1.

2 Internal Combustion Power Plant

Combustion Engines

An engine is a device which transforms one form of energy into another form. However, while
transforming energy from one form to another, the efficiency of conversion plays an important role.

Normally, most of the engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work and therefore they are
called ‘heat engines’. A heat engine is a device which transforms the chemical energy of a fuel into
thermal energy and utilizes this thermal energy to perform useful work.

Thus, thermal energy is converted to mechanical energy in a heat engine.Heat engines can be broadly
classified into two categories:

1) Internal Combustion Engines (IC Engines):

Internal combustion engines are widely used in various forms of transportation and power
generation. These engines work by burning a mixture of fuel and air within a combustion
chamber to create a controlled explosion. The fuel-air mixture is ignited either by a spark
(spark-ignition engines) or by the heat generated through compression (compression-ignition
engines).

The rapid expansion of the ignited gases pushes a piston inside a cylinder, converting the
energy into mechanical work. This linear motion is then transformed into rotational motion by
a crankshaft, which can be used to power vehicles, machinery, or electrical generators. Internal
combustion engines are known for their high power density, allowing them to provide
substantial power output relative to their size and weight. However, they also produce exhaust
emissions that contribute to air pollution and have a negative impact on the environment.

2) External Combustion Engines (EC Engines):

External combustion engines, although less commonly used today, have played a
significant role in the past and still find applications in certain industries. Unlike internal
combustion engines, external combustion engines burn fuel outside the engine itself. The heat
generated by the combustion is transferred to a working fluid, such as water or air, which then
drives the engine. One of the most notable examples of an external combustion engine is the
steam engine. In a steam engine, water is heated in a boiler to produce steam, which is
directed into a piston or turbine.

The expansion of steam against the piston or the blades of the turbine generates
mechanical work. Steam engines were extensively used during the Industrial Revolution to
power trains, ships, and factories. However, external combustion engines generally have lower
efficiency compared to internal combustion engines and are less suitable for mobile
applications due to their larger size and complexity. Nonetheless, they still find niche
applications in certain specialized industries and power generation scenarios.
Internal Combustion Engines

Heat engines can be classified into various categories as follows.

Reciprocating IC Engines

Reciprocating internal combustion engines are found suitable for various applications, including
automobiles, motorcycles, scooters, power boats, ships, slow-speed aircraft, locomotives, and power
units with relatively small output.

Despite their outward simplicity, reciprocating internal combustion engines are highly complex
machines with hundreds of components that must function effectively to produce output power.

There are two types of reciprocating internal combustion engines: spark-ignition (SI) engines and
compression-ignition (CI) engines.
Advantages
• Mechanical simplicity: The absence of heat exchangers in the passage of the working fluid
results in considerable mechanical simplicity compared to steam turbines.
• Improved power plant efficiency: The absence of heat exchangers also contributes to improved
power plant efficiency in reciprocating internal combustion engines.
• Utilization of high working fluid temperatures: Components in these engines work at an
average temperature much lower than the maximum temperature of the working fluid,
allowing for the use of very high working fluid temperatures during the small fraction of the
cycle time when temperatures are high. This leads to higher thermal efficiency.
• Small power output capability: Reciprocating internal combustion engines can be developed
in very small power output sizes, even fractions of a kilowatt, while still maintaining reasonable
thermal efficiency and cost.

Disadvantages
• Vibration issues: The reciprocating components in these engines can cause vibration problems,
which need to be managed and controlled.
• Limitations in fuel usage: Reciprocating internal combustion engines can effectively use only
liquid or gaseous fuels of specific specifications, limiting the variety of fuels that can be utilized.
These fuels tend to be relatively more expensive.
Parts / Terms of an Engine

Cylinder Bore (d)

The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the cylinder bore and is designated by
the letter d and is usually expressed in millimetres (mm).

Piston Area (A)

The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston area and is designated
by the letter A and is usually expressed in square centimeter (cm2).

Stroke (L)
The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two successive reversals of its
direction of motion is called the stroke and is designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in
millimeter (mm).

Stroke to Bore Ratio

L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of the engine. If d < L, it is called under-square
engine. If d = L, it is called square engine. If d > L, it is called over-square engine. An over-square engine
can operate at higher speeds because of larger bore and shorter stroke.

