimney ventilation
 Wind tower ventilation

17
Wind Tower – Technique

18
 COMPONENTS OF AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

 An air conditioning system may provide heating, cooling, or both.

 Most heating and cooling systems have at a minimum the following basic
components:

 1. A Cooling source that removes heat from a fluid (air or water)

 2. A heating source that adds heat to a fluid (air, water, or steam)
 3. A distribution system (a network of ducts or piping) to carry the fluid to the
rooms to be heated or cooled
 4. Equipment (fans or pumps) for moving the air or water
 5. Devices (e.g., radiation) for transferring heat between the fluid and the room
 Cooling Sources:
Vapor Refrigeration Systems
 Vapor Compression System
 Vapor Absorption System
Evaporation Systems
 Air Washers , Adiabatic coolers, evaporative systems
 Heating Sources:
 Furnaces
 Boilers
 Heating & Cooling Sources:
 Heat Pumps
 Reversed Carnot cycle -- ideal
1 1
COPR ,Carnot  COPHP ,Carnot 
TH
1  TL
TL  1 TH
 EXAMPLE
Compressor Temperature is 40 C 1
Evaporator Temperature is 5 C COPR ,Carnot   7.943
0.126
Find:
COP for Refrigeration of carnot COPR ,Carnot  7.943
cycle COP for Refrigeration of
For Heat Pump Cycle
carnot cycle.
1 :
COPHP ,Carnot 
Solution: 1  TL
TH
TH = 40 + 273 = 313 K
1 1
TL= 5 + 273 = 278 K COPHP ,Carnot  
For refrigeration Cycle
1 : 1 1  278 1  0.8882
COPR ,Carnot   313
TH 313 COPHP ,Carnot  8.943
TL  1 278  1
 3 2

4 1

Enthalpy kJ/kg
 Vapor Compression Cycle Processes
• PROCESS 1-2 Compression
Point (1) : superheated, gas , low pressure , low temperature
Point (2) : superheated, gas , High pressure , High temperature
( Sensible Heating , Increase of Pressure .)
• PROCESS 2-3 : Condensation
Point (2) : superheated, gas , High pressure , V.High temperature
Point (3) : saturated/ sub-cooled, liquid , High pressure , High temperature
( Sensible / Latent Cooling , Constant Pressure )
• PROCESS 3-4 : Expansion
Point (3) : saturated/ sub-cooled, liquid , High pressure , High temperature
Point (4) : Mixed, liquid/Gas , Low pressure , Low temperature
(Sensible / Latent Cooling , decreasing of Pressure )
• PROCESS 4-1 : Evaporation
Point (4) : Mixed, liquid/Gas , Low pressure , Low temperature
Point (1) : superheated, gas , low pressure , low temperature
(Latent Heating , Constant Pressure )
Calculations
 Example
Refrigerant R134-A working at -2 C evaporation temperature and 30
C condensation temperature , The flow rate of refrigerant is 1Kg/s
Find :
Refrigeration Effect and COP
Solution:

From PH Chart of R134a : We found that

IMPROVING COP METHODS
Vapor Compression with Flash Intercooler
Multi-evaporators at Same Temperatures
Multi-evaporators at Same Temperatures
Multi-evaporators at Different Temperatures with Back Pressure Valves and
Multiple Expansion Valve
 Vapor Compression Cycle Components

• Evaporators
• Compressors
• Condensers
• Expansion Valve
 Evaporators
• These may be classified into two types for air conditioning service
• (1) Dry expansion evaporators (DX) or flooded evaporators. refrigerant flows through tubing,
and there is no liquid storage of refrigerant in the evaporator.
• Dry expansion (DX) evaporators exist in two types-
(A): DX cooling coils: are used for cooling air. The tubing is arranged in a serpentine coil form and
is finned to produce more heat transfer from a given length. The air flows across the coils
(B): DX chillers (shell and tube) : are used for cooling water or other liquids
• In the shell and tube type, a bundle of straight tubes is enclosed in a cylindrical shell. The chiller
may be either the flooded type, with water circulating through the tubes and refrigerant through
the shell (Figure 13.2), or dry expansion, with the reverse arrangement
• The shell can be made in one piece or can be constructed with bolted removable ends, called
heads. In the latter case, mechanical cleaning and replacement of individual tubes is possible.
This construction is more expensive, however. Flooded chillers are generally used on the larger
systems.
• (2) flooded evaporator, a liquid pool of refrigerant is maintained.
 Flooded chillers.

Dry expansion chillers

 Compressors
• Compressors have two Types
• (A) Positive displacement compressors: function by reducing the volume of
gas in the confined space, thereby raising its pressure. Reciprocating,
rotary, scroll, and screw compressors are positive displacement types.
• (B) Centrifugal compressors: function by increasing the kinetic energy
(velocity) of the gas, which is then converted to an increased pressure by
reducing the velocity.
 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR
• This is the most widely used type, available in sizes from fractional horsepower and tonnage
up to a few hundred tons.
• Construction is similar to the reciprocating engine of a vehicle, with pistons. cylinders,
valves, connecting rods, and crankshaft .
• The suction and discharge valves are usually a thin plate or reed that will open and close
easily and quickly.
• Open compressors have an exposed shaft to which the electric motor or other driver is
attached externally.
• Hermetic compressors are manufactured with both compressor and motor sealed in a
casing. In this way, there is no possibility of refrigerant loss from leaking around the shaft.
• The motor is cooled by refrigerant in a hermetic compressor.
• Most modern open compressors use mechanical seals, rather than packing seals, to reduce
refrigerant leakage
Hermetically and open Type Reciprocating Compressors
 ROTARY COMPRESSORS
• This type has a rotor eccentric to the casing; as the rotor turns it reduces the gas volume
and increases its pressure
• Advantages of this compressor are that it has few parts, is of simple construction, and can
be relatively quiet and vibration-free.
• Small rotary compressors are often used in household refrigerators and window air
conditioners.

Vane Type Rotary Compressor

 SCREW COMPRESSORS
(HELICAL ROTARY)
• Two meshing helical shaped screws rotate and compress the gas as the volume between the screws
decreases toward the discharge end.
• This type of compressor has become popular in recent years due to its reliability, efficiency, and cost.
• It is generally used in the larger size ranges of positive displacement compressors, in capacities up to
about 1000 tons of air conditioning
 SCROLL COMPRESSORS
• This type of compressor has two spiral-shaped scrolls, one set inside the other.
• One scroll rotates and the other is stationary.
• The refrigerant suction gas is drawn in from the perimeter.
• The volume decreases as the gas moves to the center, increasing its pressure, and the
gas is then discharged.
• The scroll compressor has a number of beneficial features. It has few moving parts. It has
no suction or discharge valves. Its motion is rotary, reducing vibration. It has a high
efficiency and low noise level. It is available as a hermetic compressor, in small and
medium sizes.
 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
• This type of compressors has vaned-impellers rotating inside a casing, similar to a centrifugal
pump.
• The impellers increase the velocity of the gas, which is then converted into a pressure increase by
decreasing the velocity.
• The nature of the centrifugal compressor makes it suitable for very large capacities, up to 10,000
tons.
• The impellers can be rotated at speeds up to 20,000 RPM, enabling the compressor to handle large
quantities of refrigerant.
• Hermetic centrifugal compressors as well as open compressors are available
 PRIME MOVERS
• Compressors can be driven by electric motors, reciprocating engines, or by steam or gas
turbines.
• Electric motors are most commonly used because of the convenience and simplicity.
However, on very large installations, particularly with centrifugal compressors, steam or
gas turbines are often used.
• The high rotating speed of the turbine often matches that of the compressor, whereas
expensive speed-increasing gears may be needed when motors are used.
• The relative energy costs of electricity, steam, or gas often determine which prime mover
will be used.
• In the Middle East, natural gas from the well (which might otherwise be wasted) is often
used in gas turbines that drive large centrifugal machines.

Capacity Control
 CONDENSERS
• The condenser rejects from the system the energy gained in the evaporator and the compressor.
Atmospheric air or water are the two most convenient heat sinks to which the heat can be
rejected.
• In the air-cooled condenser, the refrigerant circulates through a coil and air flows across the
outside of the tubing.
• The air motion may be caused by natural convection effects when the air is heated, or the
condenser can include a fan to increase the air flow rate, resulting in greater capacity.
• Air-cooled condensers are normally installed outdoors.
• They are available in sizes up to about 50 tons.
• Water-cooled condensers are usually of shell and tube construction, similar to shell and tube
evaporators or tube in tube condenser type.
• Water from lakes, rivers, or wells is sometimes used when available.
• Usually, however, natural sources of water are not sufficient, and the water must be recirculated
through a cooling tower to recool it.
 Cooling Towers