Dead Centre
The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are mechanically connected to it, at
the moment when the direction of the piston motion is reversed at either end of the stroke is called
the dead centre. There are two dead centres in the engine.

Displacement or Swept Volume (Vs)

The nominal volume swept by the working piston when travelling from one dead centre to the other
is called the displacement volume. It is expressed in terms of cubic centimetres (cc).
Cubic Capacity or Engine Capacity
The displacement volume of a cylinder multiplied by the number of cylinders in an engine will give the
cubic capacity or the engine capacity. For example, if there are n cylinders in an engine,

Clearance Volume (VC)

The nominal volume of the combustion chamber above the piston, when it is at the top dead centre,
is the clearance volume. It is designated as VC and expressed in a cubic centimetre (cc).

Compression Ratio (r)

It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at the bottom dead centre, VT (maximum
volume) to the clearance volume, VC (minimum volume). It is designated by the letter r.

Working Principle

If an engine is to work successfully then it has to follow a cycle of operations in a sequential manner.
The sequence is quite rigid and cannot be changed.

In the following sections the working principle of both spark ignition (SI) and compression ignition (CI)
engines is described. Even though both engines have much in common there are certain fundamental
differences.

The credit of inventing the spark-ignition engine goes to Nicolaus A. Otto (1876) whereas the
compression-ignition engine was invented by Rudolf Diesel (1892). Therefore, they are often referred
to as Otto engine and Diesel engine.

Two Stroke Engines: In both spark-ignition (SI) and compression-ignition (CI) engines, there
is one power stroke for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. Two non-productive strokes,
exhaust and suction, are necessary for removing combustion products and filling the cylinder
with a fresh charge.
If an alternative arrangement could fulfil these tasks without piston movement, the engine
could have a power stroke for every revolution of the crankshaft, increasing output. However,
in both SI and CI engines operating on a four-stroke cycle, power can only be obtained every
two revolutions.

To address this limitation, the two-stroke engine was invented by Dugald Clark in 1878. In a
two-stroke engine, the cycle is completed in one revolution of the crankshaft. The key
difference from a four-stroke engine lies in how the freshcharge is introduced and the exhaust
gases are expelled. In a four-stroke engine, the piston handles these tasks during the suction
and exhaust strokes.

In a two-stroke engine, the filling process is achieved by a compressed charge from a crankcase
or a blower, while the expulsion of combustion products occurs through exhaust ports,
eliminating the need for separate piston strokes. The cycle is completed in two strokes, one
for compressing the fresh charge and the other for expansion or the power stroke. It's
important to note that the effective stroke is reduced in this configuration.

Four Stroke Engine: In a four-stroke engine, the cycle of operations is completed in four
strokes of the piston or two revolutions of the crankshaft. During the four strokes, there are
five events to be completed, viz., suction, compression, combustion, expansion and exhaust.

Each stroke consists of 180° of crankshaft rotation and hence a four-stroke cycle is completed
through 720° of crank rotation. The cycle of operation for an ideal four-stroke SI engine consists
of the following four strokes:

(i) Suction (induction) or intake stroke.

(ii) Compression stroke.
(iii) Expansion or power stroke
(iv) Exhaust stroke.
The four-stroke CI engine is similar to the four-stroke SI engine but it operates at a much higher
compression ratio. The compression ratio of an SI engine is between 6 and 10 while for a CI
engine, it is from 16 to 20.

In the CI engine during suction stroke, air, instead of a fuel-air mixture, is inducted. Due to
higher compression ratios employed, the temperature at the end of the compression stroke is
sufficiently high to self-ignite the fuel which is injected into the combustion chamber.

In CI engines, a high-pressure fuel pump and an injector are provided to inject the fuel into
the combustion chamber. The carburettor and ignition system necessary in the SI engine are
not required in the CI engine.
Pressure-Volume (PV) Diagrams

The actual and ideal Pv diagrams of the SI engine are shown in Fig. 4. The area inside the Pv diagram
is equal to the total power output of the cycle.

When idealising the cycle, the power required for flushing the products of combustion from the
cylinder and filling it with the fresh charge is neglected.