* The cooling tower is the equipment that accomplishes heat transfer from the condenser
water to the atmospheric air.
* Most of the heat transfer is accomplished by the evaporation of a small percentage of the
condensing water into the atmosphere.
• The heat required for evaporation is taken from the bulk of condenser water. Thus cooling it.
• Water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the cooling tower and sprayed down into the
tower.
• The tower has internal baffles called fill, which break up the water into finer droplets when the
water splashes onto the fill. this improves the heat transfer.
• The cooled water collects in a basin and is then recirculated to the condenser.
• In addition to the water lost due to the evaporative cooling, there are two other causes of water
loss.
• Drift loss results from wind carrying water away with the air.
• Blow down loss results from draining off and discarding a small portion of the water from the
basin, this must be done at regular intervals in order to prevent a continual accumulation of
minerals that would otherwise occur from the evaporation and drift losses.
• The losses require provision for makeup water. this is done by providing a makeup water supply to
the basin, controlled by a float valve level
 Types and Construction
• The atmospheric tower is a type of tower where the air circulation results from air being warmed
in the tower and thereby rising from natural convection.
• The amount of air that will circulate from this effect is quite limited, and atmospheric towers are
not often used today.
• Mechanical draft towers use fans to create a high air flow rate.
• The induced draft fan type has the fan located at the tower outlet, whereas the forced draft fan
type blows the air through
• When the air and water move in opposite directions, the tower is called a counter flow type.
• When the air and water move at right angles to each other the tower is called a cross flow
type.
• There is not necessarily an operating advantage in practice of one type over another.
However, sometimes a cross flow tower will be lower in height (although bigger in length or
width) than a counter flow tower for the same capacity. Lower height may be preferable when
installed on a roof.

The capacity of a cooling tower depends on the rate of water evaporation.

This rate decreases with higher water vapor content (humidity) in the ambient air. Therefore,
the higher the ambient wet bulb temperature, the less the capacity of the tower.
• Evaporative condensers reject heat to the atmosphere as do air cooled condensers but by
spraying water on the coils some heat is transferred to the water as well as the air, increasing the
capacity of the condenser.
• A pump, piping, spray nozzles, and collection sump are required for the water circulating system.
• Fans are used to force the air through the unit.
• Evaporative condensers can be installed indoors as well as outdoors by using ductwork to
discharge the exhaust air outside.
• The capacity of condensers must be controlled
 FLOW CONTROL DEVICES
• The restricting device that causes the pressure drop of the refrigerant also regulates the
refrigerant flow according to the load.
• Some of the devices available are the capillary tube, thermostatic expansion
valve, and the low side float valve.
• The first two are used with dry expansion evaporators; the low side float valve is used in flooded
chiller evaporators.
• The capillary tube is a very small diameter tube of considerable length, which thus causes the
required pressure drop. It is used often in small units (e.g., domestic refrigerators and window
air conditioners) because of its low cost and simplicity.
• The thermostatic expansion valve (TEV), is widely used in dry expansion systems.
• The small opening between the valve seat and disc results in the required pressure drop.
• It also does an excellent job of regulating flow according to the need.
• The operation of a TEV :A bulb filled with a fluid is strapped to the suction line and thus senses
the suction gas temperature.
• This bulb is connected to the valve by a tube in a manner so that the pressure of the fluid in the
bulb tends to open the valve more, against a closing spring pressure.
• If the load in the system increases, the refrigerant in the evaporator picks up more heat and the
suction gas temperature rises.
• The pressure of the fluid in the bulb increases as its temperature rises, and it opens the valve
more.
• This increases the refrigerant flow needed to handle the increased load.
• The reverse of all these events occurs when the refrigeration load decreases.
• It is important that the refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator be a few degrees above the
saturation temperature (called superheat) to ensure that no liquid enters the compressor, which
might result in its damage.
• This is achieved by adjusting the spring pressure to a value that prevents the bulb pressure from
opening the valve more unless the gas leaving the evaporator is superheated.

Electronic Expansion Valve

 PACKAGED REFRIGERATION EQUIPMENTS
• Refrigeration equipments available separately and assembled (packaged)
• There are a number of advantages of using packaged equipment
• The components are selected and matched in capacity by the manufacturer, so that they
will perform properly together.
• Installation costs are reduced, as each component does not have to be installed and
aligned separately
• Controls and interconnecting piping are factory installed, further reducing field costs
• The assembled equipment is usually factory tested, reducing the likelihood of operating
problems that would have to be corrected on the job
• Packaged equipment is available in various combinations, some of which are :
• Condensing Units
• Compressor-Chiller Unit
• Packaged Chiller
 Selection of Refrigeration Units
• Packaged Water Chiller
• The following data are needed for selection of a packaged water chiller:
• 1. Refrigeration load
• 2. Condenser water temperature leaving unit
• 3. Condenser water temperature rise
• 4. Chilled water temperature leaving unit
• 5. Chilled water temperature drop
• 6. Fouling factor

• Air-Cooled Condensing Unit

• The following data are needed for selection of an air-cooled condensing unit:
• 1. Refrigeration capacity required (load)
• 2. Condenser ambient temperature
• 3. Saturated suction gas temperature
 Example
• A package water chiller is required for the air conditioning system of the Royal Arms
apartments. The load is 27 tons. Chilled water is cooled from 55 F to 45 F. Condenser water
enters at 85 F and leaves at 95 F. The condenser and chilled water fouling factors" are 0.0005.
Select a suitable unit.

• Solution
• Capacity = 27 tons
• Leaving chilled water temperature = 45 F
• Chilled water temperature drop = 10 F
• Entering condenser water temperature = 85 F
• Condenser water temperature rise = 10 F

• The unit chosen for these requirements is a Model pew 030T water chiller, which has a capacity
of 28.1 tons at required conditions. Power input is 25.1 KW
 Vapor Refrigeration Cycles

Absorption Refrigeration
System
Flow diagram of lithium bromide-water absorption refrigeration system.
Absorption Cooling

Substances used

Absorbent Refrigerant
LiBr H2O
H2O NH3

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
Properties of LiBr – H2O

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Properties of H2O – NH3

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

• Absorption refrigeration machines are often used for large air conditioning systems. The
absence of a compressor usually has the advantages of less vibration, noise and weight than
with a vapor compression machine

• The machine is completely factory assembled. including evaporator, absorbent concentrator,

condenser, and solution pumps, interconnecting piping, and electric controls. The pumps are
hermetic to prevent any leaks into the system. The machine is carefully evacuated in the factory
of air down to an extremely low pressure..
• Small capacity lithium bromide-water absorption units (3-25 tons) with direct-fired generators are
also available. They are popular in areas where natural gas is plentiful and inexpensive
• The heat required in the concentrator is furnished either by low pressure steam, hot water, or a
gas flame. Concentrator temperatures around 240 F result in peak efficiency. A steam use rate
of 18- 19 Ib of steam per ton of refrigeration is typical at this temperature.
• Selection procedures for an absorption chiIIers are similar to those for reciprocating or
centrifugal chillers.
• Heat source temperatures, load, chiIIed water, and condensing water temperatures are the
factors required to select the proper machine from manufacturers' tables.
Real application – Solar collectors

Source: K. Sumathy, Z. C. Huang and Z. F. Li, Solar Energy, 2002, 72(2), 155-165
A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,
Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
Absorption machine

Source: K. Sumathy, Z. C. Huang and

Z. F. Li, Solar Energy, 2002, 72(2), 155-
165
A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,
Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
Single effect Yazaki machine (10 ton LiBr H2O)

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
System combined to sub-floor exchanger

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
• The coefficient of performance (COP) of absorption machines is much lower than systems using
mechanical compression refrigeration.
• A COP of 0.65 is typical for large absorption equipment.
• This corresponds to a heat input rate of about 18,000 BTU/hr per ton of refrigeration. A large
compressor-driven water chiller may have a COP of 3.5 or higher.
• That is, it uses only one-fifth of the energy of an absorption machine
• The COP of the absorption system may be improved considerably if a two-stage generator
(concentrator) is used.
• Heat from the vapor coming from the first generator is used to provide further vaporization of
liquid from the absorber. A two-stage machine available from Japan raises the COP to about 1.0,
a 50% improvement in energy efficiency.
• A popular and efficient combination of refrigeration sources for air conditioning is the centrifugal
absorption combination… what is it ?
• It should be noted that the cooling tower required for an absorption machine will be considerably
larger than that needed for a vapor compression cycle machine, due to the larger quantity of heat
that must be rejected from the absorber and condenser combined.
• Vapor Compression or Absorption system ?
 Adsorption cooling

Adsorption is the use of solids for removing substances from gases and liquids
The phenomenon is based on the preferential partitioning of substances from the
gaseous or liquid phase onto the surface of a solid substrate.