The heat addition (combustion process) is considered to happen at constant volume in the SI engine
and for the CI engine, it assumes as happens a constant pressure process.
Comparison of SI vs CI Engines
Comparison of Four and Two-Stroke Engines
Cycle of Operation

According to the cycle of operation, IC engines are basically classified into two categories.

(I) Constant volume heat addition engine or Otto cycle engine. It is also called a Spark-
Ignition engine, SI engine or Gasoline engine.
(II) Constant pressure heat addition engine or Diesel cycle engine. It is also called a
compression-ignition engine, CI engine or Diesel engine.

Real PV Diag

Real engines differ from ideal engines because of various constraints in their operation. The indicator
diagram also differs considerably from the ideal indicator diagrams.

Typical indicator diagrams of actual two-stroke and four-stroke SI engines are shown in Fig. 6 (a) and
(b) respectively. The various processes are indicated in the respective figures.

4stroke_nos.mp4

Applications of IC Engines

IC engines have a significant impact on transportation across various modes. They power vehicles in
the automotive industry, including cars, trucks, buses, and motorcycles, providing efficient propulsion
with high power-to-weight ratios. IC engines run on different fuels and offer versatility while
considering environmental factors.
• Two Stroke Gasoline Engines: Small two-stroke gasoline engines are used where simplicity
and low cost of the prime mover are the main considerations. In such applications a little
higher fuel consumption is acceptable. Very small two-stroke engines (¡50 cc)are used in
mopeds and lawnmowers. Scooters and motorcycles, the commonly used two-wheeler
transport, have generally 100-150 cc, two-stroke gasoline engines developing a maximum
brake power of about 5 kW at 5500 rpm. High-powered motorcycles have generally 250 cc
gasoline engines developing a maximum brake power of about 10 kW at 5000 rpm. Gasoline
engines are used in very small electric generating sets, pumping sets, and outboard motor
boats. However, their specific fuel consumption is higher due to the loss of fuel-air charge in
the process of scavenging and because of the high speed of operation for which such small
engines are designed. It may be noted that four-stroke engines are slowly replacing the two-
stroke engines used in two-wheelers.

• Two Stroke Diesel Engines: Very high-power diesel engines used for ship propulsion are
commonly two-stroke diesel engines. In fact, all engines between 400 to 900 mm bore are
loop scavenged or uniflow type with exhaust valves. The brake power on a single crankshaft
can be up to 37000 kW. Nordberg, 12 cylinders 800 mm bore and 1550 mm stroke, two-stroke
diesel engine develops 20000 kW at 120 rpm. This speed allows the engine to be directly
coupled to the propeller of a ship without the necessity of reduction gear.

• Four Stroke Gasoline Engines: The most important application of small four-stroke gasoline
engines is in automobiles. A typical automobile is powered by a four-stroke four-cylinder
engine developing an output in the range of 30-60 kW at a speed of about 4500 rpm. American
automobile engines are much bigger and have 6 or 8-cylinder engines with a power output of
up to 185 kW. However, the oil crisis and air pollution from automobile engines have reversed
this trend towards smaller-capacity engines. Once four-stroke gasoline engines were used for
buses and trucks. They were generally 4000 cc, 6-cylinder engines with maximum brake power
of about 90 kW. However, nowadays gasoline engines have been practically replaced by diesel
engines. The four-stroke gasoline engines have also been used in high-power motorcycles with
sidecars. Another application of a four-stroke gasoline engine is in small pumping sets and
mobile electric generating sets. Smaller aircraft normally employ four-stroke gasoline (SI)
radial engines. Engines having a maximum power output from 400 kW to 4000 kW have been
used in aircraft. An example is the Bristol Contours 57, 18-cylinder two-row, sleeve valve, air-
cooled radial engine developing, a maximum brake power of about 2100 kW.

• Four Stroke Diesel Engines: The four-stroke diesel engine is one of the most efficient and
versatile prime movers. It is manufactured in sizes from 50 mm to more than 1000 mm of
cylinder diameter and with engine speeds ranging from 100 to 4500 rpm while delivering
outputs from 1 to 35000 kW. Small diesel engines are used in pump sets, construction
machinery, air compressors, drilling rigs and many miscellaneous applications. Tractors for
agricultural applications use about 30 kW diesel engines whereas jeeps, buses and trucks use
40 to 100 kW diesel engines. Generally, diesel engines with higher outputs than about 100 kW
are supercharged. Earth-moving machines use supercharged diesel engines in the output
range of 200 to 400 kW. Locomotive applications require outputs of 600 to 4000 kW. Marine
applications, from fishing vessels to ocean-going ships use diesel engines from 100 to 35000
kW. Diesel engines are used both for mobile and stationary electric generating plants of
varying capacities. Compared to gasoline engines, diesel engines are more efficient and
therefore manufacturers have come out with diesel engines even in personal transportation.
 However, the vibrations from the engine and the unpleasant odour in the exhaust are the main
drawbacks.