The process is reversible

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
 Adsorption Phase 1

Heating and pressurization

The adsorbent temperature increases, which

induces a pressure increase, from the evaporation
pressure up to the condensation pressure.
This period is equivalent to the "compression"
phase in compression cycles.

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

 Adsorption Phase 2
Heating and desorption + condendsation

During this period, the adsorber continues receiving

heat while being connected to the condenser, which
now superimposes its pressure.
The adsorbent temperature continues increasing,
which induces desorption of vapour. This desorbed
vapour is liquified in the condenser.
The condensation heat is released to the second
heat sink at intermediate temperature.
This period is equivalent to the "condensation" in
compression cycles.
A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,
Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
 Adsorption Phase 3
Cooling and depressurization

During this period, the adsorber releases heat while

being closed.
The adsorbent temperature decreases, which induces
the pressure decrease from the condensation pressure
down to the evaporation pressure.
This period is equivalent to the "expansion" in
compression cycles.

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
 Adsorption Phase 4
Cooling and adsorption + evaporation

During this period, the adsorber continues releasing

heat while being connected to the evaporator, which
now superimposes its pressure.
The adsorbent temperature continues decreasing,
which induces adsorption of vapor. This adsorbed
vapour is evaporated in the evaporator.
The evaporation heat is supplied by the heat source at
low temperature.
This period is equivalent to the "evaporation" in
compression cycles.
A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,
Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
 Adsorption Cooling - Summary
The cycle is intermittent because production of cooling energy is not continuous: it occurs
only during part of the cycle
When there are two adsorbers in the unit, they can be operated separately and production
of cooling energy can be quasi-continuous.

When all the energy required for heating the adsorber(s) is supplied by the heat source,
the cycle is termed single effect.

Typically, for domestic refrigeration conditions, the COP of single effect adsorption cycles is
of about 0.3-0.4.

When there are two adsorbers or more, other types of cycles can be designed.

In double effect cycles or in cycles with heat regeneration, some heat is internally
recovered between the adsorbers, and that improves the COP.
A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,
Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
Adsorption cooling - Examples

A. A. Argiriou, University of Patras,

Department of Physics, Section of
Applied Physics
 REFRIGERANTS
• The refrigerants that are most widely used in compressors are in a chemical group called either
fluorinated hydrocarbons or halocarbons.
• These refrigerants have been used since the 1930s because of their excellent characteristics.
• Good physical properties for performance-temperatures, pressure, oil mixing feature, heat
transfer, specific heat, etc.
• They are nontoxic, stable. and inexpensive

• All of the halocarbon refrigerants can be divided into three subgroups, according to their
constituents.
• I. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These are composed of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
Some in this group are CFC-II, CFC-12, and CFC-114. (The more familiar identification is R-II,
R-12, and R-II4.)
• 2. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). These are composed of hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon atoms. Some in this group are HCFC-22 (R-22) and HCFC-123 (R-123).
• 3. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These are composed of hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms.
Some in this group are HFC-134a (R-134a) and HFC-125 (R-125).
• There are also mixtures of the above substances that are used as refrigerants
• OZONE DEPLETION

• Recovery, Recycling, and Reclaiming (RRR)

• GLOBAL WARMING POTENTIAL
• Some halocarbon refrigerants have a very high GWP. For HCFC-22, the GWP = 100.
For CO2, the GWP = 1.0.
• WATER TREATMENT
HEATING SOURCES

•FURNACES
•BOILERS
 FURNACES
• A warm air furnace heats by delivering warmed air to the spaces in a building.
• Warm air furnaces are popular in private residences and small commercial· installations, since,
in very small buildings, warm air systems with ductwork
• Are often less expensive than hydronic (hot water heating) systems.
• Also, if the ductwork is already installed, by using a combined heating/cooling central unit or
add-on cooling unit, summer air conditioning may be easily added at a minimal cost.
• A third advantage of warm air systems over hydronic systems is that when nighttime
temperature setback is used, full heat can be delivered to rooms faster in the morning.
• The hydronic system, however, does have advantages in many applications
 Furnaces Components
• The main parts of a warm air furnace are the heat exchanger, fuel burner,
air blower (fan), controls, and insulated housing cabinet.
• Furnaces may have coal, oil, gas, or wood burners, or electric heaters, as a
heat source
• The construction of furnaces for residential or commercial use is similar,
except that commercial furnaces have larger capacities, are structurally
stronger, and may have more complex controls than residential furnaces.

• Operation of Furnaces:…..
 Types of Furnaces
• Up flow / Down flow / Horizontal / Basement
• The Up flow or high-boy type is suitable for full height basement or utility room
installations with overhead ductwork.
• The low-boy type may be used if there is less headroom.
• The down flow type is practical when the supply air ductwork is under a floor or
grade, or in a crawl space.
• The horizontal type is suitable for an attic; when weatherized for outdoor
service, it is popular for commercial rooftop installations.
 Capacity and Performance
• Manufacturers rate heating capacity in BTU/hr at the furnace outlet (bonnet). Residential type
furnaces are available in capacities from about 35,000 -175,000 BTU/hr.
• Commercial furnaces are available up to about 1 million BTU/hr.
• The system designer needs to know both the net heat available to heat the room or building
and the gross furnace output at the bonnet. Allowances must be made for any duct or pickup.
• In addition to the heating capacity, the CFM of air to be circulated and the duct system air static
pressure loss requirements must be determined
• Combination heating cooling units generally have two-speed fans to enable them to provide
more airflow in the summer.
• The steady-state efficiency of warm air furnaces typically ranges from 75-80%, except for so-
called high-efficiency furnaces, which may have efficiencies as high as 95%.
 Additional Furnaces Types
• Additional heating equipment that is usually grouped with furnaces includes space
heaters, wall and floor furnaces, duct heaters, and unit heaters.
• Unlike warm air furnaces, these are not designed to be connected with ductwork (except
for duct heaters), but instead deliver air directly into the space to be heated.
• Space heaters are usually freestanding units. Some space heaters have blowers; others
rely solely on the convected motion of the warm air.
• Unit heaters are generally hung from a ceiling; they may be gas or oil fired, or may use
heating coils
• Another version is the gas-fired radiant heater which works by using the flame and hot
combustion gases to heat an element to a very high temperature; the heat is then radiated
directly from the element to solid objects in the space, rather than having warm air
circulate.
 ELECTRIC HEATERS
• Electric heating is any process in which electrical energy is converted to heat. Common
applications include space heating, cooking, water heating and industrial processes.
• An electric heater is an electrical device that converts electric current to heat.
• The heating element inside every electric heater is an electrical resistor, and works on the
principle of Joule heating: an electric current passing through a resistor will convert that
electrical energy into heat energy.
• Most modern electric heating devices use nichrome wire as the active element; the heating
element, depicted on the right, uses nichrome wire supported by ceramic insulators.
• Electric resistance heating is 100% energy efficient in the sense that all the incoming electric
energy is converted to heat. However, most electricity is produced from coal, gas, or oil
generators that convert only about 30% of the fuel's energy into electricity.
• Because of electricity generation and transmission losses, electric heat is often more
expensive than heat produced in homes or businesses that use combustion appliances, such
as natural gas, propane, and oil furnaces
• Electric heating is widely used in industry.
• Advantages of electric heating methods over other forms include precision control of
temperature and distribution of heat energy, combustion not used to develop heat, and the
ability to attain temperatures not readily achievable with chemical combustion.
• Electric heat can be accurately applied at the precise point needed in a process, at high
concentration of power per unit area or volume. Electric heating devices can be built in any
required size and can be located anywhere within a plant.
• Electric heating processes are generally clean, quiet, and do not emit much byproduct heat to
the surroundings. Electrical heating equipment has a high speed of response, lending it to
rapid-cycling mass-production equipment.
• The limitations and disadvantages of electric heating in industry include the higher cost of
electrical energy compared to direct use of fuel, and the capital cost of both the electric heating
apparatus itself and the infrastructure required to deliver large quantities of electrical energy to
the point of use. This may be somewhat offset by in-plant (on-site) efficiency gains in using
less energy overall to achieve the same result.
• Design of an industrial heating system starts with assessment of the temperature required, the
amount of heat required, and the feasible modes of transferring heat energy. In addition to
conduction, convection and radiation, electrical heating methods can use electric and
magnetic fields to heat material.
• Methods of electric heating include resistance heating, electric arc heating, induction heating,
and dielectric heating. In some processes (for example, arc welding), electric current is directly
applied to the workpiece. In other processes, heat is produced within the workpiece by
induction or dielectric losses. As well, heat can be produced then transferred to the work by
conduction, convection or radiation.
• Industrial heating processes can be broadly categorized as low-temperature (to about 400 °C
or 752 °F), medium temperature (between 400 and 1,150 °C or 752 and 2,102 °F), and high
temperature (beyond 1,150 °C or 2,102 °F).
• Low temperature processes include, baking and drying, curing finishes, soldering, molding
and shaping plastics.
• Medium temperature processes include melting plastics and some non-metals for casting or
reshaping, as well as annealing, stress-relieving and heat-treating metals.
• High-temperature processes include steelmaking, brazing, welding, casting metals, cutting,
smelting and the preparation of some chemicals.
 HEATING BOILERS
• Boilers produce hot water or steam, which is then delivered through pipes to space
heating equipment.
• A hot water boiler heats water to a high temperature, but does not boil it. Since it does not
actually boil water, a hot water boiler would be better named a hot water generator.
• A steam boiler also called a steam generator heats water to the boiling point to make
steam.
• Both hot water and steam boilers, having similar features
• Basic Components Of Boilers:
• The main parts of a boiler are the combustion chamber, burner, heat exchanger, controls, and
enclosure.