Thermodynamic Analysis

In a reciprocating internal combustion engine, fuel is burned in the combustion chamber, converting
the chemical energy of the fuel into heat. However, not all of this heat energy can be fully utilized to
drive the piston due to losses through exhaust, coolant, and radiation.

The portion of heat energy that is effectively converted into power to drive the piston is known as the
indicated power (ip). Pressure data throughout the engine cycle can be used to calculate the work
transfer and can be plotted on a PV diagram for analysis.

The indicated work per cycle, per cylinder, Wc,i is obtained by integrating around the curve to obtain
the area enclosed on the diagram is given by the equation:

With two-stroke cycles (Fig. 7a), the application of the equation is straightforward. With the addition
of inlet and exhaust strokes for the four-stroke cycle, some ambiguity is introduced as two definitions
of indicated output are in common use. These will be defined as:

• Gross indicated work per cycle Wc,ig, Work is delivered to the piston over the compression
and expansion strokes only.
• Net indicated work per cycle Wc, in. Work is delivered to the piston over the entire four-
stroke cycle.

In Fig. 7b and 7c, Wc,ig= (area A + area C) and Wc,in = {(area A + area C) - (area B + area C)}, which
equals (area A - area B), where each of these areas is regarded as a positive quantity. Area B + area C
is the work transfer between the piston and the cylinder gases during the inlet and exhaust strokes
and is called the pumping work W.

The pumping work transfer will be to the cylinder gases if the pressure during the intake stroke is less
than the pressure during the exhaust stroke. This is the situation with naturally aspirated engines. The
pumping work transfer will be from the cylinder gases to the piston if the exhaust stroke pressure is
lower than the intake pressure, which is normally the case with highly loaded turbocharged engines.
With some two-stroke engine concepts, there is a piston pumping work term associated with
compressing the scavenging air in the crankcase. The power per cylinder is related to the indicated
work per cycle by,
Where N is the speed of the engine (revaluations/seconds) and nR is the number of crank revolutions
for each power stroke per cylinder. For four-stroke cycles, nR equals 2; for two-stroke cycles, nR equals
1.

This power is the indicated power; i.e., the rate of work transfer from the gas within the cylinder to
the piston. It differs from the brake power by the power absorbed in overcoming engine friction,
driving engine accessories, and (in the case of gross indicated power) the pumping power. In discussing
indicated quantities of the four-stroke cycle engine, such as work per cycle or power, the definition
used for "indicated" (i.e., gross or net) should always be explicitly stated.

The gross indicated output is the definition most commonly used. Indicated quantities are used
primarily to identify the impact of the compression, combustion, and expansion processes on engine
performance, etc.

The gross indicated output is, therefore, the most appropriate definition. It represents the sum of the
useful work available at the shaft and the work required to overcome all the engine losses.

Furthermore, the standard engine test codes define procedures for measuring brake power and
friction power (the friction power test provides a close approximation to the total lost power in the
engine).

In this transmission, there are energy losses due to bearing friction, pumping losses etc. In addition, a
part of the energy available is utilized in driving the auxiliary devices like feed pumps, valve
mechanisms, ignition systems etc.

The sum of all these losses, expressed in units of power is termed frictional power, Pf. The remaining
energy is the useful mechanical energy and is termed the brake power,Pb. This power is the usable
power delivered by the engine to the load-in this case, a "brake."

The sum of brake power (Pb) and friction power (Pf ) provides an alternative way of estimating indicated
power; the value obtained is a close approximation to the gross indicated power.

If the pumping loss is excluded from the friction power, the indicated power becomes net indicated
power.
A general picture of the energy flow or energy balance of flow through the reciprocating engine is
shown below,

The ratio of energy in the indicated power (Pi,n) to the input fuel energy in appropriate units is called
the indicated thermal efficiency (ηith).

Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power (Pb) to the input fuel energy in
appropriate units (ηbth).

Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the indicated power
(power provided to the piston) or can be defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency to the
indicated thermal efficiency, (ηm).

One of the very important parameters which decide the performance of four-stroke engines is
volumetric efficiency. Four-stroke engines have distinct suction strokes, volumetric efficiency indicates
the breathing ability of the engine.

It is to be noted that the utilization of the air determines the power output of the engine. The intake
system must be designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as much air as possible.

Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of the actual volume flow rate of air into the intake system
to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the system.

It is to be noted that irrespective of the engine whether SI, CI or gas engine, the volumetric rate of
airflow is what to be taken into account and not the mixture flow.
If ρair is taken as the atmospheric air density, then ηv is the pumping performance of the entire inlet
system. If it is taken as the air density in the inlet manifold, then ηv is the pumping performance of the
inlet port and valve only.

The normal range of volumetric efficiency at full throttle for SI engines is between 80 to 85% whereas
for CI engines it is between 85 to 90%.

Gas engines have much lower volumetric efficiency since gaseous fuel displaces air and therefore the
breathing capacity of the engine is reduced.

Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that of
the ideal cycle. The efficiency ratio is a very useful criterion which indicates the degree of development
of the engine.

Engine Parameters

Engine parameters refer to specific characteristics or measurements that are used to evaluate and
describe the performance, efficiency, and operating conditions of an engine.

These parameters provide valuable insights into the engine's behaviour and help engineers and
researchers understand and optimize its performance.

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)

Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an internal combustion
engine based on the calculated or measured power output. It increases as manifold pressure
increases.

For any particular engine, operating at a given speed and power output, there will be a specific
indicated mean effective pressure, imep, and a corresponding brake mean effective pressure,
bmep. They are derived from the indicated and brake power respectively. Indicated power can
be shown to be,

Then, the indicated mean effective pressure can be written as,

Similarly, the brake mean effective pressure can be written as,

Mean Piston Speed

An important parameter in engine applications is the mean piston speed, . It is

defined as,

Where L is the stroke and N is the rotational speed of the crankshaft. It may be noted that
is often a more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for correlating engine
behavior as a function of speed.

Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the moving parts limits
the maximum value of to within 8 to 15 m/s. Automobile engines operate at the higher
end and large marine diesel engines at the lower end of this range of piston speeds.

Specific Power Output

The specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston area
and is a measure of the engine designer’s success in using the available piston area regardless
of cylinder size.

The specific power can be shown to be proportional to the product of the mean effective
pressure and mean piston speed.

As can be seen, the specific power output consists of two elements, viz., the force available to
work and the speed with which it is working. Thus, for the same piston displacement
and MEPb an engine running at a higher speed will give a higher specific output.

It is clear that the output of an engine can be increased by increasing either the speed or
the MEPb. Increasing the speed involves an increase in the mechanical stresses of various
engine components. For increasing the MEPb better heat release from the fuel is required and
this will involve more thermal load on the engine cylinder.
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC)

The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine are generally expressed in terms of specific
fuel consumption in kilograms of fuel per kilowatt-hour. It is an important parameter that
reflects how good the engine's performance is. It is inversely proportional to the thermal
efficiency of the engine.

Brake-specific fuel consumption and indicated specific fuel consumption, abbreviated as

bsfc and isfc, are the specific fuel consumptions on the basis of Pb and Pi respectively.
References

[1] Power and refrigeration cycles, Chapter 06, Chapter 08, Fundamentals of thermal fluid
sciences, Yunus A. Çengel, Robert H. Turner, second edition, ISBN 0-07-297675-6, 2005.

[2] IC Engines, V Ganesan, Professor Emeritus, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian

Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, Published by the Tata McGraw Hill Education Private
Limited, West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, ISBN (13): 978-1-25-900619-7, ISBN (10): 1-25-
900619-0, 2012.

[3] Engineering thermodynamics, Work and heat transfer, Gordon Rogers, Yon Mahew, fourth
edition, ISBN 81-317-0206-5, 2006.

[4] Internal combustion engine fundamentals, John B.L Heywood, Professor of Mechanical
Engineering, Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering, 1988.