• Classification Of Boilers:
• Fire tube and Water tube Boilers
• Steel boilers can be classified as either fire tube or water tube.
• In fire tube boilers the combustion gases flow inside the tubes and the water circulates outside.
• In water tube boilers, the water flows inside the tubes and the combustion gases outside.
• Fire tube boilers are less expensive than water tube boilers but are less durable.
• Fire tube boilers range from small capacities to about 20 million BTU/hr
• Water tube heating boilers range from medium size to about 100 million BTU/hr.
• Water tube boilers are not often used in HVAC installations.
• Their main application is for large steam power plants or for creating process steam to be used
in industry.
BOILER SAFETY
 Pressure and Temperature Ratings
• The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has developed standards for the
construction and permissible operating pressure and temperature limits for low pressure heating
boilers
• The ASME Code for Heating Boilers limits maximum working pressure to 15 psig for steam and
160 psig for water.
• Hot water temperatures are limited to 250 F.
• Hot water boilers are usually manufactured for 30 psig maximum working pressure, since this is
more than adequate for the vapor pressure exerted by 250 F water.
• For higher temperatures and pressures, the ASME Code for Power Boilers applies. Power
boilers, although so named because they are used to generate steam to be utilized in generating
electric power, can be used in high temperature hot water (HTW) hydronic heating systems.
• Another application for high pressure boilers in HVAC systems is to use them with steam
turbine-driven centrifugal refrigeration machines, because steam turbines require steam at a
relatively high pressure.
• Low pressure heating boilers do not require the attendance of a licensed operating engineer in
many locations, whereas high pressure boilers do. This may affect the choice of low or high
pressure
 BOILER APPLICATIONS
• Hot water heating boilers generate hot water that is used directly in hydronic heating
systems.
• Steam heating boilers generate steam that may be used directly in steam heating systems,
or the steam may be used to heat the hot water with a heat exchanger called a converter.
• In one circuit, steam from the boiler flows, and in the other flows the water to be heated.

• An obvious question arises as to why a hot water boiler should not be used, considering the
additional expense and complication of the converter ???

• The hot water or steam generated in boilers may be used for space heating, space cooling,
or heating of service (domestic) hot water.
• It may seem strange that hot water or steam can be used for cooling ???
 BOILER RATING AND SELECTION

• It is suggested that the HVAC engineer check if a boiler has been tested and rated in accordance
with I-B-R standards before selection.
• This is usually stated in the manufacturer's catalog.
• The American Gas Association (AGA) also recommends standards for gas-fired boilers.

• Piping and Pickup Boiler Losses

• For hot water boilers, the I-B-R standard allowance is 15% and 25% of the net output for the
combined piping and pickup losses for commercial buildings..
• In residential (and some small commercial) applications, with 10 F night setback and one hour
required pickup time, a 40% piping and pickup allowance is recommended for sizing the boiler.
• The values of pickup losses suggested for intermittent heating and night setback also apply to
furnaces.
• The piping and pickup allowance is not usually necessary when sizing boilers for larger commercial
installations.
 Boiler Efficiency

• Until the advent of "high efficiency" units, the best residential and small commercial boilers and
furnaces could achieve an overall steady-state efficiency (when well maintained) of about 70-
80% by recovering enough heat from the combustion gases to reduce flue gas temperatures to
about 400- 500 F and using about 50-60% excess air.
• One group, medium-high efficiency boilers and furnaces, reduce the combustion gas
temperature to about 300 F, resulting in an operating efficiency of about 85%.
• Another group, very high efficiency units, reduce the stack gas temperature to about 110 F with
an operating efficiency of about 90-95%.
• Example
• Select a gas-fired hot water boiler for the Moneybags Mansion. The heating load is
220,000 BTU/hr, also determine the steady-state efficiency and ft³/hr (CFH) of natural gas
consumed at full load
• Solution
• The net output (rating) of the boiler must be at least equal to the building heating load
• Model GG-325 is the smallest boiler that will do the job, with a net I-B-R rating of 226,100
BTU/hr. Note that the gross output is 260,000 BTU/hr, which includes a 15% piping and
pickup allowance.

• = 260000 × 100 = 80 %
325000
• The heating value of natural gas is about 1000 BTU/ ft³
• Therefore the amount of gas required is 325000 BTU × 1 BTU
Hr 1000 ft³
• CFH of gas = 325 CFH
Cooling/Heating Sources

HEAT PUMPS
• The heat pump is a refrigeration system that can be used for both cooling and heating
• The heat pump is usually a vapor compression refrigeration machine, which is basically no
different in operation or components from that described previously. (An absorption machine can
also be used as a heat pump, but this is unusual.)
• The heat that is rejected in the condenser is thrown away to the atmosphere or a body of water.
When this heat is used to satisfy a heating load, the machine is a heat ·'pump.“
• The reversal Of refrigerant flow to switch between heating and cooling is accomplished with a
reversing valve.
• One clear advantage of a heat pump is that it can provide heating or cooling from one machine,
this means that it would have a lower first cost
• Another advantage that is not apparent without further investigation is that it may have a lower
operating cost than separate conventional heating and cooling systems.
• Heat pumps are often supplied as unitary equipment, with all the components assembled as a
package by the manufacturer, including the air handling unit.
• Another arrangement, used more on larger equipment, the duct arrangement is made so that
room air is circulated to the evaporator coil in summer and to the condenser in winter. The
opposite is done for outside air. Therefore, in winter the room air, passing over the condenser
coil, is heated.
Summer Cycle

Winter Cycle
 where
Qc = heat rejected from condenser
Qe = heat absorbed in evaporator
Qp = heat equivalent of compressor power input

The heat pump COP" is useful in illustrating the advantage of heating by using electrical energy to drive a
heat pump compressor rather than using the electricity directly in resistance heaters.
 Selection Of Heat Pumps- “The Balance Point”
• For typical heating -cooling load requirements. If the heat pump is sized to handle the maximum
cooling load, its heating capacity will be inadequate below outdoor temperatures often
encountered in many climates.
• For residential applications, an outside temperature of about 30 F is a typical temperature at
which the heating capacity of the unit will just match the load. This is called the balance point.
• At temperatures below the balance point, supplementary heating must be furnished, This is often
accomplished by using one or more electric resistance heaters.
 Example :
• Select a heat pump for a residence in Birmingham, Alabama. The design cooling load is 44,000
BTU/hr and the design heating load is 41,000 BTU/hr. The inside design temperatures are 70 F in
winter and 80 F in summer. What is the balance point? What is the size of the required
supplementary resistance heaters?
• Solution:
• The summer and winter outdoor design temperatures are 94 F and 18 F.
• Using the Table , a Model CFH048 unit is selected based on the design cooling load. The capacity
at 94 F is just over 45,000 BTU/hr.
• A straight line is drawn from the design heating load point, at 41.000 BTU/hr and 18 F, to 0 BTU/hr
(no load) and 70 F. This line represents the building heating load at different outdoor temperatures.
• Using the table columns of heating capacity versus outside heating temperatures, a curve is drawn
through these points.
• The intersection of these two lines is about 28 F. This is the balance point. The heat pump heating
capacity just matches the required building load at an outdoor temperature of 28 F.
• The heat pump heating capacity at the balance point is 33,000 BTU/hr. The design heating load is
44,000 BTU/hr. Supplementary heaters are required below 28 F. At the design temperature of 18 F.
• The supplementary heat required is Supplementary heat = hearing load - heating capacity
= 41,000 - 27,000 = 14,000 BTU/hr = 4.1 KW